Basic Procedures at Outcrops PDF

3
Basic Procedures at Outcrops
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

3-1. Observations in the Field
1. Look over the outcrop and nearby outcrops broadly in order
to spot the principal bodies of rock or other materials. Walk
around or over large outcrops several times and view them
from various distances. Do all the bodies of rock appear to
have once continued beyond the outcrop, or do some end there
against other bodies? Do they end against -faults, intrusive
contacts, or unconformities? Why does the outcrop itself end
where it does? Does it grade into soil or is it overlain by
surficial deposits?
2. Continue to study the outcrop from a moderate distance.

Are the rock bodies tabular, irregular, lenticular, or with some
other distinctive shape? What are their orientations and
dimensions? If they are internally layered, are the layers
parallel to any of their bounding surfaces? In overall view, do
any rock bodies appear variable? Do any contain fragments?

3. Now study the boundaries (contact
surfaces) between the bodies, both at a
moderate distance and up close. Are they
sharp or gradational? Do they cut across
grains or structures in either adjacent
body? Do any rocks or deposits vary in
color or texture near these contacts? The
views in Fig. 3-1 may be helpful.
4. Break off, or scoop up, samples of the

main materials, and examine

5. Now examine the rocks closely for
primary fabrics and structures. Look
especially for structures that establish tops
and bottoms of deposited layers that were
once sediments or igneous deposits. Do
relations at contacts support these
indications of sequence?
6. Look for all features indicative of

depositional current direction or direction
of magmatic flow. Measure a number of
them in order to judge their consistency

7. To detect deformation, see if rock layers,
veins, or planar structures have been folded
(Section 12-3). If no folds are obvious,
perhaps foliations, cleavages, or lineations
indicate folding.

8. Whether the rocks are folded or not,
examine them for grains or other small
bodies that have been deformed into planar
or linear shapes that give a measure of
deformation

9. Examine all faults, even those that displace rocks as little
as a centimeter. Are there gouge or breccia along them?
Any indications of actual directions of displacement ? Are
the faults younger than other tectonic features?

10. To determine the physical state of the rocks, especially
if they are sedimentary, test the degree of compaction and
cerrientation by hefting dry samples (porous rocks are
lighter than nonporous ones), by their reaction to breaking
in the hands and to hammer blows , and by the rate they
soak in water. Porous fine-grained rocks tend to stick to
the tongue. Depth and strength of weathering generally
increase with porosity and permeability.

11. What are the typical spacings and orientations of joints
in the different rocks? Are there secondary color changes,
and are they related to fractures? Fracturing and
weathering characteristics ma help in identifying the same
rock unit in other outcrops.

12. Bring together all observations made thus far in order to
identify rocks and structures that were originally obscure, or
to refine identifications.
13. Systematically measure and record: (a) the thickness of

each layered unit of rock; (h) structural attitudes of all
primary structures, as bedding; and (c) attitudes of all
secondary features, as folds and faults.
14. Make a thorough search for fossils.

15. Collect rocks that seem particularly useful, either as
typical samples or to resolve
identifications.
16. Before interpreting the various rocks and structures, be

sure that you have observed all possible indications of
relative ages of the rocks in the outcrop.

Taking Field Notes
Observations and interpretations are recorded in field notes, which will

generally be better organized and less unneeded if written after parts the
examination seem more or less complete.
Notes can be kept from becoming conversational or unreadable by use of

engineering-style lettering, telegraphic composition, and abbreviations.
The part of the notes covering the interpretation, however, should probably be
composed of well-thought-out sentences rather than confusing words and
phrases; it is easy to forget the exact meaning and relevance of ideas that were
clear at the outcrop.
Each set of notes should be completed at the outcrop and not modified later
unless the changes are identified clearly.
Each page of notes must be numbered successively for a given notebook or

project, and must be headed by the geologists name, the date, and preferably
by a brief title for the area covered by the notes on that page.

The number of the map sheet or aerial photograph must be recorded,
and numbers of additional sheets or photographs entered in the left
margin as work progresses. Field locations are numbered consecutively
(strictly).
Points of unusual interest, such as specimen locations and critical

relations or questions, should be noted in the left margin or flagged by
a colored line or a box. Notes taken on loose-leaf sheets should be
stored in order in a safe place at the field camp or office.
The descriptive parts of the notes should present facts and thus be kept
as free as possible from terms that are basically genetic. Rocks and
structures identified with certainty can be given firm names, but other
identifications should be queried, noted as problems, or simply stated
as unknowns. Interpretations interwoven with descriptions must be
identified clearly so that they will not later be read as facts.

Notes covering a number of outcrops will be easier to use later if each set is
written in the same order. The order will probably seem most natural if
broader aspects are described before more specific ones.
The final item, the interpretation, includes a brief description of the origin of
each rock and feature. Events implied by structural relations should be
summarized together with the evidence on which they are based.
All events should be recorded as a history if possible, with specific age

relations noted. Inconclusive, even highly speculative ideas should be included
and identified as such, together with whatever suggests them . Sketches or
schematic diagrams will often be helpful.
The gaps and doubts in the interpreted history are noted so that they can be
sought at the next outcrop. In this way, field work and interpretation evolve
together.
Before moving on to the next outcrop, however, the history might be

reconsidered carefully. If the rocks are as old as they are thought to be, can
you imagine all that has happened since? Think of additions to the local
history implied by relations outside the immediate area. Perhaps a last careful
look at the outcrop will be worthwhile.

Descriptions of rock units
As the study is extended to additional outcrops, rocks that

continue as uniform materials are simply recorded as the
same. This must be done cautiously, however, because it may
be easy to gloss over small but important differences.
Variations are described per outcrop, including any geographic

sense of variation discovered at that point.
When specific rock or deposit has been walked out and examined
as much as it is likely to be, a complete description is generally
recorded, one that includes variations as well as the overall
nature of the rock unit or deposit from one contact to the other.

.1-Stratigraphic name of the unit, or its relations to named
units.
. 2-Area to which description applies.
-3Nature of the terrain underlain by the unitits

topography, soils, vegetation, and outcrops.
.4Overall shape or structure of the rock unit in this area.

.5Thickness of the unit.
.6Principal kinds of rocks and their distribution in the unit.
.7Unusual rocks and their stratigraphic (or other) position

and genetic implications.

8- Primary structures in the unit.
A- . How bedding or other layer-structures (as flow structures) are

expressed, as by color, texture, induration, and so on.
B- Range of thicknesses and typical thicknesses of beds or other primary

layer-structures.
C-Shapes of beds or other layer-structures.
D- Primary structures within beds or other structures, as grading,

lamirntions, cross-stratification, channeling, and inclusions.

9- Fossils
A- Distribution of fossils, stratigraphically and laterally.
B- Special characteristics of the more fossiliferous rocks.
C- Positions and condition of fossils, as growth position,

fragmental, rounded, and any signs of reworking .

10-Description of rocks, most abundant kind first.
a. Colorfresh, weathered, moist, dry.
b. Firmness of fresh and of weathered rock.
c. Grain sizes range and average (or typical) sizes.
d. Degree of sorting or equigranularity.
e. Typical shapes of the principal kinds of grains.
f. Fabric (orientations) of tabular or linear grains, especially in relation to rock

structures.
g. Kinds and proportions of mineral cements, matrix, or groundmass.
h. Nature and proportion of pores (porosity) and indications of permeability.
i. Kinds of grains and the approximate percent by volume of each.

11. Contacts
a. Sharp or gradational (describe gradations).
b. Indications of scour, unconformity, intrusive relations, or faulting.
c. Criterion or criteria for locating the contact in the field.

.12Characteristic secondary features, such
as cleavage (fissility), concretions, veins or
other fillings, presence of hydrocarbons,
and deformational structures, including
joints.
.13Characteristics that are particularly

useful in distinguishing this unit from all
others in the area.

14Interpretation of the unit.
-a. Geologic environment or conditions under which the
unit was originally deposited or crystallized.
b. Specific processes contributing to its origin.

c. Genetic relations to associated rocks.
d. Later modifications within the rock at grain-scale, as

cementation, compaction, autometamorphism, and
recrystallization.
e. Tectonic and other structural modifications, as folding,

fracturing, and homogeneous strains.
f. Geologic age of the unit or age relations to other rock

units.

4-3 Drawing and Photographing Outcrops .
Drawings often save time in note-taking and may be essential for

recording complex shapes or relations. Drawing contributes to
observation by forcing one to look closely, especially at how specific
features come together.
One general method of note-taking is to make a page-size drawing of

the outcrop or some part of it, and record descriptive notes right on
the drawing. Small cross sections can be used to record stratigraphic
sequence and structural relations, and a page-size columnar section
can be used in overall descriptions of rock units.
All drawings should be accompanied by a bar scale, by indication of

geographic directions, and by labels to identify features.
Drawings need not be artistic or otherwise attractive, but they must

show proportions, angular relations, and shapes of important features
correctly. If drawing the parts of an outcrop to proportion proves
difficult,

Photographs
Photographs take little time to complete in the field and show features
exactly as they are, thus being the most convincing kind of graphic
evidence.
Some useful photographs are: (1) overall views of outcrops, showing
relations to their surroundings; (2) features showing age relations; (3)
close-up views of primary and secondary structures; (4) well-exposed
contacts; and (5) compositional or textural variations in a rock, by a
series of close-up views.
Taking clear, informative photographs requires thought and practice.

Considerations before taking a photograph include direction of the
view, direction of lighting, closeness of the subject, and depth of focus.
The direc tion of the view should, if possible, be parallel to bedding or
other planar structures, such as faults.

The planes will thus appear as lines in the photograph and
true bed thicknesses will be shown.
For folded rocks, the camera should be pointed parallel to

hinge lines, thus recording true shapes of folds and beds.
The horizon or some other indication of horizontal or

vertical directions should be included wherever possible.
Subjects to be illustrated in the round, such as fossils and
landforms, should be lighted from one side, and from the
upper left, if possible.
Local shadows on irregular outcrops can be resolved by

taking photographs: (1) on a cloudy day, (2) when the
outcrop is in full shadow, or (3) by using flash lighting.
Depth of focus is crucial in most close-up views and can be
increased by using a tripod, fast film, or flash lighting, all
of which permit small lens apertures.

.5-3Measuring Strike and Dip
Strike and dip are used to record the structural attitude of beds, layers
in igneous and metamorphic rocks, planar fabrics, cleavages, faults,
joints, and planar veins. Outcrops must first be checked to be sure that
they are in place rather than large half-buried boulders or parts of
landslides (Section 10-7). Planar structures in ductile rocks, especially
rocks rich in clay, are likely to be distorted by downhill creep, an effect
that can be avoided by using hilltop or valley-bottom outcrops.
Bedding in some sandstones and mudstones is obscure except for
occasional minor layers of coarser grains, or a planar fabric due to
flakes of mica, chlorite, or carbonaceous material. These various
features and relations should be clear by the time an outcrop has been
examined thoroughly . The measurements are made with a compass
and clinometer .
Suggestions for plotting them on maps or aerial photographs. Strike is
the geographic alignment of any horizontal line on a planar.surface,
and dip is the angle of slope at right angles to strikethus the
maximum slope of the surface. Note that strike is not unidirectional;
that is, a strike line might be read either as N 30 E (azimuth of 30) or
S 30 W (azimuth of 210), When using a quadrant compass, rors in
transposition, recording, and plotting will generally be avoided if only
the north half of the graduated circle is used.

Collecting Rock Samples
Rock samples can be used to:

(1) make petrographic identifications;
(2) measure small-scale planar and linear structures;
(3) trace mineral reactions
and (4) compare rocks from different parts of an area.
If interest is in the principal (typical) rocks of an area (which is usual) they are
the ones to collect. This will take effort, for typical rocks tend to become an
unnoticed background to ones that are unusual or curious.
In addition to being representative, samples must be as fresh as possible;

however, additional weathered pieces may be needed in engineering studies or
for fully characterizing rock units.
The minimal size of a sample is prescribed by its purpose and grain size

In average situations, uniform rocks with grains less than 1
mm in diameter are well represented by pieces 3 X 5 X
5cm or equivalent. If grains are 2 to 3 mm in diameter,
samples should be about twice that large.
Samples need not be trimmed unless they must be stored in

shallow drawers. Important small features (e.g., crucial
grains or small fossils) should be circled with a pen,
because they may be difficult to find later.
Rock samples are numbered, marked, and labeled in the

same way as fossils and wrapped or placed in bags to
protect them from abrasion.

Oriented samples
Oriented samples are collected for later study of fabrics or small features
that must be related to the geologic map or to major structures. Examples
are sandstone with possible current oriented fabric; metamorphic rocks
with folded lineations; igneous rocks cut by sets of thin veins; and
orientations of crystallographic axes of quartz.
Most samples can be collected by: (1) measuring the strike and dip of a
planar surface on the rock and (2) drawing strike-and-dip symbol on the
surface before breaking the sample from the outcrop, or after fitting it back
exactly to its original position.
An arrowhead added to the strike line and a geographic direction to the dip
line to insure that the orientation will be unambiguous. The compass
direction of the arrow is included in the notes, as is a notation as to whether
the planar surface faces upward or downward . If the rock to be sampled
has no planar surface, a clinometer can be used to draw horizontal and
vertical planes across enough of the sample so that it can be reoriented

All features relating to samples should be described, perhaps with a
drawing showing geometric relations. If the marked surface is not a
primary one, the strike and dip of primary structures must be
measured and recorded the sample site.
Linear features should also be measured, recorded, and described at

the outcrop, because they are likely to be far less obvious when the
sample is studied in the laboratory.
If the samples are intended for a systematic, thorough study, a sample

or two might be analyzed before a large number are collected. The
analyses may prove so time-consuming that only a moderate number
can be completed in which case sampling should be deferred until the
field study has which sites will be most valuable.

Basic Procedures at Outcrops PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Basic Procedures at Outcrops PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

3

Basic Procedures at Outcrops

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

2. Continue to study the outcrop from a moderate distance.

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

4. Break off, or scoop up, samples of the

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

6. Look for all features indicative of

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

13. Systematically measure and record: (a) the thickness of

14. Make a thorough search for fossils.

16. Before interpreting the various rocks and structures, be

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

Observations and interpretations are recorded in field notes, which will

Notes can be kept from becoming conversational or unreadable by use of

Each page of notes must be numbered successively for a given notebook or

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

Points of unusual interest, such as specimen locations and critical

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

All events should be recorded as a history if possible, with specific age

Before moving on to the next outcrop, however, the history might be

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

As the study is extended to additional outcrops, rocks that

Variations are described per outcrop, including any geographic

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

. 2-Area to which description applies.

-3Nature of the terrain underlain by the unitits

.4Overall shape or structure of the rock unit in this area.

.6Principal kinds of rocks and their distribution in the unit.

.7Unusual rocks and their stratigraphic (or other) position

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

A- . How bedding or other layer-structures (as flow structures) are

B- Range of thicknesses and typical thicknesses of beds or other primary

C-Shapes of beds or other layer-structures.

D- Primary structures within beds or other structures, as grading,

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

A- Distribution of fossils, stratigraphically and laterally.

B- Special characteristics of the more fossiliferous rocks.

C- Positions and condition of fossils, as growth position,

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

b. Firmness of fresh and of weathered rock.

c. Grain sizes range and average (or typical) sizes.

d. Degree of sorting or equigranularity.

e. Typical shapes of the principal kinds of grains.

f. Fabric (orientations) of tabular or linear grains, especially in relation to rock

g. Kinds and proportions of mineral cements, matrix, or groundmass.

h. Nature and proportion of pores (porosity) and indications of permeability.

i. Kinds of grains and the approximate percent by volume of each.

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

b. Indications of scour, unconformity, intrusive relations, or faulting.

c. Criterion or criteria for locating the contact in the field.

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

.13Characteristics that are particularly

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

b. Specific processes contributing to its origin.

d. Later modifications within the rock at grain-scale, as

e. Tectonic and other structural modifications, as folding,

f. Geologic age of the unit or age relations to other rock

PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

Drawings often save time in note-taking and may be essential for

One general method of note-taking is to make a page-size drawing of