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TheoriesofWeightintheAncientWorld
FourEssaysonDemocritus,PlatoandAristotle
AStudyintheDevelopmentofIdeas
VOLUMEONE
Pageii
PHILOSOPHIAANTIQUA
ASERIESOFMONOGRAPHS
ONANCIENTPHILOSOPHY
EDITEDBY
W.J.VERDENIUSANDJ.C.M.VANWINDEN
VOLUMEXXXVII
D.O'BRIEN
THEORIESOFWEIGHTINTHEANCIENTWORLD
I
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DemocritusWeightandSize
AnExerciseintheReconstructionofEarlyGreekPhilosophy
By
D.O'Brien
ChargdeRecherche
auCentreNationaldelaRechercheScientifique,Paris
Cetouvrageatpubliavecleconcours
duCentreNationaldelaRechercheScientifique
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VOLUMETWO
PLATOWEIGHTANDSENSATION
TheTwoTheoriesofthe'Timaeus'
VOLUMETHREE
ARISTOTLEWEIGHTANDMOVEMENT
'Decaelo'BookFour:AReconstructionofAristotle'sTheory
VOLUMEFOUR
ARISTOTLEWEIGHTANDMOVEMENT
'Decaelo'BookFour:AnInterpretationofAristotle'sTheory
ISBN9004061320
9004061347
Copyright1981byE.J.Brill,Leiden,TheNetherlands
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedortranslatedinanyform,byprint,photoprint,microfilm,microficheoranyothermeans
withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher
PRINTEDINGREATBRITAIN
Pagev
sedisapientiae
sacrum
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CONTENTS
AvantPropos xi
Introduction xiii
Abbreviations xxi
PartOne
PrimaryEvidence
I.Aristotle'sGeneralCriticismoftheAtomicTheory 3
1Orientation 3
2TheDistinctionofRelativeandAbsoluteWeight 6
3ClassificationoftheWeightofAtoms:ApproximationtoAbsoluteWeight 15
4ClassificationoftheWeightofAtoms:IdentificationwithAbsoluteWeight 23
5'RelativeWeight'and'AbsoluteWeight'inAristotle'sCriticismofHis 32
Predecessors
II.Aristotle'DeGenerationeetCorruptione' 41
1'Preponderance' 43
2'RelativeWeight':ConfusioninCherniss 49
3WeightandTemperature 57
4TheSequenceofArguments 69
III.Aristotle'DeCaelo' 80
1IndividualAtoms 80
2CompoundBodies 100
3Aristotle'sCriticism 106
IV.Theophrastus 115
1StatementoftheTheory 115
2CriticismoftheTheory:The'Necessity'ofMovement 132
3CriticismoftheTheory:'Physis'and'Hyle' 142
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PartTwo
SecondaryEvidence
V.Simplicius 153
1TheWeightofAtoms 153
2WeightandMovement:'DeCaelo' 161
3WeightandMovement:'Physics' 166
VI.SimpliciusandtheCurrentCompromise 174
1TheNatureofWeight:WeightExpressedAsMovementDownwards 174
2TheNatureofWeight:WeightExpressedAsForceofImpactandAs 182
SpeedofMovement
3WeightandVoid 192
VII.DiogenesLaertiusandAlexander 203
1DiogenesLaertius:TheTimeSequence 203
2DiogenesLaertius:TheMeaningof 207
3Alexander:The'Parts'ofAtoms 211
4Alexander:TheGenesisofError 217
VIII.AetiusandCicero 223
1Aetius:TheExplicitDenial 223
2Aetius:TheImplicitDenial 229
3Cicero 239
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PartThree
TheConciliationoftheEvidence
IX.TheNatureandDistributionoftheEvidence:PrimaryEvidence 251
1SourcesfortheHistoryofEarlyPhilosophy 251
2Theophrastus 253
3Aristotle 260
X.TheNatureandDistributionoftheEvidence:SecondaryEvidence 267
1Simplicius 267
2The'Parts'ofAtoms:Simplicius'PowersofIntellectualConsistency 270
3TheNatureofSoul:Simplicius'InformationonDemocritus 279
4AetiusandtheSizeofAtoms 282
5Aetius'DependenceonTheophrastus 298
XI.IndirectEvidence 303
1Aristotle'OnDemocritus' 303
2MovementandDifference 311
3Aristotle'Physics':SpeedandWeight 315
4SpeedandSize 323
XII.TheWeightofAtoms 330
1TheMinimalConclusion 330
2TheProbableExtension 335
3Summary 345
XIII.Perspective 347
1ModernScholarship:TheprogressofError 347
2EarlyGreekConceptionsofHeavyandLight 364
Bibliography 385
IndexLocorum 402
RsumenFranais 412
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AVANTPROPOS
Cetouvragereprsentelapremiredequatretudesportantsurlesthoriesdelapesanteurdansl'antiquit.ElleestconsacrelathoriedeDmocrite,chezlequel
lapesanteurseraitfonctiondelatailledesatomes.LadeuximeaurapourobjetleTime,oPlatonaeul'ide,lepremier,monsentiment,decomprendresa
thoriedelapesanteurdanslecadred'unethoriedelasensation.Latroisimeetlaquatrimetraitentdelathoried'Aristote,pourquilaconceptiondelapesanteur
faitpartieintgrantedecelledumouvement.
Certes,cestroisauteursn'puisentpointtoutcequ'aputrel'apportdelaculturegrcoromainesurcettequestion,commelelaissedevinerconfusmentplusd'un
vestige.Ilsnousenlivrentpourtantl'essentiel:avantDmocrite,aucunpenseurnemesembleavoircherchintgrerlanotiondepesanteurunsystmeaussibien
philosophiquequescientifiqueaprsAristote,cequenoussavonsdelascienceantiquenenouslaisseguredistinguerdethoriedelapesanteurquinesoitcalque
danssesgrandeslignessurcellesdel'AcadmieouduLyce.Enrevanche,lacritiqueparPlatondelathoriedmocritennedelapesanteur,ainsiquelarepriseetla
refontedecettecritiqueparAristote,nousfontpercevoirchezcesauteurs,traverslacontinuitmmedeleurspenses,uneoriginalitcertainesibienquel'historien
desidestrouvechezeux,surcethmeprcis,uneoccasiontoutfaitprivilgied'observerunexempledegenseetd'volutiondesidesdansletemps.
Evidemmentonnesauraitentreprendreunerecherchedecettedimensionsansdisposerdeconditionsdetravailexceptionnelles.JelesdoislagnrositduCentre
NationaldelaRechercheScientifiqueet,danscecadre,j'aieuleprivilge,galement,depouvoirfrquenterlessminairesorganissauCentreLonRobin,la
Sorbonne.MonsieurleProfesseurP.M.Schuhl,membredel'Institut,quiadirigceCentredurantdelonguesannes,nem'ajamaismesursabienveillance
attentive,etj'aitoujoursentenduavecleplusgrandintrtsesaperusetsesrapprochementsstimulants,puisslasourced'unevasterudition,etpropres
renouvelerl'ardeurdelarecherche.Monsieurle
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ProfesseurP.Aubenque,quiluiasuccdladirectionduCentreLonRobin,ainsiqueMonsieurleProfesseurJ.Brunschwig,quiabienvouluaccepterd'assurer
monparrainageauprsduCentreNationaldelaRechercheScientifique,ontmanifestlemmesouciqueluidem'assureruneentirelibertintellectuelle,toutenme
faisantbnficier,commelui,desressourcesdeleursavoir,etdetoutl'acquis,notamment,rassemblparlatradition,sculaireParis,desrecherches
aristotliciennes.
Jedoisgalementexprimericimareconnaissancepourlacordialitdeleuraccueil,ainsiquepourlesnombreusesremarquesetlesinformationsqu'ilsm'ontsi
amicalementapportessurdiverspoints,mescollguesparisiens,etnotammentMonsieurleProfesseurJ.Ppin,etMonsieurDenisetMadameFranoise
Zaslawsky.Jetiensgalementexprimermesplusvifsremerciementsdesamisanglaisouamricainsquiontbienvoululirecertainespartiesduprsentouvrageet
mefairepartdeleursobservations:MadameK.M.Burnett,MonsieurleDocteurG.E.R.Lloyd,MessieursJ.H.Prynne,A.PughetW.Stewart,del'Universit
deCambridge,MonsieurleProfesseurJ.McGovern,duDpartmentd'Histoiredel'UniversitdeIllinois,MonsieurS.V.Keeling,DocteursLettresde
l'UniversitdeMontpellier,MonsieurleProfesseurJ.A.Scott,del'UniversitdeNewfoundland,MonsieurleProfesseurJ.B.Skemp,del'UniversitdeDurham
enfin,MonsieurleProfesseurW.J.Verdenius,del'Universitd'Utrecht.Queceluicitrouveicil'expressiondemagratitudetouteparticulirepouravoiracceptde
publiermonouvragedanscettesriedontilassumeladirection,etquiluivautlareconnaissancedetousceuxquitudientl'histoiredelaphilosophieantique.
PARIS
ILESAINTLOUIS1971,PALAISROYAL1978
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INTRODUCTION
Muchlabourandsomeingenuityhasbeenspentondisentanglingtheliterarywreckageoftheancientworld,andonreconstructing,sofarastheevidencewhichhas
survivedwillallow,theintellectualexperienceofantiquity.Thisandthethreestudieswhichfollowareacontributiontothisend.
Naturally,IshouldnothavewishedtopublishthemifIdidnotthinkthattheycamenearerthetruththanearlierconclusionshavedone.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatI
claimtoofferanyradicallynewevidence,noranymethodsofanalysisthatareidiosyncraticororiginal.TheprincipaltextsthatIhavedrawnfromareallwellknown:
TheophrastusDesensibus,Plato'sTimaeus,AristotleDecaelo,thecommentariesofSimplicius.ThemethodsIhaveemployedfortheinterpretationofthesetexts
arethetraditionalones:scrupulousphilologicalexegesisofindividualpassages,coupledwithanecessarilymorespeculativeaccountoftheirrelationtotheircontext,
andtoeachother.
AndyetonereasonforthelengthofmyenquiryisthatIdohopetoisolate,andinthisinstancetocorrect,onemajordeficiencyinthemodernstudyofancientthought:
unthinkingsubmissiontothecontinuinginfluenceofAristotle.
RecognitionoftheoverwhelminginfluenceofAristotleontheevidenceforourknowledgeofthephilosophyofthefifthcentury,andrecognitionalsoofthepotential
prejudicethatisintroducedtherebyintooursecondarysourcesforphilosopherswhowerethemselvesignorantofAristotle,isalessonthathasbeenwelllearnt,
perhapstoowell.WhathasnotbeenrecognisedisthecontinuinginfluenceofAristotleonourownideas.Potentially,weareasmuchatthemercyofAristotle'sideas
aswerethehistoriansandphilosophersofpostAristoteleanantiquity,andaswasAristotlehimself.Thedifferenceisthatsomeoneelse'sprejudiceiseasiertorecognise
andtoanalysethanone'sown.TherecanbenosingleworkfortheeradicationofmodernprejudiceinthestudyofancientphilosophyequivalenttoeitherofCherniss'
monumentalworks,Aristotle'scriticismofPresocraticphilosophyandAristotle'scriticismofPlatoandtheAcademy.Itisonlyrepeatedstudyoftheindividual
instancethatcanmakethescholar
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awareofthepotentiallydisruptiveeffectofhisownAristoteleanandpostAristoteleanconceptionsuponhisinterpretationofthePresocraticphilosophers,andof
Plato.Andyetifwearetoclarifyourknowledgeofthepasttothefurthestlimitsoftherestrictionsimposeduponusbytheavailabilityandthenatureoftheevidence,
thentheonelessonisnolessimportantthantheother.ItisasessentialtouncovertheAristoteleanprejudiceinAristotleandinSimpliciusasitistouncoverthe
modern,andlargelyAristoteleanprejudiceinChernissandinourselves.
Itisintheareaofontologyandepistemologythattheeffectofanachronisticassumptionandconceptionis,Ibelieve,atitsmostrampant.Butthehumblerstudyof
earlyideasofheavyandlight,althoughthesearecloselyrelatedtoearlyideasofrealityandofperception,makestheinterplayofancientandmodernprejudiceupon
theevidenceforthePresocraticsandforPlatomoremanageableandmorenearlydemonstrable.
ThusthepresentstudyattemptstoreconstructthetheoryofweightthatwasadoptedbyDemocritus.Theevidenceiscomplicated,butthereasonwhyithasbeen
misunderstoodliesnotonlyintheintrinsicdifficultyofthetexts,butequallyinthedifficultythatmodernscholarshaveinfreeingthemselvesfromcertainsettledhabitsof
thought.'Wemayherepausetoconsiderwhatweightmeans',writesonescholarinhisaccountofDemocritus.1Thedefinitionwhichhegiveshastheauthorityof
Zeller,andtheconcurrence,perhapslesswelcome,ofBurnet.Itbetraysnonetheless,allunwittingly,anAristoteleaninfluence,whichIshallattempttoshowisonly
marginallyrelevanttothewaysofthinkingofphilosophersinthefifthcentury,andwhichisonlypartiallyrelevantevenforPlato.
Itistruethatthemoderninterpretationcanfindancientevidencetosupportit.Butthisconfluenceofideasisnotaccidental.TheancientevidencewhichZellerand
whichBurnetselecttosupporttheirinterpretationofDemocritus'theoryofweightshowssigns,oncloseinspection,ofcontaminationatpreciselythepointswhich
renderitmostpalatabletomodernprejudice.Insteadofadoptingtheevidencewhosecategoriesofthoughtcanbethemosteasilyassimilatedtoourownwaysof
thinking,weneedtoappreciatethattheevidencewhichinthisinstanceis
1
G.S.Kirk,ThePresocraticphilosophers(Cambridge,1957)415.
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historicallystrongerrequiresarealignmentofourhabitualconceptions,ifwearetoreaditslessonaright.
Soitisalsowiththesubjectofmysecondessay.TheinterpretationofPlato,nolessthanthatofDemocritus,hasbeendrawnintothecircleofAristotelean
preconceptions.Atfirst,thisissurprising,sincePlato'sworkonphysicalphilosophy,theTimaeus,hassurvivedcomplete.Thefactthatevenwiththesurvivalofthe
textAristoteleanideashaveinfiltratedintothemoderninterpretationofPlato'stheoryofweight,nolessthanintothatofDemocritus,isastrikingindicationthatthe
dominatinginfluenceofAristotleonourunderstandingofthephilosophyoftheancientworldisnotsolelytheresultofourdependenceuponAristoteleansourcesfor
philosopherswhoseoriginalwritingshavebeenlost.
TheTimaeusisforthemostpartfreefromtheaporeticandfromthedramaticqualitieswhichsometimesfortunatelyhamperanysimplereductionofPlato'sideas
toanondialogueform.ButtheextremelyintricateandenigmaticcharacteroftheTimaeus,coupledwiththe'mythical',orperhapsoneshouldsaytheanalogical,
natureofmanyofPlato'sleadingconcepts,leavesplentyofscopefordisagreementandmisunderstanding.TheinterpretationofPlato'sanalysisofheavyandlightI
thinkprovidesanextremebutnotauniqueexampleoftheoverridinginfluenceofAristoteleanideasonmoderncommentatorsMartin,ArcherHind,Taylorwho
thinkthattheyaresimplyrepeatingPlato'stheorywhenallunconsciouslytheyareinfactclothingPlatoinAristoteleanideaswhichcertainlyinthiscasedestroythe
intricacyandthebalanceofPlato'soriginalintention.
LatentAristoteleanpreconceptionshavesofar,Ibelieve,concealedtherealnatureofPlato'stheoryofheavyandlightfromthemodernreader:paradoxically,itis
Aristotle,rightlyunderstood,whohelpstoprovidethecure.'AristotleinhiscriticismofPlato'stheory...simplyignoresthewholepointofitfrombeginningtoend':
sowritesArcherHindwithakindofrighteousimpatience.1Buthiswordsapplyonlytohimself.Aristotleisnotofcourseimpartial.Plato,orPlatonism,isforhiman
activerival.HecriticiseswhatheseesasthefatalflawinPlato'stheory,and
1
R.D.ArcherHind,The'Timaeus'ofPlato,editedwithintroductionandnotes(LondonandNewYork,1888)2289.
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ignoresmuchoftherest.ButthePlatowhomAristotlecriticisesisatleastdistinctfromhiscritic.ThePlatowhomArcherHindpresentstousisinlargepartthe
productofArcherHind'sownAristoteleanimaginings.AndthatiswhyAristotle'scriticismsseemtoArcherHindandtoChernissandtoSolmsentomissthe
mark.Thetargethasbeenplacedtooclose.Aristotle'scriticismsareaimedfartherafield:hecouldnoteasilyhavecriticisedthefigmentthatArcherHindhasplaced
beforehimwithoutinflictingfatalinjuryuponhimself.
ThecriticismswhichTheophrastusmakesofPlatohavesufferedinthesameway.WehavetoreconstructDemocritus'theoryinpartfromthesummaryandcriticism
whichTheophrastusprovidesofitintheDesensibus.ForPlato,wehavetheoriginalexpressionofthetheory,aswellasthesummaryandthecriticismwhich
Theophrastussupplies.Itisalarming,andchastening,tofindthat,evenwhentheoriginaltextsurvives,Theophrastus'criticismshavebeen,asIbelieve,misunderstood.
Thereason,Ishallargue,isthesameasinthecaseofAristotle.TaylorunconsciouslyadoptsaheavilyAristoteleanisedinterpretationofPlato.Hetherefore
misconstruesTheophrastus'attackuponPlatoasexegesisandnotascriticism.ThecriticalconstructionswhichTheophrastusadvancesareintendedasarefutationof
Plato'stheory.TheyaretakenbyTaylorasexegesis,asadirectstatementofthetheoryitself.ForTaylorisunabletoseehowanyonecouldnotthinkasAristotle
does.ThepointsofAristoteleantheorywhichTheophrastusoffersasarefutationofPlatoTayloristhereforeunabletoseeexceptasadirectstatementofPlato'sown
theory.TaylordoesnotseethathisownAristoteleanisedversionofPlato'stheoryleavesnoroomfortheradicalcriticismofPlatowhichTheophrastusrepeatsfrom
Aristotle.
Thiscomplexityinpartexplainsthelengthofmyenquiry.MystudyofPlatohastoincludefourchaptersdevotedtoananalysisofthecriticismswhichAristotleand
whichTheophrastusmakeofPlato.Iincludethesepartlyofcoursefortheirownsake.ButIalsoconsiderasconfirmationoftheinterpretationwhichIofferofPlato
thatitaffordsthecriticismswhichAristotleandwhichTheophrastusmakeofPlatoaproperfootholdinthetextoftheTimaeus.Weneedtobeabletoreadthe
TimaeuswiththeeyesofAristotle,ifonlyinordertoavoidreadingintoitareflectionofAristotle.
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Byasignificantparadox,itisnotonlyPlatoandthePresocraticswhoarevictimsofthedistortinginfluenceofAristotle,intheancientandinthemodernworld.
Aristotlehimself,asmythirdandfourthessaysIhopewillmakeclear,suffersasaresultoftheAristoteleanwaysofthinkingthatweunconsciouslycastuponhis
predecessors.ThecloserourinterpretationofthePresocraticsandofPlatoisdrawnintoanAristoteleanframeofreferenceandofassumption,thelessroomthereis
forAristotle'sownideastotakeontheirproperscopeandbalance,andthemoredifficult,indeedimpossible,itbecomesforustodiscoverthealignmentofinterest,
andthepolemicalintent,ofAristotlehimself.
FortheextendedanalysesandcriticismswhichAristotleprovidesofhispredecessorsandofPlatoarenotpurelyhistoricalordoxographicalintheirpurpose.Even
whenAristotlepresentsearlierideasasinradicaloppositiontohisown,carefulanalysisshowsthatnonethelessAristotle'sownideashavetakenonasignificantpartof
theirformandtheirpurpose,notonlyfromthecommongroundthatstillinevitablyexistswithearlierwaysofthinking,andwithPlatoinparticular,butnolessfromthe
attemptsthatAristotledeliberatelymakestocircumventthefallaciesthatheseesintheideasofhispredecessors.1
HereagainitisinthemorespeculativefieldsofAristotle'sepistemologyandontology,inhisconceptionofactivemindandtheunmovedmover,thatthiscommerce
withtheideasofhispredecessorsmostradicallyaffectsthefinalformofAristotle'stheory,andyethasprovedopaque,Ibelieve,tomodernmethodsofanalysisand
interpretation.ButhereagainAristotle'sconceptionofheavyandlight,portrayedatlengthinthefourthbookoftheDecaelo,illustratestheprinciplethatIhavein
mindinamorerestrictedbutalsoinamorenearlydemonstrableform.TheprecisecontentofAristotle'scriticismofDemocritusisintegraltoAristotle'sown
attemptedestablishmentofcriteriaofdifferentiationforelementswithabsoluteandwithrelativeweight.ItisnoaccidentthereforethatintheDecaeloAristotle
criticisesDemocritusandPlatoatsomelength,afteraswellasbeforetheexpositionofhisowntheoryofweight.Foritisintheattemptto
1
TherearesomeusefulgeneralremarksonthissubjectbyP.Aubenque,'Physiquearistotlicienneetlangage',Archivesdephilosophie31(1968)12532,esp.1267.
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distinguishhisownideasfromthoseofDemocritusthatAristotleisdrivenfurthestintheapplicationofhisowncriteriaofweightanditisasaresultoftheattemptto
rescuehisownideasfromthecriticismsthathehasmadeofthatversionofDemocritus'ideaswhichheseesasmostnearlyapproachinghisownthatAristotleisled,
orsoIshallargue,toabandonweightasaquantitativecriterionforthedifferentiationofthefourelements,andtoadoptinsteadaconceptionofweightwhichleadsto
qualitativedifferentiations,ofthekindthatwefindemployedasthefoundationforhistheoryoftheidentityoftheelementsintheDegenerationeetcorruptione.
Thisaddsafreshcomplicationtothemethodicalstudyoftheevidence.ThehazardsofapproachingthestudyofthePresocraticsthroughastudyofAristotleare
compoundedbytheneedforaclearunderstandingofPresocraticandPlatonicideasinordertoappreciatepreciselythedriftofideasinAristotle.Thisexplains,andI
hopewillinpartjustify,thesequenceofargumentinmystudiesofDemocritusandofAristotle.MystudyofDemocritusbeginswiththreechaptersdevotedto
Aristotle.MyreconstructionofAristotle'stheorywillconcludewithaseriesofchaptersdevotedagaintoAristotle'scriticismofDemocritus.Theinevitablecircularity
inthepresentationoftheevidencecouldobviouslyleadtoacircularityintheargument.IhopethatIhaveavoidedthis.IfIhavenot,thenithasnotbeenthroughany
lackofconsciousnessofthedanger.
Afinalreasonforthescope,andforthelength,ofmyenquiryisthatIhavetriedtoaddtoitanelementofinterpretation,asdistinctfromsimplereconstruction.The
labourandthehazardsofanenquirywheretheevidenceisfragmentary,enigmaticandcircuitousaffordanobvioustemptationtostopshortattryingtoestablishwhat
individualphilosopherssaidandthought.Itmayseemaworkofsupererogationtotrytointerprettheresults:andinanycasehowarewetodoso?
Thereis,Ithink,somethingnaive,andunpalatable,inseekingtointerpretortocriticisephilosophersofthepast,inanydirectsense.Iremember,stillwithafeelingof
vicariousembarrassment,atalkonPlato'sPhaedobyanewcomertoaCambridgechair,whodrewflatteringtittersfromanundergraduateaudiencebylistingthe
deficienciesthathe,asamodernphilosopher,sawinPlato'sconceptionofformandoftheself.Thisisnotthekindof
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interpretationthatIwouldaimat,althoughIcanseetheadvantageoftreatingPlatoandAristotleasphilosophersintheirownright,whoseinterestsstilltosomeextent
coincidewithourown.1
Atthesametime,Ifinditfrustratingtotreatthehistoryofideasasepisodicallyasonemighttreatthehistoryofevents.Democritus'ideasarenot,Ithink,appreciated,
ifheisseenassimplyonememberofasuccessionofearlyphilosophers,norifhisideasareseenasa'brilliantanticipation'(Gomperz'sphrase)ofthesupposed
discoveriesofmodernscience.2Tousearatherfoolishlyquantitativeformofexpression:thehistoryofideasseemstometobemorethanhistory,andlessthan
philosophy,orlessthanscienceinamodernsense.
ButperhapsIhavedugmyowngrave.Iammoreconsciousoftheneedforsomeelementofinterpretation,thanIamconfidentofmyownabilitytoprovideit.No
doubtthereareotherandbetterwaysofapplyingthehumanmindtounderstandingthehistoryofideas.ThecourseIhaveadoptedissimplytotrytopresentthese
threetheoriesofweightastypifying,onhoweverminusculeascale,thedevelopmentaswellasthemeresuccessionofideas.Thereisasense,itseemstome,inwhich
Aristotle'sconceptionofweightisindeedpresentimplicitlyintheearlierDemocriteanconception,andequallyasenseinwhichDemocritus'conceptionlingersin
Aristotle,whilePlatoholdsthetwoideasinsuspension,asitwere,thenewandtheoldskilfullyheldinoppositionbytheparticularconceptionthatPlatohasofthe
relationbetweenreasonandnecessity,andbetweenperceptionandreality.
ThisfinallyisthereasonfortheparticularattentionthatIhavegiveninmystudytotheinfluenceofAristotle.Ifalaterideacanproperlybedescribedasimplicitin
someearlierconception,thenclearlyoncetheideahasbeenmadeexplicitthereisthedangerthatitwillseemtoloomlargerinitsinitialappearance,andthenthe
furtherdangerthatinretrospectitwilltherebycometooust
1
Cf.P.Wilpert,FestschriftfrAloysWenzl(MnchenPasing,1950)57:'...auchdieganzGrossenihrekleinenFussangelnhaben,berdiesiestolpern.Dempiettlosen
SptgeborenenisteseinbilligesVergngendarberzulcheln,wennauchbeiihmvielleichtschonderSohndiedickenTauesieht,berdiederVatergestrauchelt'.
2
T.Gomperz,GriechischeDenker,eineGeschichtederantikenPhilosophie4thedni(1922)305.
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theconceptionswithwhichitwasinitiallyassociated,andtowhichitwasoriginallysubordinated.ThekindofevidencethatIhavehadtoconsiderintheseessays
thereforetendstoobliteratepreciselythosefeaturesthataremostnecessaryforasuccessfulreconstructionofthedevelopmentofideas:fortheevidencetendsto
obliteratepreciselythosefeatureswhichareleastfamiliartothelaterhistoriansofantiquity,andtoourselves.
Reconstructionandinterpretation,atleastofthekindthatIhaveofferedhere,arethereforelessseparablethanmightatfirstappear.Ineithercase,itisthedominating
influenceoflaterideaswhichdisruptsourreconstructionoftheevidence,andwhichkeepsusfromaproperanalysisofthedevelopmentofideas,asaprocesswhich
isatoncemorethanthesimplesequenceofideasasevents,andyetwhichisindependentofwhetherweourselvessupposetheideasinquestiontobetrueorfalse.
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ABBREVIATIONS
AnyreferencestomodernworksthatarenotimmediatelyclearmayberecoveredfromtheBIBLIOGRAPHY.Ingeneral,Ihavegivenafullreferencethefirsttimea
workisreferredto,andthereafterIhaveusedtheauthor'snamewithanabbreviatedformoftitle.Theshortestandthemostcommonoftheseabbreviationsare:
BurnetEGP J.Burnet,EarlyGreekphilosophy,1stedn1892,4thedn(areprint
ofthe3rdedn)1930.
ChernissACP H.Cherniss,Aristotle'scriticismofPresocraticphilosophy,
1935.
ChernissACPl H.Cherniss,Aristotle'scriticismofPlatoandtheAcademy,
1944.
Cornford, F.M.Cornford,Plato'scosmology,the'Timaeus'ofPlato
Cosmology translatedwithrunningcommentary,1937.
Diels,Dox. H.Diels,Doxographigraeci,1879.
Guthrie,History W.K.C.Guthrie,AhistoryofGreekphilosophy,currentlyappearing
inseveralvolumes,vol.i1962.
Taylor,Commentary A.E.Taylor,AcommentaryonPlato's'Timaeus',1928.
Zeller,ZN E.Zeller,DiePhilosophiederGriecheninihrergeschichtlichen
Entwicklung,1stedn1844,6thednofTeiliHlfte12byW.
Nestle191920.
Twootherworksarecommonlyreferredtoinanabbreviatedform:
DK H.Diels,FragmentederVorsokratiker,1stedn1903:the
paginationisunchangedfromthe5thednbyW.Kranz,19347.
LSJ AGreekEnglishLexiconbyLiddell,ScottandJones,9thedn
1940.
Referencestoperiodicalsaregiveninanabbreviatedforminthefootnotes,andinafullformintheBIBLIOGRAPHY.
TheINDEXLOCORUMspecifiestheeditionsusedofancienttexts.Afterthefirstfullreference,Ihaveusedtheauthor'soreditor'snamealoneforsomecritical
workson,andforsomeeditionsortranslationsof,Plato'sTimaeus,AristotleDecaeloandTheophrastusDesensibus.
Page1
PARTONE
PRIMARYEVIDENCE
Page3
ChapterOne
Aristotle'sGeneralCriticismoftheAtomicTheory
1
Orientation
(i)
AlargenumberofwritingswereattributedtoDemocritusintheancientworld,butamongthefragmentsthatsurvivethereisnomentionofweight.
Initially,wehavetomakedothereforewithinformationthatcanberecoveredfromthosewhohadreadtheworksofDemocritus,orofhisimmediateassociate
Leucippus,andwhotranscribe,andcriticise,theirtheories.ChiefamongtheseareAristotle,andhispupilandsuccessorasheadoftheLyceum,Theophrastus.Both
AristotleandTheophrastushadclearlyreadthewhole,oralargepart,oftheworksofDemocritus,andbothrefer,insomedetail,totheatomictheoryofweight.1
ButeventheworksofAristotleandofTheophrastusdonotsurviveintheirentirety.Inparticular,amonographwhichAristotledevotedtoDemocritushasbeenlost,
exceptforasingleextracttranscribedbySimplicius.Theophrastus'detailedaccountsofthePresocratics,includinghishistoryTheopinionsofthephysical
philosophers,havebeenmostlylost.Thelongestcontinuousportionwhichsurvivesofsuchwriting.Onthenatureofthesensesandontheobjectsofsensation,
doescontainanaccountoftheatomictheoryofweight.ButthefragmentsquotedfromTheophrastusbySimplicius,concerningearlieropinionsonthefirstprinciples
ofphysicalphilosophy,donotmentionthisfeatureoftheatomictheory.
1
DiogenesLaertiuslistsseventytitlesinhisLifeofDemocritus,ix469(DK68A1).Ausefullistofreferencestotheseandotherworksthat,rightlyorwrongly,wereattributedto
DemocritusinantiquityisprovidedbyLouisLiard,DeDemocritophilosopho(Parisiis,1873)1525,andbyLopoldMabilleau,Histoiredelaphilosophicatomistique(Paris,
1895)15267.Mabilleauadds,16771,aninstructiveschemaofpassagesinAristotleonancientAtomism.
Page4
AncientauthorswhoinonewayoranotherdependonworksofAristotleandofTheophrastusthatarelosttousthereforerepresentasecondstratumofpotential
informationonthetheoriesoftheAtomists:chiefamongthese,onthequestionofweight,areSimplicius,AetiusandCicero.1
(ii)
Intheseconditions,itseemstomeimpossibletoattemptanydistinctiononthisquestionbetweenthetheoriesofthetwoatomistphilosophersofthefifthcentury,
LeucippusandDemocritus.
CyrilBailey(whoseaccountofAtomisminthefifthcentury,althoughithasalltheappearanceofacarefulandjudicioussurvey,isinfactfarinferiortohisanalysisof
thelaterversionofAtomismadoptedbyEpicurus)appearstosupposethatDemocritusintroducedweightintothesimpleratomictheoryofLeucip
1
ThemostrecentresearchonTheophrastus'doxographicalwritingsconcludesthatthePhysicorumopinioneswasputtogetherfromaseriesofmonographsonindividual
philosophers,andwasinturnrewrittentoformpartofTheophrastus'ownanalysesofphysicalphilosophy.Onthisinterpretation,thelongfragmentDesensibusandthe
quotationspreservedbySimpliciusarederivednotfromtheoriginalPhysicorumopiniones,asDielshadsupposed,butfromalaterrehandlingofthesamematerial.SeePeter
Steinmetz,DiePhysikdesTheophrastosvonEresos,intheseriesPalingenesiaBandi(BadHomburgV.D.H.,1964)esp.pp.33451Beilage'TheophrastsPhysikundihrVerhltnis
zuden .'
AlthoughthenatureofTheophrastus'doxographicalwritingundoubtedlyrequiresmuchmoreintensivestudythanithassofarreceived,itseemstomethattheconclusionwhich
Steinmetzreachesturnsonaverytenuousdistinction:theclaim,ineffect,todistinguishbetweentwo,ifnotthree,differentversions,ordifferentuses,ofthePhysicorumopiniones
asaseriesofmonographs,asasinglework,andasapreliminarytoTheophrastus'ownphilosophy.
Inparticular,Steinmetz'streatmentoftheDesensibushas,Ithink,beenrightlycriticisedbyO.Gigon,whorepeatstheview,whichhadbeenheldbyDielsandothers,thatthis
fragmentispartoftheoriginalPhysicorumopiniones,'Die derVorsokratikerbeiTheophrastundAristoteles',SymposiumAristotelicum4(Heidelberg,1969)117.Unfortunately,
Gigon'sownthesis,thatthePhysicorumopinioneswaspriorto,andwasusedbyAristotlefor,thedoxographicalaccountsthatprefacethePhysicsandtheMetaphysics,seemstome
veryquestionable,asapparentlyitdidalsotosomeofthosewhowerepresentattheSymposium,seeI.Dring's'ZurEinfhrung'13.
Throughoutthispresentstudy,IhaveadoptedagenerallytraditionalviewoftherelationbetweenAristotle,TheophrastusandthePlacita,whiletryingtoleaveopenthepossibilities
forcorrectionbyfutureresearchonpointsofdetail:cf.especiallypp.281and299302below.
Page5
1
pus,aspartoftheideathatDemocritus'makesfargreaterusethanLeucippusofdifferencesinsize'.
ButBaileyismisledbyhisuncriticalacceptanceofevidencethatDemocritusbelievedthattheatomswere'infiniteinsize',andthattherecouldbe'anatomasbigasa
cosmos'.BothpiecesofevidencerundirectlycountertoAristotle'sassertionthattheatomsweretoosmalltobeperceived.Theoriginoftheerrorcanwithfair
certaintybetracedtoaconfusedapplicationofprincipleswhichEpicurusintroducedintotheearlieratomicsystem,inordertocountercriticismsthatAristotlehad
madeoftheoriginalformofthetheory,andwhichbyacommondoxographicalfailingwerethenreadbackintotheoriginaltheory.2
Oncewehavediscountedthesetwopiecesofevidence,anyimpressionthatDemocritusmade'fargreateruse'ofsizethandidLeucippusarisessolelyfromthefact
thatthereistentimesmoreevidenceforDemocritus,orforDemocritusandLeucippustogether,thanthereisforLeucippusonhisown.
IdoubtmyselfthatanyusefuldistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenDemocritusandLeucippusonthequestionofsize,andstilllessonthequestionofweight.Ifanysuch
distinctionweretobeattempted,itwouldinanycasehavetobesubsequenttoananalysisoftheevidencecontainedinthepresentessay.
(iii)
Iturnthereforedirectlytothequestionwhichisthesubjectofmystudy:whether,orinwhatsense,theatomsofDemocritus,orofDemocritusandLeucippus,had
weight.
TwopassagesinAristotlearedirectlyrelevanttothisquestion,fromtheDecaeloandfromtheDegenerationeetcorruptione.Theinterpretationofthesetwo
passageshasbeenmuchdisputed,andIdonotbelievethateitherpassagehasbeenproperlyunderstood
1
TheGreekAtomistsandEpicurus(Oxford,1928)1259,cf.144.AmorelimitedmoveinthesamedirectionismadebyAdolfDyroff,Demokritstudien(Leipzig,1899)32.
Bailey'sworkonfifthcenturyAtomismfollowedshortlyafterhisEpicurus,theextantremains,withshortcriticalapparatus,translationandnotes(Oxford,1926).
2
Forevidenceandargumentseebelowch.X4,pp.28298.
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1
hitherto.Inthetwochapterswhichfollow(chaptersIIandIII)Ishallthereforeconsiderthesetwopassagesindetail.
Weneedfirst,however,toconsideronebroaderproblem.ThisisthegeneralcriticismwhichAristotlemakesoftheatomictheoryofweightintheDecaelo,and
especiallyinthefourthbook,whereAristotleexpoundsatlengthhisowntheoryofabsoluteandofrelativeweight.
Inthesemoregeneralpassagesofcriticism,Aristotledealswiththeatomictheoryintermsofasimpleoppositionbetweenvoidandplenum,asopposedprimarilyto
thetheoryoftheTimaeus,whichinthefourthbookoftheDecaeloAristotlechoosesforthemostparttoregardasfoundedonthedenialofvoidandtheassertionof
trianglesorsurfacesasopposedtosolidorplenum.SomeunderstandingofthewayinwhichAristotleviewstheatomictheoryinthesemoregeneralpassagesof
criticismisessentialtoasolutionoftheproblemswhichconfrontusinthetwopassageswhereAristotledealsspecificallywiththeweightofindividualatoms,intheDe
caeloandintheDegenerationeetcorruptione.
TheremainderofthischapteristhereforedevotedtoapreliminarystudyofAristotle'sgeneralcriticismsoftheatomictheory,intheDecaeloandespeciallyinbook
four,bywayofprovidingthenecessarycontextforamoredetailedstudyofthetwopassageswhereAristotle,orsoIshallargue,writesspecificallyoftheweightof
atoms.
2
TheDistinctionofRelativeandAbsoluteWeight
Initssimplestform,Aristotle'stheoryofrelativeandabsoluteweightisthatfireislightabsolutelybecauseitmovesalwaysupwards,anddoessomorequickly,andis
thereforelighter,inthelargerquantityandthatearthisheavyabsolutelybecauseitmovesalwaysdownwards,anddoessomorequickly,andisthereforeheavier,in
thelargerquantitywhileairandwaterareeachofthemrelativelylightandrelativelyheavybecausetheymove
1
ThetwopassagesareDegen.etcorr.i8,325b36326a14(inpartDK68A60),seech.II,pp.4179belowandDecaeloiv2,308b28309a11(inpartDK68A60),seech.III,pp.80
114below.
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1
upwardsintheregionofearthanddownwardsintheregionoffire.
Itisacommonbelief,exemplifiednotablybyProfessorCherniss,thatAristotleviewstheatomictheorywithinthecontextofhisownbelief,insuchawaythatthe
atomscannotberegardedasheavyabsolutely,andmustthereforebeseenbyAristotleaspossessingonlyrelativeweight.2
Thetruth,Ibelieve,isjusttheoppositeofthis.IshallarguethatAristotleseestheatomsthemselvesaspossessing,orasapproximatingtothepossessionof,absolute
weight,andthatitisonlythebodiesformedfromtheatomswhichAristotleregardsaslimitedtothepossessionofrelativeweight.
'DeCaelo'BookFour
(i)
ChernisshasbeenledtohisconclusioninpartbyapassagefromtheopeningofbookfouroftheDecaelo,whereAristotlewritesthathispredecessorshadnot
spokenofabsoluteweight,iv .
'Nothinghasbeensaidbypeopleinthepastonthesubjectofelementswithabsoluteweight,butonlyonthequestionofbodies<whichareheavierorlighter>inrelationto
somethingelse.
'Forourpredecessorsdonotsaywhatitisthatisheavy<initself>andwhatitisthatislight<initself>,butonlywhatitisamongthingsthathaveheavinessthatisheavierand
<whatitis>thatislighter.'3.
1
ThissummarisesespeciallyDecaeloiv4,311a1529.
2
HaroldCherniss,Aristotle'scriticismofPresocraticphilosophy(henceforewardACP)(Baltimore,1935)979,esp.97n.412,and20913.ForafullerstatementofCherniss'position,
seebelowpp.46ff.
3
ForthenatureoftheseEnglishversionsparaphrasesandnottranslationsseethewarningattheheadoftheIndexLocorum.
Page8
1
AccordingtoCherniss,thispassage'showsthatAristotledidnotmeantosaythatDemocritusattributedabsoluteweighttotheatoms'.
(ii)
However,thescopeofAristotle'sremarkisqualifiedafewlineslater,whenthesamesentimentsareattributedonlytoa'majority',iv2,308a34b3:
.
'Themajority,generallyspeaking,ofthosewhoearlierhaveappliedthemselvestothesubjectofourenquiryhavelimitedtheirremarksonbodiesthatareheavyandlightto
bodiesthataresointhesenseonlythatwhentwobodiesbothhaveheavinessoneofthemislighterthantheother.
'Byproceedinginthisway,theythinkthattheyhavegivenadefinitionwhichincludeswhatislightandwhatisheavyinanabsolutesense:buttheirargumentfailstomatch
<theirconceptionofit>.'
Therestrictionin ChernissobliteratesbyparaphrasingbothpassagestogetherasAristotle'scomplaintthat:'nooneofhispredecessors...had
consideredthequestionofabsoluteweight'(myitalics).2
1
ACP97n.412.AsimilarpointismadebyDyroff,Demokritstudien37,JohnBurnet,EarlyGreekphilosophy3rdedn(London,1920)(henceforwardEGP)343,andBailey,Greek
Atomists12933and1445.
2
ACP210:thatbothpassagesareintendedisshownbythereferencesinn.250.
ApeculiarityofEnglishmakesitimpossibletotranslate .
OnemightwellbepuzzledbytherathercuriousformulationwhichAristotleemploysatthispoint:hispredecessorshavespokenonlyofbodies'whichbothhaveheaviness,andof
whichoneislighterthantheother'.Thereasonforboth
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page9
(iii)
ButAristotle'srestrictionisnotanemptyformality,atleastnotwithregardtowhatisheavyabsolutely.ForlaterinhiscritiqueofearlierthinkersAristotlewritesof
therebeing'certainothers',apartfromhimself,'whoagreethatthereissomethingheavyabsolutely',iv4,311b1419:
.
'By''lightabsolutely"Imeanabodywhichissoconstitutedbynatureastotravelconsistentlyupwards,providedthatitisfreefromanyimpediment,andby"heavy"
<absolutely>abodywhich<inthesameway>travelsconsistentlydownwards.
'Forbodiesof<both>thesekindsdoexist,anditisnotthecase,assomepeoplesuppose,thatallbodieshaveheaviness.Forcertainothersagreethattheredoesexist<abody
whichis>heavy,andwhichtravelsconsistentlytowardsthecentre.
'Thepoint<whichtheyfailtosee>isthatinjustthesamewaytheredoesalsoexistabodywhichislight<absolutely>.'
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
bodieshavingheaviness,hereandinAristotle'searliergeneralisation,isthatwhilepeoplehaverecognisedtheexistenceofbodieswithheavinesstheyhavefailedtorecognise
theexistenceofabodythathaslightnessorthatislightabsolutely,aswelearninthepassagewhichIquoteimmediatelyafterthis,iv4,311b1419.Butwhy,inthissecond
generalisation,doesAristotlesingleoutonebodyasbeinglighter?
Theanswer,Isuspect,liesinthedefinitionimmediatelyprecedingofrelativelightnessasdeterminedbydifferencesinspeedofmovement,iv1,308a313.Thisdefinitionhasbeena
constantsourceofdifficultyIshallgivesometimetotheanalysisofitinmythirdessay.Initssimplestterms,thereasonforthispresentformulationItaketobethattwoportionsof
earthwouldbothhaveheaviness,whilethelargerwouldbetheheavierofthetwo:bothportionshoweverwouldbeheavyabsolutely.Ontheotherhand,ifonebodyislighterthan
theother,thenitcannotbeheavyabsolutely,whileequally,sinceithasbeendefinedas'havingheaviness',itcannotbelightabsolutely.ThusAristotle'sformulationisdesignedto
specifyaformofcomparisonwhichmustintroduceanelementwhichevenaccordingtothecriteriaofhisownsystemcannothaveabsoluteweight.
Page10
1
Chernissidentifiesthe'certainothers'who'agreethatthereissomethingabsolutelyheavy'asPlatoand'probably'theAtomists. Butasitstandsthisisinconsistentwith
hisearlierassertionthat'AristotledidnotmeantosaythatDemocritusattributedabsoluteweighttotheatoms'(myitalics).2
Chernissisnotaloneinthisinconsistency.MorauxparaphrasesAristotle'sfirstpassage(iv1,308a913)asmeaningthat:'Personneneparatavoirsouponn
l'existenced'unlourdabsolu'.Butinthispresentpassagehetellsusthat:'L'existencedulourd...personnenemetendoute',whereinthecontexthemuststillmean'le
lourdabsolu'.3
ThetruthisthatinthelightofAristotle'slatercritiquewecannotassume,asChernissandMorauxhavedone,thatnooneofAristotle'spredecessorscanhave
introducedanentitythatAristotlewouldhaverecognisedashavingabsoluteweight,normoreparticularlythereforethattheatomscannothavebeenaccountedby
Aristotleasbeingheavyabsolutely.
Asitis,ifweexaminethecriticismswhichAristotlemakesoftheAtomists,inthecourseoftheDecaelo,wediscoverthatin
1
ACP209n.247.
2
ACP97n.412,cf.210.
3
P.Moraux,'RecherchessurleDecaelod'Aristote,objetetstructuredel'ouvrage',Revuethomisteanne59tome51(1951)190and191.
IhopethatitisnotunfairtosingleoutMoraux'searlierarticle.IntheaccountofthelaterpassageintheIntroductiontoMoraux'sBudeditionoftheDecaelo(Paris,1965),theredoes
seemtobeadistinctionbetween'lelourd'and'lelourdabsolu'(clvi).However,intheBudeditionthereis,Ithink,anerrorofanotherkind.Thelaterpassage(iv4,311b1419)Moraux
translates,147,'...d'autresaussil'admettent',andadds147n.2,'etnonpasuniquementceuxquicroientquetoutestpesant'.Thesamesenseisgiven,theotherwayround,inTricot's
translation(Paris,1949)170:'Enfait,cesphilosophes',thoselastmentioned,'sontd'accordavecd'autres...'.
Butiftherearetwodifferentgroupswhichnonethelessbothbelieveintheexistenceofabodywhichhasabsoluteheaviness,thenitisdifficulttoseewhatdistinguishesthem,unless
itisthatthesecondgroupdoessupposethatsomethingsarelight,whichwouldspoilthepointofAristotle'scorrection: .
Itseemstomemuchmorenaturaltotake thenmostnaturallymeansfortheseothersasalsoforAristotle:'somethinkthatallthingshaveonlyheaviness,forcertain
othersdoindeedthink,aswedo...'.ThisisthesensegivenbyGuthrie,Loebedn(London,1939)355:'Othersbesidesourselvesagree...'.
Page11
1
Aristotle'sestimationtheatomsthemselvesdoinfacthave,oratleastapproximatetohaving,absoluteweight.
'DeCaelo'BookOne
(i)
ThegeneralorientationofAristotle'scriticismofDemocritusisperhapsmostclearlyindicatedinapassagefromthefirstbookoftheDecaelo,whereAristotleargues
thattheatomshaveasingle .
'Ifthewholeisnotcontinuous,ifonthecontrary,asDemocritusandLeucippusclaim,<thewholeisineffect>partsdividedupbyvoid,therewillhavetobeasinglemovement
forallthings.
'For<ontheirtheory>allthings<i.e.allthepartsoftheuniverse,ineffectalltheatoms>aredistinguished<only>bytheirshapes,whereastheirnatureisone<andthesame>,or
sotheyclaim,justasifeach<partorpieceoftheuniverse>were<apieceofgold>goldwhichissplitupintopieces.
1
IshallarguelaterthatAristotle'scriticismsaretobereadinthelightofadistinctionbetweentheatomsthemselvesandbodiesformedfromtheatoms:Aristotleallowsthatthe
atomsthemselveshaveabsoluteweight,butdeniesthattherecanbeanydistinctionbetweenabsoluteandrelativeweightinbodiesthatareformedfromtheatoms.Ihave
nonethelessaccusedChernissandMorauxofinconsistency,sinceneithershowsanyawarenessofthisambiguityinAristotle'sclassificationoftheAtomists:certainlyin
Cherniss,thecontradictionisfairlyplainlytheresultofsheerinadvertence.Formyowninterpretationseeespecially5,pp.3240belowthewayinwhichPlato,asIbelieve,is
includedinAristotle'spresentcriticismwillbeanalysedinmysecondandthirdessays.
Page12
'Irepeat,themovementofsuchparts<orpieces,havingastheydoallthesamenature,asseparatepiecesofgoldwoulddo>hastobe<oneand>thesame.
'<Thisfollowsfromacomparisonwiththebehaviourofearthandfire.>Takeasinglelumpofearth:whereverthattravelsto<ifyouletitfall,sothatitfollowsitsnaturalmotion>,
thatiswhereearthasawholetravelstoandinjustthesamewayasinglesparkoffireandfireasawholetraveltotheir<proper>place<whichisoneand>thesame<forapart
andforthewhole>.<Sotootherefore,forDemocritusandLeucippus,theatoms,iftheyaretohaveallthesamenature,likeseparatepiecesofgold,willhavetohavemovementall
intheonedirection.>
'Observetheconclusion:ifeverythinghasheaviness<andrememberthatonthistheoryeverythinghasthesamenature,andcanhaveonlyonenatureitcanbeonlyonekind
ofthing>,thennoneofthebodies<intheuniverse>canbe<ofadifferentkind,sothatnoneofthemcanbe>lightabsolutely.
'<Theargumentworkstheotherwayround,>if<yousupposethat>everythinghaslightness<andnotheaviness,theonlydifferencethenisthatinthatcasetherecanbe>
nothing<thatisdifferentinkind,andsothatcouldbe>heavy<absolutely>.'
Thepointofthiscriticismisthatiftheatomshaveallasinglenature,thentheymusthavemovementallinthesamedirection.Therearethereforetwopossibilities.
1.Theatomsmovedownwards,andarethereforeallheavy .
2.Alternatively,theatomsmoveupwards,andarethereforealllight .
Page13
Fromthis,thenaturalimplicationisthattheatomsareinfactreckonedbyAristotleeitherasheavyabsolutelyoraslightabsolutely,butnotthereforeashavingrelative
weight.1
(ii)
AsimilarpointismadebyTheophrastus,inhiscriticismofDemocritus'theoryofweight.ThispassageIshallstudylater,inmyexaminationofTheophrastus'account
ofDemocritus.
ThepreciseformofTheophrastus'criticismdiffersfromthatofAristotleonacoupleofpointsofdetail.ButtheburdenisagainthatforDemocritusmaterialbodies
haveasinglenatureandmovementallinthesamedirection.Theobviousconclusiontheunspokencriticismisagainthereforethattherecannotbeanyradical
distinctionofheavyandlightinDemocritus'universe,ofthekindthatbothTheophrastusandAristotlebelievetobeanobservableanddemonstrablefeatureofthe
visiblecosmos.2
(iii)
LiepmanntakesTheophrastustobeinagreementwithAristotle,andwritesofhisargument:
'WenndieSchwereproportionalmitderMassewchst,dannkanneskeinabsolutLeichtes,oderabsolutSchweresgeben,sondernAlleswirdrelativschwer....'3
1
ForthetransitioninAristotle'sargumentbetweenatomsandthefourcosmicelementsseebelowpp.13941.
InmysummaryofAristotle'sargument,inthetwonumberedparagraphs,Iinsert'absolutely'onlywhereAristotledoes,eitherexplicitly,asintheconclusionofhisfirstargument,that
therewillbenothingthatislightabsolutely,orbyobviousandinevitableimplication,asintheconclusiontothesecondarmofhisargument,theconclusionthattherewillbenothing
thatisheavysc.absolutely.
Ihavenotaddedthisqualificationtothepremissofeitherargument,'ifeverythingisheavy','ifeverythingislight':thepointofmyargumentisthatthequalificationisnottherestated
explicitly,butthatitspresenceisimplied.ThecriticismItaketobeconstructedinsuchawaythatthepremissofeitherargumentisformedfromtheconclusiontothealternative
argument.
2
Desens.71(DK68A135):seebelowch.IV23,pp.13250.
3
HugoC.Liepmann,DieMechanikderLeucippDemocritschenAtome,unterbesondererBercksichtigungderFragenachdemUrsprungderBewegungderselben(Berlin,1885
Leipzig1886)(henceforwardMechanik)41.
Page14
Thisgetsholdofthewrongendofthestickaltogether.TheargumentwhetherinAristotleorinTheophrastusisnotthattheatomsareneitherabsolutelyheavynor
absolutelylight.Aristotle'spointisthatiftheyaretheonetheycannotbetheother.Fromthis,thereisnoreasontoconcludethattheatomshaverelativeweight.
Onthecontrary,thenaturalimplication,itseemstome,ifwetakethetwopassagestogether,thatinTheophrastusandthatinAristotle,willagainbethaton
Aristoteleanprinciplestheatomsareinfactreckonedeitherasheavyabsolutelyoraslightabsolutely,butnotthereforeashavingrelativeweight.1
Conclusion
(i)
ChernissbelievesthatDemocritus'atomscannotbereckonedbyAristotleasheavyabsolutely,andthattheymustthereforebetreatedbyhimashavingweightinonly
arelativesense.
ButChernissfailstotakeaccountofthequalificationswhichAristotleintroducesintothegeneralisationswhichheprovidesoftheideasofweightinearlierphilosophy.
Aristotletellsusthatitisonlya'majority'ofearlierphilosopherswhichignorestheexistenceofelementswithabsoluteweight.'Certainothers',accord
1
ForthedistinctionbetweentheatomsandthefourcosmicelementsinTheophrastus'criticismseebelowpp.133ff.and139ff.ItmightbeobjectedthatAristotle'sargumentis
simplythatiftheatomshaveheavinessatalltheycannotbelightabsolutely,sincewhatislightabsolutely,inAristotle'sowntheory,cannotbeinanysenseheavyorheavier
(cf.iv4,311b269):andthatpremissandconclusiondonotthereforecorrespond.
Butnotethatintheparallelargument,fromtheendofbookfour,thesameexpressionisusedforboththepremissandtheconclusionoftheargument:ifthereexistsonlywhatmoves
alwaysupwards ,cap.7,276a56,p.11above)wouldseemtoimplythatinbothpremissandconclusiontheatomsarethoughtofashavingabsolute
weight,inthepassagefrombookoneasinthepassagefrombookfour.
Morespecificallyitmaybeobjectedthatthepremissintheargumentfrombookoneincludesbothrelativeandabsoluteweight:theatoms,itmightbesaid,movedownwardswith
differencesofspeed,andsomeofthemarerelativelyheavytherefore,whileothersareheavyabsolutely.
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page15
ingtoAristotle,doinfact'agree'thatthereexistsabodywhichisheavyabsolutely.WecannotaprioriexcludetheAtomistsfromthislatterclassification.
(ii)
Infact,inthefirstbookoftheDecaeloAristotledoestreattheatomsasapproximatingtothepossessionofabsoluteweight,sincetheatomsaretreatedashaving
movementalwaysinthesamedirection.ThenaturalimplicationofAristotle'sargumentrepeated,fromaslightlydifferentpointofview,byTheophrastusisthatif
theatomsareheavyabsolutely,thentherecanbenothingthatislightabsolutely,andviceversa.ThelessonofthiswouldseemtobethatinAristotle'sestimationthe
atomsdoinfacthaveoneformorotherofabsoluteweight.Theyareeitherheavyabsolutelyorlightabsolutely.Aristotle'spointsofaristhattheycannotbeboth
atonce.
3
ClassificationoftheWeightofAtoms:ApproximationtoAbsoluteWeight
Aristotle'scritiqueoftheatomictheoryofweightinbookfouroftheDecaelofollowsconsistentlyfromthepassagewhichIhave
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Butforthisconclusiontofollow,weshouldhavetoarguethatatomsofequalsizemoveddownwardswithdifferencesofspeed:onlysowouldtherebeadifferencebetween
relativeandabsoluteweight(cf.thedefinitionofrelativelightnessatDecaeloiv1,308a313,whichIhavealreadyalludedto,andwhichIshallanalysefullyinmythirdessay).
Thiswould,Ithink,beadifficultandimplausibleconditiontoimposeatthispoint,anditisalso,Ithink,excludedbothbythegeneralprincipleandbytheparticularexample:the
atomshaveallthesamenature,andtheymoveallinthesamedirectiontherefore,asdodifferentquantitiesoffireorofearth.Thereisherenoobviousquestionofdifferencesof
speedand,evenifdifferencesofspeedwerehereinquestion,thesamequantityoffireorofearthwouldtravelupwards,ordownwards,withthesamespeedforiftwoquantities
offireorofearthofthesamesizetravelledupwards,ordownwards,withdifferencesofspeed,thentheirnaturewouldnolongerbe'one'andtheirmovementwouldnolongerbe
'thesame'.
Ihavenonetheless,indeferencetotheverysimpleformofAristotle'sargument,claimedonlythattheatoms'possessionofabsoluteweightheavinessorlightnessisa'natural'
implication,althoughinfact,ifwepursuetheconsequencesofhisanalysis,itis,Ithink,theonlyimplicationpossible.
Page16
quotedfromthefirstbook,wheretheatomsarereckonedashavingasingle'nature'andasingle'movement'.
'EarthandFire'
(i)
Aristotle'sfirstdetailedargumentagainsttheAtomistsisagainpresentedintheformofanalternative.
1.Ifweightisdeterminedbytheamountofsolid,thenatinyquantityofearthwillhavelesssolidthanalargequantityoffire,andfirewillbeheavierthanearth.
2.Ifweightisdeterminedbytheamountofvoid,thenalargequantityofearthwillhavemorevoidthanatinyquantityoffire,andearthwillbelighterthanfire.
Inthisway,fireandearth,whichshouldhaveabsoluteweight,provenottodoso,sinceeitherfirewillfallbelowearth,onthefirstargument,orearthwillriseabove
fire,onthesecondargument.Theconsequenceofthefirstargumentisthatearthcannotbe(asitisinAristotle'sownphilosophy)heavyabsolutely.Theconsequence
ofthesecondargumentisthatfirecannotbe(asitisinAristotle'sownphilosophy)lightabsolutely.1
(ii)
Ofthisargument,orpairofarguments,ChernisswritesthatitisclearthatAristotle'wouldhavemaintainedthenecessityof
1
Decaeloiv2,309a33b4.Thepassageisquotedandparaphrasedbelowpp.1089.Themoreprecisegenesisofthisargument,andtheexpressionofit,arehoweversomewhat
complex,andIthereforereserveafullanalysisfortheearlierofmytwoessaysonAristotle.
Itmightbeobjectedthatlogicallytheconclusionoftheargument,asIhavestatedit,doesnotexcludefirebeingheavyabsolutelyandearthbeinglightabsolutely,andthatelements
withabsoluteweightdothereforehaveaplaceintheatomicsystem.Butthisobjectionwouldleadonlytothesameargument,andaninfiniteregress.Asitis,Aristotleiscontentwith
thedoubleabsurdity,thatthereissomethinglighterthanwhatislightabsolutely,andthat'whatalways<andonly>movesdownwardswillbelighterthanwhatalways<andonly>
movesupwards'(309b34).
Page17
attributingweighttotheatomsifthecomplexbodiesweretohaveweight'.But,hecontinues,Aristotle'sobjection'isjustthattheAtomistsdidnotcallthecomplex
bodiesabsolutelyheavyorlightwhichinitselfimpliesthattheydidnotattributerealweighttotheatoms'.1
Inwritingthis,Chernissplainlydoesnotappreciatetheforceofthedistinctionbetweenatomsandbodiesformedfromtheatoms.IntheargumentwhichIhave
summarised,Aristotledoescomplainthatanybodyformedfromtheatomsandpurportingtopossessabsoluteweightcanbeshownnottodoso.ButAristotledoes
notsay,nordoeshiscriticismrequireorimply,thattheatomsthemselvesdonothave'real'weight.
Onthecontrary,Aristotle'sformofcriticismrequiresthattheatomsthemselvesdoapproximatetothepossessionofwhatAristotlewouldcallabsoluteweight.For
Aristotle'sfirstargumentturnsontheideathatifheavinessisdeterminedbytheamountofatomicsolidthenbothbodieswillalwaysmovedownwards,whilethebody
withmoreatomicsolidwillbeheavierthanthebodywithlessatomicsolid,whicheverofthefourcosmicelementsitmaybesupposedtoconstituteortorepresent,
justasonAristotle'sowntheoryabodywithabsoluteheavinesswillalwaysmovedownwards,whilealargerportionofsuchabodywillbeheavierthanasmaller
portion.
ThepointwhichunderliesAristotle'scriticismisthatontheatomictheorythedistinctionbetweenearthandfirecannotbea
1
ACP211n.253.ItispossiblethatIamdoingChernissaninjusticehere.Hewritesinfact:itis'clearfromthefollowingargument...'(myitalics).Whichargumentthisismeantto
beisnotwhollyclear,tome,fromthesequenceofCherniss'remarks.Inthecontext,the'following'argumentwouldseemtorefertothecontrastbetweenPlato'ssurfacesandthe
Atomists'solids(iv2,308b35309a2).ButthecontentofAristotle's'objection'seemstobetakenfromtheargumentwhichIhavequoted,andfromthesimilarargumentswhich
follow.
AtthispointthereforeItakeCherniss'remarktorelatetotheargumentwhichIhavejustsummarised.Later,pp.1023and11214below,Ishalltakethefirstpartofhisremarktocover
thecontrastbetweenPlatoandtheAtomistsonsurfacesandsolids.Oneortheotherargument,Ihope,willanswertoCherniss'intention.
ThedoxographicalevidencefromAetiuswhichChernissintroducesatthispointIamreservingforseparateconsiderationlater,ch.VIII12,pp.22339below.Thepassagewhich
ChernisscitesfromSimplicius,Decaelo295.520(=Arist.fr.208Rose),doesnotcontainanyexplicitmentionofweight,seebelowch.XI,pp.30329.
Page18
distinctionofkind.Earthandfireareessentiallythesame,insofarastheyaremadeofthesamematerial,theatoms,andAristotlethereforesupposesthattheymust
havemovementinthesamedirection.Ifthismovementisdeterminedbytheamountofsolid,itwillbemovementdownwards.Ifitisdeterminedbytheamountof
void,itwillbemovementupwards.Ineithercase,thebodywithmoresolidorwithmorevoidwillbeheavierorlighterthantheother,irrespectiveofwhetherornotit
betakentorepresentearthortorepresentfire.
Thustheattempttoconstructabodywithabsoluteweightfromtheatomsfails.Butthisisonlybecausetheatomsthemselvesareenvisagedasapproximatingtothe
possessionofabsoluteheaviness.Theargumentisthatthebodywhichisinitiallysupposedtorepresentearth,andsotobeheavyabsolutely,canbeshowntobein
factlessheavythanabodywhichissupposedtorepresentfire,andsotobelightabsolutely,butwhich,inacertainquantity,willhavemoreatoms,ormore'solid',
andwillthereforeinfactbeheavier.
(iii)
ThebasisofAristotle'scriticismisthereforeessentiallythesameasthatofthecriticismwhichIquotedearlierfromthefirstbookoftheDecaelo,withthedifference
thatinthislaterargumentAristotlemakesallowanceforthepresenceofvoid.
1.Intheearlierargument,theatomsareenvisagedasmovingeitherupwardsordownwards.
2.Inthepresentargument,theatomsareenvisagedasmovingonlydownwards,andvoidisintroducedtoallowforthepossibilityofupwardmovement.
However,inthepresentargumenttheAtomistsareallowedonlyoneofthesepossibilities:eitherabodymovesdownwardsbecauseithasmoresolid,oritmoves
upwardsbecauseithasmorevoid.Thestructureandtheassumptionofeitherargumentthereforeremainessentiallysimilar.
1.Intheearlierargument,fromthefirstbookoftheDecaelo,eithertheatomsareallheavyabsolutely,inwhichcase
Page19
therecanbenothingthatislightabsolutely,orelsetheatomsarealllightabsolutely,inwhichcasetherecanbenothingthatisheavyabsolutely.
2.Inthepresentargument,fromthefourthbook,theatomscannotbereckonedasconstitutingabodywhichisheavyabsolutely,sinceatthesametimetheywouldhaveto
constituteabodythatislightabsolutely:butalargequantityofthelatterbodywouldcontainmoreatomicsolidthanasmallquantityofthebodywhichpurportedtobeheavy
absolutely,andthebodywhichwaslightabsolutelywouldthereforeturnouttobeheavier,inacertainquantity,thanthebodywhichpurportedtobeheavyabsolutely.
Thusinbothargumentstheassumptionisessentiallythesame:thattheatomsthemselvesrepresent,orapproximateto,thepossessionofabsoluteweight,inthatthe
atomscanhavemovementinonlyasingledirectionwhileif,asintheversionIhavegivenoftheargumentfrombookfour,absoluteweightisspecifiedasabsolute
heaviness,thenthebodywithalargerquantityofatomicsolidwillbeheavierthanabodywithless.1
1
Ihavesimplifiedtheargumentinbookfourbypursuingonlythe'active'memberofthedefinitionforabodythatisheavyabsolutely.ThefullformofAristotle'sargumentimplies
twopairsofdefinitions:(1)abodyisheavyabsolutelyeitherbecauseithasmoresolidorbecauseithaslessvoid(2)abodyislightabsolutelyeitherbecauseithasmorevoid
orbecauseithaslesssolid.ButinpracticeAristotleemploysonlythefirstmemberofthefirstdefinitiontodeterminewhetherabodyisheavyabsolutely,andonlythefirst
memberoftheseconddefinitiontodeterminewhetherabodyislightabsolutely.Thereasonfortheelaboration,andfortherestriction,Iattempttoestablishinmyanalysisof
Aristotle'stheory.
TheessentialfeatureofthisformofAristotle'sargumentisthatsofarhedoesnotconsideratomsandthevoidasjointlydeterminingtheweightofabody.Hisargumentiscastinthe
formofanalternative:eitherweightisdeterminedbytheamountofsolid,oritisdeterminedbytheamountofvoid(309a334).ThismayseemtotrivialiseAristotle'sargument,orit
mayseemunfairtotheAtomists.Ishallarguenonetheless,intheanalysisoftheDecaeloinmythirdessay,thatthisdisjunctionisacrucialelementinthewholeofAristotle'scritique
oftheatomisttheory,andthatAristotle'sdifficultiesincriticisingtheatomisttheoryspringultimatelyfromthefactthatifhetakesatomsandvoidasjointlydeterminingtheweightof
abodythenhecomesclosetorecognisingthatasingleopposition,heavy/light,cannoteasilygeneratethedistinctionbetweenfourultimateandirreducible(althoughtransformable)
elements,asitisrequiredtodoinhisowntheory.
Page20
'EarthandAir'
Sofar,Aristotlehasarguedthattheatomictheorycannotprovidefortwoelementswithabsoluteweight.InalaterargumentinthefourthbookoftheDecaelo,
directedjointlyagainsttheAtomistsandagainstPlato,AristotlearguesthatneithertheatomistnorthePlatonictheorycanprovideforthecombinationofanelement
withabsoluteweightandanelementwithrelativeweight.
(i)
Thislatestargumentisespeciallyinteresting,foritbeginsvirtuallybyrestatingtheargumentwhichIquotedearlierfromthefirstbookoftheDecaelo.Thisnow
appearsinthefollowingform,iv5,312b1928: .
'Itisessentialfortheretobeasmanydifferences<ofmovementtowardsanaturalplace>asthereareelementsinthecosmos.
'Thiswillbeplainfromthefollowingargument.
'Ifthereisasinglematerialprincipleforallthings,whetheritbevoidorplenumorextendedmagnitudeortriangles,theneithereverythingwillmoveupwardsoreverythingwill
movedownwards.Ineithercase,therewillnolongerbeany<natural>movementintheoppositedirection.
'Consequently,eithertherewillbenothingwhichislightabsolutely,ifeverythingtendstomovedownwardsmore<quicklyortosinkfurther>insofarasitismadefromlarger
bodiesorfromagreaternumberofbodiesorfrombodiesthathavenovoid...<oralternatively>ifeverythingismadeofvoidorofsomethingelsewhichisofakindtomove
alwaysupwards,thentherewillbenothingwhichwillmovealwaysdownwards.'
Page21
(ii)
Aristotlenowextendsthisargumenttoincludeintermediateelements,312b2832: .
'<Itfollows>also<fromanyoneofthesetheories>thatsome<quantities>oftheintermediateelements<namelyairandwater>willbecarrieddownwardsmorequicklythanearth.
'Thusinalargequantityofairtherewillbemoretrianglesor<more>solidparticlesor<more>tinyparticles<thaninasmallquantityofearth>.
'<Fromthisitshouldfollowthatthelargerquantityofairiscarrieddownwardsmoreswiftlythanthesmallquantityofearth:>butweneverdoseeanyquantityatallofaircarried
downwards<morequicklythanearth>.
'Theequivalentargumentfollowsifweconsiderthequestionoflightness,andifonearrangesfortheretobemoreofwhatislightbywayofthematerialprinciple<inoneorother
element>.
'<Forinthatcasealargequantityofwaterwouldhavemoreofthematerialprincipleoflightness,saymorevoid,thanasmallquantityoffirehas,andthewatershouldthereforebe
carriedupwardsmorequickly.Butweneverdoseeanyquantityatallofwatercarriedupwardsmorequicklythanfire.>'
Therearesomedifficultiesofinterpretationhere.IfweadopttheconclusionwhichIshallargueforlater,inananalysisofthefourthbookoftheDecaelotakenasa
whole,thenAristotle'spurpose,inthefirstofthispairofarguments,isagaintoshowthatifairandeartharealikemadefromtheatoms,thenanyportionofeither
elementwithalargerquantityofatomicsolidwillbecarrieddownwardsmoreswiftlythananyportionwithasmallerquantityofatomicsolid.Butalargerportionofair
canhavemoreatomicsolidthanasmallportionofearth.Conse
Page22
quently,airwouldhavetobecarrieddownwards,inacertainquantity,moreswiftlythanearth:andthatAristotleholdstobeimpossible.
Asbefore,Aristotleisineffecttreatingtheatomsasapproximatingtothepossessionofabsoluteweight,inthattheatomsareenvisagedashavingasinglemovement
downwards,whilethelargerquantityofatomicsolidmovesdownwardsfasterthanthesmallerquantity.1
Conclusion
InbookoneoftheDecaeloAristotlehasarguedineffectthattheatomsapproximatetothepossessionofabsoluteweight,insofarasthenaturalimplicationofhis
argumentthereisthatiftheatomsareheavyabsolutelythentherecanbenothing,heargues,thatislightabsolutely,andviceversa.
EssentiallythissameconceptionunderliesAristotle'scriticismoftheAtomistsatthebeginningofbookfour.Thedifferenceisthatnowtheatomsaretreatedasmoving
consistentlydownwards,andupwardmovementisattributedtothevoid.Aristotle'sargumentisthatalargequantityoffirewillhavemoreatoms,ormoreatomic
solid,thanasmallquantityofearth,andwillthereforebeheavier.Theconclusionisthatearththereforecannotbeheavyabsolutely.
1
Ihopethat,hereaslater,myuseoftheexpression'materialprinciple'willnotbefoundconfusing.Itwillbeusedtocoverboth asinthepresentargument(iv5,312b2032)
andintheargumentontheintermediateelementswhichIshallconsiderinthesectionfollowingthis(iv2,309b32,pp.235below).(Inthefirstargumentofthefourthbook,'earth
andfire',cap.2,309a33b4,Aristotleavoidsusinganyspecificterm.)
Ihaveresortedtothisperiphrasisbothinordertoallowforthecaseswhere ,forAristotle,isprimarilyextensionasopposedtobody,whileatthesametimeitisnotmerelyspace,
norisitofcourseonlyanabstraction,evenifitcanbeisolatedonlyabstractly.Butthesearewiderproblems:mychoiceoftheexpression'materialprinciple',hereandthroughoutthis
study,isintendedonlyasarecognitionofthesefurtherdifficulties,notasasolutionofthem.
Page23
Inavariationofthesameargument,towardstheendofbookfour,Aristotlearguesthatalargequantityofairwouldhavemoresolidthanasmallquantityofearth,so
thatinthiscaseairwouldbeheavierthanearth.
Intheseargumentsfrombookfour,asintheargumentfrombookone,Aristotle'spremissisthattheatomsthemselvesdoatleastapproximatetothepossessionof
absoluteweight,sincetheymoveconsistentlydownwards,andsincethelargerquantityisinvariablytheheavier,twofeaturesbywhichearth,inAristotle'sownsystem,
isrecognisedasbeingheavyabsolutely.
4
ClassificationoftheWeightofAtoms:IdentificationwithAbsoluteWeight
ThethreeargumentsagainsttheatomictheorythatIhaveconsideredsofar,fromthefirstbookandfromthefourthbookoftheDecaelo,takeas,orincludein,their
subjectelementswhichshouldhaveabsoluteweight.
ThereremainanumberofcriticismsinthefourthbookoftheDecaelowhichhaveasimilarstructuretothatoftheargumentaboutearthandfire,orearthandair.The
differenceisthattheseotherargumentsturnontheexistenceoftwoelementswithrelativeweight,orofbodieswithcompositeweight.
InthecourseoftheseargumentsAristotlevirtuallyidentifiestheatomswithearthinhisownsystem.
IntermediateElements
IntheargumentsthatIhaveintroducedsofarfromtheDecaelo,Aristotletakestheatomicsystemasproviding:
1.Asinglematerialprinciple,theatoms:intheargumentfromthefirstbook.
2.Asinglematerialprinciple,atomsorthevoid:intheargumentsfromthefourthbookthatIhavecalled'earthandfire'and'earthandair'.
InabriefcriticismbeforetheexpositionofhisowntheoryinbookfouroftheDecaelo,AristotletreatstheAtomistsasprovidingtwomaterialprinciples,atomsand
thevoid.
Page24
ThisformofargumentleadsAristotletowritemoreorlessexplicitlyoftheatoms'havingabsoluteweight,iv2,309b33310a3:
.
'Ifthereisasinglematerialprinciple,asthereisforthosewhomake<everything>outoftriangles,thentherewillnotexist<both>whatisheavyabsolutelyandwhatislight
<absolutely>.
'Thealternativetheory:ifthereareoppositematerialprinciplesasthoseclaimwhomakevoidandplenum<theirstartingpoints>,then<onthistheoryvoidandplenumcouldbe
countedasbeingrespectivelylightabsolutelyandheavyabsolutely,but>the<elemental>bodiesintermediatebetweenthingsheavyabsolutelyandlight<absolutely,namely
waterandairwhichareintermediatebetweenearthandfire>willhavenoreasonforbeing<(1)respectively>heavierandlighterthaneachother,or<forbeing(2)jointlyheavier
andlighter>thanthebodies<earthandfirewhicharerespectivelyheavyandlight>absolutely.'1
1
ItmaybeobjectedthattheAtomistsarenotsufficientlyidentifiedbytherubric, (iv5,312b33313a1).
Ithinkmyselfthatthisissufficientidentification(IshallarguethepointinmyessayonAristotle),butevenifitwerenot,thepointwouldbeonlyincidentaltomypresentargument,
formypurposehereisnottoestablishdirectlywhattheAtomistsbelieved,buttodeterminehowAristotlethoughtoftheirsysteminthelightofhisowncategoriesofabsoluteand
relativeweight.Ithinkitcanbefairlyarguedthatthedistinctionbetweenvoidandplenumwillatleastincludethedistinctionbetweenvoidandatoms,andthatthisissufficientfor
thepurposeinhand.
Idonotseehowtotellwhether ,ortheaccusative,whichseemstofitbetterwiththefollowingphrase,andwhichishowIhavetakenitinmyreadingofthe
text.Fortunatelythesenseisnotmuchdifferent.
Page25
TheargumentturnsonadistinctionbetweenPlatoandDemocritus.
1.Ifthereisasingleundifferentiatedmaterialprinciple,asPlato'strianglesaretakentobe,thentherecannotbeadifferencebetweenwhatisheavyabsolutelyandwhatislight
absolutely,forthesamemattercouldnothavenaturalmovementinoppositedirectionsatthesametime.
2.If,ontheotherhand,therearetwooppositematerialprinciples,whichishowAristotlechoosesatthispointtocategoriseatomsandthevoid,thentherewouldbeabodywhich
washeavyabsolutely(madeofatoms)andabodywhichwaslightabsolutely(madeofvoid),buttherewouldbenowayofexplainingthedifferentiatedmovementsofwhatis
relativelylightandrelativelyheavy,foratomswouldmoveonlydownwards,andvoidwouldmoveonlyupwards.
TheformofargumentbroughtagainstPlatoisofcoursepreciselythesameasthatbroughtoriginallyagainstDemocritus,intheargumentswhichIanalysedearlier,
whereAristotleeithertreatstheatomsasbeingthesoledeterminantofweightortreatsatomsandvoidasalternativedeterminantsofweight.
Onthepresentinterpretation,atomsandthevoidaretreatedasoppositeandcoexistentmaterialprinciples.Theimplicationisquiteplainlythat,onthisinterpretationof
theatomictheory,atomsandthevoidarereckonedasrepresenting,orasconstituting,respectively'bodieswhichareheavyabsolutelyandbodieswhicharelight
<absolutely>': .
'AirandWater'
Inafinalargument,attheendofbookfour,Aristotlereturnstothenotionoftheatomicsystemasprovidingoppositeandcoexistentmaterialprinciples.
Aristotlewrites,cap.5,312b32313a6:
Page26
'Iftherearetwomaterialprinciples<forallthings>,thenhowwilltheintermediatebodies<airandwater>beabletobehaveasairandwaterdo<infact>behave?
'Supposeoneweretoclaimvoidandplenum<asthetwomaterialprinciplesofallthings>.Thenfire<wouldbeequivalentto>void,andso<wouldmovealwaysandonly>
upwards,whileearth<wouldbeequivalentto>plenum,andso<wouldmovealwaysandonly>downwards.
'Thensupposethat<airandwateraremadefromamixtureoffire/voidandearth/plenum,insuchawaythat>airhasmorefire<orvoid>,andthatwaterhasmoreearth<or
plenum>.
'<Nowfromthisitfollowsthatairandwatercannotbehaveastheyareseentobehave.>
'For<(1)>therewillbea<quantityof>water<solarge>that<it>willhavemorefirethanasmallquantityofairhas.
'And<conversely(2)>alarge<quantityof>airwillhavemoreearththanasmall<quantityof>waterhas.
'<Butonthissecondassumption>itmustfollowthatacertain<quantityof>air<namelyalargequantity>willbecarrieddownwardsmorequicklythanasmall<quantityof>
water.
'Butthisisneverseentohappenanywhere,ever.'
(i)
Aristotle'spremissinthisfinalargumentisthatthereshouldbetwomaterialprinciples,voidandplenumrepresentedbyfireandearthrespectively.Thesuppositionis
thatofthetwointermediatebodiesairwillhaveapreponderanceoffire,andwaterapreponderanceofearth.
Theimpossibilityinthistheory,Aristotleargues,isthatalargequantityofwaterwillhavemorefire,ormorevoid,thanasmallquantityofair,whileconverselyalarge
quantityofairwillhavemoreearth,ormoreplenum,thanasmallquantityofwater.
Page27
1.Inthefirstcase,Aristotle'sintentionisthatwaterwouldprovetobelighter,inthesensethatitwillbecarriedupwardsmoreswiftly,thanair.
2.Inthesecondcase,thepointisthatairwillbeheavier,inthesensethatitwillbecarrieddownwardsmoreswiftly,thanwater.
Aristotle'sowntheoryisevidentlythat,onthecontrary,anyquantityofair,nomatterhowsmall,willalwaysbecarriedupwardsmoreswiftlythananyquantityofwater,nomatter
howlarge,andthatconverselyanyquantityofwater,nomatterhowsmall,willalwaysbecarrieddownwardsmoreswiftlythananyquantityofair,nomatterhowlarge.1
(ii)
Althoughtheconsequenceisnowexpressedintermsofbodieswhichshouldhaverelativeweight,andalthoughthecriticismnowturnsonthequestionofdifferences
ofspeed,thestructureandtheassumptionofthisargumentisessentiallythesameasthestruc
1
TheprecisenatureofAristotle'sargumentatthispointhas,Ithink,beenmisunderstood.IpresentheretheprinciplerequiredbytheformofargumentwhichIclaimto
reconstructinmythirdessay.
IshallthereattempttoshowthatthisfinalargumentistheculminationofAristotle'scritiqueoftheatomictheoryinthathedoeshereattempttoanswertheproblemraisedbyatoms
andvoidasjointlydeterminingtheweightofabodybutIshallalsoattempttoshowthatthewayinwhichhedoessostilltreatsonlyoneorotherfactoratatimeastheactive
determinantofweight,sotospeak,sinceineitherbranchofhisargumentonefactorisneutralised,asitwere,bythenatureofthemediuminwhichthecompositebodyformedof
atomsandthevoidissupposedtoriseorfall.
Ianticipatethispointhere,onlylesttheacutereadershouldbedeterredbywhatmightotherwiseappearthelogicalinadequacyoftheargument,asIhavepresentedit.Mypresent
purposeissolelytoshowthewayinwhichAristotlethinksoftheatomsintheargumentswhichhedeploysagainstthetheoryinthecourseofbookfour.
Onefurthercaveat:whenIspeakof'more'fireorofa'quantity'ofwater,thescrupulousreadermayask'bywhatmeasured?'Insofarastheargumentisdirectedagainsttheatomic
theory,theanswerissimply'void'and/or'thenumberandsizeofatoms'.TospecifytheanswerintermsofAristotle'sowntheorywouldperhapsbemoredifficult,sinceitwouldrisk
rousingthewholemediaevalconceptionofquantitasmateriae.Buttheformeransweris,Ithink,sufficientforthepurposeinhand.
Page28
1
tureandtheassumptionofthefirstargumentwhichIconsideredfrombookfour,onthecomparisonofearthandfire.
Asbefore,thelessonoftheargumentisthattheatomsthemselvesrepresent,orapproximatetothepossessionof,absoluteweight.
1.Aristotle'sfirstargumentturnedonthenotionthattheatomsmoveinasingledirection,andthatalargerquantityofatomswillbeheavierthanasmallerquantity.
2.Similarly,thepresentargumentturnsonthenotionthattheatomshaveasinglemovementdownwards,andthatalargerquantityofatomsmovesdownwardsmoreswiftlythan
asmallerquantity.
Ineithercase,Aristotle'spointisessentiallythatabody'earth'or'plenum'inthislaterargument,'solid'intheearlierargumentwhichapproximatestothe
possessionofabsoluteweightcannotprovideforthedistinctionbetweentwoelementswithabsoluteweight,norforadistinctionbetweentwoelementswithrelative
weight.Forineithercaseabodywithalargerquantityofplenumorsolidwillbeheavierthan,orwillmovedownwardsmoreswiftlythan,abodywithasmaller
quantityofplenumorsolid,irrespectiveoftheelementswhichthetwobodiesmaybesupposedtoconstituteortorepresentwhereasinfact,Aristotlesupposes,fire
inanyquantitywillbelighterthanearthinanyquantity,whileequallyanyquantityofair,nomatterhowlarge,willmovedownwardsmoreslowlythananyquantityof
water,nomatterhowsmall.
Thedifferencebetweenthetwoargumentsisthatsincetheconclusionofthepresentargumentturnsonthebehaviourofairandwater,elementswhichhaverelative
weight,thepremissoftheargumentisabletotreatatomsandvoid,orplenumandvoid,asidenticalwithearthandfireinAristotle'sownsystem,thetwoelements
whicharerespectivelyheavyabsolutelyandlightabsolutely.2
1
iv2,309a33b4,pp.1619above.
2
LestitbethoughtthiscomparisonbetweenAristotle'sfirstandlastargumentsagainsttheAtomistsinbookfouroftheDecaeloisundesirablysyncretistic,perhapsIshouldadd
thatingeneralmypurposeinthisopeningchapteristo
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page29
CompositeBodies
EssentiallythissameattitudetowardstheatomictheoryisexemplifiedintwopassageswhereAristotledistinguishesatomsandvoidnotfromelementswithrelative
weight,airandwaterinhisownsystem,butmoregenerallyfromcompositebodies,suchthingsaswoodandbronze.1
(i)
Towardstheendofhislongopeningseriesofcriticismsoftheatomictheory,Aristotlewrites,iv2,309b1823: .
'Butperhaps,onthecontrary,thepointofthetheoryisthatthevoidisinfactsoconstitutedbynatureastomoveupwards,whiletheplenumisbynaturesoconstitutedasto
movedownwards,andthat,invirtueoftheirnaturesbeingsuch,voidandplenumarecausesinotherthingsofmovementineitherdirection.
'Ifthatisthepointofthetheory,thenthepropercourse
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
stressthesimilarity,instructureandingeneralprinciple,ofAristotle'sdiverseargumentsagainsttheAtomists.InmythirdessayIshallaiminsteadtoisolateandtoexplainthe
differencesbetweenthesesamearguments,andtoestablishwhatIbelievetobetheprogressioninAristotle'sthoughtfromoneargumenttothenext.
ThesedifferencesIhavenarrowed,inmypresentanalysis,essentiallytothedistinctionbetweenargumentswhereAristotledeniesthattheatomscanaccountfordifferencesbetween
elementswhichhaveabsoluteweight,orfordifferencesbetweenanelementwhichhasabsoluteweightandanelementwhichhasrelativeweight(thetwoarguments'earthandfire'
and'earthandair'adducedin3ofthischapter)andargumentswhereAristotleallowsthatatoms,oratomsandthevoid,mayrepresentelementswhichhaveabsoluteweight,and
deniesthereforethattheycanaccountforthebehaviourofelementsbothofwhichhaverelativeweight(theargumentsadducedsofarinthissection).
1
Thischangeinthetermsofthecomparisonismorecomplexthanitmayseem,andImustthereforereserveafullanalysisofthesetwoarguments,andofthedifferencebetweenthem,
formythirdessay.
Page30
wasnottotakecompoundbodies<formedfromatomsandvoid>astheprimaryfocusofone'senquiry,andtospendone'stimetryingtoestablishwhysomebodiesofthiskind
arelightandwhyotherbodiesofthiskindareheavy.
'<Thatwasnottheproperwayofgoingaboutthings.>Onthecontrary,thepropercoursewastoconcentrateonvoidandplenuminthemselves,andtoestablishwhyoneof
theseislight<initself>,whiletheotherpossessesheaviness.'
(ii)
Essentiallythesamepointisrepeatedseveralpageslater,iv4,311a29b1: .
'Otherbodies<apartfromthefourelements>arecharacterisedbythepossessionofheavinessandlightness.
'Itisevidentthatallthesebodiespossesstheircharacterisationinthisrespectasadirectresultofthedifferencethatexistsbetweenheavyandlightinthesimple,noncomposite
elements.
'Thepositionisthatthesimple,noncompositebodiesentertoagreaterorlessextent<intothemakeupofnonelementalbodies>,andaccordingtotheproportionofthesimple
elementsthattheremayhappentobeinanyparticularinstancethe<compositeornonelemental>bodiesareconstitutedaslightorasheavy.
'Theconsequenceofthisisthatitshouldbetheprimaryandnoncompositebodieswhichformtheproperobjectofourenquiry.
'Thepointisthatotherthingstaketheirorientationinthisrespectfromtheprimaryelements.Thissubordination,therefore,asIsaidearlier,shouldhavedeterminedtheprocedure
ofthosewhoclaimthatwhatisheavyissobecauseoftheplenumandthatwhatislightissobecauseofthevoid.'
Page31
(iii)
Inthesetwopassages,Aristotleintroduceshisowndistinctionbetween:
1.Thefoursimpleelements.
2.Bodiescompoundedofmorethanoneelement.
Thisdistinctionhetakestobeparalleltothedistinctionbetween:
1.Atomsandvoid.
2.Bodiescompoundedofatomsandvoid,includingtherefore(ontheatomictheory)thefourcosmicelements.
Thisarrangementdoesnotleadsoclearlytoanidentificationofvoidandplenumwiththetwoformsofabsoluteweightpossessedrespectivelybyfireandbyearthin
Aristotle'sownsystem,forstrictlythepointisnowthatthetwoprinciplesoftheatomicsystemhavetododutyforallfourofAristotle'sownprimaryelements,airand
wateraswellasfireandearth.
Nonetheless,theformulationwhichAristotleemploysintheearlierpassagedoesIthinkmakeitreasonablyclearthathere,asinthepassagewhichIhaveanalysed
fromtheendofbookfour,onthecomparisonofairandwater,Aristotledoesthinkessentiallyofvoidandplenumasapairofprincipleswhichwillproducemovement
inoppositedirections,andwhicharethereforeobviouscandidatesforthetwoelementswhichhaveabsoluteweightinhisownsystem.Thiswillbetrue,evenifthat
candidatureisratified,asitwere,onlywhenAristotlespeaksofvoidandplenumasopposedtohisowntwointermediateelements,andthereforeasidentifiedwithfire
andearthinhisownsystem.
Certainly,itwouldbetotallywrongtotakeAristotle'saccountofweightincompositebodiesasinanywayimplyingthatatomsandvoid,orplenumandvoid,should
beidentifiedwiththeintermediateelementsinhisownsystem,totheexclusionofelementswhichhaveabsoluteweight.Takenstrictlybythemselves,thetwopassages
whereAristotletreatsofcompositebodiesinrelationtotheatomicsystemareperhapsmarginallyambiguousforourpresentpurpose.Butsuchambiguityastheremay
beisresolvedinquitetheoppositesensetothatrequiredbyChermiss'interpre
Page32
tation,wheninhisaccountoftheintermediateelementsAristotlespecificallyidentifiesvoidandplenumwithfireandearthinhisownsystem,thetwoelementswhich
arelightandheavyabsolutely.
Conclusion
InthisandintheprecedingsectionIhaveoutlinedthecriticismswhichAristotlemakesoftheAtomistsinthecourseofthefourthbookoftheDecaelo.
AtnopointinAristotle'scriticismoftheAtomistsisthereanygroundforconcluding,asdoesCherniss,thattheatomsthemselvesarereckonedasbeingonlyrelatively
heavyorashavingonlyrelativeweight.
Onthecontrary,Aristotle'sargumentsrequirethattheatomsthemselvesshouldbethoughtofasatleastapproximatingtothepossessionofabsoluteweight,inthat
theyarerepresentedasmovingconsistentlydownwards,andthelargerquantityasbeinginvariablytheheavier,thetwofeaturesbywhichearth,inAristotle'sown
system,isrecognisedasbeingheavyabsolutely.
IndeedinhisfinalargumentagainsttheAtomistsinbookfouroftheDecaelo('airandwater',cap.5,312b32313a6)Aristotlewritesexplicitlyofatomsandvoid,or
ofplenumandvoid,asidenticalwithearthandfireinhisownsystem,thetwoelementswhicharerespectivelyheavyabsolutelyandlightabsolutely.
5
'RelativeWeight'and'AbsoluteWeight'inAristotle'sCriticismofHisPredecessors
(i)
Thereremainsapotentialconflict.
IquotedearliertwopassageswhereAristotleassertsthathispredecessors,oratleasta'majority'ofthem,ignoredtheexistenceofwhatisheavyabsolutelyandwhat
islightabsolutely,andspokeonlyof'whatwasheavierand<whatwas>lighteroutofthingsthathaveheaviness'orof'bodiesthatareheavyandlightinthesenseonly
thatoftwobodiesbothhavingheavinessoneortheotheristhelighterofthetwo'.1
1
Thetwogeneralisations,iv1,308a913andiv2,308a34b3,pp.78above.
Page33
HowdoesthissquarewiththeconclusionthatinAristotle'scriticismoftheatomictheorytheatomsthemselvesarereckonedashaving,oratleastasapproximating
towardsthepossessionof,absoluteheaviness?
(ii)
ObviouslythesimplestexpedientwouldbeformetorelyontherestrictionthatIemphasisedearlier,wherebyinthesecondofthetwoopeningpassagesofcriticism
Aristotle'sgeneralisationislimitedto'amajority'ofhispredecessors,andwherebyinalaterpassageAristotlesinglesout'certainothers'who'agree'thattheredoes
existabodywhichisheavyabsolutely.1
Buttodosowouldnotbealtogetherhonest.Forthetruth,Isuspect,isthatAristotledoesintendtheAtomiststobeincludedundertheearliergeneralisation,aswell
asbeingincluded,fromadifferentpointofview,amongthe'certainothers'who'agree'inhavingabodywhichisheavyabsolutely.
'RelativeWeight'
ThusifwereflectonthefirstdetailedcriticismthatAristotlemakesoftheatomictheoryinbookfouroftheDecaelo,thenweseethatitdoesinfactcorrespondtothe
termsofAristotle'sopeningandmoregeneralcriticismsofhowpeoplethoughtinthepast.2
ForthepurposeofAristotle'sfirstargumentagainsttheAtomistsistoshowthatifearthandfirearemadefromtheatomstheneithertherewillbeabodywhichis
lighterthanfire,ortherewillbeabodywhichisheavierthanearth.Ineithercase,therefore,abodywhichshouldpossessabsoluteweightturnsoutnottodoso.
Thisconclusionconformspreciselytothecriticismthatinthepastpeoplehavespokennotofbodiesthatareheavyabsolutelyandlightabsolutely,butonlyofbodies
thatareheavierorlighterinrelationtosomethingelse.3
1
Thesecondgeneralisation,iv2,308a34b3,p.8above'certainothers',iv4,311b1419,pp.911above.
2
Thefirstdetailedcriticism,'earthandfire',iv2,309a33b4,pp.1619abovetheopeningcriticisms,iv1,308a913,andiv2,308a34b3,pp.78above.
3
Cf.iv1,308a913,pp.78above.
Page34
Moreparticularly,thisfirstargumentagainsttheAtomistswouldseemtoillustrateAristotle'scomplaintthat,inspeakingofbodieswhereoneislighterthantheother,
peopleinthepasthavethoughtthattheyweredefiningbodiesthatwereheavyandlightinanabsolutesense,butthattheirdefinition'failstomatch<theirconceptionof
it>'.1
ForinthecourseoftheDecaeloAristotleofferstheatomictheorypreciselyaspurportingtoprovideforadistinctionbetweenearthandfire,asrespectivelyheavy
absolutelyandlightabsolutely,andasbeingunabletodoso.
'AbsoluteWeight'
Atthesametime,Aristotle'scriticismoftheatomictheoryrequiresthattheatomsthemselvesshouldbereckonedashavingabsoluteweight,atleastinthesensethat
theyhavemovementallinthesamedirection.ForonlysoisAristotleabletoarguethatalargerportionofatomicsolidwillbeheavierthanasmallerportion,andto
concludethereforethatifearthandfirearebothmadefromtheatomsthenalargerquantityoffirewillbeheavierthanatinyquantityofearth,contrarytohisown
beliefthatnosubstancecanbeheavierthanearth,orlighterthanfire.
ThisfeatureoftheatomictheorycomestotheforewheninhislatercriticismintheDecaeloAristotlespeaksofatomsandthevoidasrepresentingoppositeformsof
absoluteweight,andoftheatomsascorrespondingtoearthinhisownsystem.ThisisthesuppositioninthoseargumentsdirectedtoshowthattheAtomistscannot
accountforthedistinctionbetweenearthandair,orbetweenairandwater.Itisalso,Ihaveargued,essentiallythissameassumptionwhichunderliesAristotle'smore
generalcomplaintthatthedistinctionbetweenatomsorplenumandvoidhasnotbeenproperlyexploitedtoexplainthedifferencesofweightincompositebodies.2
WhenAristotlecriticisestheatomictheoryintheseterms,thenIthinkitislikelythattheAtomistscanbe,andthereforeproba
1
Cf.iv2,308a34b3,p.8above.
2
'Earthandair',iv5,312b1932,pp.203above.'Airandwater',iv5,312b32313a6,pp.258above.'Compositebodies',iv2,309b1823andiv4,311a29b1,pp.2932above.
Page35
1
blyare,includedamongthe'certainothers'who'agree'thattheredoesexistabodywhichisheavyabsolutely.
TheTwoClassifications
(i)
ThusIconcludethatfromdifferentpointsofviewtheAtomistscanbe,andprobablyare,includedinboththeclassificationsthatInotedearlier.
1.InhisfirstcriticismoftheAtomistsinthefourthbookoftheDecaelo,Aristotlecomplainsthattheatomscannotproducebodieswithabsoluteweight,earthandfire:bodies
formedfromtheatoms,whichshouldhaveabsoluteweight,provenottodoso.
2.Inthelatercriticismsinbookfour,Aristotledeniesthatatomscanproduceelementswithrelativeweight,inhisowntechnicalsense,andcomplainsthattheyhavenotproperly
beenexploitedtoexplainbodieswithcompositeweight:forthesepurposes,Aristotletreatstheatomsashavingabsoluteweight,andasbeingequivalenttoearthinhisown
system.
1
'Certainothers',iv4,311b1419,pp.911above.
IconcludethatiftheAtomistscanbeincludedinAristotle'scriticism,thentheyprobablyareincluded,becauseIsupposethatPlatoandtheAtomistsaretheprincipal,ifnotthe
only,targetsofAristotle'scriticismthroughoutthefourthbookoftheDecaelo:butthisconclusionImustleavetobeestablishedinmythirdessay.
InattemptingtosummariseAristotle'scriticisms,Ihaveruntogether(1)theargumentwheretheatomscannotaccountforthedistinctionbetweenanelementwithabsoluteweightand
anelementwithrelativeweight,and(2)theargumentwheretheatomscannotaccountforthedistinctionbetweentwoelementswhichbothhaverelativeweight.(1)Inthefirstcase
('earthandair',iv5,312b1932),theatomsconstituteearth,but'earth'isthenshownnottohaveabsoluteweight.(2)Inthesubsequentcriticism('airandwater',iv5,312b32313a6),as
inanearliercriticism('intermediateelements',iv2,309b33310a3),theatomsareidentifiedwithearth,buttheclaimof'earth'toabsoluteweightisnotrefuted,forthecriticismnowturns
ontheinabilityofthetheorytoexplaintherelativeweightoftheintermediateelements.
Page36
ThefirstpointofviewissufficienttoincludetheAtomistsamongthe'majority'whomAristotlecriticisesattheopeningofbookfourashavingfailedtodistinguish
elementswithoppositeformsofabsoluteweight.
Atthesametime,thetreatmentoftheatomsinthelatergroupofcriticismsjustifiestheinclusionoftheAtomistsamongthe'certainothers'who'agree'thattheredoes
existabodywithabsoluteheaviness,butwhodonotappreciatethattheremustalsoexistabodywhichislightabsolutely.1
(ii)
ThisdoubleattitudetowardstheAtomistsisperhapslessoddthanitmayseematfirstsight,ifwerecognisethefeaturethatiscommontobothsetsofcriticisms.
Aristotle'spointinhisopeningpairofcriticismsisultimatelythatearlierthinkershavefailedtoprovideadistinctionthatwillincludetheexistenceofanelementwhichis
lightabsolutely.Forthedistinctionbetweenheavyandlightinearliertheoriesisadistinctionthatfallswithin'bodiesthathaveheaviness',andwherethereforethere
cannotexistanelementwhichislightabsolutely.Therestrictioninearliertheoriesistheresultofnoone'shavingrecognised,asaradicalalternativeto'bodieswhich
haveheaviness',abodywhichwouldbelightabsolutely,asisfireinAristotle'sownsystem.2
1
ItmightbeobjectedthatiftheAtomistsaretobeincludedamongthosewhoreckonthatthereissomethingheavyabsolutelyinvirtueoftheidentificationofatomswithearth,
thenequallytheyshouldbeheldtohaverecognisedtheexistenceofanelementwhichwaslightabsolutelyinvirtueoftheidentificationofvoidwithfire.
Butthisisnot,Ithink,thekindofconsistencythatweshouldlookforinAristotle'scriticism.Atomsandvoidcan'standin'forearthandfire,asitwere,forthepurposeofone
criticism('intermediateelements',iv2,309b33310a3,'airandwater',iv5,312b32313a6),andinasimilarfashionvoidcanbetreatedasa'materialprinciple',bymeansofwhichthe
Atomistspurporttoestablishanelementwhichwouldbelightabsolutely(iv5,312b21ff.):inbothcasesvoidistreatedasoneofapairwithplenum,orwithatoms,inordertoprovide
aconceptualrivaltoAristotle'sowntheories.Butthevoidisstillthevoid,sotospeak.Inhismoregeneralcriticism('certainothers',iv4,311b1419),itis,orsoitseemstome,both
possibleandnaturalforAristotletoignorethe'void',takenonitsown,asaseriousrivaltohisownconceptionoffireaslightabsolutely.
2
Cf.iv1,308a913,andiv2,308a34b3,pp.78above.
Page37
ThisisthesameasAristotle'scomplaintagainstthe'certainothers',whoarealsounawareoftheexistenceofabodywhichislightabsolutely.Thedifferenceisthatin
thiscasethepeoplewhomAristotlehasinminddospecificallyrecogniseabodywhichhasabsoluteheaviness.1
Thedifferencebetweenthetwogroupsthereforeisthatthe'majority'dealsonlywithbodiesthatare'lighter'or'heavierandlighteramongbodiesthathaveheaviness',
while'certainothers'recogniseabodywhichisheavyabsolutely.Whatbothgroupshaveincommon,istheirfailuretorecogniseabodythatislightabsolutely.
Itisthissamefailurewhich,inAristotle'seyes,characterisesthebehaviourofatomsintheatomistsystem.Theatomsthemselvesmusthavemovementallinthesame
direction.InthefirstbookoftheDecaelo,Aristotleiswillingtoallowthatthismaybemovementineitherdirection,upordown.Butinthecriticismsoftheatomic
theoryinthefourthbookupwardmovementistheeffectofvoid,andtheatomsthemselvesarerecognisedonlyasmovingdownwards.
(iii)
Atthesametime,hereaselsewhere,thereisanambiguityinAristotle'sattitudetowardstheatomsas'elements'.
1.TheatomsmaybetreatedaselementspriortoAristotle'sowncosmicelements,includingfireandearth.
2.Alternatively,atoms,oratomsandthevoid,maybeidentifiedwithAristotle'sownelements,usuallywiththeextremeelements,earth,orearthandfire,andtreatedthereforeas
prioronlytotheintermediateelements,ortothecompositebodieswhichinAristotle'ssystemareformedfromtheelements.
ThisexplainswhytheAtomistscanbeincludedinbothcriticisms.
Fromthefirstpointofview,wheretheatomsareaccountedaselementalparticlespriortotheformationoffireandearth,then
1
Cf.iv4,311b1419,pp.911above.
Page38
fireandearthcanbeshowntohavelessthanabsoluteweight,fortherecanalwaysbeacertainquantityofatomicsolidwhichisheavierthanwhatissupposedly
absolutelyheavy,orlighterthanwhatissupposedlyabsolutelylight.
Alternatively,Aristotle'scomplaintisthattheAtomistscannotaccountforthedistinctionbetweenoppositeformsofrelativeweight,andinthisprocesstheatoms
themselvesareallowedtobeequivalenttoearthinAristotle'sownsystem.
Thedistinction,however,isadistinctionofattitudeandemphasis,andnotofsubstance.Eveninthefirstcriticismitisonlybodiesformedfromtheatomswhichare
provednottohaveabsoluteweight,whiletheatomsthemselvesaretreatedasatleastapproximatingtothepossessionofabsoluteweight,inthattheymovealways
downwards,andinthatthelargerquantityisinvariablytheheavierwhileinthelatercriticismtheatomsareidentifiedwithearthandarethereforespecificallytreated
as'movingalwaystowardsthecentre'.
Bothattitudestowardstheatomictheoryarethereforemanifestationsofasinglecriticalimpulse.Ineithercase,thepointisthattheatomshaveallthesamenature,and
thattheycannotthereforeaccountforthedistinctionsofheavyandlightthatarerequiredinAristotle'sownphilosophy.1
1
IamnotaimingheretogiveanexhaustiveaccountofAristotle'sgeneralcriticism.IshouldperhapsaddhoweverthatIdobelievethatPlatoisincludedamongthe'certainothers'
who'agree'thatthereisabodywhichisheavyabsolutely,andindeedIsuspectthatitisPlato'spresenceherewhichmayhaveencouragedAristotletothinkofbothearlier
theories,thatofPlatoandthatofDemocritus,asbothalikeprovidinganessentiallymonistictheory,whichwillallowfortheexistenceofabsoluteheaviness,butnotforthe
existenceofabsolutelightness.FordespitethefactthatinPlato'ssystemearthtravelsbynaturetothecentre,andfiretothecircumference,Aristotlenonetheless,orsoIshall
argue,treatsthetriangleswhichconstitutebothelementsasheavyabsolutelyinTheophrastus'expression(Desens.88),Plato'sdefinition'appliesonlytosubstancesofan
earthynature'.
AndyetPlato'striangles,orsoIshallalsoargue,areincludedintheargumentwhichprovesthatairisheavierthanearth(iv5,312b1932).Hencetheambiguity.Fromonepointof
view,noonehasrecognisedtheexistenceofelementswithabsoluteweight(cf. ,iv1,308a10).Forthephilosopherswhodorecogniseanelementwhichisheavy
absolutelyarethesameasthosewhofailtodoso,onlylookedatfromadifferentpointofview.
However,Aristotle'scriticismofPlatohas,Ibelieve,beenevenmoreradicallymisunderstoodthanhashiscriticismofDemocritus,andImustthereforeleavetheconjunctionofPlato
andDemocritusformysecondandthirdessays.
Page39
Conclusion
MydecisiontoincludetheAtomistsinbothAristotle'sgeneralcriticisms,againstthe'majority'andagainstthe'others',isinfluencedbytheconclusionthatIshallargue
tolater,intheearlierofmytwoessaysonAristotle,thattheonlytwoexplicitlyphilosophicaltheoriesofweightknowntoAristotlewerethoseofPlatoandthe
Atomists.ThereforealthoughAristotle'sopeningstatementsinbookfourcouldbetakenasdirectedonlyorprimarilyagainstthosewhohave'used'heavyandlight,
andnotagainstthe'few'whohave'definedtheirpowers'torepeatthedistinctionwhichAristotleintroducesintheopeningsentencesofhistreatise(308a34)
nonethelessIamreluctanttothinkthatoneofAristotle'stwomainadversariesshouldhavebeenexcludedfromhiscondemnationof'howpeoplehavethoughtinthe
past'.
Asitis,itseemstomethatincriticisingearlierthinkersforconsideringonly'whatisheavierand<whatis>lighteramongbodiesthathaveheaviness'Aristotlewillin
factmostlikelyincludetheAtomistsinhiscalculation,butonlyinvirtueofthebehaviourofbodiesthatareformedfromtheatoms,i.e.insofarastheatomspurportto
provideadistinctionbetweentwoelementswithabsoluteweight,orbetweenanelementwithabsoluteweightandanelementwithrelativeweight,andnotinvirtueof
thebehaviouroftheatomsthemselves.
Forinhislatercriticismoftheatomictheory,asunabletoprovidefortheexistenceandbehaviourofelementswithrelativeweight,andasnotaccountingforthe
weightofcompositebodies,Aristotlereckonstheatomsthemselvesashavingabsoluteheaviness,andascorrespondingtoearthinhisownsystem.Fromthispointof
view,theAtomistscanbe,andprobablyare,includedamongthethinkerswho'agree'withAristotlethattheredoesexistabodywithabsoluteheaviness,butwhofail
toseethattheremustalsoexistabodywhichislightabsolutely.
Odd,therefore,thoughitmayseematfirstsight,IconcludethattheAtomistscanbe,andthereforeprobablyare,includedbothamongthe'majority'whoignorethe
distinctionbetweenelementswithoppositeformsofabsoluteweightand,fromadifferentpointofview,amongthe'certainothers',whorecognisetheexistenceofan
elementwhichdoeshaveabsoluteheaviness.
Thereasonforthisseeminganomalyisthattheatomsmaybe
Page40
regardedeitheraspriortothecosmicelements,orasidenticalwithearthinAristotle'sownsystem:inthefirstcase,Aristotle'scriticismisthatearthandfireinthe
Atomists'systemcannothaveabsoluteweightinthesecondcase,thecriticismisthattheAtomistscannotaccountforrelativeweight.Inbothtypesofcriticism,the
assumptionisthattheatomsthemselvesmayberegardedaspossessing,orasapproximatingtothepossessionof,absoluteheaviness.
Thereisthereforenoground,itseemstome,forconcluding,asChernisshasdone,thatintheDecaelotheatomsthemselvesaredeprivedofabsoluteweight.Onthe
contrary,Aristotle'sgeneralclassificationofearliertheories,ifitincludestheAtomists,willapplyonlytobodiesthatareformedfromtheatoms,whilethedetailed
criticismswhichAristotlemakesoftheatomictheory,throughouttheDecaelo,requirethattheatomsthemselvesshouldberegardedashaving,oratleastas
approximatingtothepossessionof,absoluteheaviness.
Page41
ChapterTwo
Aristotle'DeGenerationeetCorruptione'
Iturnthereforetothetwopassages,fromtheDecaeloandfromtheDegenerationeetcorruptione,whereAristotlewritesnotsimplyofplenum,orofplenumand
void,butmorespecifically,orsoIshallargue,oftheweightofindividualatoms.ItakefirstthepassagefromtheDegenerationeetcorruptione.Thispassageoccurs
inaseriesofargumentsdesignedtoshowthattheatomscannottrulybewithoutthecapacitytoactortobeactedupon.
AristotlewritesthatPlatoandtheAtomistsbothexplaincomingintobeingbytheuseofelementsthatareindivisibleandthataredefinedonlybytheirshapes,withthe
twodifferences,firstlythatPlato'sindividualelementsaresurfaceswhilethoseoftheAtomistsaresolids,andsecondlythatforPlatocontactistheonlywaybywhich
thingscanbegeneratedordissolved,whiletheAtomistshavetwomethodsattheirdisposal,contactandthevoid.Plato'sversionofthetheory,Aristotleadds,has
alreadybeencriticised.ItisnowtheturnoftheAtomists.1
OnlythefirstsectionofAristotle'seriesofcriticismsisrelevanttoourpurpose,i8,325b36326a14(inpartonlyDK68A60):
1
ThissummarisesDegen.etcorr.i8,325b2436(inpartDK67A7).
Page42
.1
Theconfusionthatsurroundstheinterpretationoftheseseeminglysimplewordsisnotuntypicaloftheconfusionthatseemstobeingrainedinthewholequestionof
atomicweight.OnemaywonderwhethertwohundredyearsofscholarshiphavedoneanythingtolessentheforceofTiedemann'scomment,thattheinterpretationof
Aristotle'sremark'heischtfastmehralseinenOedipus'.2
AgeneraldifficultyisformulatedbyDyroff:'JedesAtomkanndochnichtschwererseinalsdasandere'.3Twomoreparticulardifficultieslieintheinterpretationof
:inwhatsenseiseachatom'heavier'accordingtoits'preponderance'?
InthefirstsectionofthischapterIshallconsideronlythesimplerofthesetwomoreparticularproblems:theimmediatesense,inthiscontext,of .
Thequestionssurroundingthemeaningof willrequireustodrawontheconclusionofmyprecedingchapterforthewayinwhichAristotlewrites,and
thinks,oftheatomictheoryinrelationtohisownconceptionofheavyandlightwillprovide,Ibelieve,anessentialcluetowhatAristotlemeansbysayingthat'each'
atomis'heavier'thananother.
1
MyrenderingoftheGreekisgivenaftertheanalysis,pp.779below.Forthereading (326a12)seebelowpp.646.
2
DieterichTiedermann,GeistderspekulativenPhilosophiei(Marburg,1791)268.LonRobinwritesofDemocritus'theoryofweightas'unequestionparticulirementpineuse',
which'resteensommeindcise','L'atomismeancien',Revuedesynthse6(1933)211(=Pensehellnique745).PaulMoraux,intheIntroductiontohisBudednoftheDecaelo,
cxlv:'Leproblmeest,vraidire,fortcomplexe,surtoutcausedescontradictionsdenossources....contradictions,quiontfaitnatreunelittratureassezconsidrable'.
3
Demokritstudien33n.2.
Page43
1
'Preponderance'
IturnfirstthentothesimplerofthetwomoreparticularproblemsthatInoted:themeaning,inthiscontext,of .
(i)
Itranslate .
Ihavedeliberatelyavoidedthecommontranslation'excess',usedforexamplebyBurnetandrepeatedbyProfessorKirk,since,astheinstructiveuseoftheverbin
Plato'sPhaedomakesclear(102BD),theideaisprimarilythatthereismoreofonething,andnotnecessarilythatthereistoomuchofit.Simmiasistallerthan
Socrates,andPhaedoisthetallestofthethree.ButthereisnoimplicationthatSimmiasorPhaedoisinanywayundulyor'excessively'tall.1
Thepointmayseematrivialone,butthemistranslation,thoughslight,easilyleadstothenotionthatthereissomenorm,abovewhich,orinexcessofwhich,anatom
acquiresaspecialkindofweight,whichistheassumptionmadeexplicitinBrieger'sinterpretation,notedimmediatelybelow.
Asitis,mypointisnotofcoursethat (iv8,216a1116)meanssimplythatabodywillmovemorequicklyorlessquickly
accordingasitismoreheavyorlessso,morelightorlessso.AsinthePhaedo,thereisnoconnotationofthebodyin
1
Burnet,EGP342.GeoffreyS.Kirk,ThePresocraticphilosophers(Cambridge,1957)414.Theuseoftheverb'exceeds',asinHaroldH.Joachim,translationoftheDegen.etcorr.
inTheworksofAristotletranslatedintoEnglishii(Oxford,1930),perhapsavoidsthisdifficulty,butmakesitatrifledifficulttokeepclosetoAristotle'sownformula.
Page44
questionbeingunduly,orevenunusually,fastorslow,heavyorlight.
Similarly,wheninthefourthbookoftheDecaeloAristotleremarksthat'achangeinsomethingsusceptibleofgrowthleadstoanincreaseofsize', (iv3,
310b201),hedoesnotmeanthattheobjectbecomesinanywayundulyor'excessively'large,simplythatitbecomeslargerthanitwasbefore.Equally,inthe
presentcontext,thereneedbenoconceptionofa'norm'ofheaviness,beyondwhichanythingthatisheavierisso'inexcess'theassumptionreflectedinKirk's
rendering,andpresentexplicitlyinBrieger'sinterpretation.1
(ii)
Brieger,inthelaterofhistwostudiesoftheatomictheoryofweight,claimsthattheatomsareheavierthanwhatiscompoundedoftheatoms:
'FrdieAltenwardasGolddasschwersteMetall.SeinspezifischesGewichtbetrgtbekanntlich19,35,dasGewichtdesAtomswrdealso19,35+xsein.Diesxistdie
desAtomsgegenberdemGolde.'2
1
Ausefulcorrectivetotheassumptionthat areusuallytranslatedwithapejorativesense,Jarkhoconcludesthatthisis'neithertheoriginalmeaningoftheseadjectives,nor
thatthemostfrequentlyobserved....Thepejorativemeaningwasnotinherentintheadjectives,adverbsorparticiplesassuch...'(fromtheEnglishsummary,p.86).
EveninlaterGreekthenotionof'excess'isbynomeansinvariable:awiderangeofexamplesfromfifthandfourthcenturyauthorsisincludedinGerhardDelling,'Zumsteigernden
GebrauchvonKompositamit beiPaulus',Novumtestamentum11(1969)12753.
2
AdolfBrieger,'DieUrbewegungderDemokritischenAtome'(henceforward'Urbewegung'),Philologus63n.F.17(1904)5856.Brieger'searlierworkisDieUrbewegungderAtome
unddieWeltentstehungbeiLeucippundDemocrit(henceforwardUrbewegung),inJahresberichtdesStadtgymnasiumszuHalleA/SvonOstern1883bisOstern1884.
Page45
Apartfromtheanachronismoftheexampleandthecomplexityoftheconcept,thisinterpretationseemstomeexcludedbythecontext.Theconclusionofthe
argumentisthattheatomsareacteduponbyeachother( ),whichindicatesthatthepremisshastobethatoneatomisheavier,orhotter,thananother,
andnotthattheatomsareinsomewayheavierorhotterthanthesubstanceswhichareformedfromthem.1
(iii)
Oneothereccentricinterpretationof isperhapsworthrecalling.CharlesRenouvierwrites:
'Laseulepesanteurquiappartienneauxcorpsindivisibles,c'estlapesanteurparexcs( ),c'estdirelaforcequirsultedel'impulsionparunvolume
suprieurd'unvolumemoindre,quivienttreabordparlui.'2
WhiletheremaybesometruthinRenouvier'sgeneralconceptionofatomicweight,IthinkthatthisisagaintoomuchtoreadintothecontextofAristotle'sphrase.3
(iv)
Thatthesenseofpreponderancedoesnotinitselfrequireanyveryelaborate,orexotic,interpretationisperhapssufficientlyindicatedbyAristotle'suseofthesame
expressioninhisaccount
1
AsimilarconsiderationexcludestheinterpretationwhichisperpetuatedinBonitz'sIndexAristotelicus(Berolini,1870)134a1718,wheretheorderofwordsimpliesthateach
compoundbodyisheavieraccordingtothe'preponderance'ofatomswhichitcontains.Butnotonlyisitimpossiblefor
(325b36326al),asisrightlynotedbyO.Hamelin,'Lapesanteurdel'atomedanslesystmedeDmocrite',AnnalesdelafacultdeslettresdeBordeaux(1888)198n.1.Itisthe
individualatoms,andnotthesubstancesformedfromthem,whicharethetargetofAristotle'scriticismthroughoutthepassage.
2
Manueldephilosophieanciennei(Paris,1844)2456.
3
FortheplaceIgivetoRenouvier'sgeneralconceptionofweightseebelowpp.34850.
Page46
ofPlato'stheoryofweight.InPlato'stheory,Aristotletellsus,'eachthingisheavierdependinguponitspreponderanceofequalparts',Decaeloriv2,308b9:
.
TheimmediatedifferencebetweenthisformulationofPlato'stheoryandAristotle'saccountofDemocritusisthatthesubjectofPlato'stheoryisacompoundbody,
andnottheindividualprimaryparticlesorparts.
WecannotthereforeapplytheformulawhichAristotleusesforPlatodirectlytoDemocritus:forsinceDemocritus'atomsdonothave'parts'itwouldobviouslybe
impossibletoexplainAristotle'sexpression,inthecaseofDemocritus,asapreponderanceofthenumberof'equal'oridenticalparts.1
ButDemocritus'atomsdodifferinsize.2 ,wemaywishtoconcludetherefore,willmean,forDemocritus,apreponderancenotofthenumberofidentical
parts,butofthesizeofeachindividualparticle.
(v)
Thisisinfactthecommonestmoderninterpretation.Forexample,ProfessorGuthrietranslates:
'Eachatomisheavier,thebiggeritis.'3
ButagainstjustsucharenderingChernisshasrightlyarguedthat takesitsmorespecificreferencefromthecontext,andthatsinceinAristotle'sargument
thereisnomentionofsizetheexpressiondoesnotnecessarilymean,andcannotthereforein
1
Onthequestionofthe'parts'ofatomsaconceptionintroducedintotheearliertheorybyEpicurusseefurtherpp.21314and2709below.
2
Aristotle, ,ap.Simpl.Decaelor295.78(fr.208Rose=DK68A37).Cf.Phys.iii4,203a33b2(DK68A41).
3
WilliamK.C.Guthrie,AhistoryofGreekphilosophyr(henceforwardHistory)ii(Cambridge,1965)503.
Amongotherswhotake inthiswayInotethefollowing:FriedrichW.A.Mullach,DemocritiAbderitaeoperumfragmenta...(Berolini,1843)347,Brieger,Urbewegung5,
HaroldH.Joachim,inthenotestohiseditionoftheDegen.etcorrr.(Oxford,1922)165,andinanotetohisOxfordtranslation,thoughnotinthetranslationitself,Bailey,Greek
Atomists130and144,Kirk,Presocraticphilosophers414.
Thereisadifferencebetweentaking tomeaninitself,andofitsown
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page47
1
itselfwhateveritmayimplyproperlybetranslatedas,'excessmagnitude'.
Chernisshimselfarguesthat .Hethentranslates:
'Democritussaysthateachandeveryatomhasrelativeweightwhencompared(withanyother).'2
(vi)
TherearehoweveranumberofdifficultiesinCherniss'owntranslation,ofwhichIconsider,forthemoment,onlythedifficultyrelatingtoCherniss'translationof
.
Intranslating topreponderance,ordeficiency,specificallyandexclusivelyofweight:
'Eachandeveryatomhasrelativeweightwhencomparedwithanyother(sc.inrespectofweight).'
Butwehavescarcelymorerighttocontract tomean'inpreponderanceofweight',whichadmittedlyhasspecificreferencetothecontext,butisotiosein
sense,thanwehavetoexpandittomean'inpreponderanceofsize',whichisnototioseinsense,buthasnospecificreferencetotheexistingcontext.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
rightasitwere,preponderanceorexcessofsizeorbulk,whichIthinkiswhatalltheauthorscitedsofarintendandsupposingthatinthelightofotherevidencethisisthesense
thatmaybeaddedto ,inthecourseofhiselaborationofAristotle'sargument.
InneithercasehaveIdistinguishedbetweenthosewhowriteofapreponderanceofbulkormassandthosewhowriteofapreponderanceofsizeorvolume.
1
ACP97n.412
2
ACP97n.412.For asanabbreviation,Chernisscitestwopairsofpassages:Hist.anim.i1,486a21b17withiv4,528b1314,andDepart.anim.i4,644a1623withi5,
645b226.
Page48
(vii)
Thetruth,Isuggest,isquitesimplythattheparticularnatureoftheatoms''preponderancy'ishereleftopen. neednotlookback,tautologically,toweight
norneeditreferspecificallytosize,althoughthereisofcoursenothingtoprecludethislatterimplication.
Admittedly,if doesnotmeanmerely'comparison',thenwemightwellwonderwhatkindofpreponderanceordifferenceitcouldimplyinthiscontext,ifnot
thatofsize.Moreover,sinceotherevidencewillshowthatforDemocritustheweightofatomswasinfactproportionatetotheirsize,andthatAristotleknewthis,then
todisallowthatconnotationinthetranslationofthepresentpassagemayseemunnecessarilyscrupulous.
Butforthesakeofaccurateexegesisitisaswell,eventhoughavoidingCherniss'owntranslation,toaccepthisnegativepoint,that neednotinitselfmean
preponderanceofsize,whileaddingthecaveatthatsuchanimplicationisinnowayexcluded.1
Conclusion
Myfirstconclusionistherefore,Ihope,innocuousenough.Aristotle'sstatementintheDegenerationeetcorruptione,that'eachoftheatomsisheavieraccordingto
itspreponderance',hasbeenaconstantsourceofconfusionandofcontroversy.ThesimplerpointinAristotle'ssentence,themeaningof'preponderance',canbe
settledreasonablyeasily.Thetermshouldnotbereducedtomerecomparisonofweight,asinCherniss'interpretation,norneeditinitselfnecessarilymean
'preponderanceofsize',althoughinthelightofotherpassagesthatimplicationmaynotbeprecluded.Inthepresentpassage,thenatureoftheatoms''preponderancy'
isquitesimplyleftopen.
1
TheinterpretationwhichChernissgivesofthispassagehasalreadybeenextensivelycriticisedbyWillemJ.VerdeniusandJanH.Waszink,Aristotleoncomingtobeand
passingaway,somecomments,intheseriesPhilosophiaantiquai,2ndedn(Leiden,1966)(henceforwardComments)423.Theircriticismcoincidesinpartwithmyown,
especiallyonthepointthatCherniss'translationof provides'aratherawkwardpleonasm'.Seealsop.100n.1below.
Page49
2
'RelativeWeight':ConfusioninCherniss
AsecondandmoreseriousdifficultyinCherniss'interpretationliesinhistranslationof therefore,ifitistobeinterpretedintermsofAristotle'sowntheory,
cannotbutmeanthattheatomshaverelativeweight.1
Atthesametime,thetranslationof as'relativeweight'touchesoffaseriesofmoreparticularmisunderstandings,atonceconceptualandexegetical.These
moreparticulardifficultiesalsoneedtobeconsideredinsomedetail,sincetheremovalofthedifficultiesexemplifiedbyChernissisessentialnotonlyforaproper
graspofthepresentpassage,butnolessforaclearunderstandingofAristotle'sevidenceonweightasawhole.
(i)
Thustojustifythesenseof'relativelyheavy'for ,inthepassagewhichChernisscites,doesnotinfactmean'whatisrelativelylight',ashesupposes.
AdetailedstudyofthepassageIshallleaveformylateressayonAristotle.Briefly,Aristotlewritesthatwhatislightabsolutelyisalwayslighter,butthat'whatis
lighter'isnotalwayslightabsolutely.Hispointisthattheuseofthecomparativemaydesignateeitherwhatisabsolutelylight,orwhatisrelativelyso.Grammatically,
mustthereforeembracebothwhatis
1
ACP979,esp.97n.412,and20913cf.pp.67above.Ihavemyselfaddedthestipulation,'ifitistobeinterpretedintermsofAristotle'sowntheory'forCherniss,this
stipulationistooobvioustoneedstating.Aswillbeseen(3,pp.5769below),Idothinkthatthereissometruthintheassumption,inthisinstance.
2
ACP97n.412.Aristotle,Decaeloiv2,309b6.
Page50
1
absolutelylightandwhatisrelativelyso:itcannotmeanonly'whatisrelativelylight'.
(ii)
Butthisisonlyapreliminarydifficulty.'Heavy'isambiguous.Itmaymean'heavy'asopposedto'light',oritmaybeaneutralterm,whichcoversbothheavyandlight,
equivalentthereforeto'weight'.Thereisthesameambiguityinseveralothertermsofmeasurement,inGreekasinEnglish:speed,length,breadth,depth.2
ThisambiguityconcealsapotentialdiscrepancybetweenCherniss'argumentandhisconclusion.
1.Fromthecomparisonwith means'relativelyheavy'.
2.Ontheotherhand,inhistranslationChernisswritesof'relativeweight'.
Theshiftfrom'relativelyheavy'to'relativeweight'atonceopensCherniss'translationtotwointerpretations.
1.Eachatommayhave'relativeweight'asdistinctfromhaving'absoluteweight'.
2.Eachatommayhave'relativeweight'inthesenseofbeing'relativelyheavy'asdistinctfrombeing'relativelylight'.
ThefirstwayoftakingCherniss'translationresolvesthedifficultynotedbyDyroff,forthemeaningnowisthateachatomhas'relativeweight',inthesensethatitmay
beheavierorlighterthananother.Butthistranslationdoesnotfollowfromtheallegedcomparisonwith .
ThesecondwayoftakingCherniss'translationfollowsfromtheallegedcomparisonwith ,butitdoesnotmake
1
Thisandasecond,morecomplex,passage,alsoquotedbyCherniss,Decaeloiii1,299b14,areconsideredatlengthinmythirdessay.
2
Aristotlenotestheambiguity,Met.I1,1052b2431.Ihavetouchedonthistopicinacontribution,'Aristote:quantitetcontraritunecritiquedel'coled'Oxford',forthcomingin
Conceptsetcatgories(ed.P.Aubenque).
Page51
senseinitself.Forifwekeeptotherestrictedmeaningofrelativeweight,whichistheonlymeaningwhichfollowsfromCherniss'argument,thenweareatonce
trappedinDyroff'sdifficulty,althoughthiswaswhatChernisshadsetoutexpresslytoavoid:
'Eachandeveryatomhasrelativeweight(i.e.isrelativelyheavy)whencomparedwithanyother.'
(iii)
Moreparticularly,thissecondmeaningfor controvertsthewholesenseofAristotle'sdistinctionbetweenrelativeweightandabsoluteweight.
AsIhavealreadynoted,Aristotle'stheoryofrelativeandabsoluteweight,initssimplestform,isthatfireislightabsolutelybecauseitmovesalwaysupwards,and
doessomorequickly,andisthereforelighter,inthelargerquantityandthatearthisheavyabsolutelybecauseitmovesalwaysdownwards,anddoessomore
quickly,andisthereforeheavier,inthelargerquantitywhileairandwaterareeachofthemrelativelylightandrelativelyheavybecausetheymoveupwardsinthe
regionofearthanddownwardsintheregionoffire.1
Fromthisitfollowsthatwhatis'relativelyheavy',inAristotle'stheory,issomethingthatwillmovedownwardsinrelationtoonething(airorwaterinrelationtofire)
butnotinrelationtoanother(airorwaterinrelationtoearth).Butifeachatomis'relativelyheavy',i.e.movesdownwards,'whencomparedwithanyother'(my
italics),asinthisversionofCherniss'translation,thenitwillbeabsolutelyheavyandnotrelativelyheavy.
'RelativeWeight'and'AbsoluteWeight'
Thetruthis,Isuspect,thatChernisshasseizeduponthemeaningof'relativelyheavy'orof'relativeweight'for inpartbecauseheisuncertain,inhisown
mind,astothemorepreciselimitationsoftheAristoteleantheory,sothathefindsit
1
ThissummarisesDecaeloiv4,311a1529cf.pp.67above.
Page52
1
easierthanintruthitistochanceupontheAristoteleanconceptionofrelativeweight.
(i)
ThusinthefirstplaceChernisshasbyimplicationconfused'absolutelyheavy'and'relativelyheavy',inAristotle'ssense,withthesimplepositiveandcomparative,
'heavy'and'heavier'.ForChernisswritesofabsoluteheatandrelativeheatasindistinguishableinstatusfromabsoluteweightandrelativeweight.2
ButthetruthisthatAristotlehasnospecialtheoryofabsoluteandrelativeheat.Somethingwhichhasabsoluteheatistherefore,inAristotle'sphilosophy,nodifferent
inprinciplefromsomethingwhichismerelyhot,whilesomethingwhichis'relatively'hotisnodifferentfromsomethingwhichismerelyhotterthan,or'inrelationto',
somethingelse.
Clearly,oncethisconfusionhasbeenallowedtoenter,thenanythingwhichis'heavier'maybedeemed,withoutmoreado,tobe'relativelyheavy'.3
(ii)
Secondly,Chernisshasevidentlyconfusedthenotionsofabsoluteheavinessandmaximumheaviness.
1.OnAristotle'stheory,earthhasabsoluteheavinessbecauseitsnaturalmotioncarriesitalwaystowardsthecentre.Thisdoesnotpreventearthhavingdifferencesordegreesof
heaviness,foralargerquantityofearthwilltraveldown
1
Inwhatfollows,Ihaveassumedthattheexpressions'relativelyheavy'and'relativeweight'inChernissareintendedtorepresentAristotle'stechnicalsenseofrelative,asdistinct
fromabsolute,weight.ThisseemsfairlyclearfromthecontextofCherniss'discussions,ACP978,20913.
Itmightperhapsbeargued,onbehalfofCherniss,that'relative'weightmaybeusedtodescribeanycomparisonwhereonebodyis'related'toanotherintermsofweight.Butsucha
usagewouldneedtobemarkedexplicitly,ashavingonlyaweakersenseandsomeotherexpressionwouldhavetobeintroducedtodescribeAristotle'sconceptionofrelative,as
opposedtoabsolute,weight.
2
ACP978,esp.98n.413.
3
Theconfusionisinfactworsethanitappears.ForhavingfailedtoappreciateAristotle'spointaboutthedistinctionofmeaningin (ACP97
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page53
wardsmoreswiftlythanasmallerpiece,andthelargerquantityisthereforeheavierthanthesmaller.
2.However,ChernisscomplainsatonepointthatAristotleshouldnothavealloweddifferencesofweightbetweendifferentvolumesofanelementwhichisheavyabsolutely.1
ThiscriticismbetraysthatChernisshasconfused,inhisownmind,absoluteheaviness,inAristotle'ssense,andmaximumheaviness.
1.Theantithesisofabsoluteweight,inAristotle'ssense,isrelativeweight,whichisconstitutedbyanelementhavingnaturalmovementintwodirections,inthemannerthatI
havedelineated.
2.Theantithesisofmaximumweightissimplyanythingwithlessthanmaximumweight,anythingthereforewithdegreesofweight.
Ifabsoluteweightisconfusedwithmaximumweight,thenanythingwithlessthanmaximumweight,anythingwithdegreesofweight,willbeconfusedwithrelative
weight.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
n.412,cf.Decaeloiv2,309b6),Chernisssupposesthatthecomparative willmeanrelativelyhotevenwhenitisusedtodescribeabodywhichishotabsolutely.
ThushewritesthatsinceAristotle'hasadmittedthatsome(sc.atoms)haveheatabsolutely,eachandeveryatommusthaverelativeheatincomparisonwithanyother'(ACP98
n.413).ButthisconceptionofabsoluteandrelativeheatcannotcorrespondtoAristotle'sconceptionofabsoluteandrelativeweight,asatthispointChernissplainlyintendsthat
itshould.ForitisclearthatinAristotle'stheoryabsoluteandrelativeweightaremutuallyexclusivecategories.Anelementwhichisheavyabsolutelyis'heavier'thananother,but
itdoesnotthereforepossesswhatAristotlemeansbyrelativeweight.
ItistruethatindenyingthatAristotlehasanytheoryofabsoluteandrelativeheatIamslightlysimplifyingthequestion,forintheDegenerationeetcorruptioneAristotledoes
distinguishwhatis (ii7,334b820).InmyessayontheinterpretationofAristotle'stheoryIshallreturntothispassage,andattemptto
showtheradicaldifferencethatthereisbetweenAristotle'stheoryofthemixtureofhotandcoldandhisconceptionofwhatisrelativelyheavyandlight.
Meanwhile,IhopethatIamnotbeingunfairinleavingthispassageoutofaccountinmycriticismofCherniss.IthinkitisfairlyclearthatinfactChernisshasbeenledtotalkofthe
distinctionbetweenabsoluteandrelativeheatonlythroughhismisunderstandingoftheconjunctionoftemperatureandweightinthepresentpassage:onthispointseefurther
pp.5861and649below.
1
ACP212n.255.
Page54
1
Adifferenceofheavinessintheatomswillthenofitselfappearsufficienttodesignatesomeoftheatomsasbeing'relativelyheavy'orashaving'relativeweight'.
(iii)
Finally,Chernisshasevidentlyconfused'relativelyheavy'and'comparativelyheavy'.
Tosupporthismeaningof'relativelyheavy'for tomean'verhltnismssigjnger','fairlyyoung'or'comparativelyyoung'oreven(butnotnecessarilyin
Aristotle'stechnicalsense)'relativelyyoung'.2
1
ThesameconfusionhasaffectedBailey,whowrites,GreekAtomists131:Aristotle'neverassociateswithDemocritustheconceptionofabsoluteweight,butonlyspeaksof
atomsas''heavier"or"lighter"thanoneanother'.
ExceptintheargumentfrombookoneoftheDecaelo(cap.7,275b29276a6,cf.pp.1115above),Aristotledoesnotinfactspeakofoneatomaslighterthananother.Inthefourth
book,itisonlyinthecomparisonofgroupsofatoms,whicharetakenasrepresentingdifferentelements,andinconjunctionwiththeuseofvoid,thatAristotlewritesofonegroupas
beinglighterthananother,asintheargumentfromthecomparisonofearthandfire,Decaeloiv2,309a33b4,cf.pp.1619above.Oneatombeingmoreheavyorlesssothananother
doesnotpreventtheatomshavingabsoluteweightinAristotle'ssystem.Itappearstodoso,onlyifweconfuseabsoluteweightandmaximumweight.
ItistruethatincriticisingChernissonthispointIhaveagainslightlysimplifiedmyaccount,forChernissmakeshisremark,ontheimproprietyofallowingdifferencesofweightfor
differentvolumesofanelementwhichhasabsoluteweight,inthecontextofdifferencesofspeed.IshallargueinmythirdessaythatAristotlehasessentiallytwocriteriaofweight,
speedanddisplacement.Cherniss'remarkwouldbetrueofweightasdefinedbydisplacement,foronthiscriterionanyandeveryparticleofearthhasheavinessinthesamesenseand
tothesamedegree.Butitisnottruewhenweightismeasuredbyspeed,foronthiscriteriondifferentvolumesordifferentquantitiesofthesameelementdifferinweight.
IngeneralthepointremainsthatAristotle'sconceptionofabsoluteweightdoesnotexcludetherebeingdifferentdegreesofweight.Allearthhasabsoluteheaviness,eventhough
(judgedbythecriterionofspeed)alargerportionofearthwillbeheavierthanasmallerportion.Whatisexcludedbythedefinitionofearthasheavyabsolutelyisthepossibilityof
anyportionofearthbeingreckonedas'light'or'lighter'.Itwouldseemtobeanobscure,andconfused,recognitionofthisdisjunctionwhichhasledBaileytooppose'absoluteweight'
tothenotionoftheatoms'being'"heavier"or"lighter"thanoneanother'.Onthispointseefurtherpp.636belowafullanalysismustawaitmythirdessay.
2
ACP97n.412.ForthisuseofthecomparativeseeKhnerGerth,GriechischeGrammatikii2,306(citedbyCherniss).
Page55
NowIdothinkthatthiscomparisonpointstooneelement,andanimportantelement,inAristotle'sconceptionofrelativeweight.Foritistruethatthecolloquialuseof
thecomparativeandtheuseofthecomparativeinAristotle'sdescriptionofrelativeweightarebothalikedistinctfromthesimplecomparativeinthatneitherisintended
asanintensifiedformofthepositive.Tosimplifythepoint:
1.Theelementwhichis .1
2.Sotoo,thepersonwhois .
Fromthisitfollowsthatinbothcasesthereis,atleastbyimplication,adoublereference:thepersonwhois 'comparativelyyoung'issoinrelationbothto
'young'and'old',inthesamewaythatanelementwhichis'relativelyheavy'issoinrelationbothtowhatislightabsolutelyandtowhatisheavyabsolutely.
Butthetwousagesarenotthereforeidentical.
1.Anelementwhichis'relativelylight'or'relativelyheavy'inAristotle'ssensemustbesoinrelationtoanelementofanotherkind.
2.Butanelementwhichis'comparativelyheavy'or'comparativelylight'needbesoonlyinrelationtoalargerorsmallerquantityofthesameelement.Thusaquantityofwater
whichis'comparativelyheavy'or'comparativelylight'needbesoonlyinrelationtoalargerorsmallerquantityofwater.2
1
Thisisexemplifiedbytheuseof inthepassagealreadyquoted,Decaeloiv4,311a1529.
2
IshallargueinmyessayonAristotlethatthemoreordinaryintensiveuseofthecomparativemayormaynotdenoteanelementwhichhasrelativeweightinAristotle'ssense(airis
lighterthanwater,butfireisalsolighterthanairwaterisheavierthanair,butearthisalsoheavierthanwater).
TherewillthereforebetworeasonswhythecolloquialornonintensiveuseofthecomparativeisnotsimplyidenticalwithAristotle'sconceptionofrelative
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page56
Conclusion
(i)
ThusatonetimeoranotherChernisshasconfusedthedistinctionbetweenabsolutelyheavyandrelativelyheavy,inAristotle'ssenseofthoseterms,withvariously:
1.Thedistinctionbetweenthesimplepositiveandcomparative,'heavy'and'heavier'.
2.Thedistinctionbetweenmaximumheavinessanddegreesofheaviness.
3.Thedistinctionbetween'heavy'(or'light')and'comparativelyheavy'(or'comparativelylight').
(ii)
Theseconfusionsmakeitdeceptivelyeasyfor totakeonthemeaningof'relativelyheavy'.
1.Onthefirstcount,anatomcanbereckonedas'relativelyheavy'simplybecauseitisheavierthan,or'inrelationto',another.
2.Theconfusionbetweenabsoluteandmaximumweightwillagainallowatomswithdifferentdegreesofheavinesstobeautomaticallydesignatedas'relativelyheavy'.
3.Thecolloquialuseofacomparativesuchas istakentojustifythistranslationevenoutsidethecontextofabsoluteheaviness.
(iii)
Theconfusionisnotthenatanend.
1.'Relativelyheavy'actsasasteppingstonetothesuperficiallysimilarsounding'relativeweight'.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
weight.(1)Thenonintensiveuseofthecomparativewillrepresentrelativeweight,onlyifthecomparisonliesbetweenelementsofadifferentkind.(2)Evenso,Aristotle's
conceptionofrelativeweightisnotdesignatedexclusivelybythisuseofthecomparative.
Page57
2.Thistranslationcanthenmeaneitherthat'eachatomisheavierthansomeatomsandislighterthanothers'orthat'eachatomisrelativelyheavywhencomparedwithanyother'.
TheformerinterpretationdoesnotfollowfromthecomparisonthatChernissofferswith ,anexpressionwhichhehasinanycasemisunderstood.The
latterinterpretationmakesnonsenseinitself,andinparticularitcontrovertsAristotle'swholetheoryofthedistinctionbetweenrelativeandabsoluteweight.
3
WeightandTemperature
IreturnthereforetothepassagewhichItranscribedatthebeginningofthischapter,fromtheDegenerationeetcorruptione.Inthatpassage,thetrueinterpretation
of ,Isuggest,isindicatedpartlybytheassociationofatomswithabsoluteweightwhichwefindintheDecaelo,andwhichIhavealreadyanalysedinmy
firstchapter,andmoreimmediatelybytheaccountoftemperature,whichweightisintendedtoestablishandexemplify.
Inanargumentprecedingtheintroductionofweight,Aristotleclaimsthatheatis'handedout'toroundatoms,andthatthereforetheoppositeofheat,whichiscold,
should'belong'tosomeothershapeofatom(i8,326a36).Somuch,atleastintheshortterm,isclearenough.ButwhydoesAristotle,amomentortwolater
(326a911),seektoarguefromtheadmissionthatanatomis'heavier'totheclaimthatanatommustthereforealsobe'hotter'?
(i)
Aristotledoesnotthinkthatheavyandlightcanactorbeactedupon,arestrictionwhichdoesnotapplytodifferencesoftemperature,Degen.etcorr.ii2,329b18
26: .
Page58
'Oppositionswhichfallwithinthedomainoftoucharethese:hotandcold,dryandwet,heavyandlight....
'Ofthese,heavyandlightareneitheractivenorpassive,insofarastheyaresaid<tobewhattheyare>,notinvirtueoftheiractinguponsomethingelse,norinvirtueoftheir
beingacteduponbysomethingelse....
'Hotandcold,bycontrast,anddryandwet,aredistinguishedassuchbytheirabilitytoact,ortobeactedupon.'1
Fromthisdifference,itfollowsthatAristotlecannotconcludehisargumentbyassertingthat'whatislessheavycannotescapebeingacteduponbywhatismoreso'.
Weighthastoactasapreludetotemperature.Theargumentisthatiftheatomscanbecharacterisedindividuallyas .Theargumentcanthenhappily
concludethat'whatislesshotcannotescapebeingacteduponbywhatismoreso'.Fromthisitfollowsthattheatomsarenotinactiveorimpassible.
(ii)
PhiloponusbetraysprettyclearlythathehasmissedthepointofAristotle'sdistinctionbetweenweightandheatwhenheseekstoconcludeofbothjointly,Degen.et
corr.167.1516:
1
Thereareotherandmoresubtlewaysofexpressingthisdifference,butthesimplestconsiderationisthatifalumpofleadfallsonmyfootitcrushesit,andinthatsense'acts'
uponit,butitdoesnotmakemyfootanyheavier,whereashotandcoldorwetanddry'act'uponsomethingbymakingitshareintheirownqualities.
Ifpercontrawethinkofadditionoradmixturethenitwillofcoursebepossibletoassimilateheavyandlighttohotandcold,wetanddry,asPlotinusdoesatonepoint:'whatislight
makesthingslight,byitsaddition<tothem>andbyitspresence<inthem>,and<similarly>whatisheavymakesthingsheavy'(Enn.iv7[2]4.267).Butthisideawouldnotmatchthe
contextintheDegenerationeetcorruptione.Aristotlebelievesthatfortheretobeachangeofweightinanyotherthanamerelyincidentalsensetherewouldhavetobeachangeof
substance.Thuslead,addedtoanothersubstance,wouldmakethatsubstance'heavier',butinamerelyincidentalsenseAristotledoesnotbelievethattheadditionofleadwould
effectanyrealchangeinthesecondsubstance,northereforethateithersubstancewouldhave'acted'or'beenactedupon'.Thechangewouldbeachangeincompositeweight,nota
changeinelementalweight.
Page59
'Ifatomsaretobehotterandheavier,howisitthattheyareabletorefrainfromactinguponeachother,andfrombeingacteduponbyeachother?'
Indeeditis,Ithink,largelybecausetheyfailtoappreciatethedistinctioninAristotle'sphilosophybetweentheinactivityandtheactivityrespectivelyofextremesof
weightandextremesoftemperature,andthereforetheneedfortheconclusionoftheargumenttobeexpressedintermsoftemperature,thatChernissandJoachim,as
wellasPhiloponus,allinonewayoranotherattempttomakethetemperatureoftheatomspreciselycomparabletotheirweight(inallrespectsexcept,asIshall
suggest,theonewhichreallyhelps):Chernissbysupposingthat'eachandeveryatommusthaverelativeheatincomparisonwithanyother'PhiloponusandJoachim
becausetheysupposethatthelargeranatomis,thehotteritwillbe.1
Neitherinterpretation,itseemstome,properlyanswerstoAristotle'spreoccupationinthispassage.
1.Aristotle'sargumentdoesnotrequirethat'eachandeveryatom'shouldbehotter,orshouldhave'relativeheat'.Intheargumentimmediatelyprecedingtheconjunctionof
weightandoftemperature,Aristotleclearlylimitsthepossessionofheattosphericalatoms,326a35: .Itisthereforeeitheranoversight,or
excessivelyrestrictive,whenChernisscomplainsagainstJoachimandPhiloponus,that'thereisnomention'byAristotle'ofsphericalatoms'.2
Theideathatsphericalatoms(alone)arehotisclearlyintendedtobecarriedoverfromoneargumenttothenext.Theexampleofweightismeanttoshow,notthat'eachandevery
atom'ishotorhotter,butthatatomswhichareindividually .
1
Cherniss,ACP98n.413(thelastwordinthethirdlineofthisnoteshouldbe'hotter'andnot'heavier').Philoponus,Degen.etcorr.167.1117,esp.1314.Joachim,inthenotesto
hisedition,1657.
2
ACP98n.413.
Page60
2.Atthesametime,notheoryofhowoneatomishotterthananotherneedbeimpliedin,orcanbeinferredfrom,thispassage.Aristotle'sargumentdoesnotimplythatlarger
sphericalatomsarehotterthansmallerones,northat'Aristotlethoughtalargespheremoresphericalthanasmallerone'.1
ThetruthisthatonlytwogenuinepiecesofatomictheoryareintroducedbyAristotleintothisargument.
1.Heatis'handedoutto'(morestrictly,istheproductof)sphericalatoms.
2.Eachatomis .
FromthesetwopiecesofinformationAristotleseekstodrawtheinferencethatatomswhichareindividually :sothathecanthendrawthepolemical
conclusionthatwhatislesshotcannotescapebeingacteduponbywhatismoreso,aconclusionwhichheseesascontrovertingDemocritus'claimthattheatomsare
inactiveandimpassible.
Inthecourseofthisreasoning,Aristotlegivesnosignthatheintendstodrawthecomparisonbetweenweightandtemperatureanytighterthanisneededtoshowthat
iftheatomshavedegreesofweightsothey,orsomeofthem,musthavedegreesoftemperature.Thereneedbenoimplicationthat'eachandeveryatommusthave
relativeheat'(Cherniss,myitalics),northatthereisapreponderancyinvirtueofwhichtheatomsareheavierwhichisthesameasthepreponderancyinvirtueofwhich
theyarehotter(PhiloponusandJoachim).
Indeedthereasonwhy isprobablyintendedasnomorethanapassingreminderofthemannerinwhichDemocritusattributed
1
IquoteCherniss'attempttotrivialiseJoachim'sargument,ACP98n.413.VerdeniusandWaszink,Comments43,alsosupposethat'theattributionofheatcannotberestrictedtoa
specialclassofatoms',withtheideathereforethatthereshouldbe'differencesofheatamongallatoms'.ButAristotle'sargumentwillbesufficientlycogentifhecanshowthat
someatomsareopentoactionandpassionhedoesnotintheimmediateargumenthavetoshowthatallatomsaresubjecttoalterationinrespectofanoppositionof
temperature.
Page61
weight,anddifferencesofweight,totheatoms.FornothingmoreisrelevanttoAristotle'sargumentthanDemocritus'claimthattheatomsarecharacterisedby
differencesordegreesofweight.ThisAristotleaccountssufficientjustificationforhisconclusionthatifanatomis .Thewayinwhichtheatomsare
characterisedbydegreesofweightisirrelevanttoAristotle'sargument,sinceitisthefactonly,andnotthecauseoraccompaniment,ofdegreesofweightwhichneeds
tobecarriedoverintotherealmoftemperature.1
(iii)
Atthesametime,withoutwishingtoexpandAristotle'sargumentunduly,theonecomparisonbetweenweightandtemperaturewhichcan,Ithink,validlybedrawn
fromAristotle'sargumentisonewhichChernissandJoachimfailtodraw.
InordertoavoidDyroff'sdifficulty,Ithinkitisfairtoclaimthat isintendedtobe,oratleast
1
IwouldthereforeconstrueAristotle'sargumentatthispoint(326a1011)ascontainingtheellipse:... .
Cherniss,ACP98n.413,seekstosupporthisinterpretation(that'eachandeveryatommusthaverelativeheat')byquotinganargumentfromtheDecaelowhereAristotleclaims,iii8,
307a1315: .
Butthisargumentisintendedasareducioadabsurdumoftheatomictheory.Aristotleconcludes,307a1819:
.Inmyopinion,itwouldnotbeatalltypicalofAristotle's
styleofpolemictostoreupthiskindofcriticismfromonecontexttothenext.
Hereandthroughout,inwritingof'degrees'ofheat,asinwritingof'differencesordegrees'ofweightorofheaviness(cf.p.52above),IdonotofcoursemeanthatAristotlehasany
notionofameasuredscaleforthecomparisonof(whathesupposestobe)qualitiesIusethewordthereforeinalooserandmoregeneralway,tomeananonquantitativecomparison
ofintensitiesthoughofcourseeventhisformulationisanachronisticinthepresuppositionswhichitbetrays.Asalways,thevocabularyweuseforthedescriptionofancient
scienceorofancientphilosophyisriddledwithanachronisms,andyettobetoozealousinrootingthemoutleadstoanimpossiblepedantry.(Thenonquantitativeuseoftheword
'degree'isinfactdatedtoMiddleEnglishbytheOxfordEnglishDictionarybutinthecontextofweightandoftemperaturethisearliersenseofthewordisofcourselikelytobe
displacedforthemodernreaderbythelatertechnicalandscientificusage.)
Page62
1
leavesroomforimmediateinterpretationas,onehalfofanimpliedantithesis.
Theobviouspairto initselfactuallymeans,orisanabbreviationof,thedualexpression.
Theequivalentpairto ,sothatthecompletedformoftheimpliedantithesiswouldrun:
'Eachatomisheavier<orlighter>invirtueofitspreponderance<ordeficiency>inrelationtoanother'.
Inthatcase,Aristotle'saccountoftheAtomistsintheDegenerationeetcorruptionewillbealmostpreciselyparalleltotheaccounthegives,intheDecaelo,of
Plato.IhavealreadyquotedthesentencewhereAristotlewrites,ofPlato'scompoundbodies,that'eachoneisheavierdependinguponitspreponderanceofequal
parts'.2Thissentencefollowsalmostdirectlythedoubleformulationthat,onPlato'stheory,'abodywhichisconstitutedfromalargernumberofidenticalpartsis
heavier,whileonewhichisconstitutedfromasmallernumberoflikepartsislighter',iv2,308b56: .
Butintheparallelaccountoftemperature,intheDegenerationeetcorruptione,Aristotletreatsnotofhotandcold,butofwhatismorehot,orlessso,i8,326a11
12: .
IthinkthatweshouldthereforesupposethatinfacttheimpliedantithesisinAristotle'smindisthat:
'Eachatomismoreheavy<orlessso>invirtueofitspreponderance<ordeficiency>inrelationtoanother.'
1
Thiswillbesoevenif,ormoreespeciallyif,weadoptsomeversionoftheEnglishformula,'themoreanatomisx,themoreitwillbey'(cf.Guthrie'stranslation,p.46above).In
translatingthus,weatonceimplythat'thelessitisx,thelessitwillbey'.Dyroff'sinterpretationhasbeennotedp.42above.
2
Decaeloiv2,308b9,pp.456above.
Page63
'MoreHeavyorLessSo'
(i)
Acriticmayobjectthatthisisadistinctionwithoutadifference:whatislessheavymustbelighter.
ButthisisnotinfactsoforAristotle.
1.WheretherearetwoelementswhichbothhaveheavinessAristotlewillgrantthattheoneislighter,or'morenearlylight',thantheother,Decaeloiv2,309b68:...
.Thisisbecauseifitfindsitselfintheplacebelongingtoearth,waterwillrise.
2.Ofearthwhichisabsolutelyheavy,Ithinkitisclear,Aristotlewouldallowonlythatasmallerpiececouldbelessheavythanalargerpiece,notthatitcouldbeinanywaylight
orlighter,sincethereisneveranycircumstanceinwhichanyportionofearthwouldtravelnaturallyupwards.1
Thedistinctionbetween'heavierorlighter'and'moreheavyorlessso'isthereforeforAristotlearealone.Itisalsoadistinctionwhichwillapplytothepresentcontext
if,asinthepassageswhichIhavequotedfromtheDecaeloinmyfirstchapter,thedistinctionbetweenvoidandsolid,intheatomictheory,istakentomatchthe
distinctionbetweenabsolutelylightandabsolutelyheavy.Foroncetheatomsarethoughtofashavingabsoluteheaviness,asearthhasinAristotle'sownsystem,thenit
willbenatural,andindeednecessary,forthedifferencesofweightbetweenthemtobeexpressedintermsnotofheavyandlight,butofmoreheavyorlessheavy.2
1
Thetwodistinctions,thatbetween'lighter'and'morenearlylight',andthatbetween'lighter'and'lessheavy',areexploredinmythirdessay.
2
ItmaybeobjectedthatbythesamereasoningAristotleshouldnotrefertoPlato'strianglesasproducingabodywhichisheavieror'lighter',ashedoesinthepassageIhavejust
quoted(Decaeloiv2,308b56),oratleastthatthisisinconsistentwithmysuppositionthatPlato'striangles,likeDemocritus'atoms,arethoughtofbyAristotleasapproximatingto
thepossessionofabsoluteweight(cf.p.38n.1above).Buthere,aslaterinthepassage(308b22,b25), isintroducedonlyasmarkingPlato'sclaim.Theargumentofthe
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page64
(ii)
AseconddifficultyistoknowwhetherinfactAristotlewritesofwhatismorehotorlessso,orwhetherhewritesofhotandofcold.
ForthetextIhavetranscribedabove,whichisthatadoptedbyJoachimandbyMugler,reliesononlyonemanuscript(F),supportedbyPhiloponusandbyAsulanus'
Latintranslation.Theotherfourprimarymanuscripts(EHJL)have .1
Chernissclaimsthatwithhisinterpretationofthepassage'itisnolongernecessarytochangetheMSSfrom .2
Butevenifweoverlooktheexaggerationofcallingamajorityofthemanuscripts'the'manuscripts,primafacietherewouldseemnomorereasonfor ifit
means'relativelyhot'thanifitmeans'hotter'.
Possibly,byhisreferencestorelativeheat,Chernisshasentangledhimselfinthesameambiguityandequivocationthatwehavealreadyuncoveredinhisuseofthe
expression'relativeweight':'relativeheat'isintroducedasatranslationof ,butisthentransposedtomeanthat'eachandeveryatommusthaverelative
heat',inthesensethatitwillbebothhotterthansomeatomsandcolderthanothers.
However,evenifwediscountCherniss'claim,wemaystillwishtoarguethatpreciselybecausethereisnotechnicaldistinctioninAristotle'sphilosophybetween
relativeheatandabsoluteheattherecanthereforebenorealdistinctionbetweenbeinglesshotandbeingmorenearlycold:thedifferencebetween
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
passage(308b328)ispreciselythatthetriangles'behaviourisinconsistentwithPlato'sdescriptionofthem,oroftheirproducts,as'lighter'inthepositivesensewhichthatterm
hasinAristotle'sowntheory.ItistheconclusiontoanequivalentcriticismwhichIsuggestisimplicitinAristotle'suseof inhisaccountofDemocritus'theoryinthe
Degenerationeetcorruptione.
1
ItakethemanuscriptreadingsfromJoachim'sedition(Oxford,1922).ForAsulanus'translation,hereasbelowp.75,seetheBibliography.ThepeculiarpositionofF(codex
Laurentianus87.7saec.xiv)inthemanuscripttraditionischaracterisedasfollowsbyMoraux,inhisIntroductiontotheBudednoftheDecaeloclxxxi:'Si,danslaplupartdescas,F
neprsenteriendebienoriginal,illuiarrived'offrir,etl,desleonsd'ungrandintret,quiluisontparticulires.Ellespeuventtreissuesdeconjecturesouavoirtinspirespar
lescommentateurs,maisiln'estpasexcluqu'unanctredeFaiteuaccs,Dieusaitcomment,unetraditionanciennetrangreaetb(thetwomainfamiliesofmanuscripts,headed
respectivelybyEandbyJ).
2
ACP99n.414.
Page65
,wemightthenclaim,isfairlyarbitrary.
ButinfactitstrengthensAristotle'simmediateargumentconsiderablyifitiscastsolelyintermsofdegreesofhotness,i.e.ofwhatismorehotorlessso,andnotin
termsofwhatishotterorcolder.Forinthefirstargumentofthisseries(326a36)AristotleclaimsthattheAtomiststhemselveswentnofurtherthantocharacterise
sphericalatomsashottowhichAristotleaddsbywayofcriticismthattheoppositeofhot,whichiscold,should'belong'tosomeothershapeofatom.
IfthereforeAristotleintroduceshotandcoldintothepresentargument,hewilldetractfromitscogencybecausehewillbefoundinghisnewconclusionnotonsome
admitted,oralleged,featureoftheAtomists'owntheory,butonaconclusionthatcomesmerelyfromhisattemptedrefutationofthetheory.1
(iii)
Indeeditisthedesiretoexpresstheargumentsolelyintermsofwhatismorehotorlessso,andnotintermsofhotandcold,thatexplains,Iwouldsuggest,Aristotle's
conjunctionofweightandtemperature.
Fortheprecedingargument,thesecondoftheseries,containspreciselytheassertionthathotandcolddobelongtotheatoms,326a67:
.IfthereforeAristotlehadwishedtoconcludesimplythatwhatishotmustactuponwhat
iscold,hecouldpresumablyhavedonesodirectly,withoutthemediationofweight.
Theaccountofdifferencesinweightisintroducedpreciselyinordertoexpandthenotionofheatsimply tothatof
1
Ihavealreadynotedthatthereisinfactasenseinwhich,intheDegenerationeetcorruptione,Aristotlespeaksofwhatis'absolutely'or'altogether'hot(ii7,334b820,cf.p.52
n.3above).Butitisnonethelesstruetosay,Ibelieve,thatinAristotle'sphilosophythereisnodistinctionbetweenabsoluteandrelativeheatofthekindthatthereisbetween
absoluteandrelativeweight.Theantithesistowhatisabsolutelyhotorabsolutelycoldliesinameremixtureofhotandcold:thereisnodistinctionbetweenrelativeand
comparativeheat,inthewaythatAristotleattemptstodistinguishbetweenrelativeandcomparativeweight.Ireturntothispointintheopeningchapterofmyfourthessaysee
alsothefootnotefollowingthis.
Page66
degreesofheat ,sothatactionandpassioncanbeattributednottocoldandheatjointly,buttoonehalfonlyofthatopposition,namelyheat,because
AristotlebelievesthattheAtomiststhemselveshaveadmittedheatasbelongingtotheatoms.
Thusitisapparent,Iwouldclaim,notonlythat ,isinfactahighlydesirable,ifnotanessential,featureofAristotle'sargument.
1.TheformerdistinctionaloneanswerstoAristotle'scritiqueintheDecaelooftheatomsasheavyabsolutely,inthesensethattheymoveconsistentlydownwards.
2.Thatsamedistinctionaloneprovidestheproperanalogyfortemperature,ifthepresentargumentistostandindependentlyoftheargumentwhichprecedesit.1
1
FromthisitfollowsthattheparallelthatIamarguingforbetween'moreheavyorlessso'andbetween'morehotorlessso'springsnotfromAristotle'sowntheoryof
temperature,butfromthepolemicalconsiderationthatIhaveremarkedupon.ForinAristotle'sowntheorywhatislesshotwillbemorenearlycold,asdistinctfromthe
comparisonbetweendifferentportionsofearth,whichmaybemoreheavyorlessso,butnoneofwhichwilleverbeinanypositivesenselightorlighter.
ThecomparisonofweightwithtemperaturedoesnotfollowthereforefromanyintrinsicsimilaritybetweenweightandtemperatureinAristotle'sowntheory,asChernissappearsto
suppose,butfromwhatAristotleseesasthelimitationintheAtomists'theory,inwhichhotnessisalignedwith,orexplainedby,roundatoms,butinwhichnoequivalentexplanation
isgivenofcoldness,norevenofdegreesofhotness.Thustheconjunctionofweightandtemperaturearisesaccidentally,asitwere,fromthepurposesofAristotle'spresentcriticism.
ItisnotaconsequenceofadistinctioninAristotle'sownphilosophybetween'absolute'and'relative'heat.
Ihavewrittenhereoftwo'independent'argumentsinthefinalsectionofthischapter,pp.6976below,Ishallseektoshowthattheargumentsarelinked,insofarasthepremissto
theargumentfromweightcorrespondstopartoftheconclusiontotheprecedingargument.
VerdeniusandWaszinkendorseCherniss'choiceof (326a12)isneededpreciselybecausetheinteractionissupposedtoliewithinonehalfonlyoftheopposition.
Anoppositionbetween
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page67
Aristotle'sArgument
Thusinordertoappreciatethegenesis,andtheconstruction,ofAristotle'sargument,itisnecessarytograsptherathersubtlerelationbetweentheatomictheoriesof
weightandoftemperature,asAristotlepresentsthemtous,andthemannerinwhichAristotleemploysthesetwotheories,forthepurposesofhisattackonthewhole
notionofAtomism,andinparticularonthenotionoftheatoms'beinginactiveandimpassible.
(i)
Theatomictheoryoftemperature,atleastaspresentedbyAristotle,hastwolimitations.
1.TheAtomistsdonotexplainhowtherecanbedegreesofheat.Thusheatisexplainedby,orissomehow,accordingtoAristotle,identifiedwith,sphericalatoms.Butthereisno
immediatereasontosuppose,noranyobviouslyconvenientwayofarguing,thatalargersphericalatom,forexample,willbehotterthanasmallerone,orviceversa,orthatone
atomcouldbehotterbecauseinsomeway'morespherical'thananother.
2.TheAtomistsexplainedheataloneintermsofshape.Theydidnot,apparently,giveanequivalentexplanationofcold.1
(ii)
Atthesametime,therearetwoelementsinAristotle'sownthinkingwhichareessentialtotheformofhisargument.
1.Theoppositionofhotandcoldisopentoactionandpassion,butnotsotheoppositionofheavyandlight.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
hotandcoldwouldbesufficienttorequireaninteraction,withoutmoreado,sotospeak.Itis,Iwouldsuggest,becausethelargerimplicationswhichIhavesoughttooutline
requiretheinteractiontobelimitedtowhatishotthatAristotleneedstoemphasisethedifferencebetweenthetwoextremesofwhatishotonly.
1
ForthissecondpointseeDecaeloiii8,306b29ff.,esp.307b59cf.pp.713below.
Page68
2.Whateverhasabsoluteweightcanbedescribedonlyas'moreheavyorlessso'(ifithasabsoluteheaviness)oras'morelightorlessso'(ifithasabsolutelightness),butthe
partsofasingleelementwhichhasabsoluteweight(whetherheavinessorlightness)cannotbedescribedasbeing'heavierorlighter'.
(iii)
Fromthefirstlimitationintheatomictheoryoftemperature,andfromthefirstelementinAristotle'sownthinking,itfollowsthatweightandtemperaturehaveeachan
advantage,forthepurposesofAristotle'sargument,andadisadvantageoravirtueandadefect.
1.WeighthasthevirtueofbeingexpressedbyDemocritus,orasbeingeasilyexpressibleonhistheory,intermsofdegreesofweight,ordegreesofheavinessbutithasthe
defectofnotbeingopentoactionandpassion.
2.TemperaturehasthevirtueofbeingopentoactionandpassionbutithasthedefectthatDemocritus'theoryofheatdoesnotinitselfleadtotherebeingdegreesof
temperature,ordegreesofhotness.
Aristotleasitwerecrossfertilises,orcrossmatches,weightandtemperature,sothatthevirtuesarejoined,andthedefectscanceleachotherout.Hearguesthat
becauseoneatomis .
Temperaturenowhasthetwovirtues:
1.thatitisopentoactionandpassion:thisisthevirtuethatithadalreadyinAristotle'stheory.
2.thattherearedegreesoftemperature:thisisthevirtuethattemperaturenowacquiresfromthecomparisonwithweight.
(iv)
Thesecondlimitationintheatomictheoryoftemperature
Page69
requiresthat atthispointmustrepresentnotwhatishotterorcolder,butwhatismorehotorlesshot.
Thisrestriction,however,answersneatlytothesecondelementinAristotle'sownthinking,namelytohisconceptionoftheatoms,intheDecaelo,asapproximatingto
thepossessionofabsoluteweight,sothatdegreesofweightareproperlyexpressednotasdifferencesbetweenwhatisheavierorlighter,butasdifferencesbetween
whatismoreheavyorlessheavy.
ThustherestrictionintheatomictheoryoftemperatureanswerspreciselytotherestrictionwhichAristotle'sownconceptionofabsoluteweightintroducesintothe
atomictheoryofweight.Ineithercase,degreesoftemperatureanddegreesofweightareexpressedintermsofonehalfonlyoftheoppositionbetweenhotandcold
andbetweenheavyandlight.
1.Oneatomismoreheavy,orislessheavy,thananother.
2.Oneatom(itisargued)ismorehot,orislesshot,thananother.
(v)
ThusthefinalformofAristotle'sargumentisthat:
'Sinceoneatomismoreheavy,orislessheavy,thananother,sotooifanatomishotitmustbemorehot,orlesshot,thananother.'
ThisenablesAristotletoconcludethatanatomwhichismorehotmustactupononewhichislessso,andthereforethattheatomsarenotinactiveorimpassible.
4
TheSequenceofArguments
The'Denial'ofWeight
Thereremainsadifficultyinthepreciseturnofthoughtat .
Presumablypursuantuponhissuppositionthattheatomscannotbeaccountedashaving'real'weight,Chernisswritesthat:
Page70
'Democritushasparadoxicallydeniedweighttotheatomsalthoughhehasendowedsomeatomswithheat.Yet,havingdeniedthattheatomsareheavyorlight,heassertsthatin
comparisonwithoneanothertheyhaverelativeweight.'1
Thisisinaccurateatonceinitsreproductionofthecontentofwhatissaid,andinitsattributionofthedifferentpartsofwhatissaid.
ThereisnodenialbyDemocritusthattheatomsareheavyorlight.Aristotle'sfirstpointisthat:
'Itwouldbestrange ifheavyandlightarenotgoingtobelongtotheatoms.'
Aristotlethenadds:
'AndyetDemocritusdoessay .'
Thusthelackofheavinessandlightness,asanextremeformoftheatoms'lackofsensiblequalities,isadvancednotbyDemocritus,butbyAristotle,andevensoonly
asapotentialabsurdity.Democritusisintroducedasinfactmitigatingthatabsurdity,byhisadmissionthateachatomis .
ThesisandRefutation
However,toseethispointinperspective,weneedtolookbacktothepassagewhichIquotedatthebeginningofthischapter,toseeAristotle'ssequenceofargument
asawhole.
(i)
Aristotlefirststatesthethesis,orthepairoftheses,whichheintendstocontrovert.
(1)Noatomiscapableofreceivingany'affection'(i8,325b36326al),and
(2)noatomiscapableofproducingany'affection'( ,326a23).
1
ACP98n.413,cf.211n.253,quotedpp.1617above.
Page71
ThefirstthesisAristotleclaimstoestablishfromtheprinciplethatfortheAtomistsaffectionoralterationcantakeplaceonlythroughthepresenceofvoid(326a12).
Theimplicationisthatvoidisexcludedfromthe'indivisibles'.Notonlyisthisobviousenoughinitself'void'and'contiguity' )intheatomictheory(325b29
33),andasexcludedthereforefromtheinternalstructureoftheatoms.
ThesecondthesisAristotledoesnotseektojustifyindependently.ButthejustificationforitisagainobviousinthelightofAristotle'sprecedinganalysis,wherehehas
soughttoshowthattheprimarymovingcausemayactwithoutbeingactedupon,butthatthisisnotpossiblefortheproximatemovingcause,whichcannotactwithout
itselfbeingactedupon(cf.i7,324a24b24).
'Forexample,thehealingartproduceshealthwithoutbeingaffectedbythebodythatisbroughttohealth,butfood,whenitproducesaneffect,isitselfsubjecttoanaffectionit
growshot,orgrowscold,orisaffectedinsomeotherway,attheverytimewhenitactsuponthebody<whichhasingestedit>'(324a35b3).
Itfollowstherefore,forAristotle,thatifanatomcannotitselfbe'affected'(thefirstthesis),thenitisalsoincapableofactingastheproximatecauseofan
'affection'(thesecondthesis).
(ii)
TheremainderofthepassageIhavequoted(326a314)ismostsimplytakenasaseriesoffourrelatedargumentsdesignedtocontrovertthetwinthesesthatAristotle
hasattributedtotheAtomists,andtodosobyexploitingconcessionswhichtheAtomistshavethemselvesmadetowardsthenotionofan'affection'fortheatoms.1
Thusthefirstargumentclaimsthatifheatistobeattached('handedout',cf. 326a4)toaroundshape,thentheoppositeofheat,whichiscold,shouldbe
attachedtosomeothershape(i8,326a36).
1
The'four'arguments:i8,326a36,a68,a912,a1314.
Page72
IntheDecaeloAristotledevelopsamoreelaborateargumentagainstthosewhoattempttoexplainfireasasphereorasapyramid,thetwoviewsrespectivelyof
DemocritusandofPlato(iii8,306b29ff.,esp.306b33,cf.Tim.56AC).IntheDecaeloAristotlearguesinparticularthatalthoughhotandcoldare'oppositeintheir
power'itisimpossibletofindashapetoassigntocoldsince'whatisassigned'wouldhavetobeopposite,andthereisnooppositetoashape(307b58,again
307B89).
Itisthisconclusion,Iwouldsuggest,whichexplainstheargumentintheDegenerationeetcorruptione:heathasbeenexplainedbyroundatoms,buttherehasbeen
noequivalentexplanationofcold.
(iii)
ThereishoweveracrucialdifferencebetweentheDecaeloandtheDegenerationeetcorruptione.
IntheformertreatiseAristotlearguesineffectthattherecannotbeanequivalentexplanationforcold,andthat'therefore' PlatoandDemocritus('everyone')
have'omitted'thispoint.
Bycontrast,intheDegenerationeetcorruptioneAristotleimpliesonlythemoreparticularpoint,thattheAtomistshaveinfactfailedtogiveanexplanationofcold,
andnotthatitisimpossibleforthemtohavedoneso.Forthefollowingargument,thesecondoftheseries,startsfromthepremissthathotandcoldcouldberegarded
asbothofthem'belonging'totheatoms,andseekstodemonstratefromthisafresh'absurdity'.ThisatleastItaketobetheimplicationofthepremiss,326a67:
.
Thisdoesnotofcoursemeanthatthereisanyrealinconsistencybetweenthetwoarguments,thatoftheDecaeloandthatoftheDegenerationeetcorruptione.Itis
howeveressentialtoappreciatethedifferencebetweenthetwoarguments.
1.IntheDecaelo,AristotlearguesthattheAtomistsandPlatohavenot,andcannot,provideanexplanationofcoldnesstomatchtheirexplanationofheat.
Page73
2.IntheDegenerationeetcorruptione,AristotleagainimpliesthattheAtomistshavenotprovidedanexplanationofcoldnessbuthispointisnowthatevenif(bysome
unspecifiedmeans)theywereabletodosotheirtheorywouldleadtofreshabsurdities.
(iv)
ThisdifferenceisessentialtoanappreciationofthesequenceofthoughtintheDegenerationeetcorruptione.
Aristotle'ssecondargumentisthatifhotandcoldareto'belong'totheatomsthenitisoddthatotherpairsofoppositesshouldnotalso'belong'(326a68,
).TheadditionaloppositionswhichAristotlespecifiesareheavyandlight,hardandsoft.
Thepointtonoteisthatjustastheconclusiontothefirstargumentoftheseries('thereshouldbeacold,aswellasahot,atom')hadbeenemployedasapremissto
thesecondargument('ifhotandcolddobelongtotheatoms,thenotherpairsofoppositesshouldbelongaswell'),sonowpartsoftheconclusiontothesecond
argumentareusedasapremissnotforone,butfortwofurtherarguments,whichareattachedsuccessivelytotheoppositionofweight(326a912:thethird
argument)andofdensity(326a1314:thefourthargument).
Thissubordinationisperhapsmostclearlyseenintherelationofthesecondargumenttothefourth.Thesecondargumentconcludesthathardnessandsoftness
shouldalsobelongtotheatoms,ifhotandcoldaretobelong(326a68).Thefourthargumentclaimsthatifanatomishard,itwillalsobesoft,butthatwhatissoftis
definedbyitspassivity,sincewhatissoftiswhatisyielding(326a1314).
Thusthefourthargumenttakesasitspremisspartofonehalfoftheconclusiontothesecondargument,inmuchthewaythatthesecondargumenthadtakenasits
premisstheconclusiontothefirstargument.
Iftheatomsaretobehottheyshouldbecoldaswell(theconclusiontothefirstargument)supposethattheycouldbebothhotandcold...(thepremisstothesecond
argument).
Theatomswouldthenhavetobehardandsoft(halfof
Page74
theconclusiontothesecondargument)butifanatomishard...(thepremisstothefourthargument).
Therelationbetweenthesecondargumentandthefourthis,Ibelieve,exactlyparalleledintherelationbetweenthesecondargumentandthethird:
Theatomswouldhavetobeheavyandlight(theotherhalfoftheconclusiontothesecondargument)butanatomwhichisheavier...(theinitialpremisstothethirdargument).
(v)
Theparallelwithdensityhelps,Iwouldsuggest,toexplaintheintricacyoftheargumentfromweight.
Theconclusiontothesecondargument,thatbothhardnessandsoftnessshouldbelongtotheatoms,leavesitselfopentotheobjectionthattheAtomistswouldnot
havedeniedthattheatomswerehard,indeedthathardnessor'solidity'hadbeenintendedpreciselyasameansofrenderingtheatomsimmunetodivision.1
Itis,Iwouldsuggest,inordertocircumventthisobjectionthatAristotleattempts,sotospeak,toshifttheconclusionofhisargumentfromhardandsofttaken
togetherinthesecondargument,tothemorespecificconclusion,inthefourthargument,thatanatommustbesoft,andcannotthereforebeimpassible.
Asimilar,butmorecomplex,preoccupationunderliesthethirdargument.Theotherhalfoftheconclusiontothesecondargument,thattheatomsshouldhave
heavinessandlightness,isagainopentotheobjectionthattheAtomistsadmittedthatoneatomwasheavierthananother,andthatinanycasethepossessionof
weight,onAristotle'sowntheory,doesnotdirectlyentailactionorpassion.2
AgainthereforeAristotleseekstoreinforcetheconclusiontothesecondargument,butthewayinwhichhedoesso,inthethirdargument,ismorecomplexthanitis
inthefourth.ForsinceinAristotle'sowntheoryneitherheavinessnorlightnesswilladmit
1
ThefirstpointItaketobeobvious.Forthesecondpointseethepassagesquotedbelowp.245n.1.
2
Forthissecondpointseethepassagequotedabove,pp.578,Degen.etcorr.ii2,329b1826.
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ofactionorpassioninanydirectsenseAristotlecannotsimplyshifttheobjectofhisdemonstrationtoonememberintheoppositionofheavyandlight,ashewilldo,
fortheoppositionofdensity,inthefourthargument.InsteadAristotleusesthecomparisonofheavinessintheatomstoestablishacomparisonoftemperature,inthe
waythatIhavedelineated,soastoarriveattheconclusion,notthatanatomwhichisheavierwillactupononewhichislessso,butthatanatomwhichismorehot
willactupononewhichislessso.
(vi)
IturnthereforetotheexpressionattheendofAristotle'sopeningstatementoftheAtomists'twintheses,thewords: (EL).OnceagainIhavepreferredthe
readinginAsulanus'Latintranslation:calidum...frigidum.
Obviously,thealterationhastobeconjectural.Ihaveadoptedit,becauseitconformstothesequenceofthoughtintheremainderofthepassage,wherebythepremiss
toeachargumentispickedupfromtheconclusiontotheprecedingargument.Thiswillalsobethecaseforthefirstargument,ifAristotlehasspecifiedtheopposition
ofhotandcoldastheillustrationofthethesiswhichheattributestotheAtomists.
Theatomscannotbehotorcold(326a3:theexampletothethesis)andyetheatisattachedtoaroundatom...(326a35:thepremisstothefirstargument).
Indeed,onthisreconstructiontherelationbetweentheexampletothethesisandthepremisstothefirstargumentwillcorrespondpreciselytotherelationbetween
theconclusiontothesecondargumentandthepremisstothethirdargument:ineachcase,Aristotleusestheformula ,326a9).
Iconcludethatthestructureofthefourargumentsmaybepresented,inaverysimplifiedform,asfollows:
Page76
Thesis:theatomsareinactiveandimpassible.
Example:theatomscannotbehotorcold.
Firstargument
Premiss:ifaroundatomishot
Conclusion:whatshapebelongstoacoldatom?
Secondargument
Premiss:iftheatomsarehotandcold
Conclusion:theyshouldalsobeheavyandlightandhardandsoft.
Thirdargument
Premiss:butanatomwhichisheavier
Conclusion:wouldleadtoanatomwhichwashotter.Butifatomshavedifferencesofheat....
Fourthargument
Premiss:ifanatomishard
Conclusion:theremustalsobeasoftatom.Butwhatissoft....
(vii)
BrieflythereforeIreturntoCherniss'understandingofthepassage:thebeliefthatDemocritusishereaccusedofinconsistency.
Thepointwillperhapsbeplainerifweconsideragainthetwoinstancesof ,usedtointroducethefirstandthirdarguments(326a34and326a9).In
neithercaseisAristotle'smeaningthatDemocritusdeniesthattheatomsarehotandcold,orheavyandlight,andthereforethatDemocritusisinconsistentinasserting
thattheymaybehotorheavy.Inbothcases,Aristotle'spointisthatDemocritus'theoryshouldexcludetheoppositionoftemperatureandofweight,butthat
Democritusdoesmake(some)allowanceforonememberofeitheropposition:aroundatomishoteachatomisheavier.FromthesetwoadmissionsAristotlethen
seekstoderivetheabsurdity,firstlythatthereshouldbeashapeforacoldatomaswellasforahotatom,andsecondlythattheadmissionofanatomwhichismore
heavy<or
Page77
lessso>wouldrequiretheadmissionofanatomwhichwasmorehotorlessso.
Ifweconsiderallthreeoppositions,oftemperature,weightanddensity,thenineachcaseAristotle'sdenialthattheatomscanbehotandcold(326a3),orhave
heavinessandlightness(326a78),orhavehardnessandsoftness(326a78),ispresentedasAristotle'sownconceptionofaconsequencewhichtheAtomistsshould
accept,whiletheassociationwhichAristotle,directlyorbyimplication,attributestotheAtomiststhemselvesisineachcaserestrictedtoonememberonlyofthe
opposition:namelythattheatomsare,ormaybeassociatedwith,whatishot(326a35),orheavy(326a910)orhard(326a13).1
Conclusion
Ithereforeparaphraseourfirstpassageasfollows:2
Thesis
'Since<ontheAtomists'owntheory>the<atomsor>indivisibleswouldbeabletoundergochangeoralterationonlythroughthemediationofvoid<andsinceatthesame
1
Atboth326a3and9(thefirstandthirdargumentsrespectively)Iadopttheadversativesenseof 326a8).
Itshouldbenotedthatinthiscombinationofparticlesthemeaningof isemphatic,notrestrictive.Thereisnoimplicationthatanatomis'atleastheavier<butnotheavy
absolutely>'.Themeaningis:'andyetonthispointheavinessDemocritusdoessay...'.SeeDenniston,Greekparticles564,cf.1201.Itishoweverdifficulttoconveythis
inflexion,eveninaparaphrase:asoften,writtenEnglishsimplydoesnotprovideforapreciserenderingofthenuanceoftheGreekparticles.
2
Degen.etcorr.i8,325b36326a14,quotedpp.412above.OnthenatureoftheseEnglishversionsparaphrasesandnottranslationsseethewarningattheheadoftheIndex
Locorum.
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timeeachatomisbydefinitionplenumandnotvoid>,thereforetheAtomistsmustmaintainthateachofthe<atomsor>indivisiblesisincapableofundergoingchangeor
alterationofanykindandthat<bythesametoken>itis<equally>incapableofproducinganykindofqualitativechangeoralteration<inanotheratomorindeedinanythingelse
atall>.
Example
'For<example>itis<orshouldbe>impossible<foranyoneoftheatoms>tobehotorcold.<Forinthatcasetheatomswouldbeexhibitingacertainqualitativeaffection,which
wouldrequirethemtobecapableofcausing,orofundergoing,changeoralterationofthekindentailedbythataffection.>
Refutation:
Firstargument
'AndyettheAtomistsdohandoutheat<asitwere>totheroundshape<ofatom>.
'Buttostopthereisillogical.Itmustfollowthattheopposite<ofheatwhichis>colddoesequallybelongtosomeothershape<ofatom>.
Secondargument
'<Buttheabsurditydoesnotstopthere.>Itwouldbeequallyoddifthesethingsdoindeedbelong<totheatoms>,Imeancoldnessandheat,whileatthesametime
heavinessandlightness,andhardnessandsoftness,arenotgoingto<becountedas>belong<ing>.
Thirdargument
'AndyetthefactisthatDemocritusdoessaythateachoneofthe<atomsor>indivisiblesismoreheavy<orlesssothananother>invirtueofitspreponderance<ordeficiency>.
Page79
'Hencebythesametoken anatom<whichishot>mustclearlybemorehot<orlessso>.
'Butoncetheatomsarecharacterisedthus<bydegreesofhotnessinthesamewayasbydegreesofheaviness>,theycannotescapebeingaffectedbyoneanother.
'Forexample,whatismildlyhotisnotgoingtoescapebeingaffectedbysomethingoverwhelminglyhotter.
Fourthargument
'Andthereisan<equivalent>objection<inthecaseofdensity>:ifanatomisgoingtobehard<asonemightexpectittobe,andastheAtomiststhemselvesobviouslyimagined
thatitwouldbe>,then<itmustbe>softaswell:<foritisimpossibletohaveoneoppositefromapairofcontrarieswithouttheother>.
'Butwhatissoftisatoncedefinedassuchbyitsabilitytoundergoacertainkindofchange:for'soft'is<precisely>whatiscapableofbeingcompressed.
'<Onceagainthereforeitisimpossibleinfactfortheatomnotbetosubjecttosomeformofchangeoralteration.>'1
1
Forafinalnoteonthemeaningof lookingbackfromthevantagepointoftheparallelpassageintheDecaeloseebelowp.100.
Page80
ChapterThree
Aristotle'DeCaelo'
1
IndividualAtoms
(i)
ThesecondAristoteleanpassagefromwhichwemayhopetorecoverDemocritus'theoryisatoncemorecomplex,atleastinitsimmediatecontext,andmore
informative.ItoccursinAristotle'sprimaryanalysisofweightinbookfouroftheDecaelo.
Welearnmorehere:bothbecauseAristotleisnotnowconcernedwiththeatomictheoryofweightonlyinpassing,asonestepinanargumentwhoseinterestis
focussedelsewhere,aswasthecaseintheDegenerationeetcorruptioneandprobablyalsobecauseAristotleisnotatthispointconcernedwithdisparagementof
theAtomists'theory,wrongthoughhethoughtthattheorytobe,but,initiallyatleast,withitsshorttermadvantagesvisvisthetheoryoftheTimaeus.
Ontheotherhand,thefactthatAristotle'scritiqueoftheAtomistsisstilltiedinatthispointwithhiscritiqueofthePlatonictheorymeansthatwestilldonotseethe
Atomists'theoryfullfaceon,asitwere,asweshalldoinTheophrastus,andthattheinterpretationofthepassagestillhastobehandleddelicatelytherefore.
(ii)
AftercriticisingaconsiderablysimplifiedversionofthetheoryofweightadvancedintheTimaeus,Aristotlecontinuesasfollows,iv2,308b28309a11(inpartDK
68A60):
Page81
(iii)
Chernissbelievesthatthewholeofthispassage,andinparticularthephrase, ,concernscompoundbodies.Heconcludes:
'Consequentlythispassage,whichisoneofthetwoinwhichAristotleissupposedtoattributeweighttotheatoms...saysnothingofthematter.'1
ProfessorGuthrie,whohadnottakenthepassagethiswayinhistranslationoftheDecaelo,nowagreeswithCherniss:
'IthinkChernisshasshownconclusively...thatthesewordsrefertocompounds.Theimmediatelyfollowing makesthisseemunnatural,butthewholeof
Aristotle'sargumentdemandsit,anditisnotthefirsttimethathehasbeencaughtoutincarelessorinelegantcomposition.'2
1
ACP211n.253,cf.97n.412.
2
Historyii403n.2.LoebednoftheDecaelo(1939)335.(ThereferencetoChernissinProfessorGuthrie'sHistoryshouldbecorrectedtoconformtothefootnoteprecedingthis.)
JohnL.Stocks,inhistranslationoftheDecaeloinTheworksofAristotletranslatedintoEnglishii(Oxford,1930),tookthephrasetodescribeindividualatoms,asProfessorGuthrie
hadoriginallydone.Otherrecenttranslatorscontinuetotakethepassageinthisway,forexampleOddoneLongo,inhiseditionandtranslationoftheDecaelo(Firenze,1961)263,and
Moraux,Budedn139butwhetherinignoranceof,orindisagreementwith,Cherniss,onecannottell.
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Thepassageisadmittedlysomewhatcomplex,atleastinitscentralportion,butacarefulexaminationofthoughtandargumentmakesitreasonablyclear,itseemsto
me,thatonthecontrarythereishereadistinctionbetweenindividualatomsandcompoundbodies,andadifferenttheoryofweightforeach.
Thiswillinfactprovetobepreciselythesamedistinction,andthesametwotheoriesofweight,thatwefindinTheophrastus'Desensibus,inapassagewhichwillbe
analysedlaterinthisessaybutforthesakeofclearexegesisitis,Ithink,advisabletostartbyanalysingAristotle'sevidenceindependently.1
PreliminaryAnalysis
(i)
ThefirstpartofAristotle'sargumentisfairlystraightforward.
ThePlatonistsarethosewhoseviewshavejustbeenoutlined provetobetheAtomists.
Aristotle'sargumentbeginswithastatementoffact ,whichhepresentsasthestartingoffpointfortheAtomists'speculations:oftwobodiesofdifferent
sizes,thesmallermaybetheheavier.
Fromthisfact,Aristotleargues,onbehalfontheAtomistsasitwere,thatitis'inadequate' forweighttobedeterminedsimplybythenumberofequal
primaryelementsinabody,forinthatcasetwobodiesofthesameweightwouldhavethesamenumberofprimaryelements,andtheywouldtherefore,ifnoother
factorisintroduced,havethesamevolume.
Theimplicationofthisisthatanyincreaseordiminutionofweightcouldthenbeattainedonlybyanincreaseordiminutionofvolume,sothatthesmallerbodywould
alwaysbethelighter,contrarytothefactnotedattheoutset,thatoftwobodiesofdifferentsizesthesmallermaybetheheavier.
Theviewwhichis'inadequate'isthatofthePlatonists.
1. (sc.theAtom
1
Desens.612,cf.ch.IV1,pp.11531below.
Page83
ists) .
2.Whatis'inadequate', .1
(ii)
BecauseAristotlepresentstheAtomists'theory,withdeliberateanachronism,asanadvanceuponPlato,heisledtoturnasideatthispointtoaddanadditional
refutationofthePlatonicview.Insodoing,hepostponesthecompletionofhisaccountofhowtheAtomistsadvancedfromtheinadequacyofthePlatonicviewto
theirownimprovementuponit.
Theprimarybodieswhichhadbeenpresentedasmakingupthetwobodieswhichwouldhavebeenatonceequalinvolumeandequalinweightarefurtherqualified
asindivisible .
1
ProfessorW.J.VerdeniussuggeststomeadifferentinterpretationofthismomentinAristotle'sargument,wherebytheconcludingsentenceofthisfirstpartofAristotle's
criticism,308b35, ,wouldmean:'Andthiswouldmakethemequalinvolume<only,andnotguaranteeanequalweight>'.Fortheellipseof'only'a
numberofpassagesarequotedbyhimin'CriticalandexegeticalnotesonDecaelo',SymposiumAristotelicum4ed.I.Dring(Heidelberg,1969)2712(adi7,276a6).
Thedisadvantageofthisinterpretation,itseemstome,isthatifPlato'sprimaryparticleswereabletoproducetwobodiesthesameinvolumeanddifferentinweightthenPlatowould
behalfwaytoexplainingthediscrepancybetweensizeandweightwhichAristotleherepresentsaspreciselythepointwherePlato'stheoryfails,andasthejumpingoffpoint,soto
speak,fortheAtomists'theory.Ihavethereforepreferredtoconstruethesubjectat308b35as ...,308b32).
Page84
Twogroupsoftheoristsaredistinguishedwithelementsofthiskind.
1.Therearethoseforwhomtheprimaryandindivisibleelementsaresurfaces .
2.Therearethoseforwhomtheprimaryandindivisibleelementsaresolids .
ThedistinctionisthesameasthatwhichInotedearlier,inthepreliminariestothepassagequotedinmysecondchapter,fromtheDegenerationeetcorruptione.
ThefirstgrouparePlatonists:theothersaretheAtomists.1
(iii)
OfthePlatonicviewAristotlewrites: .
The'absurdity'whichAristotlealludestoisentailedbytheconjunctionof ,andhadbeenspeltoutseveralpagesearlier(iii1,299a25300a19).
Conceptually,therefore,the'absurdity'ofthePlatonicviewliesforAristotleinthediscontinuitybetweensurfaceandsolid,ormorespecificallyinthediscontinuity
betweensurfacesand'bodieswhichhaveweight'.
Formally,therearetwopossibilities.
1.Itisperhapspossiblethatthediscontinuitybetweensurfaceandsolidaloneprovidestheobjectof .
2.Butitis,Ithink,perhapsrathermorenaturaltoaddtothisnotionastheobjectof .
1
Degen.etcorr.i8,325b2436(inpartDK67A7),p.41above.Thesamedistinctionisrepeatedbrieflyafterthepassageconcerningweight,326a214(notinDK).
Page85
Inthatcasethepointofthesentencewillbe:
'FromequalprimaryelementswhicharesurfacesitisridiculousforthePlatoniststoproducebodiesofequalweight,frommoreofthemheavierbodiesandfromfewerofthem
lighterones.'1
(iv)
Adoptionofthissecondelementintheobjectof .
Puttheotherwayround,theobjectof ,aswewouldexpectthemtobefromthegeneralparallelismbetweenthetwosentences.
1.'ItisridiculousforthePlatoniststoproduce...bodieswherethelargerisnecessarilytheheavier.'
2.'TheAtomistsdoinsteadhavesomerighttosay...that''thelargeristheheavier".'
Initself,however,thisdegreeofsimilaritybetweentheobjectof isnotnecessarilyanindicationthatwhatislargerandwhatisheavierwillbethesameinthe
twocases.
Forthetwoformulae,althoughsimilar,arenotidentical.
1.ThePlatonicformulanecessarilyreferstocompound
1
Thesetwowaysoftakingtheobjectof donotseemtohavebeenconsideredexplicitlyhitherto.Stocks,inhisOxfordtranslation,apparentlytakesthereferencetobe
merelyinternal,asitwere,andLongo,inhistranslationandedition,certainlydoesso,263:'Quantoallepartiprimeeindivisibili,sesiaffermachedisuperficichesonocostituitii
corpidotatidipeso,sidiceuneassurdit'.Mosttranslators,ontheotherhand,takethepassageasIhavedone,includingMoraux,Budedn139,andGuthrie,whotranslates
neatly,Loebedn335:'Thestatement'aboutbodiesofequalweightetc.'isindeedridiculousfromthosewhopostulatesurfaces...'.
Page86
bodies: .
2.Theatomicformulaneednotdoso: .
Fromtheimmediatecontextanduseoflanguagethereforetheatomicformulamayrefereithertoprimaryelementsor,likethePlatonicformula,tobodiesformed
fromtheelements.
Tothatchoicewemustreturnattheendofourpreliminaryanalysis.1
(v)
Forthemoment,thepointwhichweneedtoappreciateisthatAristotle'sinvocationoftheargumentfromhisearlieranalysis,onthequestionofthediscontinuity
betweensurfaceandsolid,isnotessentialtohisoriginalcritique.
ThePlatonists'inabilitytoexplainhowthelargerbodycanbelighteriswhatinitiallydistinguishesthemfromtheAtomists,andisalsoreckonedasthestartingoffpoint
fortheAtomists'moresophisticatedtheory.ThePlatonists'radicalinabilitytoproducebodieswhichhaveweightatall,isadiversionfromAristotle'soriginalargument.
Indeedsomuchsoisthis,thatinthesentenceimmediatelyfollowinghisremarksabout'primaryandindivisibleelements'Aristotlehasvirtuallytorepeatthetwopoints
fromtheearlierpartofhisargumentbeforehecancontinuehisoriginaltrainofthought.
1.Herepeatsthepointthatthelargerbodyisnotalwaystheheavier.
2.Herepeatsthepointthat,onthecontrary,theheavierbodyisoftenthesmaller.
Thesecondpointisrepeateddirectly.
1.Aristotlefirstwrote: .
2.Henowrepeatsthisas: .
1
Pp.8893below.
Page87
Thefirstpointisrepeatedrathermoredeviously.
1.Aristotlefirstwrote: .
Thislatterformula,asIhavenoted,carriesthesenseof: arethetwosides,sotospeak,ofthe
samePlatoniccoin.
2.Aristotlenowwrites: .
Theexpression ,andthereforeineffectresumesthesenseofAristotle'searlierformula.
Somuchisthisanewstart,thattheAtomistshavevirtuallytobeintroducedafresh.
1.Aristotlefirstwrote: .
2.Aristotlenowwrites: .
Aristotle'sneedtoresumeinthiswaythepointsofhisearlierargumentshowsclearlythattheinterveningmaterial,on'primaryandindivisibleelements',isbywayofan
interludein,oradigressionfrom,hisprimaryargument.
Thusthetwosentences, ...,arenotprimarilydesignedtofurtherthecontrastbetweenPlatonistsandAtomistsinexplainingdiscrepancybetweensize
andweightincompoundbodies.Rather,theyformasubsidiaryargument,whichturnsonthenatureoftheprimaryelements.
(vi)
Afterthisinterlude,Aristotle'sargumentisagainplainsailing.
Aristotleresumesbrieflythestagesofhispreviousargument,asIhavenoted.
Page88
ThedifferencebetweenPlatonistsandAtomistsisthenpointedbyachangeinexample.
1.ThePlatonistshadbeenabletodealplausiblyonlywithbodiesthatwereatoncelargerandheavier,308b78:
.
2.TheAtomistsareabletocopewithdiscrepanciesbetweensizeandweight, .
TheAtomists'trumpcardliesintheuseofvoid( ).Forinsuchcasesvoidexplainsthelargervolume,withoutaddingtotheweight:thenumber
ofsolidatomsmaybethesameorless.
ThusAristotlearrivesatthegeneralconclusion( )thatineverycasethepresenceofalargerquantityofvoidisthe
causeofonething'sbeinglighterthananother.1
TheDoubleArgument
(i)
Thusinthepassageasawholethereprovetobetwodisparatelinesofargument.
1.Thefirstargumentturnsonthequestionofhowitisthatthelargeroftwobodiesmaybethelighter.Theanswer,fortheAtomists,liesinthepresenceofvoidincompound
bodies.
Thepreliminarystatementofthisproblemcontinuesas
1
Aristotle'srecapitulationoftheatomisttheoryhasledsomecommentatorsRivaudandElderstosupposethatthetheoryintroducedafterthedigressionontheprimary
elements(309a2ff.)isnolongerthesameasthetheorywhichiscontrastedtothatofPlatoatthebeginningofthepassagethatIhavequoted(308b28ff.).Insofarasthisnotion
restssimplyonthefailuretoappreciatethesequenceofthoughtandargumentthatIhavealreadyoutlineditneednot,Ithink,intrudefurtheratthispoint.InDr.Elders'case,the
tendencytomultiply
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page89
faras (309a2)andthesolutiontotheproblemintermsofvoidoccupiestheremainderofthepassagewhichIhavequoted(309a211).
2.Inbetween(308b35309a2),thereisaseparateandsecondaryargument,whichturnsonthenatureoftheprimaryelements.
Thisdivisionofinterestisinitselfenoughtoshowthat,simplyfromthepointofviewofcontext, neednotreferdirectlyto
compoundbodies,forthepairofsentencesinwhichthatphraseoccursisnotdirectlypartofAristotle'sprimaryorinitialargument,andneednotthereforecontinue
theinterestincompoundbodiesonwhichthatargumentiscentred.
(ii)
ThuspreliminaryanalysisofAristotle'sargumentshowsthat neednotrefertocompoundbodies.Furtherreflectionshowsthatit
cannotdoso.
If arecompoundbodies,thenontheatomictheorytheyshouldbebodiesmadeupfrombothsolidandvoid.Butsequenceoflanguageandsequenceof
thoughtalikemakeitimpossibletointroducethedistinctionbetweenatomsandbodiescomposedofatomsandvoidinthispresentcontext.
1.Bodiescomposedofatomsandvoidareintroducedforthefirsttimeinanexplicitlyrecognisableformat tolookforwardtosomethingwhichhasnotyetbeen
mentioned.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
thenumberoftheoriesthatAristotlehastocriticisespringsfromhismisunderstandingofanumberofpassages,whichIshallconsidertogetherintheearlierofmytwoessayson
Aristotle.
ThereisanevenmoreobviouserrorinCarteron,whowrites,Lanotiondeforcedanslesystmed'Aristote(Paris,1923)40n.141:'C'taitlasuprioritdeDmocritesurPlaton(2,
309a12)depouvoirexpliquerqueleplusgrandestlepluslourd'.CarteronhastakentheconcessionthepointonwhichPlatoandDemocritusagreeastheprincipalpointofthe
passage.Thetruthisjusttheopposite.Itisinthecaseofcompoundbodies,wherethelargerisnotalwaystheheavier,thatDemocritusproveshissuperiorityoverPlato.
Page90
2.Evenif couldsomehowbetakentomean'bodiescomposedofatomsandvoid',itwouldruintheforceofAristotle'sargumentifsuchbodieswereintroducedatthis
juncture,outsidethesequenceofthoughtwhichleadstovoidastheexplanationofthelargeroftwobodiesbeingthelighter.
Thusif aretobecompoundbodiesatall,atthisjuncturetheywillhavetobebodiesmadesolelyofatoms.Thepointwouldthenbethatfromsolidprimary
particlestheAtomistscould,withmorejustificationthanthePlatonists,haveproducedcompoundbodieswherethelargerwastheheavier.
Butthiswouldbeanomen,orratherasententiavacui.ItwouldbeanaccountnotofwhattheAtomistsdidinfactdo,butofwhattheycouldhavedone,ifthey
hadmadeuseonlyofatoms,andiftheyhadadvancednofurtherthanthePlatonicformulathat'theheavieristhelarger'.
(iii)
Itisfarsimpler,therefore,andmoredirecttosupposethatthepointofthesentenceisnotthatthesolidsmakeupotherbodiesofwhichthelargercanbetheheavier:
butthateachsolidisitselfabodywhichhasweight,andofwhichthelargeristheheavier.
Onthisreading,thepointoftheargumentwillbethatthePlatonicprimaryelements,sincetheyaresurfaces,areuselessforgeneratingbodieswithweight,ofwhichin
anycasethelargerwouldhavetobeheavierandthesmallerlighter.TheAtomists'primarybodiesareatleastsolids:andtothesethereissomepointinapplyingthe
Platonicformulathatthelargeristheheavier.Itiswhenweturntocompounds( )thattheformula'largerandheavier'breaksdown,anditishere
thattheAtomistsintroduceanewanddifferentfactor:thevoid.
Apartfrommakingimmediatesenseofthepassage,thisinterpretationhasthecrucialadvantagethatitgivesproperforce,andsense,to immediatelypreceding.
Page91
Iconcludethereforethatfrom Aristotlerevertstohisoriginalargument,wheretheAtomists'inclusionofvoidintheircompoundbodiesenables
themtosolvewhatAristotlehaspresentedasthePlatonicdilemmaofhowthelargerbodycanbethelighter.Inthepairofprecedingsentences,Aristotleisconcerned
tocontrastnotcompoundbodies,butprimaryelements.
1.ThePlatonicprimaryelementscannotproperlyproducebodieswhichhaveweightnorthereforecantheyjustifyadequatelyeventhelimitedtheoryofweightwheretheheavier
bodymustalwaysbethelarger.
2.TheAtomistsstartofffromsolidbodieshavingweight:andatthisleveltheyhavesomerighttoapplytheformulathatwhatislargerisheavier.Themoredifficultquestion,of
howthelargerbodycanbelighter,theysolvebyhavingcompoundbodieswhereatomsarejoinedwithvoid.
TheTwoEquivalents
(i)
Inanearlierargument,IcommentedontheambiguityintherelationoftheatomstoAristotle'selements.TheatomscanbethoughtofascorrespondingtoAristotle's
ownelements,includingfireandearth,ortheycanbethoughtofaselementalparticlespriortotheformationofearthandfire.1
Thepresentpointisperhapsclearer,ifagainwereflectthattherearetwopossibleequivalentsintheatomicsystemtothePlatonicdistinctionbetweensurfacesand
'bodieswhichhaveweight'.
Fromonepointofview,the'bodieswhichhaveweight',inthePlatonicsystem,arebodiesmadeupfromtheelements(surfacesortriangles)andsowillcorrespond
tobodiescompoundedofatomsandthevoid.Onthisreckoning:
1.Platonicsolidscorrespondtobodiescomposedofatomsandthevoid.
1
Pp.378above.
Page92
2.Platonicsurfacesthereforecorrespondtoatoms.
However,fromanotherpointofview,surfacesandsolidsarecontrasted,andthereforeatomsareequivalentnottosurfaces,buttothethreedimensionalbodies
which,onthePlatonicsystem,aregeneratedfromsurfaces.
Fromthispointofview:
1.Platonicsolids,composedofsurfaces,correspondtotheatoms.
2.Platonicsurfaceshavenodirectequivalentintheatomicsystem.
ThusthereisacertainambiguityintherelationofatomstothePlatonicsystem.
1.Fromonepointofview,atomscorrespondtosurfacesandarethereforedistinctfromthethreedimensionalbodieswhichonthePlatonicsystemaregeneratedfromsurfaces.
2.Fromtheotherpointofview,atomsaredistinctfromsurfacesandcorrespondtothethreedimensionalbodieswhichareformedfromsurfaces.
Thepointcanperhapsbestbeappreciateddiagrammatically.
__ ______ bodiescompoundedofatoms
andvoid
Page93
(ii)
Inhismainargument,Aristotleisconcernedwiththefirstequivalence,sinceitisatthislevelthattheAtomistsareabletoexplain,bytheirintroductionanduseofthe
void,howthelargercompoundbodyisthelighter,whilethePlatonistsarecondemnedtohavingthelargercompoundbodyalwaystheheavier.
Thesecondequivalencewouldbeuselessforthispurpose,forifatomscorrespondtoPlatonicsolidsthenbodiescompoundedofatomsandthevoidhavenodirect
equivalentinthePlatonicsystem,andthepointofthecontrast,betweenPlatonicsolidbodies,wherethelargerisalwaysnecessarilytheheavier,andtheatomic
compoundbodies,wherethelargerbodycanbelighteristhereforelost.
Ontheotherhand,inhisparenthesisontheprimaryelements,Aristotlestartspreciselyfromthecontrastofsurfaceandsolid,anditislikelythereforethathewill
intendthesecondequivalencewheninthiscontexthewritesthat'thelargeristheheavier'.
ForthepointisthattheAtomistsareabletoescapefromthenecessaryconjunctionofweightandvolumeintheiraccountofthecompoundbodies,whiletheyretain
thatconjunctionontheleveloftheprimaryelements.
Ontheleveloftheprimaryelements,theAtomists'advantageoverPlatoliesnotintheirabilitytoaccountfordiscrepanciesofsizeandofvolume,butintheirchoiceof
solidbodiesasdistinctfromsurfaces.
Toresume:Platonicsolids,composedofsurfaces,canbeseenasequivalenteither(1)tobodiescompoundedofatomsandthevoidor(2)totheatomsalone.Inthe
firstcase,theAtomistsescapefromthenecessaryconjunctionofweightandsizebytheiruseofvoid,whichallowsthelargerbodytobelighter.Inthesecondcase,
theAtomists,likePlato,arerestrictedtotherulethatthelargerbodyistheheavier,andthedifferenceliesonlyinthepointthatfortheAtomiststheprimaryelements
aresolidsandnotsurfaces.
Page94
OtherInterpreters
GuthrieandCherniss
(i)
NeitherChernissnorProfessorGuthrieappearstoshowanyrecognitionofthetwostrandsinAristotle'sargumentation,northereforeanyawarenessthatthetwo
sentenceswhichinoneguiseoranothercontaintheformulathatthelargeristheheavierarenotdirectlypartofAristotle'sprimarysequenceofthought.Consequently,
theyrecogniseonlythefirstequivalence,andattempttoapplythistothewholepassage,andsotoforceadistinctionbetween .
ThisleadsthemtoassumethatthesimilaritywhichInotedinthecourseofmypreliminaryanalysisbetweenthePlatonicformula(
)entailsanidentityofobject,andmustthereforeindicate,forPlatoandfortheAtomistsalike,compoundbodies,asdistinctfrom
Platonicsurfacesoratomicsolids.
(ii)
This,atleast,ishowIinterpretCherniss'processesofthought.ForifwelookbacktodiscoverhowChernisshas'shownconclusively'(asProfessorGuthrietellsus)
thatatomsarenotintendedby ,wefindinfactlittlemorethanbriefparaphraseandbareassertion.
TheonlysentencesofferedbyChernisswhicharedemonstrativeinformrunasfollows:
'Thosewhomaketheelementscorporealcanwithgreaterreasonsaythatthelargercompoundbodyistheheavier.Thisneithersaysnorimpliesthatthelargeratomisheavier
thanthesmaller,fortheexplanationwouldhavetoholdalsofordifferentvolumesofthesamekind,i.e.consistingofadifferentnumberofatomsofthesamesize.'1
1
ACP211n.253,cf.pp.812above.
Page95
IamnotentirelyclearwhatpreciseargumentativeforceCherniss'observationsareintendedtodisplayatthispoint.Chernissseemstoassumeashispremissthat
compoundbodiesareintendedby ,andtoconcludefromthisthatcompoundbodieswhichareheavierandlargerneednotrequiretheatomswhichformthem
tobeheavierandlargeraswell,sinceonecompoundbodycouldbeheavierandlargerthananotherbecauseitwasconstitutedofagreaternumberofatomsofthe
samesizeastheatomswhichconstitutethesmallercompoundbody.
Thisconclusionistrue,butthetruthoftheconclusiondoesnotprovethetruthofthepremiss:noreasonisgivenforsupposingthatcompoundbodies,andnotatoms,
areinfactthesubjectofAristotle'sformula.
Essentially,ChernissandGuthriefailtoshowanyrecognitionofthehiatusinAristotle'smainlineofthought,causedbythecontrastofPlatonicsurfacesandatomic
solids,noranyappreciationoftherebeingtwopossiblesetsofequivalentswhichwillembracetheAtomists'primaryelementsandthoseofPlato.
Simplicius
Asitis,Cherniss'mostpowerfulargumentliesnotinanydetailedanalysisofAristotle'sreasoning,butinhisclaimthatSimplicius'interpretationofthepassageagrees
withhisown.1
Butthisclaimprovestobeillfounded.
(i)
Simplicius,itistrue,inhiselaborationofAristotle'scritique,doesmakeatomsthecauseofcompoundbodies'beingheavierandlarger,Decaelo685.1317:
.
'Sincethefactsofexperiencedonotaccord( )withthebeliefthateachofthecompoundbodiesobeysthisrule,namelythatthelarger<body>isinvariablythe
1
ACP211n.253.
Page96
heavier...itfollowsthatatoms<alone>cannotbeheldresponsible<forthedifferencesthatweobserveintheweightofbodies>,foratoms<alone>doofnecessitymakethe
larger<body>heavier.'
Simpliciuswritesthus,becauseheadoptstheformulathatatomsarecauseofheavinessandthatvoidiscauseoflightness,sothatatomscausethelargerbodytobe
heavier,whilevoidcausesthelargerbodytobelighter.1
(ii)
ButthisdoesnotmakeSimplicius'interpretationthesameasthatofCherniss,forSimpliciusstartsoutpreciselybyacknowledgingadifferenceofweightintheatoms,
andbyparaphrasinginthissenseAristotle'sformula,that'thelargerofthemistheheavier'.Hewrites,Decaelo685.911:
.
Itranslate:
'Thosewhostatethattheprimaryelementsaresolids,asdoDemocritusandhisassociates,areentitledtoclaimthatthelargeristheheavier.Forthethingsfromwhichbodiesare
compounded( ).'
(iii)
Correctlyinterpreted,therefore,Simplicius'commentaryservesonlytoreinforcetheinterpretationthatIhavegiven.
Intheearlierpassage(685.911),SimpliciusemploysAristotle'sformula,wherebythelargeristheheavier,asadescriptionoftheatomsor'solids'.Simplicius
explainsthatthelargeratomor'solid'canbetheheavierbecausetheatomswhichmakeup
1
Decaelo684.1922,cf.685.224.TheplaceofthisinterpretationinAristotle'sanalysisoftheatomictheoryasawholewillbetakenaccountofinmythirdessay.
Page97
bodiesarethemselvesbodieswhichhaveweight,unliketheweightlesssurfacesofPlato'stheory.
Inthefollowingpassage(685.1317),Simplicius'pointisthatevenatomswhichhaveweightcannotexplainthediscrepancybetweensizeandvolume,wherebythe
largercompoundbodyisnotalwaystheheavier.AtthispointthereforeSimpliciusdoesemployAristotle'sformulatodescribecompoundbodiesbuthedoessoonly
inordertopointupthelimitationoftheatomictheory,ontheleveloftheprimarysolids,andtheneedthereforeforanadditionalfactor,void,inordertoexplainthe
discrepancybetweensizeandvolumeamongthecompoundbodies(cf.685.17ff.).
Inthepassageasawhole,therefore,Simplicius'point,asAristotle'spoint,isthatbytheintroductionofvoidtheAtomistsescapefromtheruletowhichtheyare
boundintheiranalysisoftheweightofindividualatoms.FortheAtomists,therulewherebythelargeristheheavierappliesonlytotheindividualatomsor'solids',and
nottobodiescompoundedofatomsandvoid.1
'ItisPossibletoSay...'
Thereremainsafinaldifficulty.Aristotlewrites: ....ItmaybeobjectedthatthismeansthattheAtomistscouldhavesaid,notthatthey
didsay.
ThedegreeofobjectivityinAristotle'saccountoftheatomictheory,particularlyinthelightofhisuseofthetheoryaspartofhiscriticismofPlato,willbegivensome
attentioninthefollowingtwosectionsofthischapter.ForthemomentIconsideronlythemoreimmediateimplicationof .
TheambiguitythatIhavenotedcannotperhapsberesolvedconclusively.NonethelessitseemstomethatifAristotlehadintendedtocontrastanactualbeliefofthe
Platonistswithahypo
1
Itisinterestingtonotethatwhen,inthelaterpassage(685.1317),Simpliciuswritesthatatomsaloneareinadequateasanaccountoftheweightofcompoundbodies,hecomes
closetotheideawhichInotedearlier(pp.8990)ofabody'compounded'ofatomsalone.Simplicius'commentarymakesclearthatthisisanentirelyhypotheticalconstruct,
designedsolelytohighlighttheimpassewhichtheAtomistsavoidedbytheintroductionofvoid.Itisonlyinthecontextofthishypotheticalandultimatelyimpossibletheory
thatthelargercompoundbodywouldbe,fortheAtomists,invariablytheheavier.
Page98
theticalconsequenceoftheatomictheoryhewouldmorenaturallyhavewritten .Asitis,theplainuseoftheindicative,inthe
presenttense,willIthinkmostnaturallymeanonlythattheAtomists'dohavesomerighttosay,astheydo...'.
Ifthesentenceistakeninthissense,thenthequalificationcontainedin ).1
Conclusion
Iparaphrasetherefore:2
ContrastbetweentheAtomistsandPlato
'TherewerethosethenwhoexplainedanddefinedheavyandlightinthewayIhavedescribed.
'Othersdidnotconsiderthatthedistinctionanddefinitionofheavyandlightontheselineswasadequate,andalthoughtheybelongedtoanearliergenerationtheirideasonthe
subjectofourpresentenquirywerenovelandmoreuptodate.
'Theobviousfactisthatsomebodiesaresmallerinbulkthanothers,whilebeingheavierthanthem.
'Fromthisitplainlyfollowsthatitisnotgoodenoughto
1
Fromthispointofviewitisimportanttonotethatthemeaningof '.
IntheseparagraphsIanticipatetheconclusionofmystudyofAristotle'scriticismofPlato'stheory,takenaccountofinmysecondessay,whereIarguethatAristotle'sexposition
doesrepresent,fromhisownpointofview,theessentialfeaturesofPlato'sbelief.
2
Decaeloiv2,308b28309a11,quotedpp.801above.
Page99
claimthatbodiesofequalweightarecomposedofequalprimaryelements.Forthiswouldmakebodies<thatareequalinweight>equalinvolume,<andanincreaseordiminution
ofweightcouldthenbeachievedonlybyanincreaseordiminutionofvolume>.
ParenthesisonthePrimaryElements
'Inbothsystems,theprimaryelementsareindivisible.
'Theonegroupmaintainsthattheyaresurfacesandthatfromthesesurfacesarebuiltupbodiesthathaveweight.<Onthisbasis,>theirclaim<toexplainweightevenintheway
thathasbeendescribed>isabsurd.
'Theothergroupaccountstheprimaryelementsassolids.Theydo<therefore>insteadhavesomerighttoclaim<astheydo>thatthelargeroftheseistheheavier.
ContinuationoftheContrastbetweentheAtomistsandPlato
'Withcompoundbodiesitisdifferent.
'Itisobviousthateachofthecompoundbodiesdoesnotfollowtherule<thatthelargeristheheavier>.
'Onthecontrary,weseethatmanycompoundbodiesareheavier,andyetsmallerinbulk.<Asmallpieceof>bronze,forexample,<isheavier>than<apileof>wool.
'Toaccountforthis,somepeoplereckonthatforcompoundbodiestheremustbeadifferentcauseofweight,andtheyexpressthemselvesaccordingly.Theyclaimthatitisvoid
thatgivesbodiesbuoyancybygettingtrappedandshutupinsidethem.
'Thisitis,theyclaim,thatbringsitaboutthattherearetimeswhenlargerbodiesarelighter.Thereasonisthattheyhavemorevoid:thatiswhysomebodiesarelargerinvolume
thansomethingelse,althoughtheyareoftenmadeupofanequalnumber,orevenfewer,solidpiecesthantheotherthing.
TheAtomists'DefinitionofhowOneThingisLighterthanAnother
'Asageneralrule,then,andineverycasetheyclaimthat
Page100
thecauseofonething'sbeinglighter<thananother>isthefactthatthereismorevoidpresentinsideit.'
2
CompoundBodies
(i)
IntheDegenerationeetcorruptionewearetoldthatDemocritus'atomsdifferinweightaccordingtotheir'preponderance'.FromtheDecaelowelearn,Ibelieve,
thatthisdifferenceinweightoftheatomsisinfactcorrelatedwithadifferenceofsize,sothatthelargeranatomistheheavieritwillbe.
Fromthisvantagepoint,therefore,itispossibletolookbackattheexpression doesnotinitselfmeanalargersize,itisnowpossible,inthelightofmy
analysisofthepassagefromtheDecaelo,toseethattheimplicationoftheexpressionfromtheDegenerationeetcorruptionewillbevirtuallythesameasthe
meaningoftheexpressionfromtheDecaelo.
1.IntheDecaelo:'thelargerofthem<theatoms>isheavier'(iv2,309a2).
2.IntheDegenerationeetcorruptione:'eachoftheindivisiblesisheavieraccordingtoitspreponderance<ofsize>'(i8,326a9).1
1
Forthedisputeoverthemeaningof seepp.438and612above.Fromthissamepointofview,wemayacceptthesuggestionofVerdeniusandWaszink,Comments
42,thatthesentenceintheDegenerationeetcorruptione'maybeexplainedasacontaminationoftwoideas,''eachatomhasweight"and"anatomistheheavierthelargeritis".'I
preferhowevernottobasetheinitialinterpretationofthepassageintheDegenerationeetcorruptionedirectlyonthenotionofsize,andthereforeIwouldretainastheprimary
implicationofthepassagemyconclusionwherebythe'otherhalf'ofthecomparisonisthateachatomwillbe'moreheavy<orlessso>'accordingtoits'preponderance<or
deficiency>',cf.pp.612above.
FortheplaceoftheDegenerationeetcorruptioneinasummaryoftheevidencefrombothAristotleandTheophrastus,seebelowp.150.
Page101
(ii)
Butthereisnowafreshproblem.IntheDecaeloAristotleaddsadefinitionoflightness:'...ineverycasethecauseofonething'sbeinglighter<thananother>isthe
factthatthereismorevoidpresentinsideit'(cf.iv2,309a1011).
Whatpreciselyisthemeaningofthisformula?
1.DoestheformulawhichAristotlehaspresentedmeansimplythatwecomparetheamountofvoidinonebodywiththeamountofvoidinasecondbody?
2.Ordoesitrequireustocomparetheproportionofvoidtosolidinonebodywiththeproportionofvoidtosolidinasecondbody?
Thereisarealdistinctionbetweenthesetwoformulae,forabodywhichhasmorevoidthananother,absolutelyspeaking,maynonethelesshaveasmallerproportion
ofvoidtosolidthanthesecondbodyhas.
NonethelessIshallsuggesteitherthattheAtomiststhemselvesfailedtochoosebetweenthetwoformulae,orthatforthemthiswasinpracticeadistinctionwithouta
difference.
This,Ibelieve,istheinferencethatcanbedrawnfromthecontinuationofAristotle'sanalysis.1
TheCorollary
InthepassagewhichimmediatelyfollowsthecomparisonbetweenDemocritusandPlatoquotedatlengthinthefirstsection
1
Here,asinmyparaphrase(p.100above),Ihavetakentheexpression'whatislighter'(iv2,309a1011)toimplyacomparisonbetweentwodifferentbodies.Itwouldbepossibleto
imaginetakingasinglebody,andincreasingtheamountofvoidinsideit,soastomaketheonebody'lighter'thanitwasbefore.Butthiswouldmeanthattheproportionofvoidto
solidinthebodyinitslaterstatewasgreaterthantheproportionofvoidtosolidinthebodyinitsearlierstate,andsowouldcoincideinitsresultwiththecomparison,between
differentbodies,oftheproportionofvoidtosolidineach.
Myparaphrasealsoexcludesthepossibilitythatabodyissaidtobelighterifithasmorevoidthansolid.WhenAristotlerepeatstheAtomists'formulahemakesitexplicitthatthe
onebodyhasmorevoid'thanotherbodiesdo'(cf.309a2930).
Page102
ofthischapter,Aristotleaddsasignificantcorollarytotheatomictheory.
Itisnotenough,hetellsus,tospecifythatonebodywillbelighterthananotherinvirtueofhavingmorevoid.Theamountofsolidthatithasmustalsobeless.Forif
thebodywhichhasmorevoidwereto'oversteptheanalogy'thenitwouldnolongerbelighter.
Aristotlewrites,Decaeloiv2,309a1118: .
TheprecisenatureofAristotle's'analogy'hascausedmuchbewilderment.Thequestionisacomplexone,andIshallleaveafulldiscussionthereforeuntilthefirstof
mylatertwoessaysonAristotle.
TheconclusionIshallarguetothereisthatAristotlewritesexplicitlyofthecomparisonofvoidtovoidandofsolidtosolidbetweenonebodyandanother,whileat
thesametimehisanalysisrequiresacomparison,betweenthetwobodies,oftheproportionofvoidtosolidineach.
1.Thusthebodywhichwillexemplifytheanalogyisabodywhichislargerandlighterthananother.ThisisthebodywhichAristotlepresentsastheAtomists'answertoPlato.
2.Thedanger,the'overstepping'oftheanalogy,liesintheappearanceofabodywhichwillbelargerandheavier.ThisisthekindofbodythatthePlatonistscanproduce,even
withoutthehelpofvoid.
ThefirstbodyAristotlesupposeswillhavemorevoidandlesssolidthananother,whilefromthisitfollowsthatitwillalsohaveagreaterproportionofvoidtosolid
thanthebodytowhichitiscompared.
ThesecondbodyAristotlesupposeshasmorevoidandmoresolidthananother,whileatthesametimehetakesforgrantedat
Page103
thispoint,orpossiblyoverlooks,thenecessityforitalsotohaveagreaterproportionofsolidtovoidthanthebodytowhichitiscompared.
Iparaphrasetherefore:
'Thatthenishowtheyexpresstheirtheory.
'Butwhenthedefinitionoflightnessiscastinthisform,wemustadd,notonlythatthebodyinquestion,ifitistobelighter,hasmorevoid,butalsothatthesolidithasisless.
'Forifthebodyinquestionoverstepsthisratio<sothatinsteadoftherebeingmorevoidandlesssolidthereismorevoidandmoresolid>,then<whileitwillstillbelarger>itwill
nolonger<necessarily>belighter.
'Taketheexampleoffire,whichtheysayislightestofallbecauseithasmostvoid.
'<Ifthatisalltheysay,>thenalotofgoldwillturnouttohavemorevoidthanalittlefire,andsowillbelighter,unlessitisgoingtohavemanytimesthequantityofsolidaswell.
'Sothis<thecomparisonofsolid>needstobespecified<aswellasthecomparisonofvoid>.'1
DifferencesofVolume
WhatissignificantformyimmediatepurposeisthatAristotle'scorollary,ontheneedtospecifythecomparisonofsolid,istrueonlywhenthebodiesbeingcompared
haveadifferentvolume.
(i)
Thusifonebodyhasmorevoid,orhaslessvoid,thananother,andhasadifferentvolume,thenfromthatfactalonewecannottellwhetheritwillhavemoresolid
thanthesecondbody,orless.
ThisitisthatprovokestheneedforAristotle'scorollary.InhisfinaldefinitionAristotletellsusthattheAtomistshavedefinedas
1
ThereisaslightanacolouthoninAristotle'sexpression,whichIhavecarriedoverintothesecondparagraphofmyparaphrase.Theoriginaldefinitionisthatthereshouldbe
morevoid,andwhatwe'add'toitthereforeisonlythatthereshouldbelesssolid.Thenotionof .
Page104
lighterabodywhichhasmorevoidthananother(309a1011).
1.Abodywhichhasmorevoidthananothermayalsohavelesssolid,andinthatcase,accordingtotheinterpretationthatIhaveoutlined,Aristotlesupposesthatitwillbelarger
andlighter.
2.Butabodywhichhasmorevoidthananothermayalsohavemoresolidaswell,andinthatcase,accordingtotheinterpretationthatIhaveoutlined,Aristotlesupposesthatit
willbelargerandheavier.
ThepointtonoteisthatinthesecondcasetheinfringementoftheAtomists'formula,the'overstepping'oftheanalogy,ispossibleonlyifthetwobodiesdifferin
volume.Abodycanhavemorevoidandmoresolid,onlyifitisalsothelargerofthetwo.
(ii)
Iftwobodiesbothhavethesamevolume,thenanincreaseordiminutionofvoidcanbeattainedonlybyacorrespondingdiminutionorincreaseofsolidmatter.
Therewillbenoneedthereforetoaddexplicitlythattheremustbelesssolid,orthattheremustbemore.
1.Ifthetwobodiesarethesamesize,thentheonewhichhasmorevoidthantheotherwillnecessarilyhavelesssolid.
2.Similarly,ifthetwobodiesarethesamesize,thentheonewithlessvoidthantheotherwillnecessarilyhavemoresolid.
Inthefirstcase,therefore,itwillbesufficienttosaysimplythatthebodywithmorevoidinitisthelighter,sincefortheretobemorevoidtheremustbeeitherfewer
orsmalleratoms.
Inthesecondcase,itwillbesufficienttosaysimplythatthebodywithlessvoidwillbetheheavier,sincefortheretobelessvoidtheremustbeeithermoreorlarger
atoms.
(iii)
Aristotle'scorollary,ontheneedtospecifythecomparisonof
Page105
solidmatter,willmostprobably,itseemstome,implythattheAtomiststhemselvesinfactdefinedonebodyaslighterthananothersolelywithreferencetotheamount
ofvoiditcontained.
Therearethereforetwopossibilities.
TheonepossibilityisthattheAtomiststhemselvesneglectedtoconsiderthecomparisonofvolumeintheirdefinitionofhowonebodyislighterthananother.
ThealternativepossibilityisthattheAtomists'ownformulationsabouttheweightofcompoundbodieswerecastexplicitly,orbyimplication,intermsofbodiesof
equalvolumes,sincethesearetheoneinstancewhereabodycanbedefinedaslighterorasheavierthananothersolelyintermsoftheamountofvoidwhichit
contains,withnoneedtoaddanycorollaryabouttheamountofsolidmatteralsobeingmoreorless:ifthetwobodiescomparedareequalinvolume,thenthe
comparisonofvoidwithvoidwillentailthecomparisonofsolidwithsolidandnolessthecomparison,betweenthetwobodies,oftheproportionofvoidtosolidin
each.1
Conclusion
IconcludethatmostprobablytheAtomists'definitionofhowonebodyislighterthananotherwillhavebeensufficientlyexpressedbytheformulathatalighterbody
willbetheonethathasmorevoid,eitherbecausethecomparisonofvolumeswasleftoutofaccount,orbecausethevolumesofthetwobodiesbeingcompared
werethoughtofasequal,sothatthebodywithmorevoidthananotherwouldalsonecessarilybethebodywhichhadlesssolid.Inthissecondcase,thecomparison
betweentwobodiesofvoidwithvoidwouldnecessarilyhavecarriedwithitthecomparisonofsolidwithsolid,andthecomparisonbetweenthetwobodiesofthe
proportionofsolidtovoidineach.
1
Itmaybenotedthatthecomparisonofvoidwithvoid,evenbetweentwobodiesthatareequalinvolume,doesnotentailanyinformationabouttheproportionofvoidtosolid
withintheonebody,i.e.wecannottellwhetherwithinonebodytherewillbemorevoidthansolidorviceversa.Thisandotherintricaciesarepursuedinmythirdessay,which
containsamuchmoredetailedanalysisofAristotle'scriticismoftheatomictheoryatthispoint.
Page106
3
Aristotle'sCriticism
IhaveconcludedthattheAtomiststhemselves,intheirdefinitionoflightness,eitherleftthecomparisonofvolumesoutofaccount,orintendedtheirdefinitiontoapply
tobodiesthatwereequalinvolume.
Thisconclusionisconfirmed,Isuggest,ifwelookatAristotle's'corollary'totheatomictheory(iv2,309a1118)inthelightoftwootherpassages,firstthe
penultimatedefinitionoflightnessinAristotle'scomparisonoftheAtomistsandPlato,andsecondlythecomparisonofearthandfireinAristotle'scriticismofthe
atomictheory.
ThePenultimateDefinition
(i)
Thefinaldefinitionoftheatomictheoryoflightness,precedingthe'corollary',statesthat'asageneralruleandineverycasethecauseofonething'sbeinglighter<than
another>isthefactthatthereismorevoidpresentinsideit'(iv2,309a1011).ThisisthedefinitionwhichAristotleclaimsisincomplete,andtowhichtheAtomists
needto'add'thespecificationofsolid(309a1118).
ThepenultimatedefinitionwhichAristotleprovidesfortheatomictheoryoflightness,inthepassagewhichIanalysedearlier,isasfollows,Decaeloiv2,309a610:
.
Iparaphraseagain:
'Itisthevoidwhichgetstrappedinsidebodiesthatmakesthemlighter,orsotheyclaim,andthatbringsitaboutthattherearetimeswhenthelargerbodiesarethelighterones,
thereasonbeingthattheyhavemorevoidinsidethemthisishowitcomesaboutthattheyarelargerinbulkthantheothers,despitethefactthatoftentheyaremadeupofan
equalnumber,orevenfewer,solidpieces.'
Page107
Thisdefinitiondoesspecifytheamountofsolid: .
Therefore,evenwhenAristotlewouldseemtobegivingtheAtomists'ownexplanationoflightness,infact,onhisownadmission,hecannotbedoingso.Forthe
penultimatedefinition,sinceitspecifiesthecomparisonbothofvoidandofsolid,cannotbeopentothecorrectionthat'thosewhodefinewhatislighterthus'(
,309a12ff.)mustaddthecomparisonofsolidtoadefinitionexpressedsolelyintermsofvoid.
Iconcludetherefore:
1.Thepenultimatedefinition(iv2,309a610)isinaccurate,historically,atonceinthedeliberateapplicationoftheformulatobodieswhichdifferinsize,andalsointhe
specificationwhichitthereforehastoprovideofthecomparisonofsolidmatter.
2.Thefinaldefinition( ,309a1011)willbehistoricallyaccurateinexpressingthedefinitionoflightnesssolelyintermsofthequantityorproportionofvoid,asaresult
eitheroftheAtomists'failingtoconsiderthecomparativesizeofthebodiesinquestion,oroftheirtakingforgrantedthatthetwobodiesbeingcomparedareequalinvolume.
(ii)
Byfarthemostlikelyreasonforthis,itseemstome,liesinthecontextofAristotle'scriticismofPlato.Aristotlehashimselfcasttheatomictheoryintoaformwhich
willputPlatoatadisadvantage.
Insodoing,Aristotlehasbeendrawnintoanelaborationoftheatomictheoryintermsofbodieswhichdifferinvolume,andhehasthereforebeenledtospecifythe
comparisonofsolidmatter.ForonlyinthiswaycantheatomictheorybemadetoworkasarefutationofPlato.
Fromthisitseemstomeclearthatonlythegeneralisingconclusiontotheatomicdefinitionofweight,namelythatthelighterbodyistheonewiththemorevoid,canbe
historicallyaccurate,309a1011: .
Page108
Theprecedingdefinition,onAristotle'sownshowing,isinaccurateinthespecificationwhichitprovidesofthecomparisonofsolidmatter.
'GoldandFire'and'EarthandFire'
Byafortunatechance,thediscrepancybetweenweightandvolumeisrelevantnotonlytoAristotle'sinitialpresentationoftheatomictheoryinthecontextofhis
comparisonwithPlato,butnolesstohiscriticismofthetheoryinthefollowingpagesoftheDecaelo.
Theformwhichthislatercriticismtakesprovidesus,Isuggest,withrenewedreasonforsupposingthattheAtomists'ownformulationoftheirtheorywasnotcastin
theformofacomparisonbetweenbodieswhichdifferedinvolume.
(i)
AfterhiscontrastofPlatoandtheAtomists,Aristotle'sattitudechangescompletely.InsteadofsayingthattheAtomists,unlikePlato,wereabletocopewith
discrepanciesbetweenweightandvolume,AristotlenowclaimsthattheAtomistsare'caughtinthesamedifficulties'asarethose,likePlato,whoexcludethevoid.
TheturnsandtwistsofAristotle'sargumentatthispointaremorethanusuallycomplex.AgainthereforeIreserveadetailedanalysisformycommentaryonbookfour
oftheDecaeloasawhole,andproceedherefromtheconclusionswhichIshallarguetolater.1
TheargumentwhichAristotleeventuallyarrivesatrunsasfollows,iv2,309a33b4: .
1
Meanwhilecf.pp.1619above.
Page109
Iparaphrase:
'...howwilltheydefinewhatisheavyabsolutely?
'Eitheritwillbebyitshavingmoresolid,oritwillbebyitshavinglessvoid.
'Ifthatisthedefinitiontheyoffer,then<onthefirstalternative>therewillbeacertainquantityofearthsotinythatinittherewillbelesssolidthaninahugequantityoffire.
'<Inthatcase,firewillendupbeingheavierthanearth.>
'Therewillbeanequivalentcircumstanceif<pursuingthesecondalternative>theyphrasethedefinitionintermsofvoid:<i.e.therewillbeacertainquantityofearthsolargethat
inittherewillbemorevoidthaninatinyquantityoffire.>
'Inthatcasetherewillendupbeingsomethinglighterthanwhatislightabsolutely.
'Indeed,whatisalways<andonly>bornedownwards<namelyearth>willbetheverything thatislighterthanwhatalways<andonly>movesupwards<namelyfire>.
'Thatisimpossible.'
(ii)
WhatisinterestingaboutthesecondmemberinAristotle'sargument,oncewehave,asitwere,unfoldeditfromitscocoon,isthatthecomparisonitenvisages
correspondsexactlytothecomparisonofgoldandfirewhichAristotleaddedaspartofthecorollarytohisearliercritiqueoftheAtomists.1
1.Inhisearlierpassage,Aristotlecomparedalargequantityofgoldwithatinyquantityoffire.
2.Inhispresentargument,Aristotlecomparesalargequantityofearthwithatinyquantityoffire.
Buttheresultsinthetwopassagesareexactlytheopposite.
1.Inhisearlierargument,Aristotlesaidthatitwasnot
1
Theearlierpassageisiv2,309a1118,paraphrasedp.103above.
Page110
enoughforsomethinglargerandlightertohavemorevoid:itmustalsohavelesssolid.Foralargequantityofgoldcouldhavemorevoidthanatinyquantityoffire,andsowould
belighter,exceptthatithasmanytimesmoresolid,andsoisinfactheavierthanfire.
2.Inthepresentargument,alargequantityofearthhasmorevoidthanatinyquantityoffire,sothatearthislighterthanfire.
Theimmediatereasonforthisreversalisthatthedefence, ,whichAristotleprovidedintheearlierpassage,whenhewas
takingthesideoftheAtomists,asitwere,againstPlato,isprecludedinthelaterpassagebythepolemicaldecisiontotreateithervoidorsolidascauseofweight.
Becauseofthis,itcomesaboutthatAristotletreatsabodywithmorevoidandwithmoresolidthananother,inhisearlierargumentasbeingtheheavierofthetwo
(invirtueofitshavingmoresolid),andinhislaterargumentasbeingthelighterofthetwo(invirtueofitshavingmorevoid).
ThisduplicationandcontradictionstronglysuggeststhattheAtomiststhemselvesdidnotadapttheirtheorytoacircumstancewhereonebodycouldhavebothmore
voidandmoresolidthananother.
ThisinturnconfirmsmyearlierconclusionthattheAtomiststhemselveseitherfailedtoconsiderthecomparisonofvolumesoralternativelylimitedthemselvestobodies
ofequalsize,wheretheonecanhavemoresolidonlyifithasproportionatelylessvoidthantheother(andsoistheheavierofthetwo),orlesssolidonlyifithas
proportionatelymorevoid(andsoisthelighterofthetwo).
Aristotleisabletotreatthesamecircumstance,alotofgoldorearthandalittlefire,asproducingabodyindiscriminatelylighterorheavierthananother,only,I
suspect,becauseindealingwithbodiesofdifferentvolumesheisabletoexploitacircumstancenotcateredforbytheAtomists'ownexpressionoftheirtheory.1
1
ThecriticismwhichAristotlemakesmayseemtoustrivial.Bycomparingbodiesthatareequalinvolumeweestablishspecificweight:thentocomplain,asAristotledoesinthe
firstbranchoftheargumentIhaveparaphrased(iv2,309a34b2),thatalargerquantityofthelighterbodyisnonetheless'heavier'has
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page111
Conclusion
(i)
ThemoreparticularconclusionIwoulddrawfromthesepassagesisthatmostlikelytheAtomiststhemselveshadnotcasttheirtheoryintermsofacomparison
betweenbodiesthatweredifferentinsize,andthatAristotle'spresentationoftheAtomists'theoryspecificallyintermsofbodiesofdifferentvolumesisprobablythe
resultsolelyoftheexigenciesofhiscomparisonwithPlato.
BecausehehasdecidedtopresentPlato'stheoryatthispointasfailingbecauseofitsinabilitytoexplaindiscrepanciesbetweensizeandweight,andbecausehe
choosestopresenttheatomictheoryasanadvanceuponPlato,Aristotleisledtoportraytheatomictheoryasdesignedprimarilytoexplainhowonebodythatis
largerthananothercannonethelessbelighter.
Thisleadstotheanomalythatalthoughthepenultimatedefinitionoftheatomictheorydoesspecifythequantityofsolid(309a810),nonethelessthefinaldefinition
specifiesonlythecomparisonofvoid(309a1011),withtheresultthatinwhatIhavecalledhis
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
asmuch,andaslittle,point,wemaythink,astocompareapoundoffeathersandanounceoflead.
PossiblysomeappreciationofthedistinctionbetweengrossweightandspecificweightexplainswhytheAtomistswereabletotakethecomparisonofequalvolumesforgranted,if
thatiswhattheydid.ButinmyfourthessayIshallseektoshowthatthatdistinctionhasnoproperplaceinAristotle'sowntheory,andthatAristotleisthereforeableinparttoignore
whatweseeasthedistinctionbetweengrossweightandspecificweightinhisrefutationbothofPlato'stheoryandoftheatomictheory.
OtherpointsinAristotle'scritiqueoftheAtomistsinbookfouroftheDecaelo,andnotablyhisspecificationofthequantityofatomsbynumberandnotbysize(e.g.hespeaksof'an
equalnumber,orfewer,solidparts',iv2,309a910),Imustalsoleaveformysecondandthirdessays:IwouldnoteonlythatthepointIhavementionedalsosprings,Ibelieve,from
Aristotle'sassociationoftheAtomistswithPlato.
Inparticular,Ihaveleftaside,forthepresent,considerationoftheprimarythrustofAristotle'scritique,wherebyalthoughAristotleestablishestheAtomists'superioritytoPlatoin
termsofthediscrepancybetweenweightandsizeincompoundbodies(e.g.thecomparisonofwoolandbronzeativ2,309a2ff.)nonethelesshisfinalintentionistoestablishnot
merelythatsomecompoundbodiesarelighterandlargerthanothers,butthatinhisowntheoryanelement(notacompoundbody)whichislightbynature,andmoreespeciallyfire,
whichislightabsolutely,isinvariablylighterinthelargerquantity.
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'corollary'AristotleisledtocomplainthattheAtomistshavefailedtospecifythecomparisonofsolid(309a1118).
ThereisthenthefurtheranomalythatalthoughAristotle'scorollaryisdesignedtoreinforcetheAtomists'theory,byspecifyingthecomparisonofsolid(309a1118),
nonethelessthesamecomparisonislaterusedtocontroverttheatomictheory(309a33b4),byshowingthatextremediscrepanciesofvolumeundermineadefinition
ofweightintermsofsolidorvoidbyproducingcircumstancescontraryto(Aristotle'sowntheoryof)theelements'behaviourascharacterisedbyabsoluteweight.
Mysuggestionisthatbothanomalieshavearisenbecauseindeliberatelydealingwithbodiesthatdifferinvolume,inordertofurtherhiscritiqueofPlato,Aristotleis
exploitingacircumstancenotdirectlycateredforbytheAtomists'ownformulationoftheirtheory.1
(ii)
Verybriefly,therefore,IturntolookmoregenerallyatAristotle'sevidenceonbothpoints:theindividualatomsandbodiescompoundedofatomsandvoid.
ItissymptomaticofCherniss'attitudetowardsAristotlethat,havingarguedthatinthepassagefromtheDecaeloAristotledoesnotattributeweighttotheatoms,
Chernissnonethelessaddsthatevenifhehaddonesoitwouldhavebeenastheresultofamisunderstanding.Foronce,Aristotlehasnotmisunderstoodapieceof
Presocratictheory,ifonlybecausehehassaidnothingaboutitbutweareassuredallthesamethatifhehadsaidsomethingonthesubjecthewouldstillhavebeen
wrong!
Cherniss'argument,ifweleaveasidethedoxographicalmaterialwhichIshallconsiderseparatelylater,isthatAristotle'would
1
Inevitably,thispointhasbeenmissedordenied.MorauxtakestheAtomists'theorytohavebeenexpresslyintendedbyitsauthorsasanexplanationofthediscrepancybetween
weightandvolume,Budedncxliii:'LesAbdritains...n'ontpasseulementvouluexpliquerlesdiffrencesdepoidsentrelescorps,maisontsurtoutnotlefaitquecertains
corps,moinsvolumineuxqued'autres,peuventtrepluspesantsqu'eux.C'estparlaprsenced'unvideplusoumoinsabondantl'intrieurdescorpsqu'ilsontcrupouvoir
expliquercetteanomalie'.IthinkthatthisreadingofAristotle'stexthasarisenonlybecausethepointsIhaveadducedintheprecedingpageshavenotbeensufficientlyattended
to.
Page113
1
havemaintainedthenecessityofattributingweighttotheatomsifthecomplexbodiesweretohaveweight'.
ThepreciseintentionofCherniss'observationisagainnotwhollycleartome,butthepointisevidentlythatthecontrastbetweenPlatoandtheAtomistsonsurfaces
andsolidswouldhaveledAristotletoattributeweighttotheatoms,evenifDemocritushadnothimselfdoneso.2
Quodgratisasseritur,gratisnegatur.IfIhaveinterpretedCherniss'argumentaright,thenwecanaswellarguethatAristotlewouldnothavepresentedhiscontrast
betweentheAtomistsandPlatointhisform,oratall,ifDemocritushadnotinfactdescribedhisatomsashavingweight.3
ButthepointIwouldmakeisnotonlyanegativeone.Idoofcourseagreethat,hereaselsewhere,Aristotle'spresentationofearliertheorieshasbeencolouredbyhis
ownideas.ButthecolouringismoresubtlethanChernissappreciates.Inparticular,preciselybecausewecanisolate,withreasonablecertainty,thenatureandsothe
probableextentofAristotle'smanipulationofinthiscasetheatomictheory,sothereforewecan,withmoreconfidence,itseemstome,claimtodiscernin
Aristotle'spresentationofthetheorywhatitisthatdoesnottakeitscolourfromAristotle'scriticism.
ThusdifferencesofvolumepersistentlydetermineAristotle'spresentationoftheatomictheoryintheDecaelononethelessthiswillnot,Ithink,vitiatethebonesofthe
theorywhichweareable
1
ACP211n.253.
2
ACP211n.253.OnthedifficultyoflocatingCherniss'argumentseep.17n.1above.
3
TheargumentthatAristotleattributsweighttotheatomsonlybecausethecomplexbodieshaveweight,appearsinfacttobeanunacknowledged(andperhapsunconscious)
adaptationofpartofSimplicius'commentaryonthispassageoftheDecaelo:'thethingsfromwhichbodiesarecompoundedarethemselvesbodies...andsodothemselvesalso
haveacertainweight'(685.1011cf.pp.957above).ButeveninSimpliciusthisargumentispresentedsolelybywayofclarifyingtheAtomists'position,andisinnowayintroduced
asrepresentingorimplyingthattheAtomiststhemselvesdeniedweighttotheatoms.Elsewhere,asweshallsee(ch.Vp.153ff.),Simpliciuswritesexplicitlythattheweightofatoms
waspartoftheoriginal,prePlatonicversionoftheatomictheoryandinanearlierpassageofhiscommentaryheputstheargumentexploitedbyChernisstheotherwayround,De
caelo269.1214(pp.1613below):'...astheatoms,theyclaimed,werefull<ordense>,theywereheavythemselvesandcausesofheavinessincompoundbodies'.
Page114
todiscernintheDecaeloandintheDegenerationeetcorruptione.Itwillremaintruethatatomsdifferinweightandinsize,sothatthelargeranatomistheheavier
itwillbewhileforcompoundbodies,atleastforcompoundbodiesofthesamesize,orforcompoundbodieswherethedifferenceofvolumeisnotspecified,lightness
willbeinproportiontotheamountofvoidtheycontain.1
1
DespitethegeneralnatureoftheseremarksIamdeliberatelyleavingaside,forconsiderationinalaterchapter,amoregeneralevaluationoftheaccuracyofAristotle'sevidence,
andinparticularIamleavingasideatthisstagethequestionoftheinfluenceofAristotle'sownideasonthewayinwhichhethinksofthemovementoftheatoms:seech.IX3,
pp.2606below,esp.pp.2612.
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ChapterFour
Theophrastus
1
StatementoftheTheory
Orientation
Iturntotheonlyotherauthorinantiquity,apartfromAristotle,whowillhaveknownofDemocritus'theoryofweightatfirsthand,andwhowritesonitspecifically:this
isAristotle'spupil,Theophrastus.
Inthelongextractonthenatureofthesensesandoftheobjectsofsense,whichistheonlycontinuousportionthatsurvivesinanunabridgedformfromTheophrastus'
writingsonthehistoryofphilosophy,therearecontainedsummariesandcriticismsbothofDemocritus'theoryofweightandofthatofPlato,aswellassome
invaluableremarksonthenatureofweightinearliertheoriesmoregenerally.
EachofthesethreesectionsofTheophrastus'treatiseisthereforeofprimaryimportanceformypresentstudy.
1.Theophrastus'longcriticismsofPlato'stheoryhave,Ibelieve,beenradicallymisunderstoodbyearlierscholars:amisunderstandingwhichhascertainlyaddedto,ifithasnot
beenaprimarycauseof,whatIbelieveisthegeneralmisinterpretationofPlato'stheorybymodernscholars.
Theophrastus'criticismsofPlatowillthereforebegivenadetailedandextendedanalysisintheconcludingchaptersofmyessayonPlato.
2.Theophrastus'moregeneralremarksonearliertheoriesofweight,supplementedbysomeequallyvaluableevidenceinPlutarch,willlieatthecoreofmyattemptinthefinal
chapterofthisfirstessaytoreachbacktothewaysofthinkingaboutweightthatwerecurrentbeforeAristotle,andtoalesserextentPlato,drasticallyshiftedthescopeand
Page116
1
thedirectionofpeople'sideas,hereasinotherandmoreimportantways.
3.ThetwoextractsonDemocritus,thefirst,theonlyattemptthatwehavefromAristotleorTheophrastustopresentDemocritus'theoryfreefromentanglementwithother
theories,andthesecondabriefcriticismofthetheory,Iconsiderinthisandinthefollowingsectionsofthischapter.
Theproblemwiththeearlier,andthelonger,extractliesprimarilyindeterminingtheimmediatesenseoftheforminwhichTheophrastuspresentsDemocritus'theory,
themoresoastherehasrecentlybeenanattempttochangeradicallythesensethathadtraditionallybeenattachedtothepassage.
Inthefollowingsections,theproblemwilllieratherintracingthepreciseideologicalaffiliationoftheideasthatTheophrastusintroduces,whenheturnsfromexegesis
tocriticismofDemocritus'theory.
'DeSensibus'612
InDiels'editionoftheDesensibusweread,cap.612(DK68A135): .
PF.
PF.
Burchard.
om.codexVossianus.2
1
Ch.XIII2,pp.36483below,esp.pp.3708.
2
DielswronglyarrogatestohimselfMullach'scorrectionto .
Bibliographicalnote.Throughoutthischapterauthors'namesalonearegivenforthefollowingworks,allofthemcontainingeditionsortranslationsoftherelevantchaptersofthe
Desensibus,andwhichIlisthereinchronologicalorder:HenricusStephanus,AristotelisetTheophrastiscriptaquaedam...(Parisiis,
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page117
(i)
McDiarmid,inanarticleonthispassagepreparatorytoaneditionoftheDesensibus,emendsthesecondsentencetoread:
.Thishetranslates:
'Forhesaysthatifeachone[i.e.eachuncompoundedbody]whenseparatedaccordingtoshapediffersinweight[i.e.fromothersofthesameshape],itdiffersinsize.'1
ThedistancethatMcDiarmidhastotravelfromthemanuscriptreadingmightperhapsbepartlyatonedforbytheingenuityofhisargument.Whatcannotbesoeasily
forgivenisthattheresultdoesnotmakesatisfactorysense.Forifweightistobedefinedordeterminedbysize,asTheophrastustellsusthatitisinthefirstsentence
whichIhavequoted,thentheconclusionmustbe:notthatatomsofthesameshapehaveadifferentweightiftheydifferinsize,andsopresumablythesameweightif
theyhavethesamesize,whichisthepurportofMcDiarmid'semendationbutthateveniftheydonothavethesameshapetheyarethesameweightiftheyhavethe
samesize,andadifferentweightiftheydifferinsize.
Notonlyisthisthemeaningneeded:itispreciselythemeaninggivenbythemanuscriptsbeforeMcDiarmid'sexcisions:
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
1557)IoannesG.Schneider,TheophrastiEresiiquaesupersuntopera...(Lipsiae,181821)JohannF.W.Burchard,CommentatiocriticadeDemocritiAbderitaedesensibus
philosophia...(Mindae,1830)LudwigPhilippson, ...(Berolini,1831)FelixPapencordt,Deatomicorumdoctrinacommentationisspecimenprimum...
(Berolini,1832)FriedrichW.A.Mullach,Democritifragmenta...(Berolini,1843)FriedrichWimmer,TheophrastiEresiiopera...(Didot,Parisiis,1866)HermannDiels,
Doxographigraeci...(Berolini,1879)PaulTannery,Pourl'histoiredelasciencehellne,deThalsEmpdocle(Paris,1887),2ndednbyA.Dis(Paris,1930)GeorgeM.
Stratton,TheophrastusandtheGreekphysiologicalpsychologybeforeAristotle(LondonandNewYork,1917).FullerreferencesmayberecoveredfromtheBibliography.
1
J.B.McDiarmid,'TheophrastusDesensibus6162:Democritus'theoryofweight'CP55(1960)2830.Thesquarebracketsandthewordscontainedwithinthemaretranscribedfrom
McDiarmid.Throughoutthissection,IhavenotthoughtitnecessarytogiveinternalreferencestoMcDarmid'sarticle.Amongsubsequentscholars,DavidJ.FurleyprintsMcDarmid's
textandfindshisargument'cogent',TwostudiesintheGreekAtomists(Princetown,1967)103n.38.
Page118
.Itcannotberighttoexcisethissecondconditionalparticle,asMcDiarmidproposes,foritsremovalatoncemakesweight
seemtobedependentnotonlyuponsize,butuponshape.
Ifweretain ,withasubsidiaryconditionalclauseintervening.
Andoncethatisdone,thenwehaveineffecttheessentialsofwhatIshallcallthetraditionalreading:
'Ifeachatomweretakenonitsown,thenevenifitdiffersfromanotherinshape,itsweightwouldbedependentuponitssize.'1
(ii)
McDiarmid'sattackonthetraditionalrenderingturnsinitiallyontheuseoftheoptative, :
'...whywouldthesentencebeputinthisform?EvenifDemocritusexpressedhistheoryinsuchatentativeway,itis
1
Ihopethatitisdesirabletogrouptogetherthemainbodyofscholarsinthisway.The'traditionalinterpretation'asIhaveformulatedithereiscommontoSchneider,Papencordt,
Mullach,Wimmer,Diels(ifonemayjudgebyhistextandemendations,withnotranslation)andBrieger,Urbewegung5.
F.Lortzingproposesaratherelaborateemendation,whereheexploitsthetworeadings
.ButIthinkthat,withthis,heintendstoretainwhatIamcallingthetraditional
interpretation.Philippson,135,translateswithoutanynotionof'evenif',andoffersnofurthercomment.Theonlyclearexceptiontothetraditionalinterpretation,apartfrom
McDiarmid,isBurchard,seepp.11923below.
SincemymainpurposeinthisessayistodeterminethemoregeneralsenseofTheophrastus'remarks,andtobringtogethertheancientevidenceonweightasawhole,Ihave
deliberatelyleftasideforanotheroccasionthoseminutioraofthetextwhichdividetheadherentsofthetraditionalinterpretationonefromanother:seefurtherp.131n.1below.
Page119
unlikelythatTheophrastus,whoisreportinghistheory,woulddoso.ThroughouttheDesensibusheregularlystatesthedoctrinesofhispredecessorsassimplefacts,andhe
usesthepotentialoptativestatementeitheraloneorwithaprotasisintheoptativeortheindicativewhenheiscriticisingthedoctrinesandshowingtheabsurditiesthatwould
followifthedoctrinesshouldbeaccepted.'
Thisargument,Ithink,overlooksthedegreeofsophisticationrequiredinconsideringtheatomictheory.Itisclearthatadistinctionisbeingmadebetweenindividual
atomsandgroupsofatoms.ItseemstomeperfectlyplausiblewhetherforDemocritusorperhapsmorelikelyforTheophrastustopresentastatementaboutan
individualatominan'unreal'formofcondition:'ifasingleatomweretobetakenonitsown...'.Forfairlyobviouslyitwouldinpracticebeimpossibletotakeany
individualatomandeithermeasureitorweighitsingly.
McDiarmid'sotherprincipalargumentagainstatraditionalreadingturnsontherelationbetweenweightandshape.McDiarmid'sreflectionsonthissubjectseemtome
tobeenmeshedinagooddealofconfusion,atonceconceptual,exegeticalanddoxographical,whichIshalldomybesttounravelasclearlyandasbrieflyasIcan.
(iii)
Althoughtheirreadingsofthesentencevariedquiteconsiderablyindetail,mostnineteenthcenturyscholarsunderstoodthesentenceinroughlythesameway:
'Ifeachatomweretakenonitsown,thenevenifitdiffersfromanotherinshape,itsweightwouldbedependentuponitssize.'
FormypresentpurposesIhaveventuredtodisregardthedifferencesofdetailandtocallthisthetraditionalinterpretation.1
AnexceptiontothistraditionwasBurchard,whoemendedthesentencetoread:
1
Thesamereferencesasintheprecedingfootnote.
Page120
TheexplanationswhichBurchardprovidesofthis,inLatinandinGerman,arenotwithouttheirdifficulty,buttheintentionisevidentlythatthesubjectofthewhole
sentenceshouldbeheavyandlight,pickedupfromtheprecedingsentence,'ifheavyandlightareconsideredeachonitsown,withoutreferencetotheother'andthat
theconclusionshouldbethatheavyiswhatislargeandlightiswhatissmallwhilethestipulationin ...somehowmeans,'ifwetakeheavyandlightintheir
everydaysense,andwithoutreferencetoshapeortoapparentintrinsicweight'.1
McDiarmidconfessesinafootnotethathehasnotactuallyreadBurchard'swork,andthathehastakennoteofhisemendationfromMullach.Insodoing,hecan
perhapsbeforgivenforhavingfailedtomasterBurchard'sintentionsfromtheportionofLatinparaphrase,whichisallthatMullachquotesinhisnote.Consequently,
McDiarmidevidentlytakesBurchard'semendationtomean:
1
'TheLatinparaphraserunsasfollows,15:
'Si,quodquotidianoleviumetgraviumusuinsingularibusaestimandiscorporibusintelligisolet,audimus,necmutuaeharumnotionumconditionis,necformaevelponderisproprii
rationehabita,quodmaiusest,idplerumqueetiamgraviushabetur,quodminusspatiosum,idemleviussinveroalterumalteriadiungas,sivealterumadalterumreferas(
nisifortehaecetiamcorruptasunt,quodfacilemihipersuaseritaliquis),leviuserit,quodplus,gravius,quodminushabetvacui.'
TheGermanisasfollows,2930:
'berdasLeichteundSchwerelsstsichDemocritus...sovernehmen:WennmandieseBegriffeindemSinnenimmt,denihnendertglicheGebrauchgiebt,ohneihreRelativitt,
oderGestaltundmuthmasslicheseigenthmlichesGewichtzubercksichtigen,sopflegtman,jedesfrsichbetrachtet,imgewhnlichenLebendasSchweremitdemGrossen,das
LeichtemitdemKleineninVerbindungzusetzenbeziehtmanaberbeideBegriffeaufeinander...soistdasLeichteredas,wasmehr,dasSchwerere,waswenigerleerenRauminsich
schliesst.'
Burchard'sparaphrasehasperhapsinfluencedTannery'stranslation,369:'Dmocritedistinguelelourdetlelgerd'aprslagrandeur.Car,s'ilstaientabsolumentspars,quelleque
ftladiffrencedesformes,lagrandeurdtermineraitl'effetparrapportlabalance.'Here'heavyandlight'seemtobetakenasthesubjectofthesecondsentence,asBurchard
wishes.
Page121
'Ifoneatomdiffersfromanotherinshapeandinweight,thenitdiffersalsoinsize.'
ThisMcDiarmidthencriticisesasfollows:
'Ifthingsarecharacterisedbyshape,size,andweightandifeachthingdiffersinbothshapeandweightfromthethingwithwhichitiscompared,thecomparisondoesnotpermit
anyconclusionabouttherelationbetweenweightandsize.'
ThiscriticismobviouslybearsnorelationtoBurchard'soriginalintention.
Theonepointwhichperhapsneedsreply,inBurchard'sinterpretation,ishiscontentionthatthesubjectofthesentenceisheavyandlight,andnottheatoms.
Thiscontentionisfairlyobviouslyruledoutbythecontrast,inthesentencefollowing,with ,whichwehavebeentoldinthesentencesimmediatelyprecedingis,
alongwithsize,positionandarrangement,aprimarycharacteroftheatoms.1
(iv)
However,toreturntoMcDiarmid.Tomisunderstand,andtherebytomisrepresent,Burchardisperhapsnogreatmatter.WhatislessvenialisthatMcDiarmidthen
attemptstoapplythesamecriticismtoothernineteenthcenturyscholars,whomakeupwhatIhavecalledthetraditionalinterpretation.Oftheseinterpretations
McDiarmidwrites:
'TakeninanyofthesewaystheclauseisopentotheobjectionalreadyraisedagainstthereconstructionofBurchard.Iftheatomsdifferinshapeaswellasinsizeandweight,the
sentencedoesnotestablishtherelationbetweensizeandweight,sincethepossibilityhasnotbeenexcludedthatdifferenceinweightisduetodifferenceinshaperatherthanin
size.'
1
Thiswillbeso,evenifthefirstclauseofthesecondsentenceistakentointroduceatomsonlyindirectlyasitwere.ThusStrattontranslates,121:'Ifweweretodivideeach
substanceintoits<atomic>units'.ThereisthesameapproachinSamuelSambursky,ThephysicalworldoftheGreeks(London,1956)120:'Ifanyobjectisdecomposedintoits
parts'.Itseemstomeinfactmorenaturaltotake asreferringdirectlytoanatom.Cf.p.225n.2below.
Page122
'Iftheatomsdifferinshapeaswellasinsizeandweight...'.Whoholdsthisinterpretation?NotthescholarswhomMcDiarmidhaslisted,fortheyholdwhatIhave
calledthetraditionalinterpretation.Onthisinterpretation,theweightofanatomissaidtobeproportionatetoitssize.Inthismainclauseofthesentence,no
comparisonisexpressedbetweenoneatomandanother.
Whatismore,ifwedointroduceanexternalcomparison,byextendingthecomparisoncontainedin ,theresultisnotwhatMcDiarmid'scriticism
wouldrequire.Forifwebeginasentencebysaying'evenifonethingisdifferentfromanotherinacertainway',thenIthinkwearemostlikelytocontinue,'itis
nonethelessthesameasitinsomeotherway'.Inthisinstance:
'Evenifoneatomdiffersfromanotherinshape,itwillbethesameweightifithasthesamesize.'
Itistruethatifwearethendrawntoextendthecomparisonstillfurther,wemaywelladd:
'Evenifoneatomdiffersfromanotherinshape,itwillbethesameweightifithasthesamesize,andadifferentweightifitdiffersinsize.'
Whatisnotsoplausible,itseemstome,andwhatiscertainlynotanecessaryconsequenceofthetraditionalinterpretation,isthatweshouldchoosetoextendthe
impliedcomparisontoexpressonlyadifferenceofweightandsize:
'Evenifoneatomdiffersfromanotherinshape,...itwillbeadifferentweightifitdiffersinsize.'
HowthenhastheinterpretationarisenwhichMcDiarmidcriticises:'iftheatomsdifferinshapeaswellasinsizeandweight...'?Itcannot,Ithink,besimplya
diffusionofwhatMcDiarmid(wrongly)supposesBurchard'sinterpretationtobe,forMcDiarmidrealisesthatBurchardisaloneinwriting,
.Thetruthis,Ithink,thatMcDiarmidhasconfusedthetraditionalinterpretationwithhisown,
Page123
andhashimselfconflatedpartofonewithpartoftheother.Tothetraditionalinterpretationofshape,'evenifoneatomdiffersinshape(sc.fromanother)',McDiarmid
hastackedonhisownconclusion,'itdiffersinweightifitdiffersinsize'.Heforgetsthattoachievethisrenderinghewillhavehadtoemendthesentencetoread,
.OnceagainthereforethebogeywhichMcDiarmidcriticisesisentirelyofhisownmaking.
(v)
Again,however,wemightbeinclinedtoforgiveMcDiarmidformisunderstanding,andtherebymisrepresenting,theopinionsofothers,ifhisowninterpretationmade
sense.ButevenwhenheturnsfromcriticismtoreconstructionMcDiarmid'sconfusionisnotatanend.AfterthecriticismwhichIhavequotedofthetraditional
interpretation,McDiarmidatonceturnstoprovidetheideologicalfoundationofhisowninterpretation.Hewrites:
'Ifshapeisbroughtintoanargumentfortheweightsizerelation,theargumentshouldbe:iftwoatomshavethesameshapebutdifferinweightandsize,weightmustberelatedto
sizeandnottoshape.'
IthinktheradicalconfusioninthisidealiesinMcDiarmid'sassumptionthatwehavetodoherewithanargument.Buttomakemypointclearitwillbebest,Ithink,if
wepausetoconsiderwhatinfactthepossiblecombinationsofshape,sizeandweightmaybe.
1.Oneatomcoulddifferinshape,sizeandweightfromanother.
2.Itcouldhavethesameshape,sizeandweightasanother.
3.Itcouldhavethesameshape,anddifferinsizeandweight.
4.Itcouldhaveadifferentshape,andbethesameinsizeandweight.
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Noothercombinationsarepossible,ifsizeandweightaretogohandinhand.
ThefirstcombinationistheonewhichMcDiarmididentifies(wrongly)withBurchardandwiththetraditionalinterpretation,andwhichhecriticisesaccordingly:
'Iftheatomsdifferinshapeaswellasinsizeandweight,thesentencedoesnotestablishtherelationbetweensizeandweight,sincethepossibilityhasnotbeenexcludedthat
differenceinweightisduetodifferenceinshaperatherthaninsize.'
Thesecondcombinationwouldpresumablybeopentoanequivalentobjection:
'Iftheatomsarethesameinshapeaswellasinsizeandweight,thesentencedoesnotestablishtherelationbetweensizeandweight,sincethepossibilityhasnotbeenexcluded
thatsimilarityinweightisduetosimilarityinshaperatherthaninsize.'
McDiarmidhimselfchoosesthethirdcombination,onthegroundthat:
'Iftwoatomshavethesameshapebutdifferinweightandsize,weightmustberelatedtosizeandnottoshape.'
Heapparentlydoesnotconsiderthatanequivalentargumentcouldresultfromthefourthcombination:
'Iftwoatomsdifferinshapebuthavethesameweightandsize,weightmustberelatedtosizeandnottoshape.'
Thisfourthcombinationispreciselywhatisprovidedbythetraditionalinterpretation,ifweextendthecomparisonimpliedintheclause inthewaythatIhave
arguedisthemorenatural:
'(Even)ifanatomdiffersfromanotherinshape,itsweightisrelatedtoitssizeandsoitwillbethesameweightasanotheratomifithasthesamesize.'
Page125
Thisfourthcombinationrequiresmuchlessemendationofthemanuscriptsthandoesthethird.Thereisalsoasenseinwhich,itseemstome,itisperhapspreferable
conceptually.Foritconcludeswithapositivestatement:anatomisthesameweightasanotherifithasthesamesize.Thisseemstomeamorenaturalconclusionthan
thatanatomdiffersinweightfromanotherifitdiffersinsize.Indeedifwearepresentedwiththestatementthat'iftwobodiesdifferinweighttheydifferinsize',we
would,Ithink,need,oratleastfinditnatural,toconcludethat'theywillthereforehavethesameweightiftheyhavethesamesize'.
Ifwedoconcludetheargumentinthisway,thenthereisafurtherdisadvantagetoMcDiarmid'sinterpretation.Forifwearethinkingofatomsofthesameshape,ason
McDiarmid'sformulationweare,thenthisconclusionatonceleadstothesecondcombination,toatomswhichhavethesameshape,thesamesizeandthesame
weight,andwherethereforeweightwouldseemtoberelatedeithertosizeortoshape.Whatweneedtoconcludewithisthat:
'Evenifatomsdifferinshape,theywillhavethesameweightiftheyhavethesamesize,oradifferentweightiftheyhaveadifferentsize.'
Andthatofcourseispreciselytheimplicationofthetraditionalrendering.
(vi)
Nowitisimportant,Ithink,torealisewhathashappenedhere:theassumptionofmylasttwoparagraphshasbeenthatweareentitled,oratleastencouraged,to
movefromonestageinanargumenttothemoregeneralstatementofprincipleortheorywhichsuchanargumentmightconcludewith.Thisdistinction,between
argumentandconclusion,isessentialtoaconsiderationofMcDiarmid'sinterpretation.FortheassumptionthatunderliesMcDiarmid'sinterpretationisthatwehaveto
doherewithanargument:withthestatementofsomecircumstancewhichwillmakeitplausibleforDemocritustodefineheavyandlightintermsofsize.This
circumstancehastobeonewhichdoesnotcoverallinstancesoftherelationofweighttosize,butonein
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whichitismadeespeciallyapparentthatweightandsizearerelated.
Nowtheimmediatedisadvantage,itseemstome,inlookingforsuchanargumentinthepresentcontextliespreciselyinthefactthatbyitsverynaturesuchan
argumentdoesnotdealwithallcircumstancesconcernedwithweightandsize,butonlywithsomeofthem.Itwillneedtobecompletedtherefore:fromthestatement
ofparticularcircumstanceswhichmakeitespeciallyapparentthatweightandsizearerelated,wewillneedtoconcludetothesamerelationinallcircumstances,even
thosewheretheparticularcircumstancesdonotmaketherelationespeciallyapparent.ButofsuchfurtherstatementthereisofcoursenotraceinTheophrastus.
Whatwemustdoinfact,onMcDiarmid'sinterpretation,istreattheopeningsentence, ,ascontainingtheargumentenlistedinitssupport.
Nowwhetherthetwosentencesaretobetakeninthiswayornotturnsonthesequenceofthoughtconveyedbytheconnectingparticle thatwearetobe
treatedtoanargumentdesignedtosupport,ortojustify,theprecedingdefinition.Butwecouldofcourseequallywellexpecttobegivensomeexplanationor
elaborationofthedefinition.Whichinfactdowehave?
ThepeculiarityoftheAtomists'theoryofweight,aswealreadyknowfromAristotle,isthatthereisnotonetheory,buttwo:onetheoryforsingleatoms,whereweight
isdefinedintermsofsize,andanothertheoryforcompoundbodies,whereweightdependsonvoid.Sincehebeginsbythesimplestatement, .
Thisinitselfisperhapsenoughtoindicatethat ofjustification.Whatwearebeinggivenisnotanargumentinfavourofthedefinition,butaqualificationandan
explanationofit:
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'Democritusthusdefinesheavyandlight...,forinthecaseofsingleatoms...,whereasonthecontrary inthecaseofcompoundbodies....'
(vii)
Thissameorientation,Isuggest,anexpectationnotofargumentbutofexplanation,putsusintherightframeofmindtoappreciatethewordswhichfollowimmediately
theclauseintroducedby .
Inthechapterimmediatelypreceding,TheophrastushastoldusthatDemocritusexplainsthenatureofsensiblesbythesizeorshapeofatoms,orbytheirarrangement
andposition,cap.60(DK68A135): .
'Democritusdoesnotaccountforall<thesensibles>inthesameway:someheexplainsbythesizes<oftheatoms>,othersbytheirshapes,othersheexplainsbytheirposition
andarrangement.'
Twoofthesefactorsarefairlyobviouslyirrelevanttothepresentcircumstance.
1.Ifwearetoconsidertheintrinsicpropertyofasingleatom ,isclearlyirrelevant.
2.Thepositionofanatom ,itisfairlyclear,willbeequallyirrelevant,sincepositionisagainineffectamaterialfactoronlywhenatleasttwoatomsareconsidered
together.
Ifweightistobeintroducedasafunctionofoneoftheprimarycharacteristicsoftheatoms,itcanthereforeberelatedonlytoshapeortosize.SinceTheophrastus
tellsusthatDemocritus'intentionisinfacttorelateweighttosize,itthereforemakessenseexplicitlytosingleoutshapeaswhatwemightcallanirrelevantvariable:
'whatevertheshapeofanatom,itsweightisdependentuponitssize'.
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Nowitisatthispoint,Isuggest,thatweparticularlyappreciatetheformula:
'Iwillloveyou,evenifyouhateyourmother.'Theimplicationisobviouslysomethinglike:'Andofcourseifyoulikeyourmother,Ishallstillloveyou,orevenloveyou
allthemore'.Logically,theforceoftheformulaisthat'Ishallloveyouwhetherornotyouhateyourmother',buthumanly,asitwere,oneelementinthe'whetheror
not'isaccountedasmorelikelytoberealised,orasmorerelevanttothesituation,thantheother.
Sotoointhiscontext.Ifweightistobedefinedbysize,thentwoatomsthatarethesamesizewillhavethesameweight.Nowobviouslyifthetwoatomsarealsoof
thesameshape,therewillbenoadditionalfactorthatcoulddisturbthisequivalence.Itisonlyifthetwoatomsareadifferentshapethatwemightwonder:willtheystill
bethesameweight?Anditisonthispointthatweneedreassurance,asitwere:
'Eveniftwoatomsdifferinshape,theywillhavethesameweightiftheyhavethesamesize.'
ThustherearetwoelementsinthesentencewhichTheophrastusattachestotheAtomists'statementofweightintermsofsize.
1.Thedefinitionistrueonlyofindividualatoms,notofcompoundbodies.
2.Thealignmentofweightandsizeholdsgood,despiteanydifferenceofshape.
Bothelementsactasaqualificationoranexplanationofthedefinition,andnotasanargumentinitssupport.1
1
Iadvancethisargumentwithoutmeaningtoexploitanydifferencebetween merelyrepresentsthefulfilmentoftheconditionasimmaterial,withoutconveyinganyeffectof
climax'(Greekparticles299ff.),seemstometomatchexactlyTheophrastus'meaning.
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(viii)
ThisapproachclarifiesthestructureandtherelationofthetwosentencesIhavequoted.
Thetwofeaturesaddedasqualificationorasexplanationofthedefinitionareexpressedwhollyinthetwoprotases:
.
Atthesametime,theexpressionofthetwoprotasescreatesacertaintensionintheapodosis.
1.Inthefirstconditionalclause,Theophrastuschoosestospeakofindividualatomsinthesingular .Thisdistributionofsingularandplural
ispossiblynotessentialtothethought,butitisanaturalandobviouswayofexpressingthedistinction.
Indeed,notonlydoesthedistinctionbetweensingularandpluralprovideanaturalformofcontrast:thedistinctionisdirectlyrelatedtoTheophrastus'expressionoftheatomic
theory.Thesizeofanatom(ifwearenottooscrupulousaboutmoremodernnotionsofrelativity)canbeconsideredasacharacterintrinsictotheatomandmaythereforebe
expressedintermsofasingleatom,withnoexternalcomparison.ButtheweightofacompoundbodyisexpressedbyTheophrastusintermsoftherebeingmorevoidinone
compoundbodythaninanother,sothatonthisformulationanexternalcomparisonisunavoidable.1
1
Althoughtheuseof :onebodyis'heavier'or'lighter'<thananother>.ThereisanequivalentambiguityinAristotle'sinitialstatementoftheatomictheory,Decaeloiv
2,309a1011,wheretheambiguityisagainresolvedinfavourofanexternalcomparison,309a2930cf.p.101n.1above.
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2.Ontheotherhand,inthesecondconditionalclause,theirrelevancyofshapeisexpressed,atleastbyimplication,intermsofmorethanoneatom:'evenifoneatomdiffers(sc.
fromanother)intermsofshape'.
Thisdistributionofsingularandplural,betweenthefirstandsecondprotasis,affectsthesenseofthewordswhichhavetoactasapodosistobothconditionalclauses.
Theexpressionofthefirstprotasisrequiresthattheapodosisshouldspeakofasingleatom,whilethesecondprotasisrequiresthattheapodosisshouldcontinuethe
comparisonofoneatomwithanother.
1.Formally,theapodosisismostsimplytakenasfollowingtherequirementofthemajorandintroductoryprotasis,with :'ifeachatomistakenonitsown...thenthe
weight<ofeachatom>isrelatedtoitssize'.
2.Butinformallyandbyimplicationtheapodosiscanbetakentofollowthesenseofthesecondprotasis,ifweallowforcompletionintermsofmorethanoneatom:'...evenifone
atomdiffersinshape(sc.fromanother),itsweightwouldbedependentuponitssize(sc.sothatifoneatomhasthesamesizeasanother,itwillhavethesameweight,andifit
differsinsizeitwilldifferinweight)'.
Ihavealreadyremarkedontheneedtogiveprioritytothestatementofsimilarity,ifwearetoprovidethenaturalandappropriatecontrasttotheexpression:'evenifit
differs...'.
ItisfromsinglingoutoneelementonlyinthisinformalcompletionoftheapodosisthatMcDiarmidisledtoconfusethetraditionalinterpretationwithhisown:'ifthe
atomsdifferinshapeaswellasinsizeandweight...'.Fromthis,frommissingtheprecisesignificanceof'evenif',andfrommakingafalseassumptionaboutthe
natureoftheintroductory ,McDiarmid'stroublesarise.
Asitis,thesentenceprovidesaperfectlyunderstandablequalification,andexplanation,ofthedefinitionofheavyandlightasdependentuponsize.Thedefinition
appliestoindividualatomsonlyanditappliestothemirrespectiveoftheirshape.Formally,theconclusionofthesentencedoesnomorethanrepeatthe
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definition:theweightofanatomisdependentuponitssize.Informally,theexpressionofthesecondprotasisencourages,oratleastallows,theimplication:
'Ifanatomisthesamesizeasanother,itwillhavethesameweight,andifitdiffersinsizeitwilldifferinweight.'
Conclusion
Iparaphrasetherefore:
'Heavyandlightthen.TheseDemocritusdistinguishesbysize.Theideaisthatifeachindividual<atom>weretakenseparatelyonitsown,thenevenifitdiffered<fromothers>
withreferencetoshape,intermsofweightitsnaturewouldbedependentuponitssize,<sothatifithasthesamesizeasanotheratomitwillhavethesameweight,andifitdiffers
insizeitwilldifferinweight>.
'Thisisnotquitesohoweverasfarasmixedbodiesareconcerned.Ofthese,hesays,thelighterwouldbetheonecontainingthemorevoid.Theheavierbodyconverselywould
betheonecontainingthelessvoid.
'Hesoexpresseshimselfinanumberofplaces.Elsewherehesayssimplythatwhatisfinelytexturedislight.'1
1
Theophrastus,Desensibus612,quotedatthebeginningofthechapter.Forthefinaltwosentencesofthetranslationseebelowp.256n.3.
ItwillbeapparentthatIhaveleftasideinmyanalysismanypointsinTheophrastus'textwhichcryoutforamoredetailedinvestigation:theemendationof
(Diels).
ThesequestionshighlighttheneedforanewcriticaleditionoftheDesensibus,tomatchtheeditionsalreadyexistingoftheDelapidibus(ed.D.E.Eichholz,1965)andoftheDeigne
(ed.V.Coutant,1971),andalsoforcriticalstudiesofTheophrastus'language,suchasthatpioneeredbyL.Hindenlang,SprachlicheUntersuchungenzuTheophrastus'botanischen
Schriften(Strassburg,1910).
IhadmyselfhopedtomeettheneedforacriticaleditionIregretthatIhave
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
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2
CriticismoftheTheory:The'Necessity'ofMovement
WhenTheophrastusturnstocriticiseDemocritus'theoryofweight,afteranaccountofothersensibiliaintheatomictheory,hewritesasfollows,Desens.71(DK
68A135): .
AsIhavenoted,thedifficultyhere,suchasitis,liesnotindeterminingtheimmediatesenseofthewords,butinappreciatingtheirideologicalaffiliation,andthe
significanceofthisforourenquiry.
TheimmediatesenseofthewordsIparaphraseasfollows:
'Andwhatismore,sinceDemocritusdefineswhatisheavyandlightbythesizes<oftheatoms>,itnecessarilyfollowsthatallthe<four>simplebodies<i.e.thecosmicelements,
earth,air,fireandwater>haveanidenticalimpulseofmovement,sothattheywould<all>be<made>fromasinglematerialprinciple,and<wouldallbe>ofoneandthesame
nature.'
TheobviousideologicalaffiliationofthesesentenceslieswiththepassagethatIquotedandparaphrasedearlierfromthefirstbookoftheDecaelo,whereAristotle
complainsthatiftheatomsareallheavyabsolutelyforthat,Ihaveargued,isthenaturalimplicationofthepassagethentherecanbenothingthatislightabsolutely,
andviceversa.1
Inthecourseofthiscriticism,AristotlemakesbroadlythesametwopointsthatwefindrepeatedinTheophrastus.
1.Theatomshaveallasinglephysis, (cap.7,275b32276a1).
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
sofarbeenkeptfromrealisingthisproject.Intheabsenceofacriticaledition,Ihavejudgeditbest,inthepresentwork,tocontentmyselfwithseekingtoestablishwhatIbelieve
arethemainbonesofthetext,especiallyagainstMcDiarmid'seccentricreinterpretation,whilefullyrealisingthatlaterresearchmayrequireadifferentreadingofsomedetailsof
thetext.
1
Decaeloi7,275b29276a6,pp.1115above.
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2.Theatomshaveallasinglemovement (276b12).
Thereremaintwoparticulardifferences,intheexpressionandinthesequenceofthought:theseneedtobetracedwithsomecare.
'TheSimpleBodies'
ThemostobviousdifferencebetweenthetwopassagesisthatTheophrastusspecifiestheobjectofhiscriticismas ,'allthesimplebodies',whichmust
meanthefourcosmicelements,whereasAristotlewritesineffectoftheatoms,sinceheintroducestheatomictheoryasprovidingauniversalmaterialprinciplewhichis
'dividedbyvoid'and'definedbyshapes'(275b2932).1
(i)
Atfirst,thismayseemasignificantdivergence,forthedistinctionbetweentheatomsandtheatomicequivalentstoAristotle'sownfourcosmicelementsIhaveargued
iscrucialtothecriticismthatAristotlemakesoftheatomictheorylaterintheDecaelo.
Theatoms,Ihaveargued,accordingtoAristotlemovealways
1
AlbertGoedemeckemeyer,EpikursVerhltniszuDemokritinderNaturphilosophie(Strassburg,1897)10911,takes'thesimples'tobetheprimaryqualities('dieeinfachen
Sinnesempfindungen'),althoughthisobligeshimtoemend .AlbertRivaud,Leproblmedudeveniretlamatiredanslaphilosophiegrecquedepuislesorigines
jusqu'Thophraste(Paris,1906)166n.384,altersthisto'theatoms'.ThisseemsalsotobethemeaningintendedbyDiels,inhisIndex,Dox.s.v.(hequotesAet.i12.5cf.Arist.De
caeloiii4,303a12).
AlthoughthisreadingofthetextwouldbringTheophrastus'criticismevenmorecloselyinlinewiththatofAristotle,Iprefermyselftosupposethatinapassageofcriticismthe
expressionwillhavethemeaningwhichitregularlyhaselsewhereinthewritingsofAristotleandofTheophrastus.SeeBonitz,IndexAristotelicus76b1519fortheuseofthe
adjectivewithoutanoun( )andelsewhere(Decaus.pl.vi3.3Deodor.1and6).
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inasingledirection,andinthatsensemaybereckonedthereforeasapproximatingtothepossessionofabsoluteweight,whiletheelementalbodiesthatareformed
fromtheatoms,earthandfire,whichshouldhaveabsoluteweight,provenottodoso,sincetheremustalwaysbeaquantityoffirewhichwillhavemoreatoms,or
moreatomicsolid,andsowillbeheavierthanacertainquantityofearth.1
(ii)
However,thisdiscrepancybetweenTheophrastus'criticismandtheaccountthatIhaveofferedofthecriticismsthataremadebyAristotleismoreapparentthanreal.
TheophrastusisabletoignorethedistinctionsthatIhavestressedbetweenatomsandbodieswhicharemadefromtheatoms,becausehespecifiesallthesimple
bodiesashavingthesame'impulseofmovement',andthesamematerialprincipletherefore.
ThepointisthataccordingtoAristotlematerialbodies,fortheAtomists,whetheratomsorthebodiesformedfromthem,canhavemovementinonlyonedirection.
Thisisthereasonwhytheatoms,whicheverofthefourcosmicelementstheymaybesupposedtoconstituteortorepresent,cannotproduceanydifferencesof
movementthatarenotsimplytheexpressionofthesizeandthenumberofatoms.Forsincefireandearth,ontheatomictheory,aremadefromthesamematerial
substanceAristotlesupposesthattheymustbothmoveinthesamedirection,andwiththesamespeedforequalquantities.Thelargerquantitywillbeheaviertherefore
thanthesmallerquantityhowevermuchthedifferenceofquantity,incompoundbodies,maybedisguised,asitwere,bytheadditionofvoidwhicheverofthetwo
quantitiesissupposedtorepresentearthortorepresentfire.
Thisisthesamethereforeassayingthatallthefourcosmicelementshavethesame'impulseofmovement',ifwetakethisexpressiontomean,oratleasttoinclude,as
Ithinkitmust,movementinasingledirection.ForAristotle'spointispreciselythatontheatomictheoryitisimpossibletodistinguishoneelementfromanotherin
termsofweight:themovementofany
1
Seeespeciallych.I35,pp.1540above.
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element,ifitisdeterminedbythequantityofatomicsolid,will,inacertainquantity,outweighthemovementofanyotherelement,irrespectiveofwhicheverelementis
supposedtohaveabsoluteweight,ortohaverelativeweight.Alltheelementsthereforehavemovementinthesamedirection:andinsofarastheirmovementis
determinedbythesizeandbythenumberofatomstherecanthereforebenodistinctionbetweenthemofthekindthatAristotleholdsmustcharacterisethebehaviour
ofelementswithrelativeandwithabsoluteweight.
Inshort,theonlydifferencethatAristotleholdsisabletoobtainbetweendifferentelementsintheatomictheory,namelyanincreaseofspeedforthegreaterquantity,
isadifferencethatinAristotle'sowntheorywouldobtainbetweenthepartsofasingleelement.
FromthispointofviewthereforeIconcludethatAristotle'sargumentthatearthcannothaveabsoluteweight,sincefireinacertainquantitywillbeheavierthanearth,
andhisargumentthatairinacertainquantitywouldmovedownwardsmorequicklythanearth,arefaithfullyreflected,andsummarised,inTheophrastus'claimthatall
thefourelements,intheatomicsystem,musthaveasinglenatureandthesame'impulseofmovement'.
(iii)
Inwritingofelementsthathaverelativeweight,Ihaveassumedthatwemayincludethecriticismsofthefourthbook,aswellasthecriticismofthefirstbookoftheDe
caelo,asbeingimpliedintheDesensibus.
ThetwopointsofsimilaritythatIhavenotedbetweenthepassagefromthefirstbookoftheDecaeloandthecriticismwhichTheophrastusmakesofDemocritus
inclinemetobelievethatitisperhapstheargumentofthefirstbookwhichTheophrastushasprimarilyinmind:theatomswillbeeitherheavyabsolutelyorlight
absolutely,andiftheyaretheonethentheycannotbetheother.
Strictlyspeaking,however,itisonlyinthecriticismofthefourthbookthatAristotlespecificallybroadenshiscriticismtoincludethecomparisonofelementsthathave
relativeweight,witheachotherandwithelementsthathaveabsoluteweight.Weshallneedtoincludetheargumentsfromthefourthbookthereforeif
Page136
wearetoprovideacompleteAristoteleanprototypefortheargumentthatalltheelementshaveasingle'impulseofmovement'.
ItistruethatinomittinganymentionofvoidinhiscriticismTheophrastusavoidstheparticularelaborationofAristotle'sfinalargumentinbookfour,wherevoidand
plenumaretakenascoexistentprinciples,representingrespectivelyfireandearth.
Butapartfromthiselaborationthereisnoideologicalbarriertocombiningthecriticismsfrombothbooks.Thegeneralmessageofthecriticismsinbookfouristhe
sameasthatoftheargumentinbookone:bodieswhichmoveallinthesamedirection,andwiththesamespeedforequalquantities,cannotprovideforadistinction
betweentwoelementswithabsoluteweight,norforthedistinctionbetweenanelementwithabsoluteweightandanelementwithrelativeweight.
IconcludethereforethatTheophrastus'criticismcorrectlyreproducestheessentialsofAristotle'scriticismoftheAtomistsinboththefirstbookandinthefourthbook
oftheDecaelo.Thedifferenceintheimmediatesubjectofthecriticism,'allthesimplebodies'insteadoftheatoms,is,fromthegeneralpointofviewofAristotle's
criticismofDemocritus,andofhisclassificationoftheatoms,adifferenceofpresentation,withnodivergenceofideology.HereaselsewhereintheDesensibus,
TheophrastusshowsthatfreedomofmanoeuvreandexpressionwhichcomesfromatotalunderstandingoftheprinciplesofAristotle'scriticism.
(iv)
VerybrieflythereforeIreturntotheclaimmadebyLiepmann,whichInotedinanearlierchapter,thatinthispassageTheophrastustreatstheatomicsystemas
providingonlyforbodieswhichhaverelativeweight,asAristotlealsodoes,accordingtoLiepmann,inthepassagefromthefirstbookoftheDecaelo.1
InAristotle'scase,Ihaveargued,theassumptionisjusttheopposite.Aristotle'sargumentisthatiftheatomshavemovementallinasingledirectionthentheywillbe
eitherheavyabsolutelyorlightabsolutely:thepointisnotthattheyareneither,butthattheycannotbeboth.
1
Liepmann,Mechanik41,p.13above.
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ThiswillalsobetrueforTheophrastus,ifweinterprethiscriticisminthelightofthepassageinAristotle,asIhavesuggestedthatweshould.
EvenifweextendtheimplicationofTheophrastus'criticismtoincludetheargumentswhichAristotlebringsagainsttheAtomistsinthefourthbookoftheDecaelo,it
innowayfollowsthatinDemocritus'system,accordingtoTheophrastus,'Alleswirdrelativschwer'.
Ratherthecontrary.Itistruethatnoindividualbodynoprivilegedgroupingoftheatomswillbeheavyabsolutely.Butthisisbecausealltheelementshaveasingle
natureandasingle'impulseofmovement'.Theywillthereforeapproximate,takenintheirtotality,tothepossessionnotofrelative,butofabsoluteweight.
MatterandMovement
AsecondandperhapsmoreseriouserrorintheinterpretationofthispassageliesinBailey'sassertionthataccordingtothe'suggestion'ofTheophrastus'weight'for
Democritus'isthecauseofmotion'.1
Ifitweretrue,thisassertionwouldcallintoquestionmuchoftheaccountthatIshallgiveofearlierideasaboutweightinthesucceedingchaptersofthisessay.
Atthesametime,Bailey'sclaimsymptomiseswhatIbelievetobethemostradicalalthoughalsooneofthemostobviouserrorsinthemoderninterpretationofthe
Desensibus:thefailuretodistinguishexegesisandcriticism.
(i)
IfwetakeonlythefirsttwoclausesofthesentencewhichIquotedatthebeginningofthissection,thenitisfairlyplain,asBriegerhadnoted,thattheopeningclause,
,alonepurportstorecord
1
GreekAtomists1301.BaileyaddspassagesfromCiceroandSimplicius.ThepassagefromCicero,Ishallarguelater,hehasalsomisunderstood,pp.2458below.Inadducing
theevidencefromSimplicius,Baileyfailstodistinguishproperlybetweenthemovementofatomsinthevoidandthedistinctionofheavyandlightbythedistributionofatoms
betweencentreandcircumferenceintheformationofacosmos:seebelowch.V,pp.15861.
Page138
Democritus'ownview.Thewordswhichfollow, (276a12).1
Thisisconfirmedbythefactthatinanumberofplaceselsewhere,includingapassagelaterintheDecaelo,Aristotlearguesthattheoriginandthenatureoftheatoms'
movement werenotspecifiedbyDemocritus.1
Fairlyplainly,therefore,thenotionthattheatomsmoveinasingledirectionisAristotle'sowninferencefromthefactthattheatomshave'allthesamenature'like'gold
inseparatepieces'(275b31276al).
(ii)
Atthesametime,therelationofthefinalclausetotheprecedingclauseinTheophrastus'criticismbetraysasignificantdifferencebetweenAristotleandTheophrastusin
theconnectionofthought.
Aristotlearguesthatifthewholeisnotcontinuous,butisdividedbyvoid,thenallthingsmusthavethesamemovement(275b2931).Thereisthesamesequenceof
ideasinthesentencesimmediatelyfollowing.Iftheatomsaredefinedbytheirshapes,andiftheyhaveallthesamenature ,'asthougheachweremadefroma
separatepieceofgold',thentheymustthereforehaveallthesamemovement(275b31276a2).
Ontheotherhand,Theophrastusarguesthatthesimplebodies,forDemocritus,musthaveallthesame'impulseofmovement',andthattherefore .
Thuspremissandconclusionwouldappeartobereversedinthetwoaccounts.
1.ForAristotle,thenatureoftheatomsisidentical,andthereforetheyhavemovementallinthesamedirection.
2.ForTheophrastus,themovementofthe'simplebodies'isthesame,andthereforetheirnatureisidentical.
1
Brieger,Urbewegung6,cf.'Urbewegung'5889.
2
Referencesandargument,pp.237and2612below.
Page139
(iii)
TheimmediatereasonforthisapparentreversalofpremissandconclusionliesinthedistinctionthatIhavealreadynotedbetweenatomsandthefour'simplebodies'
asthesubjectofthecriticism.
1.Aristotlearguesfromthenatureoftheatomsbeingsingletothenecessityoftheirmovementbeingone.
2.Theophrastusarguesfromtheidentityofmovementinthecosmostotheidentity,notoftheatoms,butofthecosmicelements.
Fromthispointofview,Aristotle'sargumentactsasapremisstotheargumentwhichTheophrastusadopts:(i)becausetheatomshaveasinglenature,thereforetheir
movementisthesame(Aristotle'sargument)(ii)<becausethenatureandthemovementoftheatomsisthesame>itfollowsthatthecosmicelements<whichare
formedfromtheatoms>haveasinglemovement,andasinglenaturetherefore(Theophrastus'argument).
(iv)
Atthesametime,whatIhavecalledtheAristoteleanpremisstoTheophrastus'argumentdoesfindaplaceinthepassagefromtheDesensibus:itisrepresentedby
thefirstclauseinTheophrastus'criticism,thatheavyandlightaredefined'bysizes'.
InthecontextoftheDesensibus,thisclauseactsasasummaryoftheaccountthathasalreadybeengivenofDemocritus'theory.Butideologicallythedefinitionof
weightbysizerepeatsineffectAristotle'spointthattheatomshaveasinglenature,withnodistinctiontherefore(inthefirstbookoftheDecaelo)betweenanelement
whichisheavyabsolutelyandanelementwhichislightabsolutely.ThepointisthatontheAristoteleantheoryadifferenceofsizecannotadduptoadifferenceof
nature:iftheonlydifferenceofweightbetweenthecosmicelementsliesintheirbeingconstitutedfromlargeratomsorsmalleratoms,thentherecanbenomore
differenceofnaturebetweenthefourelementsthanthereisbetweenonepieceofgoldandanother.
Page140
Theophrastus'assertionthatheavyandlightaredefinedonlybysizeisequivalenttherefore,fromthepointofviewofAristotle'sphilosophy,totheassertionthatthe
atomshaveallthesamemovement,asseparatepiecesofgoldwouldhave.
(v)
Inarathermoreobliquefashion,thissameequivocationbetweentheatomsandthefourcosmicelementsfindsaplaceinAristotle'scriticism.
TheconclusionthattheatomshavethesamemovementAristotleillustratesbythebehaviourofearthandfire,i7,276a23:
.
WheninthefollowingsentenceAristotleconcludesthatno'body'( 276a5)thereforecanbelightabsolutely,ifeverythinghasheaviness,or
heavy<absolutely>ifeverythinghaslightness,itisnolongerpossible,norisitreallynecessary,toknowwhetherthe'bodies'inquestionareatomsorthefourcosmic
elements.The'grouping'ofatoms,eventheirconjunctionwithlargerorsmallerquantitiesofvoid,cannot,forAristotle,sufficetoestablishanydifferenceindirectionof
movement,fortheatomsorfortheelements,sincetheatoms,andtheelementstherefore,havebeencondemnedtothepossessionofa'singlenature'.
Thuswhilethesequenceofthoughtvaries,inAristotleandinTheophrastus,thecontentoftheircriticismsisvirtuallythesame.WhileAristotlearguesfromtheatoms'
havingasinglenature,andmovementthereforeinasingledirection,totheabsenceofanydifferencebetweenheavyandlightamongtheelementsoramongtheatoms
(dependingupontheprecisereferenceof ),Theophrastusargueswithpreciselythesameassumptionbutinthereversedirection.Theabsenceofany
distinctioninweightamongtheatoms,otherthanthatofsize,leadstomovementinthesamedirection,andtoasinglenaturetherefore,forthefour'simplebodies'.
(vi)
IfinthelightofthisanalysiswereturntoBailey'sinterpreta
Page141
tionwecan,Ithink,seeatoncehowhollowthatinterpretationis.
InbothAristotleandinTheophrastusthe'necessity'bywhichtheatoms,ortheelements,havemovementinasingledirectionispresentedascriticismandnotas
exegesis.
1.ForAristotle,movementinasingledirectionfollowsfromtheatoms'havingasinglenature.
2.ForTheophrastus,movementinasingledirectionfollowsfromtheuseofsizeassolecriterionofthedifferencebetweenheavyandlight,sincesizecannotestablishany
differenceofnaturebetweentheatomsorbetweentheelements.
Inneithercaseisthe'necessity'bywhichtheatoms,ortheelements,moveallinthesamedirectionofferedasadirectstatementoftheoriginaltheory.1
Conclusion
(i)
TheophrastusrepeatsAristotle'stwopointsthatinDemocritus'systemthereisasinglematerialsubstance,andthatforDemocritustherecanbemovementinonlya
singledirection.
ThereisthedifferencethatTheophrastusspeaksofthecosmicelements,whereAristotlespeaksinitiallyoftheatoms.Thisinnowayfalsifiesthesubstanceof
Aristotle'scriticism,thoughitleadstoadifferenceinexposition,sincewhileAristotlearguesfromthenatureoftheatomstotheidentityoftheirmovement
Theophrastusarguesfromtheidentityofmovementtotheidentity,notoftheatoms,butoftheelements.
(ii)
Theophrastus'criticismofDemocritusinnowayimpliesthat'everything'inDemocritus'worldhasrelativeweight.ForTheophrastus,asforAristotle,the'single'
materialsubstanceoftheatoms,andoftheelements,willapproximatetothepossessionof
1
Noteespecially inTheophrastus,Desens.71(DK68A135).
Page142
absoluteweight,preciselybecauseithasmovementalwaysinthesamedirection.
StilllessisittruethatTheophrastustakesDemocritushimselftohaveofferedweightascauseofmovementinasingledirection.Thisbeliefarisesfroma
misinterpretationofthepassageintheDesensibus,andmoregenerallyfromamisunderstanding,orneglect,ofthedivisionofmaterialinTheophrastus'doxography.
ThelaterpassageintheDesensibusisplainlyofferednotasadirectstatementofDemocritus'theory,butasacriticalinferencethatTheophrastus,undertheinfluence
ofAristotle,hashimselfaddedtothetheory.
3
CriticismoftheTheory:'Physis'and'Hyle'
AChangeinTerminology
ThereremainsonefeatureinthecriticismIhavequotedfromTheophrastusthatcanproperlybeviewedonlyfromaratherbroaderperspective.
WhereasAristotle,inthefirstbookoftheDecaelo,writesoftheatomsashaving'asinglenature'( .
Thereisherebothanhistoricalandanideologicaldistinction,markedbytheconjunctionofaword,physis,whichisusedbothbyAristotleandbythePresocratics,if
inadifferentconnotation,withatermwhichinitsphilosophicalusageisexclusivelyandspecificallyAristotelean,hyle.
(i)
Historically,asIshallseektoshowmorefullyinthefinalchapterofthisessay,the'nature'ofamaterialbodyinthethinkingofphilosophersofthefifthcenturywas
expressedprimarilybytheintrinsicnatureandpowersofthestuffthatathingwasmadeof.
Fromthispointofview,partofthewayinwhichtheatomicsystemispresentedinthepassagefromthefirstbookoftheDecaeloIbelieverepresentscloselyenough
theoriginalfifthcentury
Page143
conception,asitwasadoptedbyDemocritus.ThecomparisonoftheatomswithpiecesofgoldcanhardlynothavebeeninfluencedbyPlato'suseofgoldatonepoint
inhisdescriptionof'thethirdgenos'intheTimaeus(50AB).Evenso,itsusehererightlydirectsattentiontothematerialfromwhichtheatomsaremade,toits
uniformityandperhapsalsotheadditionalfeaturewhichIsuspectmaybeintendedbythecomparisonwithgolditsdensityandsolidity.Thisnotionofasingle
uniformmaterialsubstance,andespeciallyonenotedforitsdensityandsolidity,wouldseemtoanswercloselyenoughtowhatweknowoftheoriginalfifthcentury
conceptionoftheatoms.1
(ii)
AradicaldeparturefromPresocraticwaysofthinkingmadebyAristotleliesinhisnotionof'nature'ormaterialsubstanceasdefinedbythemovementofabodyina
particulardirection,anditscomingtorestinaparticularplace,asagainsttheearlierconceptionwherebytheidentityofanobjectliesnotprimarilyinitsbehaviour,but
inthequalitiesorpowersintrinsictothestufffromwhichitismade.
ThusfortheAtomiststhemselvesthemovementoftheatoms,Isuspect,willhavestemmedfrom,orwillhavebeenassociatedwith,thealternativefactorinthe
descriptionwhichAristotlesuppliesfortheatoms,of'thewhole' atermthatcanbeparalleledinanumberofphilosophicalfragmentsfromthefifth
centuryas'dividedbyvoid'(275b2930).
Fromthispointofview,themovementoftheatomswillhavebeenaconsequenceatonceoftheexistenceofvoid,andofthegeneralassociationinthefifthcenturyof
unitywithimmobility,andofmovementwithseparationandplurality.2
1
Forreportsonthe'hardness'or'solidity'oftheatoms,asareasonfortheirindivisibility,seebelowp.245n.1.
2
Aristotle'smainaccountofthevarioussensesofphysis,andthedefinitionofphysisthatIhaveinmindas ,isgiveninPhysicsii12,192b8194b15,esp.ii1,
192b203.ThisdefinitionisrepeatedintheDecaelo,i2,268b1416andiii2,301b1622.
Thereisofcourseadifferencebetweenthephysisofanimatebodies,whichisAristotle'sprimary,thoughnothissole,preoccupationinthepassageIhavecitedfromthePhysics,and
thephysisofelements,whichwillaloneprovideformovementalwaysinaspecificdirection.
Page144
(iii)
Thiswouldexplainthedivergenceoverthedirectionofmovement.
1.Originally,theatomsareinmovementbecausetheyareseparatedfromoneanotherinthevoid:butfromthepointofviewofthefifthcenturythereisnothinginthis
circumstancetodeterminethemovementoftheatomsinaspecificdirection.
2.ForAristotle,onthecontrary,movementinaspecificdirectionisadirectexpressionofmaterialsubstanceandofthe'nature'ofathing.Theatomsaremadeallfromthesame
material,theyhavethesame'nature',andsofarasAristotleisconcernedthey'must'thereforehavemovementallinthesamedirection.
Inthisway,Aristotle'sconceptionofthe'nature'ofmaterialsubstanceleadshimtoaddmovementinaspecificdirectionasa'necessaryconsequence'oftheatomic
philosophy,althoughbysoexpressinghimselfheatonceimpliesthatthiswasnotanoriginalfeatureofthesystem.
ThepointisthatfortheAtomistsmovement,butnotmovementinanyspecificdirection,isaconsequenceoraccompanimentofpluralityanddiversity,whereasfor
Aristotlemovement,andmovementinaspecificdirection,isadirectexpressionofthe'nature'oftheindividualbody,sothatifthis'nature'isthesameforseveral
bodiesthennecessarilytheymusthavemovementallinthesamedirection.
(iv)
ForTheophrastus,asforAristotle,thecosmosinfactexhibitsmovementinfourdirections,oratleasttofourregionsofthecosmos,correspondingtothefourcosmic
elements,andtothedistinctionbetweenheavyandlight,inbothanabsoluteandarelativesense.Itisthefailuretoprovideforthesedifferencesofmovementthatis
thefundamentalreasonforAristotle'srejectionbothofDemocritus'andofPlato'stheoriesofweight,asallowingfornaturalmovementinonlyasingledirection.
Page145
Itistrue,Aristotledoesbelievethatthereisasingleunderlyingmaterialprinciple,forotherwise,hesupposes,theelementscouldnotbetransformable,ashebelieves
thattheymustbe,andareseentobe.Butthisprimarymaterialprinciplecanbedistinguishedfromthefourelementsonlyabstractly.Ithasnoindependentexistence,
orrather,itisnotitselfcharacterisedbyanyspecificformofweight,northereforedoesithavemovement,normovementinanyspecificdirection.Movementina
specificdirectionattaches,inAristotle'ssystem,nottotheprimaryunderlyingmaterialprinciple,buttoeachofthefourelements.
ItistruethereforethatforAristotlethereisinonesenseasingleunderlyingmaterialprinciple,hyle(e.g.Decaeloiv4,312a1221).Butfromanotherpointofview
therehastobeaseparatehyleforheavinessandlightnessandforeachofthefourelements(iv5,312a22b2).Fromthispointofviewthepresenceofasingle
materialprinciple,hyle,inthesystemofPlatoorofDemocritusisreckonedasasufficientrefutationoftheirsystem(iv5,312bf1932).
(v)
ThusfromthepointofviewofAristotleorofTheophrastus,thefallacyintheatomictheoryistohavesupposedthattherecanexistasthefundamentalmaterial
principleoftheuniverseasingleseparatesubstancewhichischaracterisedbyweightandwhichmustthereforehavemovementinonlyonedirection.Thepresenceof
suchasubstanceatoncepreemptsthepossibilityoftherebeinganyrealdistinctioninweightorindirectionofmovementamongthe'elements'whichmightbe
supposedtoderivefrom,ortobemadeoutof,thissinglesubstance.
ForaccordingtoAristotle'sprinciplestheelementscouldnotbecharacterisedasindividually,andindependently,havingoneofthetwooppositeformsofrelativeorof
absoluteweight,iftheunderlyingmaterialfromwhichtheelementswereformedwereitselftopossessweight,andmovement.
Insuchasystemtherecouldbenodistinctionbetweenthefourcosmicelementsandthecompositesubstancesthataremadefromthem.InAristotle'sownsystem,the
weightofwoodorofleadisdeterminedbytheproportionofeachofthefourelementswhichgointothemakingofwoodoroflead.Thereistherefore
Page146
nonewexpressionofweightincompositebodies:onlyarearrangementandacombinationoftheweightofthefour'simplebodies'.Sotoo,intheatomicsystem,as
seenbyAristotle,ifthefourelementsaremadefromasinglesubstancewhichitselfhasweight,andthereforemovement,thentheycandonomorethanexpressin
theirbehaviouralargerorasmallerproportionoftheweighttheonekindofweightexhibitedbytheprimarysubstancethattheyaremadefrom.
ItisthiscriticismthatTheophrastussummarisesinhischargethat,fortheAtomists,thefoursimplebodiesmusthaveallthesame'impulseofmovement',andthatthey
mustthereforehaveallasinglematerialprinciple .1
ExegesisandCriticism
Ihavedweltonthispoint,despitethefactthattheconsiderationsthatitdrawsuponareofamoregeneralkindthanthosethatIhaveemployedinmyanalysisupto
thispoint,partlyinordertoclarifywhatIbelievetobethedirectimplicationofthesentenceinTheophrastus,butalsoinordertoestablish,fromthisbroaderpointof
view,themoregeneralpointthatIalludedtoearlier:thatthesentencefromtheDesensibusquotedattheheadofthesectionbeforethisisintendedascriticism,and
notasexegesis.
1
InthesesectionsIhavedeliberatelyanticipatedanumberofpointswhichwillbeconsideredmorefullyinlaterchapters.Fortheassociationofmovementwithpluralityand
diversity,seech.XI2,pp.31115below.Forthedisputeoverthedirectionofmovementintheatomicsystem,seebelowch.IX3,esp.pp.2612.OtherpointsIhavealludedto,
andinparticularthetreatmentofPlatoandDemocritusas'materialmonists',theexplanationof'compositeweight'inAristotle'stheory,andAristotle'sconceptionofprimamateria
inrelationtoweight,willhavetoawaitelaborationinmylateressays.
InordertoavoidundueproliferationIhavealsodeliberatelylimitedmyreferencesinsupportofthevariousconnotationsofphysisandhyle:myaccountisnotmeanttobe
controversial.Ihavealsoomittedthepointthatearlierinthefifthcenturyphysiscarriedconnotationsofmovementbutnot,Ithink,ofmovementalwaysandonlyinaspecific
direction,asinAristotle'saccountoftheelements.
Page147
(i)
IntheDesensibusTheophrastusregularlydivideshisaccountofeachphilosopherintoastatementofthetheoriesheldandacriticismofthem.Obviouslytheattempt
todistinguishcriticismfromexegesisisnotuniformlysuccessful.Theexegesisispresentedwithaneyetointerestsandpreoccupationsthatdonotalwaysmatchthose
oftheoriginaltheory.InthecourseofhiscriticismTheophrastusdoessometimesadducepointsofdetailthathadnotfoundaplaceinhisoriginalstatementofthe
theory.
Nonetheless,theattemptedseparationofcriticismandexegesisisclearlymade,andthesentencewhichIhavequotedfromlaterintheDesensibusfallsclearlywithin
thesectionofcriticism.Thepreliminaryclause, ,mustbecritical.
Theproblemliesnotinestablishingwhetherthesecondandthirdclausesarecriticalinintent,butindetermininginwhatwaytheyareintendedtobeso.Inparticular,
howisitthatTheophrastuscanintroduce'asinglephysisandasinglehyle',notasasimplestatementoftheAtomists'theory,whichisthewayinwhichtheearlier
expressionisintroducedbyAristotle,butasa'necessaryconsequence'oftheAtomists'definitionofweight,whichcanbeleftasafinalandsufficientrefutationoftheir
theory?
(ii)
Theanswer,Ihopeitwillnowbeclear,liesultimatelyinthedifferentconceptionsofphysis:thefifthcenturyview,andtheAristoteleanconception.Thephysisofthe
atoms,thoughtofasthestufffromwhichtheatomsaremade,canactasapremisstothephysisoftheatoms,andoftheelementstherefore,thoughtofasan
expressionoftheirmovementinaparticulardirection.Thepossessionof'asinglenature',thoughtofinthefirstsense,isadirectstatementoftheatomictheory.The
possessionof'asinglenature',inthesecondsense,isaconsequenceoftheatomictheorywhichfromthepointofviewofAristotle'sownconceptionofthecosmos,
sharedbyTheophrastus,isalsoadirectrefutationoftheatomictheory.
Page148
Thuswhenheturnsfromexegesistocriticismoftheatomictheory,Theophrastusfirstresumesthetheorythathehadoutlinedearlier:'heavyandlightaredefinedby
differencesofsize'.Hethendrawstworelatedcriticalconclusions.
1.Sincedifferenceofsizeistheonlydistinctionbetweenheavyandlightintheatomictheory,theatomswhich,accordingtoAristotle,aremadefrom'asinglenature',physisin
theDemocriteansenseandtheelementsthereforemusthavethesame'impulseofmovement',i.e.theywillhavemovementallinthesamedirection,withthesamespeedof
movementforequalvolumes.
2.Fromthisitfollows thatthefoursimplebodieswillhave'asinglenature',physisintheAristoteleansenseoftheword,andasinglematerialprinciple,hyle:i.e.theywill
failtoexhibitthedifferencesindirectionandspeedofmovementwhichAristotleholdstobeaprimaryandanessentialexpressionofthematerialsubstanceofeachofthefour
cosmicelements.
InthesecondcasetheconjunctionwithhyleunderlinestheAristoteleanconnotationofphysis,whereasinAristotlethecomparisonwithpiecesofgoldservestobring
outtheoriginalfifthcenturyconnotationofphysis.
(iii)
This,Ihope,explainsmoreclearlythefundamentalfallacyinBailey'suseoftheDesensibus.Baileyismistaken,notonlyontheparticularpoint,that'weight'shouldbe
givenbyTheophrastusas'causeofmotion'fortheAtomists,butmoreimportantlyinhisgeneralassumptionthatatthispointinhistreatiseTheophrastuscouldstill
intendtoofferanaccountoftheAtomists'originalphilosophy,insteadofhisowncriticismofit.1
Itistruethatthereisacertainoverlappingbetweencriticismandexegesis,apparentespeciallyintheshiftofconnotationinthewordphysis,whenusedbyAristotle,
andwhenusedbyTheophrastusinconjunctionwithhyle.Butthepointnonethelessisnot
1
GreekAtomists1301,cf.pp.13742above.
Page149
that,accordingtoTheophrastus,theweightofatoms,intheoriginalDemocriteantheory,isthecauseoftheirmovementinasingledirection.Thepointisthatbecause
theweightoftheatomsisdeterminedsolelybysize,thereforeDemocritushasnomeansofaccountingforthedifferencesindirectionandspeedofmovementwhich
AristotleandTheophrastusholdtobeanobviousandanessentialfeatureofthecosmos.
ItisthissameconfusionofexegesisandcriticismintheDesensibusthatinmysecondessayIshallarguehasledTaylortoreadbackintoPlato'sTimaeusan
essentiallyAristoteleanconceptionofweight,andthathasblockedthewayforamodernunderstandingofPlato'stheory.ForagainTaylorhastakenasadirect
expressionofPlato'stheorythecriticalconstructionsthatTheophrastusoffersusafterhisexegesisofPlato'stheory,andthatareintendedasarefutationofit.
Conclusion
(i)
Fromthefactthatthe'nature'oftheatomswashomogeneous,Aristotlearguesthattheatomscanhavehadmovementinonlyonedirection.ThisAristotleseesasa
denialofhisownconvictionofthediversityofmovementsinthecosmos,andinparticularasadenialofhisownconvictionofthemovementofearthandfirein
oppositedirections.
ThisargumentTheophrastusisabletosummariseinanexpandedversionoftheformulausedtodescribethebasisoftheatomicsystem,becauseheaddstothe
originalatomicnotionofphysistheAristoteleanconceptionofamaterialprincipleasdefinedprimarilybymovementinaspecificdirection.
Fromthispointofview,theatoms'andthereforetheelements'possessionofasingle'nature'becomesinitselfarefutationoftheatomicphilosophy,foroncehyleis
addedtophysissothat'nature'carrieswithittheconnotationofmovementinaspecificdirection,thenthepossessionofasingle'nature'isatonceindirect
contradictionwiththeAristoteleanviewoftheuniverseascharacterisedbyadiversityofmovements.
Page150
(ii)
ThisleavesusfreetosummarisetheevidencefortheatomictheoryofweightfromAristotleandfromTheophrastus.
Inbothhisinitialaccountoftheatomictheory,andinhiscriticismofit,TheophrastustellsusthatDemocritusdistinguishedheavyandlight'bysize'or'bysizes'.Inhis
initialaccountofthetheory,heexplainsthatthismeansthattheweightofeachindividualatomisdependentuponitssize,while'mixed'orcompoundbodiesare
heavierorlighterdependingupontheamountofvoidthattheycontain.
PreciselythesesametwofeaturesrecurinAristotle'sanalysisoftheatomictheoryintheDecaelo.Thelargeranatom,theheavieritis,whileforcompoundbodies,at
leastforcompoundbodiesofthesamesize,orforcompoundbodieswherethecomparisonofvolumehasnotbeenspecified,thelighterbodyistheonewhichhas
morevoid.
IntheDegenerationeetcorruptione,Aristotlesaysonlythattheweightof'eachoftheindivisibles'ineffectthesamespecificationasinTheophrastusisheavier
accordingtoitspreponderance.Inthecontext,thenatureofthepreponderancedoesnotneedtobe,andisnot,specified.Nonetheless,fromthepassageintheDe
caelo,andfromtheevidenceinTheophrastus,wecansafelysaythatAristotlewillhavehadinmindapreponderanceofsize.
Page151
PARTTWO
SECONDARYEVIDENCE
Page153
ChapterFive
Simplicius
1
TheWeightofAtoms
TheophrastusandAristotle,wehavenowseen,agreeinattributingweighttotheindividualatoms.AnentryinAetiusexplicitlydeniesthatDemocritusgavetheatoms
weight.ThesameimplicationhasbeenthoughttoattachtoasecondentryinAetius,andtosomeremarksinCicero.1
Theusualreactiontothiscontradiction,betweenAristotleandTheophrastusontheonehandandthePlacita,orCiceroandthePlacita,ontheother,hasbeento
attemptacompromise.Burnethasbeentheclearestandthemostforcefulexponentofthiscourseofaction,whileProfessorGuthrieisthemostrecentadherentto
whatisessentiallythesameview.2
Onthisinterpretation,whatAristotleandTheophrastussayistrueonlyofatomswithinacosmos,oratleastwithinthebeginningsofacosmos,wherelightandheavy
aredistinguishedastheaggregationofrespectivelysmallerandlargeratomsinavortex.WhatAetiusreportswillbetrueofatomswhicharenotcaughtintoacosmic
vortex,andwhich,inProfessorGuthrie'sphrase,are'floatingfreelyinthevoid'.Epicurus'innovationisthentohaveaddedweight,andsodownwardmovement,to
atomsexistingoutsideacosmos.3
1
Aet.i12.6,i3.18.Cicero,Defato20.46.AllinDK68A47.
2
Burnet,EGP3417.Guthrie,Historyii4004,cf.410.BurnetrepeatshisinterpretationinGreekphilosophypartIThalestoPlato(London,1914)96101.
3
Theevidencefortheseparationofheavyandlightatomsinavortexismorediffusethantheconfidentstatementsinmosthistoriesofthesubjectmightleadonetoexpect.
Theprocessof isresponsiblefortheseparationofheavyandbyimplicationoflightatoms,intheatomistcosmogonyrelatedatlength,butwithoutanauthor,inAet.i4
2(DK67A24).ThesameprocessisspecificallyattributedtoDemocritusbySimpliciusintwopassageswhichwillbequotedanddiscussedinthecourseofthischapter,Decaelo
569.59and712.2731(DK68A61),pp.15461and15761below.
Theseparationof'fine'atomsfrom'therest',inavortex,butwithoutspecificmentionoflightandheavy,isincludedinthedetailedcosmogonyattachedto
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page154
Thisinterpretationhastheadvantageofclarity,butitrests,Ibelieve,onamishandlingoftheevidenceandmoregenerallyonanumberofquestionablepresuppositions
aboutthebehaviouroftheatomsandthenatureofancientconceptionsofweight.
However,beforeturningdirectlytotheevidencefromAetiusandfromCicero,Ishallconsider,inthisandinthefollowingtwochapters,anumberofotherpassages
whichbear,orwhichhavebeenthoughttobear,ontheproblem:fromSimplicius,DiogenesandAlexander.
ItakefirstaseriesofpassagesfromSimplicius,twoofwhichProfessorGuthrieintroducesinsupportofhiscompromise.1
'DeCaelo'569.59
ThepassagewhichProfessorGuthriefirstcitesistakenfromSimplicius,Decaelo569.69(DK68A61): .
'...theysaythatalltheatoms,beingalikeintheirnature,haveheaviness,butinvirtueofsomebodiesbeingheavier<thanothers>,thelighteronesaresqueezedoutbythem
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
theLifeofLeucippusbyDiogenes,ix312(DK67A1),quotedpp.2045below.Adescriptionoftheformationoftheearth,intermsofheavyandlight,butwithoutspecific
mentionofadine,isattributedtoDemocritusinanentryinAetius,iii13.4(DK68A95),quotedbelowp.374.
TheattributioninSimpliciusandinDiogenes(andperhapsthatinthelaterofthetwoentriesinAetius)explainsAristotle'sunattributedreferencetothedistinctionofelementsby
,Decaeloi8,277a33b2(notinDK).SimpliciusatthispointcitesonlyStratoandEpicurus,267.30.EpicurusisjoinedwithDemocritusinthefirstofthetwolaterpassages
(569.59).Inthesecondpassage(712.2731)Democritus,orrather'theassociatesofDemocritus',arecitedalone.
ThefragmentofDemocritusrecordedbySextus,Adv.math.vii117(DK68B164),andfrequentlyquotedinthiscontext,describesonlythegeneralmovementofliketolike,although
mentionismadeatonepointofa .
1
Decaelo569.59(DK68A61):Historyii403.Phys.1318.301319.5(inpartDK68A58):Historyii403n.3:seebelowpp.16673.
TheinterpretationthatIhavequotedfromBurnetandfromGuthrieisadoptedbymostinterveningwritersonancientAtomism,includingLonRobin,Lapensegrecque(Paris,1923)
1389,cf.141(althoughinhislaterarticle,quotedp.42n.2above,Robinwrotethat'laquestionresteensommeindcise'),Bailey,
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page155
<i.e.bytheheavierones>:asthe<heavier>onessettlebelow<thelighterones>,thelighterones<aretherebymadeto>travelinanupwarddirection:throughthisprocessthese
thinkersclaimthattheappearancearisesofsomebodiesbeinglightandothersheavy.'
(i)
OfthispassageProfessorGuthriewritesthatthe'context'inwhichSimpliciusattributesweighttotheatoms'putsitbeyonddoubtthatheisdescribingthestateof
thingswithinacosmicvortex'.1
Butthisisonlyhalftrue.Thesecondpartofthesentencedoesclearlydescribetheeffectofacosmicvortex.Butthefirstpart,equallyclearly,doesnot.Foritisplain
thatatomsdonotcometobeofauniformnatureonlywhentheyaredrawnintoavortex:andtherefore,onSimplicius'evidenceatleast,theydonotacquireweight
onlywithinavortex,forweight,inSimplicius'
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
GreekAtomists12348,cf.824,164,184,FriedrichR.H.Solmsen,Aristotle'ssystemofthephysicalworld,acomparisonwithhispredecessors(NewYork,1960)278,cf.281n.23,
andKirk,Presocraticphilosophers41416.
Therehaveofcoursebeenexceptions.Lwenheim(1914)adoptsanavowedlyNewtonianinterpretation,whichEnriquesandMazzioti(1948)attempttocombinewithBurnet'sview,
whileanothereccentricversionofBurnet'sviewisgivenbyBollack(1969):theseinterpretationsIhavenotedbrieflyintheBibliography,wheretheappropriatereferenceswillbe
found.
IhavealsonotedintheBibliographyasensible,butratherinconclusive,accountofweightbyRivaud(1906)whichappearedayearortwobeforethatofBurnet(EGP2ndedn1908),
andamorerecent,butagainratherinconclusive,moveawayfromBurnet'sviewbyAlfieri(1953),whoseconclusionistheclosestIknowtothatwhichIshalladopt.
Themostrecentstudyknowntome,sinceProfessorGuthrie'sHistory,isbyHansRegnell,Ancientviewsonthenatureoflife,threestudiesinthephilosophiesoftheAtomists,Plato
andAristotle,intheseriesLibraryoftheoria10(Lund,1967).Somequitepromisingpages,181204,entitled'Onatomistictheoriesofmotion,withparticularregardtotheproblemof
selfmobility',endupnonethelessadoptingBurnet'sview.Othermorerecentcontributions,byHahmandFurley(1976),areagainnotedintheBibliographyseealsop.347n.3below.
ThehistoricalgenesisofBurnet'sview,astheoutcomeofanattemptthatwasmadebyanumberofscholarsinthenineteenthcenturytoescapefromZeller'sinterpretationof
Democritus,isbesttakenasaseparatequestion,whichIshalltraceinalaterchapter,ch.XIII1,pp.34764below.
1
Historyii403.
Page156
statement,istiedtouniformityofnature: .1
(ii)
Thispassageis,inanycase,unsuitableforProfessorGuthrie'spurpose,foritbeginsbycitingbothEpicurusandDemocritus,569.56(DK68A61):
OneofthecentralpointsofBurnet'soriginalthesiswaspreciselytodistinguishDemocritusandEpicurus,andtosupposethatonlyintheearliersystemweretheatoms
withoutweightbeforetheproductionofacosmos,whileforEpicurusweightwasaninvariablecharacteristicofatomicsubstance.
Notsurprisingly,therefore,ProfessorGuthriewritesthatthispassage'showsasomewhatuncriticaljuxtapositionofEpicurusandDemocritus',sinceSimpliciushere
attributesweightequallytotheatomsofEpicurusandtothoseofDemocritus.2
ButProfessorGuthrie'sremarkisillogicalinoneorotheroftwoways.
1.ItisinconsistentwithProfessorGuthrie'searlierremarkaboutthecontextofthestatementlimitingitsapplicationtotheformationofacosmos.ForonBurnet'sthesis,whichis
followedinitsessentialsbyProfessorGuthrie,thedifferencebetweenDemocritusandEpicurusliesintheiraccountoftheatomspriortotheformationofacosmos.Ifthepresent
statementreferredonlytoeventsortostateswithinacosmos,thentherewouldbenoreasontocomplainthatthe
1
The'cosmic'interpretationofthistextbeganasajustifiablereactionbyBrieger,Urbewegung7,againstZeller'sattempttoemploythepassageasevidenceoftheatoms'
movementinthevoid,DiePhilosophiederGriechenTeiliAbteilung26thednbyW.Nestle(Leipzig,1920)(henceforwardZN)1086n.2.Itseemstomethattheonlycorrect
interpretationistodistinguishthetwoelementsinthepassageasIhavedone.
Inhislaterwork,'Urbewegung'58990,cf.586,Briegerdoescomeclosetomakingthisdistinction,sinceheadvances,onhisownaccount,theargumentthatsincetheatomsare
'wesensgleich'theymustpossessweightevenpriortotheformationofacosmos.ButBriegerdoesnotconnectthiswithhisearlierinterpretationofthispassageinSimplicius,nor
doesheallowittoalterhisgeneralevaluationofSimplicius'evidence:seefurtherpp.3514andpp.3559below.
2
Historyii403n.3.
Page157
juxtapositionofDemocritusandEpicuruswas'somewhatuncritical'.
2.Ontheotherhand,ifitis'uncritical'tojoinEpicurusandDemocritus,itmustbebecauseatleastpartofthestatementattributedtothemreferstothenatureoftheatomsin
themselves,andindependentlyoftheirbehaviourwithinacosmos.ButinthatcaseProfessorGuthrie'scomplaintthattheburdenofthepassageis'uncritical',andhisuseofthis
passagetoestablish,ortosupport,histhesis,becomesvirtuallyapetitioprincipii.ForSimplicius'juxtapositionofDemocritusandEpicuruswillbe'uncritical',onlyifwealready
supposethatEpicuruswasaloneinmakingweightanintrinsicpropertyoftheatoms,priortotheiruseintheformationofacosmos:andyetthatverysuppositionweareintended
toderive,atleastinpart,fromthissamepassage.
Conclusion
Theonlyconclusionwecanproperlydraw,fromthisfirstpassage,takenalone,isthat,forSimplicius,theatomsofDemocritus,nolessthantheatomsofEpicurus,
haveweightinvirtueoftheuniformityoftheirnature,andindependentlythereforeoftheirbehaviourwithinacosmos.
'DeCaelo'712.2731
NotonlyisProfessorGuthrie'sinterpretationofthisfirstpassageinconsistentinitself:theattempt,oratleasttheneed,ineffecttosplitupthepassage,sothatthe
earlierpartistrueexclusivelyforEpicurus,whilethelaterpartistrueforDemocritus,orforDemocritusandEpicurus,failswhenwefindlaterintheDecaelothat
whatarevirtuallythesamesentimentsareattributedexclusivelytoDemocritus,orinaconventionallyequivalentphraseto'Democritusandhisassociates',712.2731
(DK68A61):... .
Page158
'...AristotlemeansthatDemocritusandhisassociatesarewronginthinkingthateverythinghasheaviness,andthatitisonlyinvirtueofitshavinglessheavinessthatfire
travelsupwards,doingsobecauseitispressedoutbythingsthatovertakeit,thewholeprocessmakingfirelookasthoughitislight.
'Anyhow ,thesearethethinkerswhoholdthatthereexistsonlywhatisheavy,andthatthis<namelywhatisheavy,sofarasitsnaturalmovementisconcerned,>moves
alwaystowardsthecentre.'
(i)
ThispassagehasbeenbadlymauledbyBailey.1
BaileyclaimsthatinthisasintheearlierpassageSimplicius'accountisrestrictedtotheformationofacosmosandtotheideaofweightasanappearanceonly.
ThusthefinalwordsofthepresentpassageBaileytranslatesas:
'Andtotheseotherthingsweightonlyseemstobelong,anditseemsalwaystobecarriedtowardsthecentre.'
ThistranslationBaileyusestosupporthisconclusionthatSimplicius'regarded''weight"'intheatomictheory'notonlyasaderivativepropertyoftheatomsbutevenin
somesenseasillusory'.
ButBailey'stranslationbetraysanelementarymisunderstandingoftheGreek:aconfusionof
.Thepointisnotthat'heavinessonlyappearstobelongtosome
things',butthat'Democritusreckonsthatwhatisheavyaloneexists'.
(ii)
Indeed,theselinesmustbeusedtoclarifytheintentionofthe
1
GreekAtomists1312Bailey'sreferences(p.131n.5)havesomehowgoneawry,butitisclearthatheintendstorefertothispassage.
Page159
earlierpassage,569.89: .
FollowingthesamelineofthoughtthatBaileywaslatertopursue,Briegerwroteofthispassage:'deutetdas daraufhin,dassessichumdenBereichder
Erscheinunghandelt'.1
Butadistinctionisneeded.
1.Inthepresentpassage,thepointisthattheAtomistsdoreckonthateverythinghasheaviness.Thepointisthatwhatisheavyaloneexists:andthatlightnessonly'appears'to
be.
2.Intheearlierpassage,therefore,whatbelongstotheworldofappearanceevenifwearewillingtoallowforamomenttheproprietyofsuchapotentiallyemotiveparaphrase
isnotthattheatomshaveheaviness.Itistheconjunctionofheavyandlightthatonly'appears'tobe.
Thedifferencebetweenthetwopassages,therefore,anditisadifferenceofexpressiononlyandnotofsubstance,isthatwhat'appears'inthelaterpassageis
lightness,whilewhat'appears'intheearlierpassageistheconjunctionofheavyandlight.
Thepointtoappreciateisthatinneithercaseistheatoms'havingweightintended,bySimpliciusatleast,tobeinconsistentwith,orevenseparablefrom,thenotion
thatlight,orheavyandlight,'appear'intheformationofthecosmos.
Infacttheoppositeisthecase.Simplicius'pointisthatheavinessaloneisreckonedasanintrinsicpropertyoftheatoms,andthatbecauseofthephenomenonknown
toAristotleandthedoxographicaltraditionas someoftheatoms,ortheirproducts,appeartoriseandsotobelight,andthereforewhatisintruthonlya
differencebetweenheavyandlightinthesenseofmoreandlessheavyappearsasadistinctionbetweenheavyandlightintheAristoteleansenseofmovementin
oppositedirections.2
(iii)
Thereremainsthequestionofadifferenceofsubjectbetweentheearlierandthelaterpassage.Baileyappearstothinkthatin
1
Urbewegung7.
2
Forreferencesto seep.153n.3above.
Page160
1
thefirstpassage(Decaelo569.59)Simpliciusspeaksonlyofatoms,andinthelaterpassage(Decaelo712.2731)onlyofcompoundbodies. But,asBriegerhad
noted,theantithesisbetween ,intheearlierpassage,couldmeanthatcompoundbodiesareintendedintheearlierpassageasinthelater.2
Ontheotherhand,Brieger'srefinementmaynotbenecessary.Epicurushimself,intheLettertoHerodotus,slipsfromthefeminineatoms ,evidentlywith
norealchangeinthereferenceofthesubject.3Simpliciuscouldhavedonethesame.
Thedistinction,betweenatomsandcompoundbodies,doesappearinthepassageIquoteatthebeginningofthesectionfollowingthis(Decaelo269.414).Butif
theinterpretationthatIofferofthepresenttwopassagesiscorrect,itmakeslittledifferenceinfactwhetherthe'appearance'ofheavyandlightattachestosingleatoms
ortogroupsoflikeatoms.
Ineitherpassage,thepointtoappreciateisthattheappearanceof'lightness'oroftheconjunctionof'heavyandlight'attachestotheatomsortheirproducts,whereas
intruth'allthings'(cf. ,569.6),haveonlyheaviness.Inneitherpassageisthereanyindicationofanintentiontolimitthepossessionofheaviness
tobodiesthatareformedfromtheatoms,totheexclusionoftheatomsthemselves.4
Conclusion
Itisimpossible,therefore,fromthesetwopassagesatleast,to
1
GreekAtomists1312.
2
Urbewegung7,'Urbewegung'589.
3
Ep.adHer.61,quotedpp.1845below.
4
ItisinterestingtonotethatinhiscommentaryontheLettertoHerodotusBaileyclaims,Epicurus217,thatthereisachangeofsubject,fromatomsto'bodiesingeneral'.Thisis
curiouslyatvariancewithhisassumption,GreekAtomists1312,thattheidenticalterminologyintheearlierpassageofSimplicius(569.59)refersexclusivelytotheatoms.Idoubt
myselfthatthereisarealdifferenceofsubjectineitherpassage.CertainlyinEpicurus(Ep.adHer.61)theargumentrequiresthatthelattersubject .
Page161
useSimplicius'authoritytodriveawedgebetweenEpicurusandDemocritusonthequestionofatomicweight.
1.Inthelaterpassage,SimpliciusattributestoDemocritusonhisowntheviewthatheavinessalonebelongstotheatomsortheirproducts,andthatitisonlytheirbehaviour
withinacosmoswhichgivestheappearanceoftherebeinglightthingsaswell.
2.VirtuallythesametwoideasareattributedjointlytoDemocritusandEpicurusintheearlierpassage,wherethefactthattheatoms'weightistiedtotheirbeing makes
itincontestablyclear,itseemstome,thatweightisintended,bySimpliciusatleast,tobeanintrinsiccharacteroftheatoms,andnottiedexclusivelytotheirbehaviourwithina
cosmos.
Sofartherefore,SimpliciusaffordsnoevidencefordistinguishingEpicureanatomswhichhaveweightfromDemocritus'supposedlyweightlessatoms,noranysupport
fortheideathatweightlessatomscangivetheappearanceofweightwhentheyarecaughtintotheformationofacosmos.
2
WeightandMovement:'DeCaelo'
AthirdpassagefromtheDecaeloconfirmsthisconclusion,whileraisingafreshpointofinterest.Simpliciuswrites,269.414(notinDK):
'ThestudentshouldbeawarethatStratoandEpicuruswerenottheonlyonestoclaimthatallbodiesareheavy,andthattheir<only>naturalmovementismovementdownwards
<sothat>allbodiesaremovingagainsttheirnaturewhentheymoveupwards:Platotoowasawareofthis<opinion?>andhearguesagainstit....'
Page162
TherefollowsanexplanationandaquotationofapassagefromtheTimaeus,62C58,wherePlatodeniesthattheuniversecanbedivided'bynature'intoopposite
placesthatare'up'and'down',andwherehedeniesinparticularthatbodieswhichmove'upwards'doso'unwillingly'.Simpliciuscontinues:
'<Thistextisexplainedbythepresenceof>thosewhobelievedinatoms<andwho>claimedthatastheatomswerefull<ordense>theywereheavythemselves,andthecausesof
heavinessincompoundbodies,justas<incompoundbodiesthecause>oflightnessisthevoid.'1
TheQuestionofWeight
TheAtomistswhomSimpliciuswritesofinthelastsentenceIhavequotedareclearlyintendedtobeAtomistswholivedbeforePlato,andaredistinguishedtherefore
fromEpicurus.(MyparaphrasemakesexplicittheconnectionofthoughtthatIbelieveisintendedintheGreek.)
TheatomsofDemocritustherefore,orofDemocritusandLeucippus,aresaidtobecausesofheavinessinotherthings,invirtueofbeingthemselvesheavy.Thisis
clearlytheintentionof: .
Atthesametime,theatomsaresaidtobethemselvesheavyinvirtueoftheirbeingsolid:
ThissentimentapproximatestoSimplicius'laterstatementthattheatomsareheavyinvirtueoftheiruniformityofnature,569.6:
.
Ineithercase,theimplicationisthattheweightofatoms,inbeingtiedtotheiruniformityofnatureandtotheirsolidityordensity,isanintrinsiccharacterofatomic
substance,andisnotdependentuponthepositionoftheatomswithinacosmos.
Sofar,therefore,thispassageconformsto,andinpartcon
1
Simplicius'simpledivisionbetweenvoidascauseoflightnessandatomsascauseofheavinesshasalreadybeenmetwith,p.96above,andistakenaccountofinmythirdessay.
Ishallconsiderinmysecondessaywhether,orhowfar,Plato'spassagerelatestotheAtomistsinwhatfollowsIamconcernedonlywiththeconnectionofthoughtinSimplicius.
Page163
firms,thetwopointswhichwereestablishedbymyearlieranalysis.
1.Ifwecorrelatetheproductionofcompoundbodieswiththeactionofavortexwithinacosmos,orwithinthebeginningsofacosmos,thenhere,asinthetwopassagesnoted
earlier,thedistinctionofheavyandlightbodiesisdependentupontheatoms'beingthemselvesheavy:thereisnoquestionofsupposedlyweightlessatomsproducinga
distinctionbetweenheavyandlight.
2.AccordingtoSimplicius,theatomsareheavyintheirownright,insofarastheirweightistiedtotheirdensityandtotheuniformityoftheirnature.
TheQuestionofMovement
(i)
Inthisstudy,IadopttheviewwhichsinceBrieger'sandLiepmann'scritiqueofZellerhasbeenalmostuniversallyendorsed,andwhichissharedbyBurnetandby
Guthrie,thatinEpicurus'systemalonetheatoms'fall'downwardsintheprecosmicvoid,whereasintheearliersystemtheprecosmicatomsmovedatrandominall
directions.1
1
ThecontributionsbyBriegerandLiepmannhavealreadybeencited:seeintheBibliographyBrieger(1884and1904)andLiepmann(1885).ThisviewisadoptedbyBurnet,EGP
3446,andbyGuthrie,Historyii4004.
Zeller'sviewisfinallyrestatedinZN107699.Amongmorerecentwriters,G.CaponeBragaistheonlypersonIremembercomingacrosswhodeliberatelykeepstoZeller's
interpretation,'Aristotele,EpicuroeDiogenediEnoanda',AteneeRomaserie3anno8(1940)445.Cf.alsoFurleyintheBibliography.
ThemainargumentturnsonwhethertoaccepttheassumptionofdownwardmovementmadebyAristotleinseveralcriticismsofDemocritus,orwhethertofollowtheimplicationof
Aristotle'sotherrepeatedcriticism,thattheAtomistsfailedtospecifythenatureorthecauseofthemovementofatomsinthevoid:cf.pp.2368and2614below.
Asubsidiaryargumentturnsontheimplicationoftheatoms''whirlinginthevoid'( ,Diog.Laert.ix31=DK67A1,quotedpp.2045below).Zeller,
ZN10824and1096,takesthetwopassagesasalikedescribinganearlystageintheformationofthecosmosbutthetwocontextsarenotidentical,anditisatleastasnaturalto
understandtheformerpassageasageneraliseddescriptionofthebehaviouroftheatomsinaprecosmicvoid.
Page164
ThequestionofmovementprovidesaparalleltestofSimplicius'reliabilityonthequestionofweight.
SimpliciusattributesweightequallytoEpicurus'atomsandtotheatomsofDemocritus.DoesSimpliciusattributedownwardmovementtoEpicurusandtoDemocritus
indiscriminately,ortoEpicurusalone?
1.IfSimpliciuscanbeshowntohaveconfusedDemocritusandEpicurusonthequestionofmovement,thenitwillbethemorepertinenttoarguethathemayequallyhavefailed
todistinguishtheatomsofEpicurus,whichhaveweight,fromthesupposedlyweightlessatomsofDemocritus.
2.Ontheotherhand,ifSimpliciuscanbeshownnottohaveconfusedEpicurusandDemocritusonthequestionofmovement,thentheinferencewillbethatSimplicius'attribution
ofweighttoDemocritus'atomsisthelesslikelytoresultfromconfusionofDemocrituswithEpicurus.
(ii)
InthepassageIhavequoted,EpicurusandStrato,likeDemocritus,aresaidtohavebelieved,ineffect,thatheaviness'alone'exists.
Atthesametime,EpicurusandStrato,inSimplicius'account,identifyweightwith'naturalmovementinadownward
direction': .
TheearlierAtomistsatfirstappeartobeintroducedashavingthesamesetofbeliefs:
Certainly,insofarastheearlierAtomistsareintroducedtoexemplifythepassagequotedfromtheTimaeus,theassumptionmustbethatwithinacosmostheatoms,
ortheproductsoftheatoms,movetowardsthecentre.Thisindeediswhattheatoms,ortheirproducts,aresaidtodointhepassagewhichIquotedfromtowards
theendoftheDecaelo,712.301: .
However,SimpliciusdoesnotsaythatoutsideacosmosDemocritus'atomsmovedownwards'bynature',nordoesheascribetotheearlierAtomiststhedistinction
betweennaturalandunnatu
Page165
ralmovementwhichhedoesascribetoStratoandtoEpicurus.
(iii)
Theomissionissignificant.ForelsewhereSimpliciusinfactdeniesthatDemocritus'atomshavenaturalmovement.
1.TheatomsofDemocritusareinconstantmovement,butitismovementwhichisdetermined'byforce',Decaelo583.202(DK67A16): .'Theassociatesof
LeucippusandofDemocritusclaimedthatwhattheysupposedtobetheprimalparticles,namelytheatoms,wereincontinualmovement,intheendlessvoid,astheresultofforce.'
2.TheatomsofDemocritusaremovedbyforceofimpact,andtheyhavenonaturalmovement,Phys.42.1011(DK68A47):
.'Democritusclaimsthattheatomshavenonaturalmovementandheclaimsthereforethatthey
aremovedbytheforceofimpact.'1
FromthesetwopassagesitfollowsthatwhileSimpliciusenvisagesDemocritus'atoms,ortheproductsoftheatoms,asdrawntowardsthecentreofthecosmos,and
therebyasgivingrisetothe ofsmalleratoms,orgroupsofatoms,nonethelesshedoesnotenvisagetheatomsthemselvesasmovingdownwardsinthevoid.
Foriftheydid,theywouldhave'naturalmovement',liketheatomsofEpicurus,andthisSimpliciusexpresslydenies.
Conclusion
Thustherearethreeimportantconclusionstobedrawnfromthisneglectedpassage,andfromthepairofpassageswhichIconsideredinthesectionprecedingthis.
1
Onthemeaningofthephrase seebelowpp.2246.
Page166
1.AccordingtoSimplicius,Democritus'atomsarebothheavyinthemselvesandcauseofheavinessinthesubstancesthatareformedfromthem.
2.Theyareheavyinvirtueoftheirdensity,andinvirtueoftheuniformityoftheirnature,andindependentlythereforeoftheirpositionorbehaviourwithinacosmos.
3.When,inthismostrecentpassage,SimpliciuswritesofEpicurus'atomsas'movingdownwardsbynature',passageselsewhereshowthathetherebyineffectdistinguishesthe
atomsofEpicurusfromthoseofDemocritusattheonepointwherewebelieveittohavebeennecessary:theassociationofweightandofmovementdownwards.
3
WeightandMovement:'Physics'
ApassageinthePhysicsraisesmoredirectlythequestionoftheassociationofweightwithmovement.SimpliciuswritesofDemocritus'atomsasmoving'becauseof',
orperhapsmoreloosely'inaccordancewith',theirweight,1318.301319.5(inpartDK68A58): .
'Somuchfortheideasofthosewhosetupanefficientcauseintheforefrontof<theirtheoryof>thegenesisofthingsexistent<andwhodosoinsuchawayastoacknowledge
theprimacyoflocalmovement>.
'Othersdonotthinktoestablishanefficientcause,butintheirtheoryofmovementIamthinkingofthetheoryofDemocritusandhisassociates,wherevoidhasadetermining
Page167
roletheystillthinkofthemovementof"physis"asalocalmovement.
'"Physis"inthistheorymeansthephysicalbodieswhichareprimaryandindivisible.ThesebodiesDemocritusandhisassociatescalled"physis",andtheyclaimedthatthese
bodieshavealocalmoment,wherebyinresponseto theheavinessthatisinthemtheymovethroughthevoidwhichgiveswaybeforethemandoffersnoresistance<to
theirpassage>,as,intheirownexpression,theprimaryparticles"dartabouthitherandthither".
'Indeednotonlydothesetheoristsofferthis<local>movementastheprimarymovement:itistheonlymovementthattheywillallowtotheelements<oftheirsystem,theatoms>
<all>othermovements,intheirtheory,belong<nottotheatomsorelementsbut>tobodiesthatareformedfromthe<atomsor>elements.Inotherwords,increaseanddecay,
qualitativechange,comingintobeingandpassingaway,<areallmovementsthat>theyclaimastheconsequenceoftheconjunctionandseparationoftheprimalbodies<the
atoms>.'
(i)
ProfessorSamburskyhasacutelyobservedthatwhenSimpliciusdescribesthevoidthroughwhichtheatomsmoveas'yieldingandunresistant'
.1
Thismightbemerelycoincidental.ButIthinkthatProfessorSamburskyisprobablyrighttotaketheexpressioninSimpliciusasanindicationthat,inthecontextofthe
passageasawhole,Plato'scontrastofwhatisvoluntaryandwhatisnecessaryis
1
S.Sambursky,'ADemocriteanmetaphorinPlato'sKratylos',Phronesis4(1959)14.The'yielding'natureofthevoid ,ascauseorconditionofmovement,isspecified
asafeatureofthetheorywhichAristotleattacksinbookfourofthePhysics,seeiv8,215a223,cf.214b1617and216a216.
Page168
intended,atleastinpart,asacovertcritiqueoftheatomictheory.
Takeninthisway,thetwopassagescomplementoneanother.
1.TheattributioninSimpliciuspointstotheprovenanceofthetheorieswhichPlatoemploysasthebasisforhisetymology,andforhiscriticism.
2.TheoccurrenceoftheexpressioninPlatoaddsauthoritytoSimplicius'accountofearlyAtomism,andinparticularitreinforceshisclaim,inthesentenceimmediatelyfollowing,
toreproduceanoriginalexpressionfromtheatomisttheory: .1
1
ThequalificationwhichIwouldaddtoSambursky'sarticleisthatheappearstothinkofthemetaphorasoriginatingwithDemocritus:'...itstandstoreasonthatSimplicius
quotesliterallyeitherfromDemocritus'writingsorfromsomeworkusingametaphorwhichgoesbacktoDemocritus'(p.1).
SamburskyhasbeencarriedawaybythecontextoftheexpressioninPlato.Thereisnothingnecessarilymetaphoricalinspeakingofthevoidas'yielding'oras'unresistant'.
isappliedtomatter,orvoid,orwhen'yielding'and'unresistant'aretransferredfromatechnical,orsemitechnical,descriptionofmatterorvoidtoadescriptionofpersonsortheir
actions.Ratherinterestingly,thefirsttransition,initsnegativeform,occursinthepassageoftheTimaeuswhichSimpliciusalludestoinconnectionwithDemocritus(62C7,cf.Simpl.
Decaelo269.414,quotedatthebeginningoftheprecedingsection),wherePlatoattackstheideathatanybodywhichmovesupwardsdoesso'unwillingly'evenso,insteadof
beinginanywaydeliberatelymetaphorical,thisusageperhapsratherindicatestheanimismlatentintheideaswhichPlatoisattacking.Thereisnoindicationthatthesecond
transference,whichistheonethatProfessorSamburskyismoreinterestedin,hasoccurredoutsidePlato.
IndeedthepointofPlato'sreminiscenceintheCratyluswouldseemtometolieprincipallyinPlato'stranspositionoftermsthatinDemocritushadbeenusedlargelyorexclusivelyina
materialsense,tothecontextofignoranceanderrorthatwefindintheCratylusorifwefollowSambursky'sargumenttothecontextofreason,persuasionandnecessitythatwe
findintheTimaeus.
IfthereweretobeanonmaterialconnotationintheAtomists'originaluseoftheexpression,thenIwouldprefertofindit,notinthemoralisingcontextwhichPlatogivestotheterm,
butinassociationwiththevocabularyinthefragmentwhichSimpliciusquotesfromAristotle'streatiseonDemocritus,wheretheatomsare'atwar' seeLSJs.v.Forthe
collocationofthetwotextsinSimplicius,thepresentpassagefromthePhysicsandSimplicius'quotationofAristotle'sfragmentonDemocritus,seebelowch.XI1,pp.30310).
Page169
(ii)
Iturnthereforetothereading .
Diels'emendationto .1
ButwhileMcDiarmidmayberightincastingdoubtonsomeotherinstanceswhere,withlittleencouragementfromthemanuscripts, haveperhapstoo
zealouslybeenrestoredtotextstouchingupontheatomictheory,yetinthiscaseMcDiarmid'sattempttofollowtheprincipleofthelectiofaciliorleadstoareading
whichhaslittleresemblancetowhatisofferedbythemanuscripts.
Moreparticularly,McDiarmidiswronginwritingthat'thecontextofSimpliciusoffersnodefinitecluetothecorrectreading'.2
ForwhatisatleastclearinthiscontextisthatwhileSimplicius'pointisthattheAtomistsreduceeverykindof'movement',inAristotle'ssenseoftheterm,exclusively
tolocalmovement,atthesametimeSimpliciusdistinguishesineffecttwokindsoflocalmovement.
1.Thereisfirstthesimplemovementofatomsinspace.
2.Thereisthentheirconjunctionwith,anddisjunctionfrom,eachother:their'mixture',sotospeak,andtheirseparation.
Thusthepointtobeappreciatedisthatinthiscontextlocalmovement, .
Itisthereforeinappropriatefor tobereplaced
1
H.Diels,ednofSimplicius'Physics(Berolini,1895)1319.1,and'Aristotelica',Hermes40(1905)3068.J.B.McDiarmid,'PhantomsinDemocriteanterminology: ',
Hermes86(1958)2918.
2
'Phantoms'295.
Page170
by .
Indeed,itisimpossibleforSimpliciustowriteofonlyoneofthetwocontrastingformsoflocalmovementthatitisnotonlytheprimarybuttheonlykindofmovement
whichisattributedtotheatoms,ashewillhavetodoifweacceptMcDiarmid'semendation,1319.13: .
Onthecontrary,theformula,'notonlythefirstbuttheonlymovement',requiresthatwhateverreplaces .
Thiswouldbeachievedby ,whichDielsalsosuggested.
Butthesimplest,andthesmallest,alterationofthemanuscriptswillbetoadopt ,howevermuch,orhoweverlittle,supportitmaygainfrom
passageselsewhere.1
(iii)
Whatthenisthemeaningof ?
Hesychiusrecords .Thiscannotbethemeaninghere,althoughitisperhapsintelligibleasexplainingoneresultoflocalmovement.
Theuncompoundedverb, isusedmoregenerally,butoftenofthekindoffastandevenviolentmovementthatIshallarguelaterisappropriatetothe
movementofatomsinthevoid.3
Theprefix willaddthesenseof'roundandround'or'roundandabout'or'hitherandthither'.4Themeaningwillbe
1
Conscious,asever,ofthedangersofproliferationinthiskindofstudy,IhopethatthereaderwillnotfeelcheatedifIusethisformulatocutmyselfofffromdetailedexamination
oftheotherpassageswhichMcDiarmidquotes,someofwhich,Idoinfactbelieve,supporttheuseoftheterm.
2
LSJs.v.
3
LSJs.v.Seepp.17981below.
4
SeeLSJs.vv. .
Page171
thereforethattheatomsare'scattered'or'tossedabout',orthatthey'dart'or'shoot'or'leaparound':preciselythemeaning,infact,whichisconveyedbyLucretius'
repeateduseofthetermiactariinhisaccountofthemovementofatomsinthesecondbookoftheDererumnatura.1
Movement
Iturnthereforetotheuseofthispassageasevidenceforthequestionofweight,withparticularreferencetotherelationofweightandmovement.
AsIhavealreadynoted,IadoptinthisstudytheviewwhichsinceBrieger'sandLiepmann'scritiqueofZellerhasbeenalmostuniversallyendorsed,andwhichis
sharedbyBurnetandbyGuthrie,thatinEpicurus'systemalonetheatoms'fall'downwardsintheprecosmicvoid,whereasintheearliersystemtheprecosmicatoms
movedatrandominalldirections.
Itisinterestingtoobservetheusewhichrepresentativesofthesetwointerpretationsmakeofthepresentpassage.
1.ZellerusesitasanimportantpieceofevidencethatforDemocritus,asforEpicurus,theatomsaremovedbyweightandsomust'fall'inthevoid.2
2.ProfessorGuthriewritesthatinthispassageSimplicius'showsasimilarconfusion'tothatinthepassagewhichhequotesfromtheDecaelo,inthat'theatomsaresaidtomove
throughtheunresistingvoidbyreasonoftheirweight(astheycertainlydidforEpicurus),butthismotionisthen
1
Lucretius,ii89,122,548.
SinceAristotle'sreadingatDecaeloiii4,303a8,isexplainedbySimplicius,609.245,asmeaning isthereadingtobepreferred,bothsinceitistheonlyreadingtooccurat
onceinthemanuscriptsofAristotleandinthoseofSimplicius,andbecauseitmakesexcellentsense.
J.BollackalsodefendsDiels'conjectureagainstMcDiarmid,withthesenseof'l'claboussement','Deuxfiguresprincipalesdel'atomismed'aprsAristote:l'entrecroisementdesatomes
etlasphredufeu',SymposiumAristotelicum4(Heidelberg,1969)3842,thesametranslationasinRobin,Lapensegrecque140('claboussemententoussens').
2
ZN1085n.3.
Page172
1
describedbyawordwhichcannotapplytoaconsistentlydownwardfall'.
Thusinfindingonceagain'confusion'withEpicurus,ProfessorGuthrie,whileavoidingZeller'sconclusion,ineffectperpetuateshisassumptionthatmovement'by
reasonofweight'shouldbeexpressedbymovementdownwards.
Ifwedonotmakethisassumption,thenthelessonofthispassagewillbepreciselytheoppositeofthelessonwhichProfessorGuthrieseekstodrawfromit,andthe
sameasthelessonofthepassagewhichIlastquotedfromtheDecaelo.
Forifmovement'accordingtoweight'doesnotentailmovementdownwards,thenthenatureofthemovementattributedheretoDemocrituswillbedeterminedbythe
meaningof oritsvariant.
Ifthisterm'cannotapplytoaconsistentdownwardfall',thenitwillservepreciselytodistinguishthemovementofDemocritus'atomsfromthedownwardmovement
whichwastheexclusivecharacteristicofEpicurus'system.
Notonly,inthatcase,willSimpliciusnothaveconfusedDemocritusandEpicurus.Attheonepointwherewebelieveittohavebeennecessary,hewillagainineffect
havedistinguishedthetwo.
Conclusion
Simplicius'evidencehasbeenadducedinsupportofwhatIhavecalledthecurrentcompromise:namelytheviewthattheatomsofDemocritushaveweightonlywhen
theyarecaughtintoacosmicvortex,andthatevidenceinAetiusandCicero,whichdeniesthattheatomshaveweight,istrueofatomswhichare'floatingfreelyinthe
void'.
ButthetruthisthatastudyoffourleadingpassagesinSimplicius,onceanumberofobviouserrorsofmistranslationandoffalseinferencehavebeenclearedaway,
leadstotheoppositecon
1
Historyii403n.3.Guthrieisfollowingalongtraditionhere:Papencordt,Atomicorumdoctrina35n.2,Mullach,Democritifragmenta384,Brieger,Urbewegung78,VittorioE.
Alfieri,GliAtomisti,frammentietestimonianze,traduzioneenotediV.E.A.(Bari,1936)100n.232,Kirk,Presocraticphilosophers417n.1.ForGuthrie'suseofDecaelo569.59
seepp.1547above.
Page173
clusion:thattheatomsofDemocritusdohaveweight,evenoutsideacosmos.
1.InapassageintheDecaelo,Simpliciuswritesthattheatomshaveweightinvirtueof'theuniformityoftheirnature',andso,onewouldsuppose,independentlyoftheirrelation
toacosmos.Itistrue,thisopinionisattributedbothtoDemocritusandtoEpicurus:butintwootherpassagesvirtuallythesamesentimentsareattributedtoDemocritusonhis
own.
2.Atthesametime,intheDecaelo,althoughSimpliciusattributes'natural'movementdownwardstotheatomsofEpicurus,heregardstheatomsofDemocritusasmoving'by
force'.TheimplicationismadeexplicitinapassageinthePhysics:theatomsofDemocritusaretherespokenofas'dartinghitherandthither'inthevoid'becauseof'or'in
accordancewith'theirweight.
Thiswillbetray'confusion'onlyifwesupposethatmovement'accordingtoweight'isnecessarilymovementdownwards.Ifwedonotmakethatassumption,thenthe
messagefromSimpliciusisclear:theatomsofDemocritusdohaveweight,eveninthevoid,buttheydonotthereforemovedownwardsinthevoid,astheatomsof
Epicurusdo.
Page174
ChapterSix
SimpliciusandtheCurrentCompromise
1
TheNatureofWeight:WeightExpressedAsMovementDownwards
Thequestionwhichweareledtotherefore,fromourstudyofSimplicius,iswhether,orforwhom,movementbyweightentailsmovementdownwards.
Thisquestionliesattheheartofourenquiry,forinsupposingthatiftheatomshaveweighttheymustthereforefall,andinfindingtherebyaconfusionbetweenEpicurus
andDemocritusinthepassageIhavequotedfromSimplicius'Physics,ProfessorGuthriereflectstheinfluenceonhismindofapresuppositionwhichhaslainatthe
rootofmoderninterpretationsofDemocritus'theoryofweight.
ThispresuppositionisexpressedwithequalclarityandwithequalconfidencebybothZellerandBurnet.
'UnterderSchwerehat...niemandimAltertumetwasanderesverstandenalsdiejenigeEigenschaftderKrper,vermgenderensiesichnachuntenbewegen,wennihnendies
nichtdurcheinusseresHindernisverwehrtwird.'1
'Zellerrightlyargues...that,iftheatomshaveweight,theymustfall.'2
Whatshouldatoncearouseoursuspicion,evenapartfromthelackofanyevidencebeingoffered,isthattheadoptionofthisprincipleleadstodirectlyopposite
conclusionsforZellerandforBurnet.
1.ZellerarguesthattheprecosmicatomsofDemocritusdohaveweight,andthattheymustthereforefall.
1
ZN1084.
2
EGP345n.1.IcanseeonlyfreshconfusioninthefactthatearlierBurnetpurportstocontradictZeller'sdefinition,EGP343n.3,quotedbyNestle,ZN1084n.3.
Page175
2.Recognising,rightly,withBriegerandwithLiepmann,thatZeller'sconclusioniscontrarytotheevidence,Burnetconcludesthatsincetheatomsdonotfalltheycanhaveno
weight.
Thisconflictneedsonly,Ithink,tobestatedclearlyforittobeatonceapparentthatinsteadofshootingoffinoppositedirectionsfromacommonprinciple,itistothis
principleitselfthatcriticalattentionshouldbedirected.Foritisonlythesupposedlyinviolableforceoftheentailmentbetweenweightandmovementthatleadstothe
suppositioneitherthattheatomshaveweightandthereforemovedownwardsorthattheatomsdonotfallandarethereforeweightless.
Theradicalalternativewillbetoabandontheentailmentofweightandmovement.Thiswillatonceenableustoembracetheonlytwoconclusionsforwhichthereis
sufficient,andsatisfactory,evidence.
1.TheprecosmicatomsofDemocritusdohaveweight.
2.Theydonotmoveonlydownwards.
'Weight'inBurnet
TheplacewhichweightandmovementinfactoccupiedintheconceptualfabricoffifthcenturyphilosophyIshallattempttooutlineinalater,moregeneralchapter.1
Forthemoment,itwillperhapsbesufficientformyargumentif,inordertopointtotheweaknessofthenotionthatweight,forthePresocratics,necessarilyentails,and
isdefinedby,movementinaspecificdirection,IdonomorethanpointoutthestepsbywhichBurnetarguesinitssupport.
Withevenmorethanhisaccustomedpanache,Burnetsetsouttoportrayearlynotionsofweight.
'Itisclearthatlightnessandweightwouldbeamongtheveryfirstpropertiesofbodytobedistinctlyrecognisedassuch.Thenecessityofliftingburdensmustverysoonhave
ledmentodistinguishthem,thoughnodoubtinacrude
1
Ch.XIII2,pp.36483below.
Page176
form.Bothweightandlightnesswouldbethoughtofasthingsthatwereinbodies.NowitisaremarkablefeatureofearlyGreekphilosophythatfromthefirstitwasabletoshake
itselffreefromthisidea.Weightisnevercalleda''thing"as,forinstance,warmandcoldareand,sofaraswecansee,notoneofthethinkerswehavestudiedhithertothoughtit
necessarytogiveanyexplanationofitatall....'
Thecrunchcomesinthenextsevenwords:
...oreventosayanythingaboutit'(myitalics).
Burnet'swholeconstructionsuddenlycollapsesintoanargumentexsilentio.1
ButifthePresocraticssaynothingaboutweight,thenwecannotpossiblytellwhetherheavyandlightare,orarenot,distinguishedbythemfromsuchcommon
charactersaswarmandcold.
Whatismore,fromBurnet'sownadmission,weshouldratherconcludethattheywerenotsodistinguished.Forifitwouldbea'remarkablefeature'ofprimitive
thinkingforthestatusofheavyandlighttobedistinguishedfromthestatusofsuchoppositesaswarmandcold,thenintheabsenceofevidenceeitherway,itwould
bemoresoberandmorehonest,ifweweretocometoaconclusionatall,toconcludethatsuchadevelopmenthadnottakenplace,ratherthanthatithad.
1
EGP342.InsupportofthesentencewhichIhaveitalicisedBurnetwrites,EGP342n.2:'InAet.i12,wheretheplacitaregardingtheheavyandlightaregiven,nophilosopher
earlierthanPlatoisreferredto'.ThisisinfactthesectioninwhichitisstatedofDemocritusthathisatoms'havenoweight'(seech.VIII1,pp.2239below).Thismaybea
negativeplacitum,butitisaplacitumnonetheless.
SolmsenrepeatswithoutcorrectionBurnet'sremark,Aristotle'ssystem277n.8:Burnet'attachesimportancetothefactthatthePlacita(see,e.g.,Doxographi310)reportnodoctrines
aboutheavyandlightearlierthanPlato's'.Thechapterwhichbeginsonthepagequoted(Dox.310=Aet.i12)isagainpreciselythechapterwhichcontains(Dox.311.1822=Aet.i
12.6)theentrywhere'Democritussaysthatthefirstbodies...havenoweight'.ItisquiteextraordinarythatbothSolmsenandBurnetshouldinthiswaydenytheexistenceofthevery
evidenceonwhichtheydependfortheirbeliefthatoutsideacosmosDemocritus'atoms'havenoweight'(cf.p.154n.1above).
Page177
Butworseistocome.WhenBurnetprocedestooutlinePlato'stheoryofweight,whereweightisassociatedwith,andinpartexplainedby,movementinaspecific
direction,heconcludesprecisely:'HerePlatoisreallygivingtheviewtakenmoreorlessconsciouslybyhispredecessors'.LateronthesamepageBurnetaddsthat
Plato'sview,initsimmediateeffects,issubstantiallythesameasthatadoptedbyAristotle.1Thuswhilesettingoutdeliberatelytoisolateearlynotionsofweight,Burnet
ineffectsaddlesthePresocraticswithpreciselythatentailmentofweightandmovementwhichwastheessentialcharacteristicofPlatonicandAristoteleanphilosophy.2
'FloatingAtoms'
HardlylesschimericalisthepicturewhichProfessorGuthrieprovidesofDemocritus'precosmicatoms'floatingfreelyinthevoid'.3
Ifthispictureisnotsimplytheproductofanimaginationcolouredbymodernnotionsofspace,thenithasperhapstakenitsrisefromthewordsofAristotlewhich
Burnetparaphrases,inthecontextofhisdiscussionofweight,as'thecomparisonofthemotionoftheatomsofthesoultothatofthemotesinasunbeamcoming
throughawindow'.Itispossible,Burnetadds,thatthis'isreallyintendedasanillustrationoftheoriginalmotionoftheatomsstillsurvivinginthesoul'.4
1
EGP3434.
2
Burnet'sobservationshaveclearlyinfluencedCornford'sremarksonthesamesubject,asisnotedbySolmsen:seeFrancisM.Cornford,Thelawsofmotioninancientthought
(Cambridge,1931)esp.379,cf.Solmsen,Aristotle'ssystem277n.8.Inparticular,CornfordadvancesthesamecloseassociationofAristotelean,PlatonicandPresocraticideasthatis
tobefoundinBurnet,thoughhedoessowithperhapsalittlemorejustificationthanBurnet,sinceCornford'spurposeisnotsomuchtoisolateearlierideasofweightastopresent
certainradicalcontrastsbetweenancientandmodernwaysofthinking.NonethelessIsuspectitmaybeCornford'stacitendorsementofBurnet'sideasatthispointwhichhas
encouragedlaterCambridgescholars,notablyGuthrieandKirk,toacceptBurnet'sideasonthesubject,andespeciallyhisinterpretationofDemocritus,withsuchlackofcritical
scruple(cf.p.154n.1aboveseealsopp.3478and3634below).
3
Historyii403.
4
EGP3456Burnet'ssuggestionisalsopickedupbyBailey,GreekAtomists133,andbyKirk,Presocraticphilosophers417.Aristotle,Deanimai2,403b31
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page178
However,considerablecautionisneededinhandlingAristotle'scomparison.
(i)
Inthefirstplace,theapplicationoftheimageofthesunbeamtoatomsotherthanthoseofthesouldoesnotoccurbeforeLucretius.1Itmaywellbepeculiarto
Epicureanism.
1.Theclinamenoftheprecosmicatoms,inthelatertheory,isascribedtoatomsofthesoul,toprovideforlibera...fatisauulsauoluntas.2
2.Itisverypossiblethatasimilarassociationofideashasled,butagainonlyinthelatertheory,totheimageofthesunbeamtravellingintheoppositedirection,sotospeak:from
illustratingthemovementofatomsconstitutingsoul,toillustratingthemovementofatomsingeneral.
(ii)
Evenifwedoconsiderthelattercomparison,itisessential,asintheuseofallsuchimages,topickoutcarefullythetertiumcomparationis.
Inthepsychologicalapplicationoftheimage,thepointofcomparisonwasperhapsthenotionofcontinuousandspontaneousmovement.Atleast,thiswasthesensein
whichtheideawasoriginallyused,Aristotletellsus,bycertainPythagoreans,forwhomthemoteswereinfactparticlesofsoul,andnotmerely,asforDemocritus,an
imageoftheatomsthatconstitutesoul.3
InLucretius,thecosmicapplicationoftheimageservestwopurposes.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
404a20(DK67A28+58B40).Thereisarecentstudyofthecomparisonoftheatomswithmotesinasunbeam,containingausefulcollectionofpassages,andincludingafragment,
hithertounknown,ofanArabicwork,byG.Strohmaier,'DemokritberdieSonnenstubchen',Philologus112(1968)119.
1
Lucretiusii11241.
2
Lucretiusii2567.
3
Arist.Deanimai2,404a1620(DK58B40).Iadd'spontaneous'todistinguishthePythagoreanswhotreatedsoulasthemotesthemselvesfromthosewhotreatedsoulas
.Inwritingthattheideawas'originally'
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page179
1.Itisfirstusedtoillustratethecollisionandrecoilofatoms.
2.Itisthenusedtoillustratehowthesesameturbulentmovementssecretlyunderlie,andarecontainedwithin,theobjectsapparenttosense,whichbyaprettytransferenceofthe
originalimageLucretiusdescribesasilla...insolisquaeluminecernerequimus.
ThefirstapplicationoftheimagewillbethatwhichcorrespondstoBurnet'ssuggestionoftheimageasillustrating'theoriginalmotionoftheatoms'.
Butinthatcasethelesson,thetertiumcomparationisoftheimage,atleastasitappearsinLucretius,isnotthatofatoms'floatingfreelyinthevoid'(myitalics).Itis
thatofthecollisionandentanglement(concilia)andtheseparationandrecoil(discidia)ofatoms.1
Thuseveninthelateremploymentoftheimagethereisnodeliberatenotionofatoms'floatingfreelyinthevoid'.
TheClashofAtoms
Butperhapsthenotionofatoms'floatingfreelyinthevoid'isnotintendedtobedependentupontheimageofmotesinasunbeam.
Ifnot,ithasnootherauthority.Forthefewpotentiallyauthenticallusionsthatsurvivetothenatureoftheprecosmicmovementoftheatomssuggestaverydifferent
picture.
1. inAristotle'saccount,recordedbySimplicius,hasalreadyaratherdifferentconnotationfromthepeaceful'floating'ofatoms.2
2. ,alsoinAristotle,canbeusedinapeaceful
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
usedbyPythagoreans,IamsimplyassumingthatthesePythagoreanswerepriortoDemocritus:thetheoryhasanarchaicring.
Ratherinterestingly,theanalogyrecurs,inadifferentconnection,inAlexander,Met.631.811,cf.p.276n.1below.ForSimplicius'criticismofAristotle'streatmentofthePythagoreans
inthispassageseebelowpp.27981.
1
SeeespeciallyLucretiusii11424.
2
Arist.ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.913(fr.208Rose=DK68A37),quotedbelowpp.3045.ForthegeneralmeaningseeLSJs.v.
Page180
1
sense:butitisalsousedoftheattackofarmedmenandofwildbeasts.
3. orplaga,whichSimpliciusandCiceroattributetothemovementofDemocritus'atoms,mostlikelyincludingtheirprecosmicmovement,isawordthatisused
elsewhereoftheblowinflictedfromswords,axesandboars'tusks.2
4. areappliedtoDemocritus'atomsbyAetius,AlexanderandPhilo.
NeitherwordseemstoappearoutsidethecontextofAtomism.Theuncompoundednoun ,ismostoftenusedwithaconnotationofviolence,todescribetheactionofa
cluborhammer,orinbattletheblowofasword,spearorarrow.3
5.AccordingtoGalen,theatomsinthevoidthatdonotbecomeentangledwithoneanothertoformacosmos, .
canbeusedinnocentlyenoughofabouncingball.Itisalsousedhoweverofayoungmanhurlingweapons,andofbloodthathasbeendispersedbyablow
ontheskin,andthatthen'doublesback'toitsplaceandformsabruise.4
6.Theuncompoundedverb inDiogenesofOenoandamayreferto,oratleastinclude,theprecosmicmovementofDemocritus'atoms.
Thesimpleverbisusedtocoverawiderangeofactions,from'tapping'to'knocking'to'banging'.
1
Thesamereferencesasintheprecedingfootnote.
2
Simpl.Phys.42.11(DK68A47),quotedabovep.165.Cicero,Defato20.46(DK68A47),quotedbelowpp.23940.ForthegeneralmeaningseeLSJs.v.
3
Aet.i12.6(DK68A47),quotedbelowp.223.Alex.Met.36.215(DK67A6),quotedbelowpp.211212.Philo,Deaet.mundi8(=CWvi75.89).For seeLSJs.vv.
4
Galen,Deelem.sec.Hipp.i2=i418Khn(DK68A49).Aball:SextusEmpiricus,Adv.math.x73.Weapons:[Lucian]Amores45 .Blood:[Arist.]Probl.viii14,891a3.
Page181
Thecompoundverb, ,fromGalen,islesscommon.Itisusedofbangingone'sheadagainstsomething,orinEpicurusofoneworldcollidingwithanother.Itisalso
usedbyPlatoaspartofthewildandturbulentimagerywithwhichhedescribesnewborncreatures,letlooseupontheworldbythelessergods,lurchingfromsidetosideand
'stumblingagainst'theelements.
isusedoftheclashofarms,therammingofships,ofcivilstrife,oftheattackofarmedmen.1
Takenasawhole,therefore,terminologygiveslittleencouragementtoanypictureoftheatoms'floatingfreelyinthevoid'.
Ratherthereverse:thepicturewhichisindicatedintheonlysourceswehaveisthatofforcefulandevenviolentmovement.Clearly,theatomsbangintooneanother.
AsProfessorGuthriewriteselsewhere,they'clash'and'recoil'.2
Conclusion:AlternativeExpressionsofWeight
Theparticularsignificanceforthepurposeofmyargumentofthispictureoftheatoms'movementinthevoidisthatitleavesroom,ifonlyconceptually,fortheatoms'
retentionofweight.
WhenBurnetaskshimselftacitlyhowtheatomscouldhaveexpressedtheirweight,outsidetheformationofacosmos,heassumesthattheycouldhavedoneso
onlybyfallingdownwardsinthevoid.FromthistherefollowsthenotionthatoutsideacosmostheatomsofDemocritus,sincetheydonotfall,havenoweight.Thisin
turnleadstoProfessorGuthrie'spictureofatoms'floatingfreelyinthevoid'.
Butifthemovementofatomsinthevoidisforcefulandevenviolentmovement,thenitispossible,atleastconceptually,thatweightwouldbesufficientlyexpressedby
theforcewithwhichtheatomscollide.
Morespecifically,differencesintheatoms'forceofimpactcouldleadtodifferencesintheirspeedofmovementordifferen
1
Alex.Met.36.22(DK67A6),quotedbelowpp.21112.DiogenesofOenoanda,fr.32col.ii9Chilton(DK68A50).For seeLSJs.vv.Add
IoannesMalala,Chronographiaxviii468(=PGxcvii681D).
2
Historyii404n.1.
Page182
cesintheatoms'speedofmovementcouldbeeffecteddirectlybytheatoms'differencesofweight.
ThusatleastonthelevelofconceptualpossibilitythereisnoneedfortheatomstobeweightlessortohaveonlypotentialweightorPseudoschweresimplybecause
theydonotfalldownwardsinthevoid.1
CurtailmentoftheAristoteleanassumption,thatweightmustbeexpressedbymovementinaspecificdirection,leavesopenthepossibility,ifonlytheconceptual
possibility,thatevenwhentheatomsweremovingatrandominthevoid,differencesintheweightofatomscouldhavebeenexpressedbydifferencesintheirspeedof
movement,whetherdirectlyorasaresultoftheirforceofimpact.
InthesectionwhichfollowsIconsiderwhatevidencethereisthatsuchpossibilitieswereeverrealisedhistorically.2
2
TheNatureofWeight:WeightExpressedAsForceofImpactandAsSpeedofMovement
WeightAsForceofImpact
(i)
Thenotionofweightasafactorintheforceofimpactislittlemore,initially,thananapplicationofthequitegeneralassociationofweightwithforceorviolence.
ThusAristotlewritesthatanimalswithahuckleboneintheirhindlegsareabletousetheminselfdefence,becausethepresenceofahucklebonemakestheblowof
thehindlegs'heavier'
1
FortheoriginoftheexpressionPseudoschwere(Liepmann,Mechanik2830),seebelowp.352.
2
Inchoosingdifferencesinspeedanddifferencesinforceofimpactaspossibleexpressionsofweightfortheatomswhentheyaremovinginthevoid,Idoofcoursealreadyhavean
eyetowhatcanbeinstantiatedhistorically:thepointisthatfromthegeneralpictureoftheatoms'behaviourIamclaiming,atthisstageinmyargument,onlyaconceptualandnotan
historicalpossibility.Ileaveasideotherpossibleeffectsthatmightperhapsbethoughtoffortheatoms'differencesinweight,becausetherehappenstobenotraceofthem
historically.
Afurthercaution:themorepreciserelationbetweenweightandspeed,i.e.whetherthelighterortheheavieratomswouldmovethefaster,isaquestionIleaveforalaterstageinmy
discussion:seech.XI4,pp.3239below.
Page183
,Il.i8890).
(ii)
Wemayperhapsdoubtwhetherthisnotion,ofweightasassociatedwithforceorviolence,canbetransferredtothemovementofbodiesinavoid.
Thatitcanbe,atleastinlaterthinking,isclearfromLucretius,whowrites,ii838:
namquoniamperinaneuagantur,cunctanecessest
autgrauitatesuaferriprimordiarerum
autictufortealterius.nam<cum>citasaepe
obuiaconflixere,fitutdiuersarepentei
dissiliantnequeenimmirum,durissimaquaesint
ponderibussolidisnequequicquamatergoibusobstet.
Intheselines,Lucretiusfirstpresentstheatomsasbeingcarrieddownwards'bytheirownweight',grauitatesua.Butthealternativetothis,thattheatomsare
propelledbyachancecollision,ictufortealterius,isthenexplainedonthetwogrounds,thatinthevoidthereisnothingbehindtheatomstostopthembeing
knocked'backwards'andthattheatomsarebothhardandheavy,durissima...ponderibussolidis.Weighttherefore,itwouldappear,iscause,or
accompaniment,bothofthedownwardmovementofatoms,andoftheircollisionandrecoil.
Theformerideareappearsinadifferentguiseafewlineslater,wheretheatomsareagainsaidtobemoveddownwards'bytheirownweight',ii21718:
corporacumdeorsumrectumperinaneferuntur
ponderibuspropriis...
Thusthetwoexpressions,ponderibuspropriis(ii218)andponderi
Page184
bussolidis(ii88),neatlyepitomisethetwonotionsofweight:ascauseofmovementdownwardsandascause,oraccompaniment,ofcollisionandrecoil.
(iii)
ThesametwoideasareperhapstobefoundinEpicurus.Theatomstravelwiththesamespeed,Epicurustellsus,whether(1)theyaremovingupwardsorsideways,
iftheirtrajectoryistheresultofacollision,orwhether(2)theyaremovingdownwardsasaconsequenceoftheirownproperweight
Theimplicationin wouldappeartoconfirmLucretius'notionthatthealternative,movementresultingfromtheclashofatoms,isalsoreckonedasaconsequence
oftheweightofatoms:themovementofanatomisdeterminedbyits'ownproperweight',whichwillcarrytheatomsdownwards,orbythatofanother.1
1
TheearlierpartofthepassagefromEpicurusisquotedimmediatelybelow.Itwouldbepossibletotakethedisjunction'movementofeitherkind' asbeingeither(1)
thedisjunctionbetweenmovementupwardsandmovementsideways,or(2)thedisjunctionbetweenthesetwokindsofmovementandmovementdownwards.Ihavetakenitin
thislattersense,althoughthereisthentheslightillogicalitythatwhereas(1)acollisioncouldalterthecourseofanatomthatwasalreadymoving'upwardsorsideways',aswellas
ofanatomthatwasmovingdownwards,nonetheless(2)thereassertionofanatom's'ownweight'canapplyonlytoanatomthatwasmoving'upwardsorsideways',andnottoan
atomthatwasalreadymovingdownwards.
Theideathatweightcausesforceofimpactcouldperhapscarrywithittheconverseidea,thatweightwillcausedifferentdegreesofresistance.ThisideaFurley,Twostudies22733,
seekstoextractfromLucretiusii2889('pondusenimprohibetneplagisomniafiant/externaquasiui')and,wronglyasitseemstome,fromthepresentpassageintheLetterto
Herodotus.Epicurusdoessaythat'theweightofanatommaycounteracttheforceofablowfromanotheratom',not,however,inthesensethat'heavierobjectsarehardertobudge
thanlighterones'(Furley'sexpression,p.230),butonlyinthesensethatafteracertainperiodanatom'sownweightwillreassertitself,andleadtodownwardmovement.Bailey
interpretsthedistinctionmoreorlessasIhavedone,Epicurus218:'anewcollisionwillstartanimmediatechangeofdirection,whereasthetendencytomovedownwardswould
assertitselfgraduallyandcauseagradualdeflexion'.
Itisinterestingtonotethat'theforceofimpact' makes
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page185
WeightAsSpeedofMovement
(i)
Inthissamepassage,Epicurus'purposeistoattacktheideathatatomswouldtravelwithdifferencesofspeedinthevoid,whetherasanexpressionoftheirintrinsic
weight,orasaresultofthecollisionofoneatomwithanother.Hewrites,Ep.adHer.61: .
'Whatismore,theatomsmusthave<all>thesamespeed...heavyatomswillnotmovemorespeedilythandoatomsthataresmallandlight...norwillsmallatomsmovemore
quicklythanlargerones...norwilltherebeanyincreaseofspeedforatomsthataresentmovingupwardsorsidewaysastheresultofcollisions,orforatomswhoseownweight
sendsthemdownwards.'1
(ii)
TheideaisrepeatedbyLucretius,butwiththedifferencethatwhileEpicurusdoesnotsaythatanyonehadactuallyheldsuchanidea,Lucretiuswritesmore
personally,andalsoaddsthenotion(whichinamomentweshallfindagaininAlexander)thatbecausetheheavieratomsmovefastertheyovertakethesmalleronesin
thevoid,ii2259:
quodsifortealiquiscreditgrauiorapotesse
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
anappearanceintheatomistcosmogonyrecordedbyAetius,i42(DKDK67A24):themechanismof ensuresthat'theforceofimpact'growslessasthe'small,round,
smoothandslipperyatoms'aredrivenfurtherfromthecentrebytheactionofatomswhichare'largerandheavier'.Buttheexplicitmentionofthedinemakesitimpossibletouse
thisasevidenceinthepresentargument.
1
Forthepossiblechangeofsubjectinthispassage,fromatomsto'bodiesingeneral',seeabovepp.15960.Fortheinterpretationofthispassageseealsopp.3256below.
Page186
corpora,quocitiusrectumperinaneferuntur,
incidereexsuperoleuioribusatqueitaplagas
gignerequaepossintgenitalisredderemotus,
auiusaueralongerationerecedit.
BaileysuggeststhatthisviewmayhavebeenadoptedbyEpicurus'immediatepredecessor,NausiphanesofTeosbutthissuggestionisratherweakenedbyBailey's
failuretoappreciatethatonlyinLucretius,andinAlexander,dothelargeratomscatchupthesmalleronesbecauseoftheirgreaterspeed.1
Sincewearereducedtospeculation,itseemsmorelikelyperhaps,ifLucretius'aliquiswereeveracreatureoffleshandblood,thathewassomeonelaterthan
Epicuruswhoattemptedtoavoidtheanomalyofthedeclinatiobythepostulationofdifferentspeeds,whileretainingadownwardmovementofatomsinthevoid.
Howeverthatmaybe,Epicurushimselfdoesnotrepresentdifferencesofspeedandweightastakingtheplaceofadeclinatio:wehavesimplythedenialthat
differencesofweightareexpressedbyanyincreaseinspeedofmovement,whetherdirectly,orasaresultoftheimpactofoneatomwithanother.2
1
GreekAtomists129.ItisonlytheunthinkingconflationofthepassagesIhavequotedfromEpicurusandfromLucretiuswhichleadsBaileytowrite,129n.1:
'SinceEpicurus...isconcernedtoargueagainstatheorythattheheavieratomscatchupthelighterintheirdownwardfallinthevoid,itisclearthattheideaofweightasthe
causeofdownwardmotionmusthavebeenintroducedintotheatomictheorybeforehistime.'
Itisquiteadifferentmattertoargue,asdoesZeller,ZN1089n.4:
'DennsolcheFragenselbstndigzubehandeln,gingweitberdasVermgendesrmischenDichters.'
Ishouldmyselfbereluctant,onthisground,toattributetoEpicuruseventhedetailsofargumentfoundinLucretius:butIdonotpursuethequestionasitisonlymarginallyrelevant
tothemaintenorofmyargument.
2
VittorioE.AlfierithinksthatEpicurus'andLucretius'argumentsaredirectedagainstDemocritushimself,asZellerhadalsosupposed,ZN1089,butatthesametimehedeniesthat
therewasdownwardmovementinDemocritus,withtheoddresultthatEpicurusissupposedtohavemisunderstoodDemocritus,
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page187
(iii)
Epicurus'owntheory,ofequalspeedsfortheatoms,looksverymuchasthoughitistheproductofargumentswhichAristotledeploysinthePhysicsagainstthe
possibilityofmovementinavoid,andsoagainsttheveryexistenceofvoid.
Aristotlestatestworeasonsfordifferencesofspeed,resistanceofamediumanddifferencesofweight.1Onthefirstpoint,hearguesatlengththatmovementthrougha
voidwouldbeincommensurablewithmovementthroughamedium:theimplicationoftheargumentisevidentlythatinavoidabodywouldtravelwithaninfinitespeed,
anideawhichAristotlewouldholdtobeimpossible.2AgainstthesecondpossibilityAristotlearguesmuchmorebrieflythatshapeandsizeorweightcouldhaveno
effectuponmovementinavoid,andthatinavoidbodiesofadifferentweightwouldhavetotravelallwiththesamespeed:equalspeedsforbodiesofdifferentweight
Aristotleevidentlyassumeswouldbeasufficientrefutationoftheexistenceofvoid,oratleastofmovementwithinavoid.3
Movementatamaximum,andthereforeauniform,speed,byatomswhichdifferinweight,ispreciselytheconsequenceofmovementthroughvoidadoptedby
Epicurus.4
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Atomosidea,l'originedelconcettodell'atomonelpensierogreco(Firenze,1953)81:
'Epicuro(equindiLucrezio)hacosgrossolanamentefraintesoDemocritosuquestopunto,daattribuirgliunadottrinadicuinegliAbderitinonsivedetraccia:cheilmotodegli
atomifosseintesodaDemocritocomemovimentodicadutaversoilbasso,causatodunquedalpeso....'
Inhisearlierwork,Atomisti,93n.205,AlfierihaddeniedthatEpicurus'criticismwasdirectedagainstDemocritus,althoughtheseedsofthelaterinterpretationarealreadypresent,104
n.247.
1
Arist.Phys.iv8,215a259.
2
Phys.215a29216a12.
3
Phys.216a1221.Ireturninmyfourthessaytoacloseranalysisofthisandtheprecedingargument,andoftheassumption,ontherelationbetweenthemediumandtheobject
moved,whichIbelieveunderliesAristotle'sreasoning.Laterinthisessay(pp.31517)IreturntoconsiderwhetherAristotle'sargumentmaybedirectedspecificallyagainst
Democritus.
4
MyargumentherepresupposesthatEpicuruswillhaveknownatleastthecontentofAristotle'sargument,EttoreBignonedoubtsthatEpicurusknewtheesotericworksofAristotle,
L'AristoteleperdutoelaformazionefilosoficadiEpicuropartiiii(Firenze,1936),reaffirmedin'Ladottrinaepicureadel''cli
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page188
(iv)
Fromthisitfollows,rathercuriously,thatwhileadoptingoppositeconclusionsEpicurusandAristotlebothargueagainstthesametheory:theybothattackthenotion
thatinthevoidtherecanbevariationsofspeedresultantuponvariationsinweight.
ThisexplainsAlexander'sextensionofAristotle'sargument,toformarefutationofatoms'movinginthevoid,eitherwithdifferencesofspeedorwithequalspeed.1
1.Aristotleargues,againsttheideaofbodiestravellingatdifferentspeedsthroughthevoid,thattheywouldhavetotravelallatthesamespeed.
2.Alexanderarguesindependentlyagainstbothalternatives:thatbodiescannottravelatdifferentspeeds,andthattheycannottravelallatthesamespeed.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
namen",suaformazioneesuacronologia,inrapportoconlapolemicaconlescuoleavversarie,nuovelucisullastoriadell'atomismogreco',AteneeRomaserie3anno8(1940)
15998.
Bignone'sviewhasnotwongeneralacceptance,andwaschallengedsoonafteritspublicationbyV.E.Alfieri,'Laformazionedelpensieroaristotelicoelapolemicaepicurea',Sophia7
(1939)2245,andinAtomosidea82,andbyG.CaponeBraga,AteneeRomaserie3anno8(1940)3547.
However,forthepresentpurposethisdifferenceofopinionisonlymarginallyrelevant,sinceevenBignoneallowsthatthecontentofAristotle'spolemicagainsttheatomictheory
mayhavebeencontainedinhispublishedworkonDemocritus.Thepointisrelevantalsotothequestionofthe'parts'ofatoms,cf.pp.2709below.
InviewoftheprobabilitythatEpicurus'theoryhasbeendesignedtocircumventthecriticisminAristotle(tocircumvent,byadoptingasrationaltheconclusionwhichAristotle
regardsasabsurd),itseemstomedisingenuoustowrite,asCornforddoes,ofthe'truth'which'wasdivined,withoutexperiment,byEpicurus',LoebednofthePhysicsi(London,
1929)356n.b,ajudgmentalltoofondlyrepeatedbylaterwriters,e.g.LaneCooper,Aristotle,GalileoandthetowerofPisa(NewYorkandLondon,1935)58n.1,W.D.Ross,inhis
editionofthePhysics(Oxford,1936)591,cf.Guthrie,Historyi18.ThecoincidencebetweenEpicurus'beliefandthetheoryofmodernclassicalphysicsthatinavoidbodiesfallallwith
thesameaccelerationisinanycasebeliedbyEpicurus'furtherconclusionthatinthevoidalltheatomsmove'withthespeedofthought'( ,inthecontinuationofthe
passagequoted),aconclusionagainfairlyobviouslydesignedtocircumvent(byaccepting)theearlierargumentinthePhysics(iv8,215a259),whereAristotle'sassumptionis
evidentlythatinavoidmovementwouldhavetobeinstantaneous.
1
Ap.Simpl.Phys.679.1222.
Page189
Aristotle'sargumentneednotperhapsbedirectedexclusivelyagainsttheAtomists.AsBriegerpointedout,againstZeller,thedefinitionofvoidagainstwhichthe
wholeseriesofargumentsisdirected,isthatadvancedby'DemocritusandLeucippusandmanyotherofthephysicalphilosophers'(Phys.iv6,213a34b1).1
Alexander'sargument,inhisownwords,quotedbySimplicius,isdirected'againstEpicurus,andpresumablynolessagainstDemocritusandLeucippus,andingeneral
thosewhoclaimatomsandvoidastheirstartingpoints'(Phys.679.1314: .
(v)
Logically,eitheralternativeinAlexander'sargumentisofequalforce.Nonetheless,fromthehistoricalgenesisoftheargumentwecouldperhapsarguethatasthe
alternativeofequalspeedshasbeenintroducedtotakecareofEpicurus,soitisthealternativeofdifferentspeedsthatisreckonedasapplyingmoreparticularly
.
Thenatureoftheargumentsagainsteitheralternativepointsinthesamedirection.
1.Againstthepossibilityofatoms'movingwithdifferentspeedsinthevoidAlexanderarguesasAristotlehaddone,thatsize,weightandshapecannotaffectspeedofmovement
inavoid,ap.Simpl.Phys.679.1617: .
2.Againstthepossibilityofatoms'movingallwiththesamespeed,Alexanderarguesthattheycouldnevercatcheachotherup,679.1718:
.
Ifatomscannotcatcheachotherupbecausetheyaretravellingallatthesamespeed,itmustbethattheyaremovingallinthesamedirection,astheydoinEpicurus'
system,ifweleaveoutof
1
Zeller,ZN10889.Brieger,Urbewegung910,'Urbewegung'5923.
Page190
accountforthemoment,asdoesAlexander,theintroductionoftheclinamenforsomeatoms.
FromthiswecouldperhapsagainarguethatifoneofthealternativenotionsisintendedtoapplyspecificallytoDemocritus,thenitmustbetheothernotion,i.e.the
notionofatomsmovingwithdifferencesofspeed.
(vi)
WerethisattributiontobetrueinfactforDemocritus,wemightwonderthatDemocritus'nameisnotattacheddirectlytothisbranchofthealternative,ifnotby
Alexander,thenatleastbySimplicius,inreportingAlexander'sargument.
ButexaminationofSimplicius'behaviourshowsthatthereneedbenosignificanceinthisomission.
AgooddeallaterinthePhysics,SimpliciusremarksthatEpicurushadadoptedequalityofspeedfortheatoms,inordertocircumventAristotle'sargumentagainst
indivisibility.1ThusinthepresentpassageSimpliciusknowsthatitisEpicuruswhoadoptedequalityofspeedfortheatoms,buthedoesnotsayso.
ItisequallypossiblethatSimpliciusknew,orthoughtheknew,thattheearlierformofAtomism,fromwhichEpicurushaddeviated,hadmadetheatomsmovewith
differencesofspeed,butthattherewasnolateroccasionforSimpliciustoprovideaspecificattributionforthetheory.
Conclusion
Forthesakeofclarity,IhavefollowedthroughthisseriesofpassagesfromAristotle,Epicurus,Lucretius,AlexanderandSimplicius,withoutpausingtocalculatethe
precisevalueofeachitemofevidence.
Itisapparentthatthealternativeexpressionsofweight,asforceofimpactandasspeedofmovement,aremorethanconceptualpossibilities.Theyhavesomekindof
historicalreality:butwhenprecisely,andforwhom?
1
Phys.938.212.
Page191
(i)
Thesimplernotion,ofweightasforceofimpact,istheeasiertolocate.
ForthelaterAtomists,atleastforLucretiusandperhapsforEpicurus,weightappearstobeexpressedequally,andindependently,bythedownwardmovementof
atomsandbytheirforceofimpact.
(ii)
Themoreprecisenotion,ofdifferencesofweightexpressedasdifferencesinspeedofmovement,appearsanumberoftimes,butfleetingly,andelusively.
1.InAristotle,itisimpossible,onintrinsicgroundsalone,totellwhetherthenotionthatbodiesinavoidwouldhavetomovewithgreaterorlessspeedaccordingtotheirweight
isintroducedonlyasameansofrefutingthenotionofmovementinavoid,orasanelementintheoriginaltheorythathasbeenselected,andisexploited,foritssupposed
vulnerability.
2.WhenEpicurusattacksthesameidea,itisagainimpossibletotellwhetherhedoessoonlyinorderthemoreclearlytoestablishhisowntheory,thatallatomsmovewith
absoluteanduniformspeed,orwhetherpossiblyhisintentionistomarkthedistancebetweenhisownformofAtomismandthatofhispredecessors.
3.InLucretius,thetheoryiscastinapersonalisedform,butitisimpossibletotellwhetherthisisintendedhistorically,orisonlyaliterarydevice.
Evenifitisintendedhistorically,Lucretiuspresentsthenotionofdifferencesinspeedaccordingtoweightasanalternativetothedeclinatio,sothathisaliquis,ifheever
existed,wouldseemtobesomeonewhosethimselfupasarivaltoEpicurus,andwhowouldnotthereforeantedateAristotle.
4.AlexanderdoesspecifyDemocritusandEpicurusasthetargetsofhiscriticism.Moreover,theonememberofAlexander'sargument,thenotionofdifferencesofspeed
Page192
causedbydifferencesofweight,doesalignitself,bothconceptuallyandhistorically,withDemocritus.
Evenso,Alexanderwritesonly .BoththequalificationandthegeneralisationaretypicalofAlexander'sdisinclinationtotemper
purephilosophywiththefactsofhistory.
(iii)
Fromthissequenceofevidence,therefore,itisimpossibletoprovedirectlythatDemocritusorLeucippusheldthenotionofweightexpressedasforceofimpactoras
speedofmovement.
WhetherinthelightofalltheevidenceasawholeitmightbereasonabletoprojecteithernotionbackwardsfromAristotleintothefifthcentury,isaquestionIshall
considerlater.1
Forthemoment,IshalladoptthefarmorelimitedcourseofcompletingtheseriesofpassagesthatstemfromAristotle'sargument,byreturningtothepassagein
SimpliciuswhereDemocritus'atomsaresaidtomove'becauseof'or'inaccordancewith'theirweight.
3
WeightandVoid
(i)
IhavealreadynotedthatinthepassageintheDecaelowhereEpicurusandDemocritusarealikesaidtohaveattributedweighttotheatoms,Epicurusaloneissaidto
identifyweightwith'movementdownwardsaccordingtonature'.2
Democritus'atoms,welearnelsewhere,donothavenaturalmovementandtheimplicationthereforeisthattheydonotmovedownwards.3
(ii)
ThereisthesameimplicationinthepassageinthePhysics,
1
Cf.pp.21122below.
2
Decaelo269.414,pp.1616above.
3
Decaelo583.202,Phys.42.1011,pp.1656above.
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1
whichexplicitlydescribesthemovementofatomsinthevoid.
IhavealreadyarguedinfavourofDiels'emendationof .Theatomsare'tossedaround':they'shoot'or'dart'or'leapabout'.2
IfweretainDiels'reading,thenitbecomesvirtuallyimpossibletosupposethatintheclauseimmediatelyprecedingthisSimpliciuscanhaveintendedmovement'by
weight'or'inaccordancewithweight'tobemovementdownwards.
Aninconsistencyofthisorder,andwithoutanymentionevenofEpicuruswhichmighthelptoexplaintheconfusion,isunlikelyintheextreme.
(iii)
Ifthereforeweightisnotintendedasthecauseofmovementdownwards,onSimplicius'understandingofthetheory,thenwemusttrytofindwhatotherconnotation,
forSimplicius,thenotionofweight,andinparticulartheexpression ,islikelytohaveheldwhenqualifyingthemovementofatomsinthevoid.
Ifwedoso,wefind,Ithink,thatthetwomostobviousconnotations,inthiscontext,arepreciselythosethatIhavealreadyexplored.Ifweightisnotexpressedas
downwardmovement,thenitislikelytobeenvisaged,bySimplicius,asforceofimpactandasspeedofmovement.
WeightasForceofImpact
(i)
TheostensiblereasonforSimplicius'introductionofweightatthispointistoexplainhowtheatomscanmovewithoutanexternalagency,suchasAnaxagoras'mindor
Empedocles'LoveandStrife.
Fromthepointofviewoftheimmediatecontext,therefore, isintendedtobeinsomewayacorrelative,oranaddition,toAristotle'sassertion,in
thepassagewhichSimpli
1
Phys.1318.301319.5,quotedpp.1667above.
2
Pp.16771above.
Page194
ciusiscommentingupon,thattheatomsmove (Phys.viii9,265b24).
TheotheroccasionwhenSimpliciusspeaksoftheatoms'moving'inthevoid',headdsthattheydoso ,itseemstome,areintendedtoberoughlyequivalent:
theatomsaremoved'byforce'becausethedirectionoftheirmovementisdeterminedbytheir'hitting'eachother,i.e.bytheircollisionandrecoil.1
(ii)
InotedearlierthatthereareineffecttwokindsofmovementdescribedbySimpliciusinthepresentpassage.
1.Thereistheprimaryand'only'movement:movementinspace,ormovementfromplacetoplace.
2.Thereareitsimmediateconsequences:theentanglementofatomsonewithanother,andtheirseparation.
Theprimarykindofmovement,Ihaveargued,isdesignatedbytheterm .
ButwhatisthereinSimplicius'analysistoexplaintheprefix ?
Iftheatomsdonomorethanmove'throughtheyieldingandunresistingvoid',thentherewillbenoobviousneedforthemtomove'roundandabout'or'fromplaceto
place' .
TheprefixthereforeItaketomeanthatevenbeforeSimpliciusspeaksoftheatomsasbecomingentangledwithoneanotherandasbeingseparatedfromoneanother
heprobablythinksofthemasincollision:hence(probably)thedifferentdirectionsoftheirmovement.
Hastherebeennothingthenintheprecedingsentencestointroduce,ortoexplain,thenotionofcollision?
Onlytheexpression .TheadditionalelementinSimplicius'description,themovementoftheatoms
1
Forthesetwopassagescf.pp.1656above.
Page195
'hitherandthither'or'fromplacetoplace',isverypossiblyprovided,itseemstome,bytheprovisionthattheatomsaremovinginthevoid'inaccordancewiththeir
weight'.
(iii)
ThetwofactorsthatIhavespokenofcoincideintheireffect:theexpressionswhichSimpliciususeselsewheretodescribethemovementofatoms,andtheparticular
connotationoftheverbwhichdescribesthemovementofatomsinthepresentcontext.
1.'Inaccordancewithweight'seemstomemostsimplytakenasamoregeneralexpressionofwhatisexpressedelsewhereasmovementoftheatoms
2.Theatoms'darthitherandthither'or'shootthiswayandthat',becauseoftheforceofimpactoccasionedbytheirweight.
WeightasSpeedofMovement
Itispossiblehowevertobemorespecific.
InhiscommentaryonAristotle'sanalysisofvoidinbookfourofthePhysics,Simpliciusdetailshisownconceptionofweight,partlyinelaborationupon,andpartlyin
correctionof,Alexander.
(i)
Alexanderarguedthatequalspeedforalltheatomswouldmakeitimpossibleforthemtocatcheachotherup.1
Simpliciuscountersthatitis'easier'toarguethattheatomscannotmoveallwiththesamespeedbecausedifferencesofweightwouldhavetoleadtodifferencesof
speed,ifweightwerenottobealtogetherineffective,Phys.679.2432:
Ifsomeoneaskswhyabodythatismoreheavycannotmovewiththesamespeedasabodythatislessheavy,aneasieranswer<thantheonegivenbyAlexander>isthatifthe
additionalweightdoesnotmakethemovementany
1
Ap.Simpl.Phys.679.1222,esp.1718cf.pp.18890above.
Page196
quickerthenweightcannotbetheoriginalcauseofdownwardmovementinthevoid.
'Foriftheadditionofsomethingdoesnotintensifyorinanywayincreasethemovementthensuchafactorcannotbethecauseofmovementoriginally.
'Butiftheweightofeachbodyisnotineachcasethecauseofitsmovinginthevoid,theninthevoidbodieswouldneverstartmovinginthefirstplace,sincebodieshaveno
causeofnaturalmovementotherthantheweightthatbelongstoeachofthem.'
Thecontextofthisargumentneedstobeconsideredcarefully.
1.Aristotle,asInotedearlier,arguesthatinthevoidtheatomscannotmovewithdifferencesofspeed,andwouldthereforehavetomoveallwiththesamespeed,aconsequence
whichAristotleholdstobeimpossible.
2.SinceEpicurussupposedthatinthevoidtheatomsdomovewiththesame,i.e.withamaximumspeed,Alexanderisledtoargueagainstbothpossibilitiesindependently:the
atomscannotmovewithdifferentspeedsnorallwiththesamespeed.
3.Simplicius,inthepassageIhavetranslated,arguesthattheatomscannotmoveallwiththesamespeed,onthegroundthatadifferenceofweightmustleadtoadifferenceof
speed.
BythisseeminglyslightcorrectionofAlexander'sargumentSimpliciushascomeclosetoreversingtheorderofargumentinAristotle.Forbymakingarefutationof
equalspeedsdependupontheassumptionofdifferentspeedsSimpliciusnolongerexcludes,asbothAristotleandAlexanderhaddone,thepossibilityoftheatoms
movingwithadifferenceofspeedinthevoid.
(ii)
Simplicius'changeofperspectiveisclarifiedinthecontinuationofhiscommentary.ForSimpliciusquotesfromAlexanderanadditionalargumentagainstEpicurus
whichturnsontheassumptionthatatomsinthevoidcannotmovewithadifferenceof
Page197
speed:Simpliciusthenrepliesexplicitlythattheabsenceofamediumdoesnotprecludethepossibilityofadifferenceofspeed,Phys.679.32680.9:
'Alexanderalsoarguesthat:''(1)IftheEpicureansbelievethateverybodyhasweight,andthatbodiesmovethroughthevoidbecauseoftheirweight(2)butifthingswhichhave
weightinessasthecauseoftheirmovementare,asaconsequence,boundtoexhibitagreaterspeedofmovementastheeffectoftheirhavingagreaterweight(3)ifhoweveritis
impossiblefortheretobevariationsofspeedinthevoid:thenitfollowsthatitwouldnotbepossibleforbodiestobemovedinthevoidbecauseoftheirweight.Butifweight
doesnotmovethemthentheywouldnotmoveatall."
'Thisargumentobviouslyprovokesthereplythatifbodieshaveweightasthecauseoftheirmovement,andthegreaterweightasthecauseofafastermovement,thenwhy
shouldbodiesnotmovethroughthevoid?
'Forevenifsomethingdoeshavethepossibilityofbeingbothmoreeasilyorlesseasilydivided,andifthisthenactsasthemediumformovement,providing<bythegreateror
lesseaseofitsdivisibility>afasteroraslowermovement,nonethelessthepresenceofsuchabodycannotbeaccountedthecauseofweight.
'Thetruthisratherthatweightmaydiffer,andthatifitdoessothenboththebodythatiseasilydividedandthebodythatisnotsoeasilydividedaccentuatethedifferenceinthe
weightofthebodythattravelsaccordingtonature.
'<Thatistosay,adifferenceinthemediumaccentuatesthedifferenceofweight,butitdoesnotdeterminethedifferenceofweight:>forjustasotherqualitiesarealsoincreasedin
extentif,withnochangeofkind,theyarepresentinalargersubstrate,soalsothesameshouldfollowinthecaseofweight.<Ifthebodyinquestionhasheaviness,thenthelarger
portionwillbeheavierthanthesmallerportion,providedthatbothbodiesareofthesamekind.>
'Thusasageneralprincipleitisweightthatmakesabodyabletodivideamedium,itisnotthedivisionofthemediumwhichcausestheweight:<weightcausesdivision>whether
Page198
1
ornotthemediumbeneaththemovingbody<infact>actstohinderitspassage.'
(iii)
ThesentencesIhaveattemptedtoparaphraseareremarkable,inSimplicius,fortheirlackoflucidity.Thegeneralpurport,however,isclear.Speed,orease,of
divisiondependsonlyinpartonthenatureoftheobjectdivided.Weightvaries,justasotherqualitiesdo,inaccordancewiththelargerorsmallerquantityofthe
materialavailable,andindependentlyofthedivisibilityofthemedium.
TheconfusiontothemodernreaderarisespartlybecauseSimpliciusstillconceivesofdifferencesofweight,asAristotlealsohaddone,asinvariablyexpressedby
adifferenceinspeedofmovement,andpartlybecausehestillclingstotheconceptionofmovementasthedivisionofamedium,eventhough,inthefinalsentencesthat
Ihaveparaphrased,thisleadsSimpliciustowriteofweightasthecauseofdivisionevenwhenthereisnoresistancefromthemedium.
Thisfinal,strangled,formulaisSimplicius'endorsement,ineffect,oftheobjectionthathebringsagainstAlexander.Bodiesareabletomovethroughthevoid,because
movement,still,paradoxically,conceivedofas'division',istheeffectofweight,independentlyoftheresistanceofamedium.
ThisthereforeisanimportantmomentinSimplicius'expressionofhisownideas.SimpliciusrarelytakesadirectstandagainsttheauthorityofAristotle,atleastofan
AristotleinterpretedinthelightofPlato.Heis,however,willingonoccasiontodivergefromAlexander'sinterpretation,despitethehighregard
1
InAlexander'sargumentIhavetranslatedboth carrieswithitaninevitableconnotationofmovement.
Similarly,inSimplicius'replyIhavetranslated (680.5)as'theweightofabodythattravelsaccordingtonature',sincetheexpressionclearlyincludesbothweight
andthemovementofabodyaccordingtonaturethatisdeterminedbyweight.Forthetextof680.14seethefollowingfootnote.
Page199
thathehasforthemost'scrupulous'and'authentic'ofthecommentatorsonAristotle( Phys.80.15).Theparadoxisthatonthisoccasion,byventuring
toopposeAlexander,Simpliciushasinfactcomeroundtoadoptingapointofviewwhichis,onacrucialpoint,divergentfromthatofAristotle.
Aristotle,orsoIshallarguelater,seesmovementnotasthesimpletraversalofaspacebutastheovercomingofresistancebyaforce.Itisthisconception,orsoI
shallargueinmyfourthvolume,whichliesattheheartofAristotle'sargumentsagainstthepossibilityofmovementinavoid.Simplicius,inthefinalsentencesIhave
translated,takesup,byimplication,analternativestandpoint,wherebythepresenceortheabsenceofresistancefromamediumdeterminesnotmovementassuch,
butonlythespeedofmovement.Forbyallowingthecontinuanceofmovementintheabsenceofresistancefromamedium,andtherefore,byimplication,inthevoid,
andbyallowingweight,evenwithoutresistancefromamedium,toeffectadifferenceofspeed,Simpliciuscomesround,inpractice,toadoptingpreciselytheview
whichAristotlehadinitiallysetouttorefute:thepossibilityoftheatomsmovinginthevoidwithdifferencesofspeedaccordingtotheirweight.1
(iv)
ThusforSimpliciusmovementcontinuesinavoid,butwithoutoneofthefactors,differenceintheresistanceofamedium,whicheffectsdifferenceofspeed.Theother
factor,weight,remains,as
1
TheearlierpartofSimplicius'replyruns,680.14: .
Itisofcoursealwayspossiblethatadifficulttexthasbeencorrupted.Ifthatisnotthecasehere,thenisitperhapstoofancifultosupposethatSimplicius'adventurousbranchingout
fromhisdependenceonAristotle,andonAlexander,hasputhislanguageunderstrain?InaNotetomyfourthessayIshallsuggestthatSimplicius'positionhasbeenadoptedasa
concessiontoPhiloponus'criticismofAristotlethiswouldbeanadditionalreasonforSimplicius'unease.
Page200
anindependentsourceofvariationsinspeed.
ThisaffectsradicallythecontextofSimplicius'accountofthemovementofatoms'accordingtoweight'inbookeightofthePhysics.
ItistruethatinthetwopassagesIhaveparaphrasedfromhiscommentaryonbookfourSimplicius'argumentiscouchedintermsofweightascauseofdownward
movement,sinceineithercasehiscritiquetouchesuponAlexander'sargumentagainstEpicurus.Simplicius'statementofprinciplecannotthereforeapplydirectlytothe
earlieratomictheory.
1.InSimplicius'critiqueofEpicurus, (679.31).
2.InthecaseoftheearlierAtomists,Simpliciushasspecificallyaffirmedthatthemovementofatomsinthevoidis'byforce',andthattheatomshavenonaturalmovement.1
Butbyallowingthatmovementmaytakeplaceevenintheabsenceofresistancefromamedium,andtherefore,byimplication,inthevoid,andbyallowingthatthere
maybedifferencesofspeedindependentlyofthepresenceofamedium,SimpliciushassofardepartedfromtheprinciplesofAristotle'sphilosophythattheexpression
'accordingtoweight'mayhavemeaning,Isuggest,evenoutsidethecontextof'natural'movement.
ForifwemakethenecessaryadjustmentoverthedirectionofmovementthenitseemstomethatSimpliciuscouldverypossiblyhaveappliedtheprincipleswhichhe
expressesinhiscommentaryonbookfourofthePhysicstohisdescriptioninbookeightoftheatomsmoving :sincethemovementoftheatoms
is'enforced'movement,theatomsdonotmovedownwards,butdifferencesofweightintheatomswillnonethelessstillbeexpressed,eveninthevoid,asdifferences
ofspeed.
1
Seethepassagesquotedpp.165and192above.
Page201
Conclusion
(i)
Whetherornot,orhowfar,Simplicius'evidenceislikelytorepresentDemocritus'ownconceptionoftheatoms'behaviourisaquestionIleavetobeansweredin
considerationofthedistributionofevidenceasawhole.
Forthemoment,myconclusionissimplythatSimplicius'evidenceonDemocritus'conceptionofweightisallofapiece,withnoinconsistency,eitherinternallyoron
thequestionofmovement,thatneedbetrayconfusionwithEpicurus.
1.Theatomshaveweight,invirtueoftheirdensity,andaspartoftheuniformityoftheirnaturefromtheirpossessionofweighttherearises,undertheactionofavortex,the
distinction,ortheappearanceofadistinction,betweenheavyandlight.
2.Theatomsarealsosaidtomoveinthevoid'becauseof',orperhapsrather'inaccordancewith',theirweight.However,theyarenottherebythoughtofasmovingdownwardsin
thevoid.
Simplicius'earliercategorisationsofthemovementofatomsinthevoid,andtheideologicalpreferenceswhichhehasexpressedearlierinhiscommentaryonthe
relationofweightandspeed,verypossiblyindicatethatheseestheweightoftheatomsatthispointassufficientlyexpressedindifferencesofspeed,oratleastthathe
seestherandomdirectionsoftheirmovement,their'dartinghitherandthither',asdeterminedbythe'weight'oftheirimpact.
(ii)
FromthisitfollowsthatSimplicius,rightlyunderstood,offersnoindependentsupportforwhatIhavecalledthe'currentcompromise',namelytheideathatDemocritus'
atomsacquiredweightonlywithinacosmos,orwithinthebeginningsofacosmos,andthatinthevoidtheatomswerewithoutweight.
Indeed,itturnsoutthatSimpliciusisopposedtothatinterpre
Page202
tation,bothimplicitlyinvirtueofthepassageswhereheattributesweighttotheatomsinaccordancewiththeirdensityorwiththeuniformityoftheirnature,and
explicitlyinthepassagewherehewritesofatomsasmovinginthevoid'inaccordancewiththeirweight'.
ThustheevidenceofSimpliciusisalignedwith,andindeedgoesfurtherthan,theevidenceinAristotleandinTheophrastus.
1.TheophrastusandAristotleattributeweighttotheatoms,withnoexplicitspecificationofwhetherornottheatomsinquestionarerelatedtoacosmos.
2.Simplicius,explicitlyandbyimplication,attributesweighttoatomswhichareoutsideacosmos.
Page203
ChapterSeven
DiogenesLaertiusandAlexander
1
DiogenesLaertius:TheTimeSequence
IhaveexaminedthepassagesfromSimpliciuswhichProfessorGuthrieintroducesinfavourofwhatIhavecalledthe'currentcompromise'.Inthefirsttwosectionsof
thischapterIconsiderverybrieflyapassageinDiogenes,whichBurnetsoughttointroduceasfurnishingpositiveevidencethatatomsoutsideacosmoswerewithout
weight.
DiogenesLaertiusrecordsacosmogony,inhisaccountofLeucippus,whereatomsareseparatedintotheirdifferentkindsbecausetheycannolongermaintaintheir
previousstateofbeing .
InthefirstsectionofthischapterIconsideronlytheformerpoint.Burnetunderstands asBriegerhaddone,namelyasdescribingaconditionofthings
entirelypriortothebeginningsofacosmos.2
ButthisinterpretationprovestobehardlypossiblewhenwelookatthepositionwhichthisexpressionoccupiesinthedoxographicalmaterialwhichDiogeneshas
appendedtotheverybriefbiographicalnotewhichisallthathecansupplybywayofaLifeofLeucippus.3
1
EGP3445.Theorigin,andthenature,ofBurnet'sargumentherearediscussedfromabroaderpointofviewonpp.35963below.
2
Brieger,'Urbewegung'596:seefurtherpp.35960below.
3
Burnet'sinterpretationofthispointisadoptedbyBailey,GreekAtomists94.ItisquestionedbyAlfieri,Atomisti4n.13,andbyGuthrie,Historyii407n.1.Thereisausefulanalysis,
butmainlyofthelaterpartoftheentry,byJ.Kerchensteiner,'ZuLeukipposAl',Hermes87(1959)4418.
Page204
(i)
Diogenes'accountcontainstwoblocksofdoxographicalmaterial,whichareeasilydistinguishable.ThefirstissosketchythatevenDiogenes,orhismoreimmediate
source,wasevidentlydissatisfiedwithit,andsoughtoutanother,andmuchbetterextract,joiningthetwotogetherwiththeapology,ix30(DK67A1):
.
Thisformulaservestogivesomesuperficialappearanceofliteraryformtothejuxtapositionofthetwoblocksofmaterialbuteventhemostcursoryinspectionshows
thatthedistinctionbetweenthetwoblocksofmaterialisnotpreciselythatclaimedbetweengeneral ,forbothblocksofmaterialaredividedintoaninitial
statementofprinciplesandthenanaccountofcosmogony.
1.Thefirstsourcewrites,ix30: .
2.Thesecondsourcewrites,ix31: .
Thetruedifferencebetweenthetwoextractsisthatinthelatertheaccountofthecosmogonyismuchricherandmoredetailedthanintheearlier.Itisindeedsuperior,
initswealthofdetail,tothecosmogonywhichDiogeneshasappendedtohisLifeofDemocritus.FromanextremeofpovertyDiogeneshasprovidedalmostan
embarrassmentofriches.
(ii)
Thephraseinquestionispartofthissecondextract,andclearlyfallsundertherubric'worldscomeintobeingthus',ix31(DK67A1): .
Page205
'Worldscomeintobeingthus:amultitudeofparticles( ),ofallkindsofshapes,areslicedofffromtheendlessandaresweptintoalargeandemptyspace,wheretheyare
crowdedtogetherinsuchawayastobringabouttheexistenceofasinglewhirl.
'Undertheinfluenceofthiswhirl,theparticles,astheycollidewitheachotherandastheycirclearound( )invariousways,areseparatedintodifferent
agglomerationsoflikewithlike.
'Therearesomanyofthemhoweverthattheycannotcontinuetheircirclingmovement( ):consequentlyfineatomsaresievedout,asitwere,andmaketheirway
<back>intotheemptyspaceoutside<thewhirl>,whiletheatomsthatareleftbehindstaytogetherandastheybecomeenmeshedwitheachothertheymovearoundtogether,and
atthesamerateaseachother,soproducingthefirst<primitive>structuretohavetheshapeofasphere.'
Thepointtonoteatoncehereisthattheexpression isprecededbyanaccountoftheaggregationofatomsaftertheirseparationfromthevoidandtheir
'formationofasingledine'.
(iii)
Thusthefirstandessentialpointtonoteisthatthesentencecontaining fallswithintheaccountofthecosmogony.
Wecanbemoreprecise.Itisreasonablyclearthattheactionwhichisdescribedas .
Forthemovementofatomsdescribedinthelatersentenceisevidentlyaconsequenceofthedistributionofatomsdescribedintheearliersentence.
1.Inthefirstsentence,theatoms,orgroupsofatoms,aredescribedas'separatingtojoinlikewithlike': .
2.Inthenextsentence,'fine'atoms,orfinegroupsof
Page206
atoms,flyoffintotheexternalvoid, .
Fromthis,andfromthesimilarphraseology,itfollowsthatthetypeofmovementwhichaccompaniestheseparationofatomstojoinlikewithlikewillbethesameas
thetypeofmovementwhichprecedesthedistributionofatomsbetweencentralcomplexandexternalvoid.
1.Theatomswhichseparatetojoinlikewithlikearedescribedas'circlingaround': .
2.Theatomswhicheventuallydividebetweencentralcomplexandexternalvoiddosobecausetheyare'nolongerabletobecarriedaroundinequilibrium':
.
Thepointtoappreciatethereforeisthat looksbackfurtherthantothesituationwheretheatomsare'circlingaround'andwherelikeisjoinedwithlike.
Thismomentissubsequenttothe'formationofasingledine',andissubsequentthereforetothetimewhentheatomsweremovinginavoidpriortothesequenceof
eventswhichconstitutetheformationofacosmos.
(iv)
AltogetherthereforewecandistinguishthefollowingstagesinDiogenes'account.
1.Thereisevidentlyastageantecedenttothecosmogonicalsequenceproper,whentheatomsarestillmovingindependentlyinthevoid.Thisisclearlyimpliedbytheexpression:
... .
2.Amultitudeofdifferentlyshapedatomsaredrawnintoagreatvoid.Thisisthefirstactofthecosmogonyproper.
Page207
3.Theseatomsjointogetherandformasingledine.
4.Undertheinfluenceofthedine,likeagglomerateswithlike,anditisatthisstagethattheatomsaresaidtobe'circling'or'wheelingaround'
.
5.Eventually(cf. )thisprocesscomestoanend:thefineratomsorgroupofatomsescape,andreturntothevoidtheotheratomsstaybehindtoformasphericalmass.
6.Thisinturn,wearetoldinwhatfollows,formsthesubstanceoftheearth,andthen,underthecontinuinginfluenceofadine,drawsonfreshmaterialfromthevoidtoformthe
substanceofthestars.
Conclusion
Fromthissequence,itfollowsthat describesnottheatomswhicharemovingindependentlyinthevoid,butatomsatanearlystageintheproductionofa
cosmos,whentheyhavealreadybeendrawnintotheformationofadine.
Fromtheconditionoftheatomsatthistime,wehavenorighttoconcludethattheatomswereinthesameconditionpriortothesequenceofeventsleadingtothe
formationofacosmos.
2
DiogenesLaertius:TheMeaningof
ThediscrepancyinchronologythatIhavenotedbetweenthecontextofthephraseinDiogenesandBurnet'sapplicationofittotheprecosmicvoidiscompoundedby
Burnet'sconfusionoverthemeaningof .
Inhisthirdedition,Burnetwrites:
'Nowtheword isamereleaningorinclinationinacertaindirection,whichisthecauseratherthantheeffectofweight.'1
ThewiderinconsistenciesinBurnet'sprocessesofthoughtat
1
EGP3445.
Page208
thispointIshalltouchuponlater.1Forthemoment,Iconsideronlythesenseof
(i)
Whatisessential,firstofall,isthatwhileBurnetseesthatthereissomeassociationbetween andweight,hedoesnotappreciatethatinaphilosophicalcontext
thisassociationturnspreciselyontheAristoteleanconceptionofweightasdefinedintermsofmovement.
ThusatthebeginningofbookfouroftheDecaeloAristotlewrites,cap.1,307b303: .
'Examinationofheavyandlightisproperlypartofourenquiryintomovement,insofarasheavyandlightaredesignatedassuchbytheirpotentialityfornaturalmovementof
somekind.
'Itistruethatequivalenttermshavenotbeenestablishedfortheactualisation<ofthesepotentialities>,unlessperhapsoneweretoclaimthat''impetus" isawordthat
servesthispurpose.'
Thispassageshowsatoncethat isweightenvisagedintermsofmovement.
Burnetdoesnotgraspthesignificanceofthispoint,becausehisideasonearlyconceptionsofweighthaveleftnoroomforanyradicaldifferencebetweenPlatonicor
AristoteleanandprePlatonicconceptionsofweight.2
Oncewemakeallowanceforthepossibilityofsuchadistinction,thenitisatonceapparentthattheexpression
1
Pp.35963below.
2
Cf.pp.17482above.
Page209
entailsweightlessnessor'absenceofweight'onlyifweassociateweightexclusivelywithmovement,orwithinclination,'inacertaindirection',asdoesBurnet.
Thustheonlyweightwhichisheredeniedtotheatomsbytheuseof ,istheAristoteleanconceptionofweightasmovementinaspecificdirection.
Thereneedbenodenialofweightenvisagedasforceofimpactorasspeedofmovement.1
(ii)
Evenifweleaveasidethequestionoftherebeingalternativeexpressionsofweighttothatofmovementinaspecificdirection,itstillappears,ifweconsidermore
preciselythemeaningofthecompoundexpression shouldbeatomscontainedwithinatleastthebeginningsofacosmos.
PlatowritesinthePhaedoofthepositionoftheearth,butintheformofageneralisation,109A46: .
Plato'spassageexemplifiesthecasewhere willnottraveltowards.
'Abodywhichis ,placedinthecentreofauniformmedium,willhavenotendencytoinclineinanyonedirectionmoreorlessthaninanyother:itwillstayasitis,
uniformlyplaced,withoutincliningthiswayorthat.'
1
Aristotle'suseof hasnonecessaryimplicationofweightinGreek'?
Page210
ThisdescriptionisparalleledinDiogenes.Theatomsare becausetheydonotyetmoveineitheroneoftwooppositedirections.
1.Theydonotyetflyoffintotheexternalvoid( ).
2.Thelargerorheavieratomshavenotyetsettledintoasolidballthatintimewillformtheearth .
Itisonlyinrelationtothisincipientdevelopmentofthecosmos,andthedistinctionthereinofcentreandcircumference,thatthedescriptionoftheatomsbeing
hasmeaning.
Iftherewerenopotentialcentretothedine,andifthevoidwerenot'thevoidoutside',thentheprecisemeaningof inthiscontext,asthenegationof
theselocalreferences,wouldbelost.
Thusevenifweallowtheconnotationofweightorofweightlessnessto thenevenso,theonly'weight'whichisheredeniedtotheatomsisnecessarily
thatofcentripetalandcentrifugalmovement.
Andthatdistinctionispossibleonlyintheearlystagesoftheproductionofacosmos.Itwouldnotbepossibleforatomsthatweremovingatrandominanendless
void.
Conclusion
ThecosmogonyrecordedbyDiogenesisamostvaluableanddetailedsourceofinformation.
Asevidenceforthelackofweightinatomsthatareoutsideacosmos,itfailscompletely.
1.TheatomsdescribedbyDiogenesarenotatomsthataremovingindependentlyinthevoid.
2.Theonly'weight'whichisdeniedtothemisthatofcentripetalandcentrifugalmovementwithinthebeginningsofacosmos.1
1
Mabilleau,Histoiredelaphilosophieatomistique197,attributestoCiceroDenaturadeorum'I,ch.35'thenotionthat'lesatomesdeDmocritesonttousgauxenpoids,ceque
Diognetraduitparl'pithte ,quiconsacrel'interprtation'.
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
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3
Alexander:The'Parts'ofAtoms
Sofarthereforeweareleftwithnopositiveevidenceforthenotionthatatomsoutsideacosmoswerewithoutweight.
1.TheevidencefromDiogenes,whichBurnetsoughttointroduceinfavourofthisview,provestobeirrelevant.
2.TheevidencefromSimplicius,whichProfessorGuthrieintroduces,proves,onacarefulexamination,tosupporttheoppositeview:thatatomsoutsideacosmosdidhaveweight.
InthischapterIconsiderapassagefromAlexanderofAphrodisiaswhichdoesexplicitlyraisethequestionoftheatomsbeingwithoutweight.
InthefirstbookoftheMetaphysicsAristotlewritesofDemocritusandLeucippus,cap.4,985b1920(DK67A6): .
Alexandercommentsonthisasfollows,Met.36.218(onlyinpartDK67A6):
Aristotle.'Butonthesubjectofmovementtheywereasspinelessastheothers,andquitefailedtotakeupthequestionofwheremovementistocomefromandhowitistobe
presentintheworldaroundus.'
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
ThereisnomentionofDemocritusinthepassagecited,nordoesthisideaappearintheaccountwhichCicerodoesgiveofweightinEpicurusandDemocritusintheDenat.
deorumi25.6926.73(belowpp.2403).IamfairlysurethatMabilleauhascopied,andconfused,afootnoteinPierreBenjaminLafaist,Dissertationsurlaphilosophicatomistique
(Paris,1833)72n.1.(AnotherinstanceofMabilleau'sunthinkingrepetitionofideasfromLafaistisnotedbelow,p.338n.3.)
Page212
Alexander.'LeucippusandDemocritusarethetargetofcriticism.Thesetwophilosophersdospecifythattheatomsmoveaboutbybangingintoeachotherandbyknocking
againsteachother,buttheygivenoexplanationoftheoriginorprincipleofmovementinbodiesthatareconstitutedbynature<i.e.primarilythefourcosmicelements>.
'Thepointisthat <thedescriptionstheydogivecannotbeaccountedanexplanationoftheoriginorprincipleofnaturalmovementsince>movementbycollisionis
forceful,i.e.nonnatural,movement,andforcefulmovementissubsequent<logicallyandphysically>tonaturalmovement.
'Equallytheyfailtoexplainwheretheheavinessinatomscomesfrom.<Indeeditisimpossible,ontheirtheory,fortheatomstobeheavyatall,since>thepartless<elements>that
arerecognisedconceptuallyasbelongingtotheatoms,andthatarepartsoftheatoms,theyadmithavenoweight:buthowthen<onemayask>couldweight<orheaviness>
arisefromtheconjunctionofpartsthatarewithoutweight?
'ThispointisexploredinthethirdbookoftheDecaelo.'1
Thisistheonlypassageinancientliterature,otherthantheentryinAetiustobediscussedinthenextchapter,whichdeliberatelyindicatesthattheatomshaveno
weight.TheclippedandepisodicnatureoftheentriesinthePlacita,andthelackofanysingleauthorship,makeitparticularlydifficulttotracetheideological
backgroundoftheinformationthatisofferedthere.Thepresentpassageisthemoreinterestingthereforeinthatitprovidesasufficientcontextofargumentandallusion
forustobeabletodetermine,withreasonableclarity,theprocessesofthoughtwhichhaveledtotheconclusionthattheatomsorthepartsoftheatoms'haveno
weight'.
Nonetheless,thepassageisnotmentionedbyProfessorGuthrieorbyBurnet,forZellerhadrightlynotedthattheconclusionwhichitembodiesrestsonideological
considerationsthatprove
1
Here,aslaterinanentryinAetius(cf.p.229n.1below),itispossibletointerpret eitherspecifically,'weightasheaviness',orgenerically,'weightasheavinessorlightness'.
Theargumentcouldbepursuedineitherwaythedifferenceisnotreallyessentialtothesense.
Page213
1
thepassagetobeunhistorical. Thisdoesnotmeanhoweverthatthepassageisofnovalueforourenquiry.Inmattersofdoxography,errorhasitsownsignificance.
(i)
ForthemomentIconsideronlythequestionoftheatoms'having'parts'.
IhavealreadyremarkedthatAlexanderismuchmoreconcernedwith'pure'philosophythanisSimplicius.2Inthisinstance,Simpliciustellsus,inaremarkablyclear
andincisivepassage,thattheatomsofDemocrituswerewithoutparts,butthat,inresponsetoAristotle'scriticismofthetheory,Epicurusintroducedthenotionof
conceptuallydistinguishableminimaas'parts'oftheatoms.3
IntheLettertoHerodotus,wefindEpicurus'ownargumenttowards,andconclusionthat,theatomshaveminimalparts,whichareonlyconceptuallydistinguishable,
asameasureoftheirsize.Epicurusconcludes,cap.59: .
'Finally,weshouldrecognisethesesmallest,andsimple,<parts>asmarkingpoints,whichstartingfromthemselvesastheprimalunitsaffordameasureoflengthsforthingsthat
arelargerorsmaller<thanoneanother>:thisweshouldrecognisebyourmentalreflectionupontheinvisibles.'4
TheseminimalpartsarewhataredescribedbyAlexanderas .If,therefore,wetrustSimplicius,Alexander's
argumentisat
1
ZN1068n.1.
2
P.192above.
3
Simpl.Phys.925.1322,quotedpp.2702below.
4
Thedativeinthefinalphraseshouldperhapsbeunderstoodaspurposiveandnotasinstrumental:'...ameasure<whichwecanuse>forourmentalreflectionupontheatoms'.But
this,andotherdifficulties,Ileaveaside,sincethepreciseinterpretationofthesechaptersfromtheLettertoHerodotusisincidentaltomypresentpurpose.
Page214
onceprovedtobeunhistorical.Alexanderattributes'parts'totheatomsofpreciselythekindthatwefindinEpicurus,andthat,accordingtoSimplicius,were
introducedbyEpicurusinanswertoAristotle.1
(ii)
Alexanderclaimsthatthesepartsarewithoutweight.Forthisidea,heinvokestheauthorityofAristotle'inthethirdbookoftheDecaelo'.
TheonlypassageinthethirdbookoftheDecaelowhereAristotleexplicitlyconsidersthenotionthat'weightarisesfromtheaccumulationofelementswithoutweight'
isthepassagewhichIhavealreadycited,whereAristotlearguesagainsttheproductionofsolidbodiesfromsurfaces.2InthispassageAristotlearguesspecifically
againstthethesisnamedbyAlexander,cap.1,299b1415: .
ButAristotleisherecriticisingPlato.HowisitthenthatAlexanderappliesAristotle'scriticismtotheAtomists?
InthesectionofhiscommentaryimmediatelyprecedingthelinesIhavequoted,AlexanderexplicitlyequatesPlato'sproductionofbodiesfromtriangleswiththe
Atomists'productionofbodiesfrom'shapes',Met.36.1218: .
'Somemanuscriptshavethereading:"thesenamelyLeucippusandDemocrituspursuethesamepolicyasdothemathematicians".
1
ThesimplehistoricaldistinctionwhichSimpliciusdrawsseemstometosurvivethecontroversyoverthemoreprecisesenseinwhichtheatomsmaybesaidtohave'parts'orto
be'indivisible'.DifferingviewsonthisquestionaretakenbyLuria,Mau,VlastosandFurley:theprincipalargumentsareusefullysummarisedbyLeoSweeney,Infinityinthe
Presocratics,abibliographicalandphilosophicalstudy(TheHague,1972)1618,wheretheappropriatereferencesmaybefound.
2
Decaeloiii1,299a25300a19,abovep.84.
Page215
'Ifthiswerethe<correct>reading,AristotlewouldbealludingtoPlato,andhispointwouldbetoestablishacomparisonbetweenPlatoandtheAtomists:Platoattemptstomake
bodiesarisefrommathematicalentities,andtodosoinsuchawaythatthenumberofthetrianglesandtheirdifference<inshape>shouldcorrespondtothedifferencesinthe
<sensible>bodies<thatPlatohopestoproducefromthetriangles>theAtomists,inthesameway,workingfromthedifferencesintheshapesoftheprimaryparticles<oratoms>
hopetoproduce<thedifferencesthatweseein>thethingsmadeoutoftheprimaryparticles.'
(iii)
However,wecanbemorespecific.Alexander'sowncommentaryontheDecaeloislost.ButSimpliciusquotesfromitgenerously.
Aristotle'ssecondargumentagainstthethesisIhavecitedfromtheDecaeloisthatthereisnoreasonforPlatonicsurfacestocombineinthewayrequiredbyPlato's
theory.Thesurfacescouldaswelllieflatontopofeachother,insteadofedgetoedge,whichistheonlywayinwhichtheycanbeimaginedasformingasolid.1
Simpliciusattachesquitesomeimportancetothiscriticism,sincehefindsitnecessarytodefendPlatoagainstAristotle'scriticism.Hethereforeincludespartof
Alexander'scommentary,sinceAlexander,hetellsus,attemptedtoattackPlato'stheory'onhisownaccount'(Decaelo575.278:
).
ThefinalargumentwhichSimpliciusquotesfromAlexanderispreciselythatPlato'stheoryisreducibleto'thetheoryofDemocritus',Decaelo576.1012:
'"Howthen",asksAlexander,"doesthetheorywhichclaims<togeneratebodies>fromsurfaces<i.e.fromtrian
1
Decaeloiii1,299b2331.
Page216
gles>differfromDemocritus'theory,sincethis<Democritus'theory>alsoreckonstousedifferencesofshapeinordertoinvestphysicalbodieswith<differencesof>form?"'
ThuswefindherepreciselythenotionthatAristotle'scriticismagainstPlatoisapplicableequallytotheAtomists,andtheexplanationthereforeofAlexander's
referenceto'thethirdbookoftheDecaelo'.
1.PlatoisassociatedwiththeAtomistsbecauseheattemptstoderivethedifferencesinsensiblesubstancesfromdifferencesofshapeintheprimaryelements,asdothe
Atomists.
2.Theassociationofideasthenflowsintheoppositedirection,asitwere:theAtomistsarechargedwithhavingattemptedtogeneratebodieswithweightfromtheaccumulation
ofelementsthatarethemselveswithoutweight,inthewaythatPlatoisaccusedofhavingdone.
Byacommonfallacy,thecomparisonthatoriginallyleadsfromAtoBpicksupafreshassociationforthereturnjourneyfromBtoA.
Conclusion:TheDoubleError
Historically,therefore,thereisadoubleerrorinAlexander'saccountoftheAtomistsatthispoint.
1.Thedivisionofatomsinto'conceptuallydistinguishableminimalparts'istruenotofDemocritus,butofAristotle'scriticismofDemocritus,andisadoptedonlybyEpicurus.
2.Thecriticismof'weightbeingproducedfromelementsthatarethemselveswithoutweight'istransferredfromPlatototheAtomists,becauseDemocritus'notionofatoms'being
identifiableas'shapes'isheldtoapproximatehistheorytotheaccountintheTimaeusofthefourcosmicelementsbeingconstitutedfromtwokindsoftriangle.
Ispeakoferror,notofconfusion.TheconflationofthesevariousideasbyAlexanderistheresultnotnecessarilyofigno
Page217
rance,andcertainlynotofanylackofconceptualclarity.Itisconsistent,anddeliberatepolicy.Alexanderseeshimselfasinterestedinphilosophy,notinhistory.
4
Alexander:TheGenesisofError
(i)
IhaveconcludedthatAlexander'sreferenceto'AristotleinthethirdbookoftheDecaelo'betraystheoriginofAlexander'sconflationofPlatoandDemocritus.
Simpliciusneatly,andsufficiently,refutesAlexander'sreductionofPlatonismtoAtomism.
TheAtomistsandPlatodohave'shapes'incommon.ButPlato'ssurfacesprovideasimpler,inthesenseofamoreradical,hypothesisforthenatureofphysical
phenomenathandotheatoms,whicharethemselvesbodiesandsofallintothesameontologicalcategoryasthephysicalphenomenawhichPlato'sconceptionofa
surfaceisintendedtoexplain.Plato'streatmentofthepropertiesofsurfaces,andofthedistinctionbetweenearthandtheotherthreeelements,isalsoforeignto
Democritus'formofAtomism.Simpliciuswrites,576.1219(immediatelyfollowingthequotationfromAlexandercitedabove):
.
'Ithastobeacknowledgedthatfromthispointofviewthereisnodifference....Thedifference,Isuppose,betweenthetwotheoriesisfirstthatPlatochoosessurfacesasthe
fundamentalstartingpointfortheproductionofbodiestheatomsarebodies,andasurfaceissimpler<andmorefundamental>thanabodysecondly,Platoseesinshapes<not
justgeometricalfiguresbut>symmetriesandanalogieswithcreativeforcethirdly,Plato'swholeapproachtotheproblemofearthisdifferent.'
Simplicius'methodical,ifslightlypedantic,correctionofAlexander'slooseassociationofPlatoandtheAtomistsistypicalof
Page218
thewholedifferenceofapproachbetweenthetwocommentators.
(ii)
AristotlewouldhavebeennolessopposedtoAlexander'sconflationofDemocritusandPlato.
InhislongaccountofthegenesisoftheatomictheoryinthesecondchapterofthefirstbookoftheDegenerationeetcorruptione,Aristotledoesbeginby
categorisingtheAtomistsandPlatoasalikehavingchosen'indivisiblemagnitudes'astheirprimaryelements.1
ButAristotle'spurposeisthenpreciselytocontrastPlatoandtheAtomists,ontheverypointthatthePlatonists'overspeculativeapproachtowardstheirphysical
theoriesledthemtopositsurfacesasthefoundationofthematerialworld,whiletheAtomists,withtheirnosesclosertotheground,asitwere,chosesolidsastheir
primaryelements,preciselyinordertoavoidtheparadoxthatanyresolutionofsolidsintosurfaceswouldleadtothefurtherresolutionofsurfacesintopoints,andso
totheimpossiblerequirementthatextendedmagnitudesshouldbeproducedfromelementsthathavenoextension.2
Aristotledoesnotspeakhereexpresslyofweight.NonethelessthetenorofhisargumentisdirectlyopposedtoAlexander'sconflationoftheAtomistsandPlato.
Alexander'scritiqueoftheAtomistsintheMetaphysicsturnspreciselyonthenotionthattheAtomistslikePlatoarecommittedtotheproductionofbodieswhichhave
weightfromconstituentswhichhavenoweight,whileAristotlerepresentstheAtomistsashavingsetoutexpresslytoavoidtheproductionofextendedmagnitude
fromelementsthathavenoextension.
(iii)
IntheDecaeloAristotleappliesthissamedistinctiontotheAtomistsandPlato,specificallyonthequestionofweight.
ThecriticismthatthePlatonists'produceweightfromtheaccumulationofelementsthatarethemselveswithoutweight'is
1
Degen.etcorr.i2,315b2430.
2
Degen.etcorr.i2,315b30316a14.
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1
pickedupbyAristotleinbookfouroftheDecaelo,inthepassagethatIhavealreadyanalysedatlength.
Aristotle'spointinthefourthbook,aswehaveseen,istocontrasttheAtomistsandPlato,specificallyonthegroundthattheAtomists,unlikePlato,donotreduce
theconstituentsofthephysicalworldtoelementsthatarethemselveslackinginweight.
(iv)
EvenbythelaxstandardsofAristotle'scriticism,thelackofhistoricityinAlexander'saccountoftheAtomistsisthereforewhollyclear.Hiserror,nonetheless,remains
ofextremeinterest.
First,Alexanderdoesnotwriteexplicitlythattheatomswereinfactwithoutweight.Hisargumentfallsintothreeparts.
1.TheAtomistsdonotsayhowweightaccruestotheatoms: .
2.They'dosay'thatthepartsoftheatomsarelackinginweight: .
3.Iftheirconstituentpartsarelackinginweight,thenhowcantheatomsthemselveshaveweight?
Theimplicationintendedisclearlythattheatomscannot,anddonot,haveweight.Butitisanimplicationarrivedatbyargument,andexpressedintheformofa
rhetoricalquestion.
(v)
Asecond,andmoreimportant,point.IhavechartedthemoregeneralideologicalshiftsbywhichAlexanderarrivesatthisconclusion.Butwhatisthemoreparticular
preoccupationwhichhas,sotospeak,sparkedoffthislineofthought?
ItisAristotle'sbeliefthatviolentornonnaturalmovementmustbesubsequenttonaturalmovement.ThisbeliefunderliesmanyofAristotle'sarguments.Itisexplicitin
thePhysics,inhisattempttodemonstratethatmovementinavoidisimpossible.
1
Decaeloiv2,308b35309a2,abovech.III1,pp.80100.
Page220
Thepremisstopartofthisdemonstrationisstatedasfollows,Phys.iv8,215al6:
'Allmovementiseithermovementbyforceornaturalmovement.Ifthereisforcefulmovement,theremustexistalsonaturalmovement.Formovementbyforceiscontraryto
natureandmovementthatiscontrarytonatureissubsequent tomovementthatisaccordingtonature.Itfollowsthereforethatwithoutanaturalmovementforeach
ofthebodiesthatareconstitutedbynature<i.e.primarilythefourcosmicelements>noothermovementwillexist.'
Alexanderusesthispremisstojustify,andtoexplain,theassertionintheMetaphysicsthattheAtomistsfailedtoprovideacauseofmovement.
1.ThusAlexanderfirstassertsthattheatoms'movementisdeterminedbytheircollisionandrecoil .
2.Sincethismovementisenforcedmovement,andsince(onAristoteleanprinciples,asenunciatedinthepassageIhavequotedfromthePhysics)enforcedmovementcanexist
onlysubsequentlyto,andrequiresasanantecedent,naturalmovement,AlexanderconcludesthattheAtomistshavefailedtospecifyacauseofmovement .
3.Finally,AlexanderconcludesthatjustastheAtomistsdonotspecifyacauseofmovement,soalsotheyfailtospecifytheoriginofweight .
Onthislastpoint,theveryparallelismofthephraseologyhelpstobetraytheideologicalmotivationoftheconclusion.
1.OfmovementAlexanderwrites: .
2.Ofweighthewrites: .
OncetheAristoteleancontextoftheargumenthasbeenmadeclear,thentheimplicationofthispassageisreasonablyclear,orsoitseemstome:becausetheatoms
havenocauseofmovement,ormorespecificallynocauseofnaturalmovement,Alexander
Page221
supposesthatparipassutheatomscanhavenocauseofweight.Theassumptionisfairlyclearlythatweightwouldbeacauseofnaturalmovement,andconversely,
thatsincetheatomsmoveatrandominthevoid,theycanhavenonaturalmovement,andthat<therefore>theycanhavenoweight.1
Conclusion
Alexanderhimselfstopsshortofassertingunequivocallythattheatomshavenoweight.Indeedelsewhere,inhistreatmentoftherelationbetweenspeedand
movement,Alexanderdoesusetheatoms'possessionofweightasapremissforadifferentformofrefutationofatomicmovement,aswehaveseen.2Theimplication
ofthepresentargument,thattheatomshavenoweight,issolelyforthepurposeofthecriticismmoreimmediatelyinhand.
Nonetheless,Alexander'sargumentisimportantforourpurpose,preciselybecausehisinterestleadshimtoexploittheprinciplesofAristotle'skineticswithso
demonstrablyloosearegardforthefactsofhistory.Alexander'scritique,ifIhaveuncovereditspresuppositioncorrectly,willshowinanespeciallyclearandblatant
formtheprocessesofthoughtwhichcanleadtoadenialofweighttotheatoms.
1
IhavechosenthepassagefromthePhysicstoillustratethepointaboutthepriorityofnaturalmovement,becauseitisthemostexplicitandbecauseitwillhaveaparticularuse
laterforaparallelpassageinAetius(cf.pp.2323below)mypurposeisnottosuggestthatthisoranyothersinglepassageisnecessarilythesourceofAlexander'sargument.It
isworthnotingthattwiceelsewhereAristotlerepeatshispointthattheAtomistshavefailedtospecifythecauseofmovement,andthateachtimehisaccusationisattached,
directlyorbyimplication,tothe'priority'ofnaturalmovement:seeMet. 6,1071b314,andfortheimplicationthatnaturalmovementispriorcf.1071b347Decaeloiii2,300b8
11,forthepriorityofnaturalmovementcf.300b1116forbothpassagescf.p.237below.
Theabsenceofnaturalmovementfortheatoms,andtheassociationimpliedwithPlatobythereferencetotheDecaelo,seemtomeallthatisneededtoexplainthechargeof
weightlessness.D.Furleyattemptstointroducetheidea,whichheclaimstofindinEpicurusandinLucretius,thatthe'parts'ofatomsareinthemselvesincapableofmovement,
'AristotleandtheAtomistsoninfinity',SymposiumAristotelicum4(Heidelberg,1969)90n.5.ButAlexanderdoesnotwriteoftheatoms,ortheirparts,asbeingwithoutmovement:his
pointisthattheatomsdohavemovement,butthatitismovement'byforce'.Furleyfindsthepassage'otherwiseinexplicable',onlybecausehehasnotreflectedsufficientlyonthe
associationofweightwithmovementinAristotle'sphilosophy,andbecausehehasnotfollowedupAlexander'sreferenceto'thethirdbookoftheDecaelo'.
2
Ap.Simpl.Phys.679.1418,pp.18890above.
Page222
'Iftheatomshadweight,theywouldhavenaturalmovement.Sincetheyhavenonaturalmovement,theycanhavenoweight.'
ThelessonofAlexander'sargumentistheeasiertoappreciatebecauseitsauthority,fromanhistoricalpointofview,isobviouslynil.
Page223
ChapterEight
AetiusandCicero
1
Aetius:TheExplicitDenial
Iturnthereforetothegroupofthreepassages,fromAetiusandfromCicero,whichIalludedtoinmyfirstaccountofthe'currentcompromise',andwhichaloneare
lefttoprovideanypositivebasisforthenotionthatoutsideacosmosDemocritus'atomsarewithoutweight.1
ItakefirsttheentryinAetiuswhichexplicitlydeniesthatDemocritusgavetheatomsweight,i12.6(DK68A47): .
'Democritussaysthattheprimaryparticlesthe''fullones"astheywere<inhisphilosophy>havenoweight,butmovebycollisionintheendless.Hefurtherclaimsthatitis
possibleforanatomtoexistaslargeasaworld.'
Atthispoint,itisnotmyintentiontotrytodecidewhetherweshouldacceptthisstatementinAetiusascontradicting,oratleastasqualifying,theevidencewhichwe
havestudiedhitherto,fromAristotle,fromTheophrastusandfromSimplicius.
Inordertoclearthewayforthatdecision,allIwishtodohereistoindicatehowthekindofargumentthatwehaveseenalready
1
Aet.i12.6,i3.18,Cicero,Defato20.46(allDK68A47):cf.pp.1534above.Thethreepassagesaretakentogetherwithoutanydistinctionofmeaning,byDiels,Dox.21920,
Zeller,ZN1068n.1,Hamelin,'Lapesanteurdel'atome'196,Burnet,EGP3412,andothers.
OneotherpassageinCicero(Denat.deorumi26.73=DK68A51,'quidestinphysicisEpicurinonaDemocrito?')hasbeentakentomeanthatDemocritus'atomswerewithoutweight:
seebelowpp.2401.
LiepmanntakesthislatterpassageofCicero,togetherwiththetwoentriesinAetius,ashisprimaryevidencethattheatomshavenoweight,Mechanik313and49.Cf.pp.2401
below.
Page224
atworkinAlexandercouldhaveoccasionedthedenialbyAetiusthattheatomsofDemocritushadweight.
(i)
ApartfromAlexander,theeffectofAristotle'sideologyofmovementonthedoxographyoftheAtomistsisperhapsmostplainlyseeninSimplicius.
InAristotle'sownphilosophy,thefourcosmicelementsmovealwaysandonlytotheir'natural'places,providedtheyare'lefttothemselves'asweshouldsay,i.e.if
theyaresubjecttonointerferencefromwithout:thusfiremovestothecircumferenceoftheuniverse,earthtothecentre,andairandwatertopositionsintermediate
betweenthesetwo.Aristotlearguesagainstearlierthinkers,specificallyincludingtheAtomists,thatinavoid,andespeciallyinanendlessvoid,therecanbenosuch
distinctionofplace,andthatthereforeinavoidnaturalmovementisimpossible.1
Simpliciustakesthiscriticismastepfurther.Since(ontheusualinterpretation)theatomsofDemocritusandLeucippusmoveinalldifferentdirectionsinthevoid,and
sincemoreparticularlythedirectionoftheatoms'movementinthevoidisdeterminedbytheircollisions,Simpliciusdrawsthetworelatedconclusionsthattheatoms
are'withoutnaturalmovement' .2
ThisdoesnotmeanthatSimpliciusholdsthattheatomsaresomehowatfirst'stationary'andarethenaremovedbyforce,whichishowBaileyappearstounderstand
hisformulation.3
Inwritingthattheatomsare'withoutnaturalmovement',Simpliciusappreciatesthatthisisalogicalconstructioncastuponthe
1
ThissummarisesPhys.iv8,214b12ff.,esp.215a114.Thewholeseriesofargumentsagainstthevoidcommencesativ6,213a12ff.DemocritusandLeucippusareincludedasthe
targetofcriticism,213a34b1,cf.pp.189above.
2
Phys.42.1011(DK68A47).Decaelo583.202(DK67A16).Cf.pp.1656and1923above.Forthisinterpretationofthemovementofatomsinthevoidcf.p.163above.
3
GreekAtomists131:Simplicius'maintainsthat"theatomswhicharenaturallystationary(!)aremovedbyablow"'(Bailey'sownexclamationmark).F.Pillonalsosupposesthatthe
atomsare'inertesparnature','L'volutionhistoriquedel'atomisme',L'annephilosophique2(1891)122n.2:seefurtherp.239n.1below.Thereisthesameimplicationin
Goedeckemeyer,EpikursVerhltnis122.
TheseauthorshaveperhapsbeeninfluencedbytheadditionalfeatureinAristotle'sargumentinthePhysics,iv8,215a46,thatwithoutnaturalmove
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page225
atomictheory,atleastinthesensethatheappreciatesthatwhiletheatomsarewithoutnaturalmovementtheyareneverinfactatrest.Forinthepassagewherehe
speaksoftheatomsasmoving'byforce',healsospeaksofthemasbeinginfactalwaysinmovement( ,Decaelo583.212).
ThissamefeatureofthetheorySimpliciusemphasisesatanappropriatepointintheDeanima.TheargumenthasbeenthattheAtomistsmaywanttoexplainthe
movementofthebodybythemovementsoftheatomsinsideit,buthowdotheythenexplainthebody'skeepingstill?Theycannotexplainitbythedepartureofthe
soulatomsfromthebody,forthatwouldbedeath,andtheycannotexplainitbytheatomsthemselvesbeingmotionless.Simpliciuscontinues,39.2831:
.
'ForDemocritusandhisassociatesdidnotthinkthattherewould<ever>bealackofmotionin<anyof>theatoms<onthecontrary,>theirpurposewastohavetheatomsalways
inmotionnormoreparticularlywoulditbepossible<ontheirtheory>toclaimalackofmotionforthesoulatomsinthebody,since<ontheirview>theonlymotionthatthe
animalhasisthemotionofthesoulatoms.'
ThusitistruethatinSimplicius'twoaccountsoftheAtomists,inthePhysicsandintheDeanima,thereisanappearanceofcontradiction.
1.InthePhysics,Simpliciuswritesthattheatomsare .
2.IntheDeanima,hedeniesthattheatomscanbesubjectedto .
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
menttherecanbenomovementatall.ThesameconclusionisreachedfromaslightlydifferentpointofviewintheDecaeloi7,276a10.Thisconclusion,asweshallsee,mayhave
influencedtheauthoroftheearlierextractinAetius:cf.pp.2323below.ButitisnotthisconclusionwhichisrepeatedbySimplicius.
Page226
Butthisappearanceofcontradictionisanappearanceonly.Thepointtoappreciateissimplythat,forSimplicius,theatomsare'withoutnaturalmovement':the
featureofthetheorywhichSimpliciusisconcernedtoestablishinthePhysics.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheatomsareeverinfactatrest:thepointwhichSimpliciusis
concernedtoestablishintheDeanima.1
(ii)
SoilandseasonareripeforasimilarassociationofideastohaveinfluencedtheentryinAetiuswhichexplicitlydeniesweighttotheatoms.
TheentryinAetiusimmediatelyprecedingthedenialofweightconcernsEpicurus.Thefirstpartofthisprecedingentry,whichagainspeaksofweight,isunfortunately
toogarbledtobeusefullyreconstitutedforourpresentpurpose.However,inthesecondpartoftheentry,Aetiusdistinguishesthreekindsofmovementfortheatoms,
i12.5: .
Thesethreekindsofmovementfaithfullyrepresent,ifinasomewhatmechanicalform,thethreekindsorcausesofmovementthatdoinfactfindtheirplaceinEpicurus'
philosophy.
1.Epicurus'atomsmovedownwardsbecauseoftheirweight:thisismovement .
1
IcouldhavesimplifiedmydiscussionbyexcludingthepassagefromtheDeanima,onthegroundthatthattreatiseisnotbySimplicius.ThatwastheopinionofPiccolomini,
CommentariiinlibrosAristotelisDecoelo,ortuetinterituadiunctalucidissimaexpositione,intreslibroseiusdemdeanima,nuncrecensinlucemprodeunt(Moguntiae,
1608)10013.ThesamethesishasrecentlybeenrevivedbyF.BossierandC.Steel,'Tekststudie:PriscianusLydusendeIndeanimavanPseudo(?)Simplicius',Tijdschriftvoor
Filosofie34(1972)761822.
However,asMadameHadothasshown,inapaperdeliveredattheCentreLonRobinoftheSorbonneundertheauspicesoftheCentreNationaldelaRechercheScientifique,the
argumentsofBossierandSteelarenotconclusive,whethertakensinglyorasawhole.HerconclusionisnotthattheDeanimamustbebySimplicius:thequestionremainsanopen
one.
IhavechosentotreattheDeanimahereasagenuineworkofSimplicius,notbecauseIamconvincedthatitisso,butforthesakeofcompleteness,andbecausetheappearanceof
inconsistencythatIhavesoughttoexaminewouldinanycasestillexistbetweenthePhysics .
Page227
2.Theatomsmustthereforeswerve,ifthereistobetheentanglementofatomsneededforacosmogony:thisismovement .
3.Becauseofthis,theatomshitoneanotherandrebound:thisismovement .
Thereishoweveroneslight,buttelling,difference.ForEpicurusthethirdkindofmovementleadsequallytomovementupwardsandtomovementsideways.Aetius
specifiesonlymovementupwards.1
Thereasonforthisslight,butsignificant,discrepancyisfairlycertainlythatonAristoteleanprinciplesmovementsidewaysisinvariablytheresultofforce,andthatfrom
anAristoteleanpointofviewthereforethepeculiarity,andtheanomaly,inEpicurus'theoryliesnotintheexplanationofmovementsideways,butintheuseofthesame
principletoexplainmovementupwards,whichinAristotle'ssystemis(forelementsthathavelightness)anexpressionofnaturalmovement.
(iii)
ForEpicurustherearethreekindsorcausesofmovement.ForDemocritusthereisonlyone.ForDemocritus,movementdownwardsaswellasmovementupwards
orsidewaysistheresultofcollision :andthereisthereforenoneedforaswerveofatoms.
FromanAristoteleanpointofviewthismeansthattheoneinstanceofnaturalmovementinEpicurus'system,movementdownwards,thefirstkindofmovementlisted
byAetius,hasbeenengrossedintothethirdkindofmovement,movement'byforce'.
Atthesametime,foranAristoteleanwriter,'natural'movementismovementthatiscausedbyweight.ThusforEpicurus,oratleastforLucretius,weightiscauseboth
ofanatom'sdownwardmovementandatthesametime,orsoitwouldseem,cause,
1
Forexample,inthepassagequotedearlier,Ep.ad.Her.61,pp.1845above,thedisjunctionliesbetweenmovementupwardsorsidewaysandmovementdownwards:'...norwill
therebeanyincreaseofspeedforatomsthataresentmovingupwardsorsidewaysastheresultofcollisions,orforatomswhoseownweightsendsthemdownwards'.
Page228
1
oratleastaccompaniment,ofoneatom'scollisionwithanother. ButforanAristoteleanwriterweightorheavinesswillhavebeenassociatedexclusivelywiththe'fall'
ofatoms.AndthisispreciselythetypeofmovementthatinDemocritus'systemissuppressed.
ForDemocritus,therefore,theargumentoftheauthorofthePlacitainthisentrycouldhavebeen:
'Theprimarybodieshavenoweight<foriftheyhadtheywouldhavenaturalmovementandwouldmovedownwards,astheydoforEpicurus,butinfact>theymovebybouncing
offoneanother.'2
Ifthis,oranythinglikeit,hasbeenthegenesisoftheassertionthattheatoms'havenoweight',thenthatassertionisasvalueless,historically,astheequivalentassertion
inAlexander,andasvalueless,historically,asisSimplicius'milderassertionthattheatoms'havenonaturalmovement'.
ForinAlexanderasinSimpliciusthelackofnaturalmovement,andinAlexandertheadditionaldenialofweighttothe'parts'ofatoms,issimplytheexpression,in
Aristoteleanterms,ofthelackofdownwardmovement.
Conclusion
TheentryinAetiuswhichexplicitlydeniesweighttoDemocritus'atomsisprecededbyanaccountofEpicuruswhich,byaslightbutsignificanttouch,betraysthe
influenceofAristoteleanwaysofthinking:Epicurus'atomsmoveupwards'byforce'.Infact,Epicurushimselftellsusthattheymoveupwardsandsideways'byforce':
butitisupwardmovementalonewhichtotheauthorofthePlacitasignalisesthelackofAristotle'sconceptionoffireasmovingupwardsbynature.
HaveAristotle'sideasalsodeterminedthedenialofweighttoDemocritus'atomsintheentryimmediatelyfollowing?Aristotlehadarguedthatnaturalmovementina
voidisimpossible.Simpli
1
Cf.pp.1834above.
2
EssentiallythesameinterpretationofthisentryisgivenbyBrieger,Urbewegung1213,and'Urbewegung'596:'Mannschlossdanneinfach:WasimLeerennichtfallt,dashatkeine
Schwere'.ForthegeneralcontextofBrieger'sinterpretationseepp.3514below.
Page229
ciusconcludesthatDemocritus'atomsare'withoutnaturalmovement'.Alexandertakesthesametrainofthoughtastagefurther.Theatomshavenonaturalmovement,
noranycauseofnaturalmovement.Howthereforecantheyortheir'parts'haveweight?
IfthissameassociationofideashasinfluencedtheauthorofthePlacita,thentheweight,ormorespecificallytheheaviness,thatisdeniedtotheatomswillbenomore
thantheweightorheavinesswhichwouldrequireatomstomovedownwardsinthevoid:conversely,theabsenceof'weight'inthissensewillbenomorethana
corollaryoftheatoms'randommovementinthevoid.1
2
Aetius:TheImplicitDenial
Intheentrythatwehavejustconsidered,thereisanexplicitdenialthatDemocritusgavetheatomsweight.Thissamedenialhasbeentakentobeimplicitinanearlier
entry,i3.18(inpartDK68A47): .
'Epicurus...followedinthefootstepsofDemocritus,insofarasinhisphilosophyheclaimedthattheprinciplesofexistingthingswerebodies<orparticles>thatcouldbeknown
onlybyaprocessofmentalinspection....
'Theseparticlesmovedinemptyspace,andthroughemptyspace:theemptyspace<throughwhichtheparticlesmove>isitselfendless<inextent>,andtheparticles<whichmove
throughthespace>areendless<innumber>.
1
Ispecify'weight' as'heaviness'itwouldofcoursebepossibletounderstandthetermgenerically,'heavinessorlightness',andinthatcasetheargumentIhaveoutlined
wouldhavetobemademoreelaborate,butinprincipleitwouldbelittledifferent.
Page230
'Attachingtotheparticlestherearethreecharacters<oraccidents>:namelyshape,sizeandweight.TwoofthesewereintroducedbyDemocritus,namelysizeandshape.Tothese
Epicurusaddedthethird,weight.
'Epicurus'argumentwasthatthebodieshadtobemovedbytheblowfromtheirweight<otherwise>theywouldnotmove<atall>.<Henceweightisnolessimportantasa
primarycharacterofatomicsubstancethanisshapeorsize.>'1
Inthisentry,thedenialofweightisonlyimplicit,ifitexistsatall.Butatthesametimethereisarichercontextofargumentandallusion,fromwhichmoreofthewriter's
processesofthoughtcanperhapsbediscernedthaninthelaterandshorterentry.
WeightandMovement
(i)
Inthisearlierreport,theaccountsofDemocritusandofEpicurusareactuallyinterwoven,onewiththeother.
Inparticular,thestructureoftheargumentwhichAetiusappliesheretoEpicurusisverysimilartothestructureoftheargumentwhichSimpliciusemployswhenhe
writesofDemocritus'atomsasbeing'withoutnaturalmovement'.Thereisonlytheaccidentalvariationthatthetwoelementsintheargumentareputtheotherway
round.2
1.Aetius:
Simplicius:
2.Aetius:...
Simplicius: .
1
ThisentryisrepeatedinEusebius,Praep.evang.xiv14.5.Forearlierinterpretationsofthepassageseeabovepp.1534and223n.1.
2
Phys.42.1011(DK68A47),cf.p.165above.
Page231
Therearetwodifferencesofsubstance.
1.Aetiusadds .
2.WhereSimpliciusarguesthatDemocritus'atomsaremovedbyforceandarethereforewithoutnaturalmovement,AetiuswritesthatunlessEpicurus'atomsweremoved
theywouldnotmoveatall.
(ii)
Thesetwodifferenceswill,Ithink,carrywiththemoneother.
WhenearlierinthesameentryAetiuswritesofEpicurus'atomsthattheymove'inthevoidandthroughthevoid',theduplicationoftheexpressionseemstomevery
likelytobeareferencetothedownwardmovementofEpicurus'atoms.
Ifso,thissamequalification,itseemslikely,willmostprobablybeinthecompiler'smindwhenhewrites,inthelatersentence, .
Themovementenvisagedwillbemovementdownwards,andthepurportoftheargumentwillthereforebethat:
'Theatomsmovedownwardsbecauseoftheforceorimpactoftheirweight.'
Thiswouldexplainthefirstdifferenceofsubstancebetweenthetwoarguments,thatinAetiusandthatinSimplicius.
1.'Force'or'impact',inSimplicius'accountofDemocritus,producesmovement,butnot'natural'movement.
2.The'force'or'impactofweight',inAetius'accountofEpicurus,producesnotonlymovement,but'natural'movement,i.e.movementdownwards.1
1
Theexpression inAetius,looksratherlikeadoxographicalformula,designedtohighlightatoncethesimilarityandthedifferencebetweenEpicurus'
theoryandthatofDemocritus:forDemocritus,theatomsaremoved'byimpact'forEpicurus,the'impact'istheimpactoftheatom'sownweight,actingfromwithinasitwere.On
theotherhand,theideaofweightasanimpactfromwithindoesperhapscorrespondsufficientlywelltotheteachingoftheLetterfromHerodotus,whereanatomcontinuesonits
pathuntil
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page232
(iii)
ButwhydoestheauthorofthisextractsupposethataccordingtoEpicurustheatomswhichwerenotmovedbyweightwouldnotmoveatallthesecond
differenceofsubstancebetweentheargumentinAetiusandthatinSimplicius?
Initially,theanswertothislies,Iwouldsuggest,inthethreetypesorcausesofmovementlistedinthelaterpairofentries(i12.56).Inthefirstentryofthispair,the
movementoftheatoms'bytheircollisionandrebound'islistedsubsequentlyto,andiscausallydependentupon,the'swerve'oftheatoms,andthisinitsturnislisted
subsequentlyto,andrequiresasapriorstage,a'fall'ofatoms.Toreversethesequence:the'fall'ofatomsisprimary,inthesensethatwithouta'fall'ofatomsthere
wouldbenoswerve,andthereforenocollisionorrebound.Fromthiswemightproperlyconcludethatiftheatomswerenotmoved'bytheblowoftheirweight',and
ifthereforetherewereno'fall'ofatoms,thentherewouldbenomovementatall.
Atthesametime,theconclusionthatwithoutweighttherewouldbenomovementmaybeseenasimplicitintheargumentthatIquotedfromAristotle'sPhysicsinmy
accountofAlexander.1InthePhysicsAristotlearguesthatifthereistobeviolentornonnaturalmovementtheremustfirstbenaturalmovement,forviolentornon
naturalmovementissubsequenttonaturalmovementfromthisAristotleconcludesthatifthereisnonaturalmovementthentherecannotbeanyothermovementatall
(iv8,215a16:noteespecially... ).2
Hence,orsoIwouldsuggest,theseconddifferenceofsubstancebetweentheargumentinAetiusandtheargumentinSimplicius.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
'knockedasideeitherfromwithoutorfromitsownweight<reacting>againsttheforceoftheatomwhichstruckit'
cap.61,cf.pp.1845above).
Verycuriously,BaileyuseswhatAetiussaysofEpicurusinordertoattributetoDemocritustheideaof'weightasakindofinternalblow',whileherejectspreciselythisimplicationof
theLettertoHerodotusinhisaccountofEpicurus(contrastGreekAtomists131,cf.134,andEpicurus219).
1
Cf.pp.21921above.
2
Thereisasimilarconclusion,Decaeloi7,276a10 .ForBailey'serrorinattributingthisconclusiontoSimplicius,seepp.2246above.
Page233
1.SimpliciusrecognisesthathowevercontraryitmaybetotheprinciplesofAristotle'sphilosophytheprimarymovementoftheatomsforDemocritusismovement'byforce'the
atomsmoveinalldirectionsandaredeprivedonlyofnaturalmovement.
2.Aetius,Iwouldsuggest,adoptsamoreextremeinterpretationoftheAristoteleanprinciplethatnaturalmovementispriortomovementbyforce,wherebythecollisionand
reboundofatomsissubsequentto,andisdependentupon,theswerveandthefallofatoms:sothatifthereisno'fall'ofatomstherecanbenomovementatall.
(iv)
Ifthese,orsimilar,argumentsdoprovidethecontextfortheentryinAetius,thentheassociationofdownwardmovementwithweightcouldagainbearguedtohave
workedinthereversedirection,sotospeak,forthewriter'sideasaboutDemocritus:
'Iftheatomshaveweight,theywillfall,astheydoforEpicurus.<ButDemocritus'atomshavenonaturalmovementdownwards:theyarethereforenotmovedbyweight.>'
Ifthis,orsomethinglikeit,hasbeentheprocessofthoughtinthemindofthecompiler,thenanyimplicationthatDemocritus'atomshavenoweightwillagainbeas
valueless,historically,asisAlexander'sconclusionrelatingtothe'parts'ofatoms,andasvalueless,historically,asisSimplicius'milderconclusionthattheatomsare
'withoutnaturalmovement'.
Thestatusofweight
ButthereisperhapsanotherandmorespecificfactorwhichexplainsthedifferencebetweenthetwoentriesinthePlacita.
ThedifferencebetweenthetwoentriesisnotsimplythatintheoneentryDemocritus'atomsareexplicitlysaidtobewithoutweight,whileinthisearlierentrythelack
ofweightisonlyimplied.Forwhilethelaterentryisconcernedessentiallywithmovementandwithweight,whatisatissueinthisearlierentryisnotsomuchthe
existenceofweight,asthestatusofweight.
Page234
'Therearethreecharacters thatappertaintobodies:shape,sizeandweight.Democritusclaimedtwoofthese:shapeandsize.TotheseEpicurusaddedthe
thirdaswell:weight.'
Ifwepursuetheimplicationofthisdistinction,andassociation,ofweightandsizeorshape,weshallseethatitisnotaquibbletoclaimthatwhenEpicurusissaidto
have'addedweight'totheatomsthisneednotmeanthatDemocritus'atomswerewithoutweight.
Democritus
(i)
AristotleregularlyspeaksofDemocritus'atomsasdifferingin'shape,positionandarrangement'.Itisclear,atoncefromthefrequencyoftheformulationandfromthe
terminologywhichAristotleattachestoit,thatthisformulationwaspartoftheoriginalexpressionofthetheory.1
Ontheotherhand,thereisanobviousconceptualdistinctionbetweenshape,asanintrinsiccharacteroftheatoms,andpositionandarrangementwhichcanbe
expressedonlyintermsoftherelationofonebodytoanother.Aristotlethereforefrequentlyspeaksoftheatomsasbeing'definedbyshapes'
.2
SizeappearsonlyinfrequentlyinAristotle'scharacterisationsofatomicsubstance.InthePhysics,atomsarereckonedtobe'asingleunderlyingsubstance,distributed
asparticlesdifferingin
1
Phys.i5,188a226(DK68A45).Degen.etcorr.i1,314a214(DK67A9),i2,315b615(DK67A9)and315b30316a10(onlyinpartDK68A123).Met.A4,985b1019(DK
67A6),H2,1042b1115(thetextisnotinDK).Positionandarrangementonly:Degen.etcorr.i9,327a1819(DK68A38).AlsoTheophrastusap.Simpl.Phys.28.1519(DK
68A38).
2
Decaeloi7,275b312(DK67A19).Degen.etcorr.i8,325b1719(notinDK).Forsimilarformulations:Phys.i2,184b202(cf.DKii115.7note),Decaeloiii4,303a1012(DK
67A15),Degen.etcorr.i8,325b259(DK67A7)and326a1415(notinDK).
Page235
sizeandinshape' .1
Finally,intheDecaelo,aswehaveseen,sizeisattachedtoweight:'thelarger<atom>istheheavier'.2
(ii)
InTheophrastus'accountofDemocritusinhispreliminarysurveyofearliertheoriesofsensibiliaintheDesensibus,wefindtheregulargroupingofshape,position
andarrangement,whicharefamiliarfromAristotleastheprimarydifferentiaeofatomicsubstance.
Totheseisaddedsize,cap.60(DK68A135): .
OnlywhenTheophrastusturnstoindividualtheories,andfirsttoDemocritus'theoryofheavyandlight,dowefindweightaddedasaconsequenceof,oratleastasin
somewaysecondaryto,andderivativefrom,size,cap.61: .3
(iii)
Thisdistributionofmaterial,inAristotleandinTheophrastus,makesitsufficientlyclearthatweightwasnotaccountedbyDemocritusasequivalentinstatustosizeand
shape.
Itisclearthereforethatweareentitledtoexcludeweight,asaprimarycharacterofatomicsolids,sinceitisinsomesensereducibletosize.
Atthesametime,positionandarrangement,asIhavenoted,canbeexpressedonlyintermsoftherelationorcomparisonofonebodywithanother:theytoocan
reasonablybeexcludedthereforefromalistofwhatthewriterofthePlacitareckonsastheintrinsiccharactersorpropertiesofbodies,ineffect
.
1
Phys.iii4,203a33b2(DK68A41).Cf.Arist.ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.78(fr.208Rose=DK68A37).
2
Decaeloiv2,309a12(DK68A60),pp.80100above.
3
Formyparaphraseofthesetwopassagescf.pp.127and131above.
Page236
ThecompilerofthePlacitaisthereforeentirelyright,ifwetakeTheophrastusandAristotleassufficientstandardoforthodoxy,tolistshape,orshapeandsize,asthe
onlyprimarycharactersofatomicsolidrecognisedbyDemocritus.
Epicurus
(i)
Epicurus,ontheotherhand,apparentlyraisedweighttothestatusofshape,foracharacterinoneofPlutarch'sdialoguesremarks,Adv.Col.1110F:
.
'Mypurposeisnottocontradicthisargument,butmerelytoobservethatthebeliefshehasquotedareasinseparablefromEpicurus'ownteachingsasweightandshape,orsothe
Epicureansclaim,areinseparablefromtheatom.'
Fromthisitappearsthatweightisnolongersimplyaconsequenceofsize.Itisnowreckonedtobeacharacteroftheatominitsownright,onthesamelevelas,orof
thesamestatusas,shape.1
Inthissense,therefore,thewriterofthePlacitaispresumablyagainrighttosaythatEpicurus'addedweightasathirdtosizeandshape'.
(ii)
Wecanprobablytellwhytherehasbeenthischangeinthestatusofweight.
Aristotle'smostoftenrepeatedandmostforcefulattackonDemocritusliesinhisassertionthatDemocritusandLeucippusfailedtostatewhattypeofmovement
belongedtotheatoms,orthecauseofit.
1
Shape,sizeandweightaregivenbyEpicurushimselfastheonly'qualities'oftheatoms,Ep.adHer.54.
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Met.A4,985b1920(DK67A6): .
'LeucippusandDemocrituswerenobetterthantherestofthemwhenitcametomovement:wheremovementistocomefrom,howitistobepresentintheworldaroundus,are
questionstheylackedthegutstograpplewith.'
Met. 6,1071b314(DK67A18): .
'Andsosomephilosophersdecidethatthereisalwaysactuality,asdoLeucippusandPlato,insofarastheyclaimthatthereisalwaysmovement.Butwhythereismovement,and
whatkindofmovementitis,theydonotsay,northereasonforitsbeingofonekindoranother.'
Decaeloiii2,300b811(DK67A16): .
'ThatiswhyLeucippusandDemocritus,whoclaimthattheprimaryparticlesarealwaysmovinginthevoidandintheendless,shouldexplainwhatmovementtheymean,and
whichmovementoftheatomsisanaturalmovement.'
Infact,theAtomistswillprobablyhaveseenthemovementoftheatomssufficientlyexplainedby,orperhapssufficientlytakenforgrantedas,aconcomitantoftheir
eternallypreexistingpluralityanddiversity,asIshallsuggestlater.Elsewhere,eternityofmovementisexpresslystatedbyAristotleastheAtomists'causeof
movementorperhapsratherastheirobviationofanyneedforacause.1
1
Arist.,Phys.viii1,252a32b5(inpartDK68A65),cf.Degen.anim.ii6,742b1735(notinDK):seebelowpp.3645.
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ButtheassociationofmovementwithpluralityanddiversityhadalreadylostitsvigourbythetimethatAristotlewaswriting,andtheambiguityonwhichtheself
explanatorycharacteroftheeternalrestsinDemocritus'argument,between asfirstbeginning,willhaveseemedtosomeoneofEpicurus'timeimpossibly
archaic.
TheanswerthereforewhichEpicurusprovidestoAristotle'scriticismis,asweseeinthisentryofthePlacita,thattheatomsmovedownwardsinthevoidandthat
theyareimpelledtodosobytheirownweight.Downwardmovementisintendedasananswerto .
Thisexplainsthechangeinthestatusofweight.
1.ForDemocritus,weightwasofsecondaryimportance,dependentupon,andderivativefrom,size.
2.InEpicurus'system,weightisananswertotherequirementforacauseofmovementanditisalsoadeterminantofthekindofmovementwhichtheatomshave:itistherefore
raisedtothelevel,asitwere,ofshape,andmadeaprimarycharacteroftheatoms.
Conclusion:The'Addition'ofWeight
(i)
IfweconsiderthestatusofweightinEpicurus,andtherelationinhisphilosophyofweighttomovement,thenitbecomestruetosay,ofEpicurus,boththathe'added'
weighttosizeandshapeas oftheatoms,andthatwithoutweighthisatomswouldnotmove,i.e.theywouldnotfall.
Atthesametime,itfollowsthatinthisentryfromAetiustheonlyimplications,withregardtoDemocritus,needbetrueimplications:thatforDemocritustheweightof
atomsisnotequivalentinstatustotheirsizeandshape,andthatweightisnotacauseordeterminantoftheatoms'typeofmovement,inthesenseonlythatweight
doesnotcausetheatomstofallinthevoid.
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(ii)
WhetherthecompilerofthisentryinthePlacitaintendedonlytheseimplicationsisanotherquestion.
1.HemayhaveconcludedthatDemocritushadnotattributedweighttotheatomsatall,asisstatedexplicitlyinthelaterentry.
2.Alternatively,hemayhaverecognisedthatDemocrituscouldhaveattributedweighttotheatomsinasenseotherthanthatadoptedbyEpicurus,oratleastsubordinatelyto
thecategoriesofsizeandshape.
Whichhedid,wecannottell,andisindeedofcomparativelittleadditionalsignificance.1
3
Cicero
(i)
Iturntothelastofthethreepassagesthatsupport,orthatmaysupport,thecurrentcompromise.
TowardstheendofthesurvivingpartoftheDefatoCicerowrites,20.46(DK68A47):
'''Declinat",inquit(sc.Epicurus),"atomus".primumcur?aliamenimquandamuimmotushabebant(sc.atomi)a
1
TheprocesswhichIhavesuggestedmayunderlythetwoentriesfromAetiuscanbeseenatworkinmodernwritersonthesubject.Pillon,in'L'volutionhistoriquede
l'atomisme',122,groupsSimpliciuswithCiceroandwithAetius(i.e.with'Plutarch'andStobaeus)preciselyinvirtueofthepassagewhere,asPillonbelieves,theatomsaresaidto
be'inertesparnature'(Phys.42.1011=DK68A47,cf.p.224n.3above).Goedeckemeyer,EpikursVerhltnis1213,rightlyprotestsatthisgroupingofSimpliciuswiththosewho
deny,orwhoappeartodeny,theexistenceofweightfortheatoms.NonethelessRivaudignoreshiswarning,Leproblmedudevenir161,andevidentlyundertheinfluenceof
PillonheincludesSimpliciusamongthosewho'affirmentcatgoriquementquelesatomesn'ontpasdepoids...'.Intheaccompanyingnote(p.161n.369)referencesaregivento
theotherauthorsnamed(Cicero,'Plutarch',Stobaeus),butnottoSimplicius.Thuswithinthespaceoflessthantwentyyears(Pillon,1891Rivaud,1906)Simplicius'denialthatthe
atomshavenaturalmovementisconstruedasadenialthattheatomshaveweight.
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Democritoinpulsionis,quamplagamilleappellat,ate,Epicure,grauitatisetponderis.'
ThedisjunctionbetweeninpulsioorplagainDemocritusandgrauitasetpondusinEpicurusrepeatsmoreorlessthedistinctionbetween inthelaterofthe
twopassagesinAetius(i12.6=DK68A47),andhasbeenthoughttocarrythesameimplication:thatforDemocritustheatomswerelackinginweight.1
(ii)
Thesameimplicationhasbeenthoughttoattach,foradifferentreason,toapassageintheDenaturadeorum,i26.73:
'quidestinphysicisEpicurinonaDemocrito?nametsiquaedamcommutauit,utquodpauloantedeinclinationeatomorumdixi,tamenpleraquediciteadem,atomos,inane,
imagines,infinitatemlocoruminnumerabilitatemquemundorum,eorumortus,interitus,omniaferequibusnaturaeratiocontinetur.'
TheabsenceofweightfromthelistofEpicurus''borrowings'hasbeentakentoimplythatweightcannothavebeenafeatureofDemocritus'originalsystem.2
(iii)
Thissecondargumentmay,Ithink,bedealtwithfairlysummarily.
Theabsenceofweightisnotreally,asLafaistwouldhaveusbelieve,an'omissionsurprenante',implyingthat,forCicero,weightwasnotpartofDemocritus'system.
Weightisnotonthesamelevelofgeneralityorimportanceaspluralworldsorinfinitespace.
1
Seeabovepp.1534and223n.1.
2
Lafaist,Philosophieatomistique72.ThereisthesameassumptioninLiepmann,Mechanik313and49,cf.p.223n.1above,andinPillon,'L'volutionhistoriquedel'atomisme'122
n.2.
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1
Adifferentlist,inSimplicius'Categories,doesinfactincludeweightalongwithotherpropertiesoftheatomscommontoDemocritusandEpicurus.
(iv)
ThereremainsthepassageintheDefato.
Theanalysisofthistextiscomplicatedbythefactthattwoearlierpassages,intheDefatoandintheDenaturadeorum,describethedeclinatioinawaythathas
beenthoughttocarrytheoppositeimplication:thattheatomsofDemocritusdidhaveweight,andthat,likeEpicurus'atoms,theymoveddownwardsinthevoid.
Theintentionoftheseearlierpassagesneedstobeclarified,ifwearetogainaclearviewofthepossibleimplicationinthepassagethatIfirstquotedofthedisjunction
betweeninpulsioorplagainDemocritusandgrauitasetpondusinEpicurus.2
The'Declinatio'
(i)
TheideasfromtheendoftheDefatoaregivenmorefullyin,andindeedseemtoberepeatedfrom,anearlierpassage,whereCicerowrites,10.223:
'sedEpicurusdeclinationeatomiuitarinecessitatemfatiputat.itaquetertiusquidammotusoriturextraponduset
1
Cat.216.31217.5.Weightisherejoinedwithshape,solidity,corporeality,surfaces,sizeandmovement,asopposedtocolour,taste,life,intelligence,natureandrationality,as
thingsthatontheatomictheoryaregeneratedonlyfromtheconjunctionofelements.
Ihavenotgivenmoreprominencetothispieceofevidence,partlybecausethedoubleattribution,toDemocritusandtoEpicurus,wouldmakeitdifficulttoarguespecificallyforthe
beliefsofDemocritus,andalsobecausethecontextisinanycaseahighlyintellectualisedone,inwhichitcouldwellbearguedthateitherthinkerisusedmainlyasapegonwhichto
hangaviewopposedtoSimplicius'own.
2
TheDefatowasplannedasasupplementtotheDenaturadeorumandtheDedivinationethesethreeworksweresubsequenttotheDefinibus,fromwhichIquotelater:seeDe
div.ii13.
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plagam,cumdeclinatatomusinteruallominimo....namquipotestpellialia(sc.atomus)abalia,sigrauitateferunturadperpendiculumcorporaindiuiduarectislineis,utEpicuro
placet?...
'hancEpicurusrationem(sc.declinationem)induxit...ueritus...ne,sisemperatomusgrauitateferreturnaturalietnecessaria,nihilliberumnobisesset....idDemocritus,auctor
atomorum,acciperemaluit,necessitateomniafieri,quamacorporibusindiuiduisnaturalismotusauellere.'
Inthispassage,thepluralexpression,naturalismotus,hasbeentakentocoverthemovementsindicatedbypondusetplagamjointly,andsoasascribingto
Democritusprimarymovementdownwards,asdeterminedbyweight.
Onthisinterpretation,thepointofthepassageisthat:
'Democrituswasunwillingtosacrificetothedeclinatiothe"naturalmovements"oftheatoms,ascausedbyweightandbyimpact.Hepreferredtoleavetheatomstobegoverned
bynecessity,andtofallendlesslydownwardsasanaturalandanecessaryconsequenceoftheirweight.'1
(ii)
ThereisacomparablepassageearlierintheDenaturadeorum,i25.69:
'Epicuruscumuideret,siatomiferrenturinlocuminferioremsuoptepondere,nihilforeinnostrapotestate,quodesseteorummotuscertusetnecessarius,inuenitquomodo
necessitatemeffugeret,quoduidelicetDemocritumfugerat:aitatomum,cumpondereetgrauitatedirectodeorsusferatur,declinarepaululum.'
1
ThisisBrieger'sargument,Urbewegung9.SinceBriegeralsobelievesthatinthelaterpassage,20.46,CicerointendstodenythatDemocritus'atomshaveweight,heconcludes
thatCicero'sevidenceisinconsistent:'Erzwingtuns,denAngabenCicerosberDemokrit,jaberdieAtomikerberhauptjedeauchnochsogeringeAutorittabzusprechen'.
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Thispassagehasbeentakeninasimilarway,asimplyingthatDemocritus,nolessthanEpicurus,neededadeclinatio,sotospeak,topreventhisatomsfromfalling
endlesslyinthevoid.1
Onthisreadingofthepassage,Democritusisstuck,asitwere,atthepointthatEpicurustakesofffrom.Democritus'atoms,likethoseofEpicurus,arecarried
downwardsbytheirweight.Thedifferenceisthatthe'escape'thatEpicurusfoundfromnecessityhad'escaped'DemocritusItakeitthattheplayonwordsis
deliberate.
(iii)
Ineithercase,theimplicationthatIhaveoutlinedispossible,itseemstome,ifthepassagesaretakenstrictlybythemselves,thoughineithercaseweareleftto
wonderhowCicerothoughtthatDemocritus'atomseverjoinedtogethertoformacosmosiftheystartedoffinthesameconditionasEpicurus'atomsfallingstraight
downwardsinthevoidwithnodeclinatiotoreleasethem.
Butevenifweanswerthatquestionbysomeconsiderationextraneoustothecontextdifferencesofspeed,forexampleitstilldoesnotfollowthateitherimplication
isatallanecessaryone.
1.IntheDenaturadeorum,theconnectionimpliedbetweenEpicurusandDemocritusbytheratherfrivolousplayonwordsthe'escape'fromnecessitythat'escaped'
DemocritusisfartootenuousfortheonlyimplicationtobethatthesituationthatDemocrituswasleftinwaspreciselythesituationthatEpicurusescapedfrom.
2.IntheearlierpassageoftheDefato,thepluralexpression,naturalismotus,couldaswellcoverpondusorplagamsinglyortogether,astypesofmovementwhich,whether
singlyorjointly,areatleastregularexpressionsoftheatoms'behaviour,asopposedtowhatarelatercalledthecommenticiaedeclinationes(20.48):theunnaturalandarbitrary
irruptionofamotiveforcewhichsorousedthescornofCicero,orhissource.
1
Thisclaimismade(fordifferentpurposes)bothbyBrieger,Urbewegung89and'Urbewegung'587,andbyZeller,ZN1090n.2.
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Inbothpassages,Cicero'spointisessentiallythatthedeclinatiohastobeinvokedinordertoescapefromthesimpledownwardmovementofatomsinthevoid.In
makingthispoint,Cicerosimplydoesnotletitbeseenclearlyintheimmediatecontextofeitherpassagewhetherhethinksthatthebackgroundtothisinnovation,
thedownwardmovementofatomsinthevoid,wasalsoaninnovationbyEpicurus,orafeaturethatEpicurushadtakenoverfromDemocritus.
(iv)
Thisambiguityis,Ibelieve,resolvedbyaslight,buttelling,phraseintheonlyotherpassagewhereCicerodealsatanylengthwiththedeclinatioandwithdifferences
betweenEpicurusandDemocritusonthenatureoftheatomsandtheirmovementsinthevoid.
InthefirstbookoftheDefinibusbonorumetmalorumCicerowritesofEpicurusandDemocritus,6.1819:
'...demateriadisseruerunt,uimetcausamefficiendireliquerunt.sedhoccommuneuitium:illaeEpicuripropriaeruinae.censetenimeademillaindiuiduaetsolidacorporaferri
deorsumsuopondereadlineam:huncnaturalemesseomniumcorporummotum.deindeibidemhomoacutus,cumilludoccurreret,siomniadeorsumeregioneferrenturet,utdixi,
adlineam,nunquamforeutatomusalteraalterampossetattingere,itaque(N.B.'insolensoratio',Madvig)attulitremcommenticiam:declinaredixitatomumperpaulum....quaecum
restotafictasitpueriliter,tumneefficit<quidem>quoduult,nametipsadeclinatioadlibidinemfingitur...etillummotumnaturalemomniumponderum,utipseconstituit,e
regioneinferioremlocumpetentium,sinecausaeripuitatomis.'
Ithasbeenacutelyobserved,byHirzel,thatinthefinalsentencethelittlephrase,utipseconstituit,betrayssufficientlyclearlythatCicero,orhissource,recognised
thedownwardmovementoftheatomsasaninnovationbyEpicurus.1
1
RudolfHirzel,UntersuchungenzuCicero'sphilosophischenSchriften,Theilii'Definibus,Deofficiis'Abtheilung2(Leipzig,1882)660n.2.
Page245
Inthelightofthisphrase,theremainderofthepassageIhavequoted,andthepagesimmediatelyprecedingandfollowing,canbereadwithoutambiguity.In
Democritus'world,theatomsmovenulloaprincipioinspacethathasnecsummumnecinfimumnecmediumnecultimumnecextremum(i6.17),onboth
countsthereforedistinctfromthe'natural'movementofEpicurus'atoms,illummotumnaturalemomniumponderum...eregioneinferioremlocumpetentium.
The'errorspeculiartoEpicurus',Epicuripropriaeruinae,willincludeboththefallofatomsandtheswerve.Itisonlyafterthedeclinatiothatthetwosystemswill
coincide,inthedifficultyoftheturbulentaconcursioofatoms,inquoetiamDemocritushaeret(i6.20).1
1
ProfessorGuthrie,Historyii402,takesEpicuripropriaeruinaeassufficientindicationthatthefallofatomsispeculiartoEpicurus.ButasHirzelhadnoted,takeninitselfthat
phrasecouldreferexclusivelytothedeclinatio.ItisonlythelaterexpressionwhichfreesourreadingofCicero'spassagefromambiguity.
Bailey,GreekAtomists130,takesthebeginningofthepassageasproofthatDemocritus'atomsaremovedbyweight,i6.17(DK68A56):'ille(sc.Democritus)atomosquasappellat,id
estcorporaindiuiduaproptersoliditatem,censetininfinitoinani...itaferri'etc.Buthereproptersoliditatemwillpresumablyrepresentnot usedasanameorsynonymfor
theatomsseeSimpl.Decaelo242.19(DK67A14),Arist.Degen.etcorr.i8,326a10(DK68A60,abovep.41).Hardnessorsolidityisgivenasareasonfortheatoms'indivisibility,for
bothDemocritusandEpicurus,byDionysius,ap.Eus.Praep.evang.xiv23.3(DK68A43),andforDemocritusalonebySimplicius(?),Deanima62.24(notinDK).
Itistruethereisacertaindiscrepancyinthesourcesonthispoint.GalenmakesEpicurus'atoms'unbreakablebecauseoftheirhardness',andLeucippus'atoms'indivisiblebecauseof
theirsmallness',DeelementissecundumHippocratemi2=i41819Khn(DK68A49),whileSimpliciusmakesLeucippus'andDemocritus'elements'atomicbecauseoftheirsmallness
andsolidity',Decaelo609.1719.Anumberofotherpassagesbearonthequestion(notablySimplicius,Phys.81.3482.6,cf.pp.2736and2789below,Phys.925.1322=DK67A13,
cf.pp.2702below,Diogenesix44=DK68A1).Withoutwishingtodemonstratethepoint,IwouldnoteonlythatItakebothsmallnessandhardnessorsolidity(thetwoconnotations
attachto etc.,cf.LSJs.v.)tohavebeenoriginallythereasonsfortheatoms'impenetrabilityandindivisibility,andthatEpicurusabandonedtheargumentfrom
size,whetherinconnectionwithhisnotionthatatomshave'parts'(abovepp.21314),orperhapsasaconcessiontoAristotle'scriticismthatsmallatomshavenostrongerclaimto
beingindivisiblethanlargerones(Degen.etcorr.i8,326a249,notinDK).
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(v)
ItispossiblethatCiceroisinconsistent,inconsistenteitherinhisownconceptionofancientAtomism,ormoresimplyinconsistentinhisuseofsources.Itispossible
thereforethattheimplicationwhichHirzelhasnotedfromtheDefinibuscannotproperlybecarriedoverintoourinterpretationofthepassagesfromtheDefatoand
theDenaturadeorum.
Iamreluctantmyselftothinkthatthisisso.IhavecalledCicero'splayonwordsfrivolous.ButIdonotthinkthatCicerowasfoolish.Itseemstomelikelytherefore
thattheimplicationwhichHirzelhasnotedintheDefinibusexcludestheassumptionthatineitheroftheothertwotreatisesCicerodeliberatelyattributesdownward
movementinthevoidtotheatomsofDemocritus.
1.IntheDenaturadeorum,the'escape'thatEpicurusfoundfromnecessity'escaped'Democritus.ButthenecessitytowhichDemocritusremainedboundwasnot,therefore,the
'necessity'bywhichatomsinEpicurus'systemwerecarriedinexorablydownwardsbytheirweight.
2.Similarly,intheearlierofthetwopassagesfromtheDefato,the'naturalmovements'whichDemocrituswasunwillingto'snatch'fromtheatomswillhavebeenonlymovements
causedbythecollisionandrecoilofatomstheywillnothaveincludedthe'fall'ofatomsinthevoid.
Onthisconstruction,thepointtoappreciatethesolutiontothepuzzleisthatCicero'shostilitytothedeclinatiohascausedaradicalrealignmentinthenotionof
whatis'natural'.
1.ForAristotle,'natural'movementisopposedtomovementthatistheresultofforceorcollision.
2.ForCicero,thearbitrarycharacterofthedeclinatioisaloneunnatural,andmovementthatisindependentofthedeclinatioisthereforeseenas'natural'and'necessary',
includingboththe'fall'ofatomsandmovementsthataretheresultofcollision.
Thisleadstotheparadoxthatthe'naturalmovements'oftheDefato,themovementscausedbycollisionandrecoilwhichDemoc
Page247
rituswasunwillingto'snatch'fromtheatoms,arepreciselythemovementswhichinAristotle'sphilosophyareopposedtothe'natural'movementoftheelements.For
Cicero,movements'byforce'are'natural'movements,becausetheydoatleastexcludethedeclinatio.
WeightandMovement
IreturnthereforetothepassagefromlaterintheDefatowhichIquotedatthebeginningofthissection.
ThesimilaritybetweenthepassagesthatIhavequotedhitherto,readintheirentirety,andthefactthatCiceronowhereelsetreatsofthesamesubjectswithanything
likethesamecircumspectionordiscrimination,allowus,Ithink,withoutunduescrupulosity,tocontinuetoreadthepagesfromlaterintheDefatointhelightofthe
distinctionthatIhavedrawnfromtheDefinibus,andthatIhaveappliedalreadytothepassageearlierintheDefatoandtothesimilarpassageintheDenatura
deorum.
Ifwedoso,thenwefindinCiceroessentiallythesamenetworkofideasthatIhavearguedwehaveinthetwoentriesinthePlacita.
1.Weight,grauitasetpondus,isattributedtoEpicurusexclusively,asalsoisthefallofatoms.
2.Democritus'atomsaremovedbyinpulsio,quamplagamilleappellat,preciselythetermwhichisrecordedinSimplicius,andarenotenvisagedasmovingdownwards.
AsinthecaseoftheearlierentryinAetiuswecannottellforcertainwhetherthisisintendedtoimplythatDemocritus'atomswerewithoutweight.
Thereispossiblylessreasontosupposethatitshoulddoso,sinceCiceroisinnocentofthestatementwhichwefindinthelaterentry,thattheatoms'havenoweight'.
Ontheotherhand,theregularassociationintheotherpassagesIhavequotedofpondusorgrauitaswithmovementdownwards,whichisspecificallystatedinthe
DefinibustohavebeeninstitutedbyEpicurus,perhapsmakesitmorelikelythatDemocritus'atomsarenotthoughtofashavingweight.
Butequallythisregularassociationofpondusorgrauitaswith
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movementdownwardsobviouslyleaveslittleroomfor'weight'thatwouldnotbethoughtofasmovementdownwards.
Thetwopointsthereforecanceleachotherout,asitwere.ThemorelikelyitisthatCicero,orhissource,willhavesupposedthatDemocritus'atomswerewithout
weight,themorearguable,andthemoreobvious,willitbethatthiswasnothingmorethanaconcomitantoftheatoms'freedomfromdownwardmovement.1
Conclusion
AdolpheFranckinhisDictionnairedessciencesphilosophiquesclaimsthat,againstthetestimonyofAristotleandofTheophrastus,thereare:
'milletmoignagescontraires,quinousmontrentlapesanteurdesatomescommeuneinnovationintroduiteparpicuredanslesystmedesonmatre'.2
Onamoresobercalculation,the'milletmoignages'shrinktoonlyone:asingleentryinAetius.3
1
Cicero'sevidencehasoftenbeenmisunderstood.PerhapsthemostextremeexampleisBailey.(1)AsIhavenoted,Baileymisunderstands,GreekAtomists130,thedescriptionof
theatomsasindividuaproptersoliditatem,attheopeningofthepassagefromtheDefinibus,i6.17(DK68A56)BaileyheretakesCicerotobedescribingamovementthatisthe
resultofweight,andthereforetobesayingthesameasTheophrastus,inapassage(Desens.71),whichhehasalsomisunderstood,seepp.13742andp.224n.3above.(2)This
errorleadsBaileytotakethepassagefromtheDefato,20.46(DK68A47),asprovidingan'identificationoftheDemocritean"blow"withEpicurus'notionofweight'(Greek
Atomists134),whereasinfactitisclearthatCicerointendstodistinguishatthispointbetweenthetheoriesofDemocritusandEpicurus.(3)However,Baileyalsobelievesthat
Democritus'atomsdonotmovedownwardsinthevoidhethereforeconcludes(pp.1345)that'Cicero'sstatementisalmostcertainlyfoundedonthefalseconceptionthat
Democritusassignedweightasthecauseofmotion'.(4)ButalthoughBaileythinksthatCiceroishereinerror,henonethelessseekstousehispassage(p.135)asatrue
descriptionofthe'derivativemotions',whicharecommontoDemocritusandEpicurus,andwhichare'logicallysubsequent'totheoriginalmotionoftheatoms.Butthisreadingof
thetextisplainlyatoddswithCicero'sintention,intheDefatoasintheDefinibus,tostartbydescribingthemovementofEpicurus'atomspriortotheirreleasebythedeclinatio.
2
Article'Dmocrite'inDictionnairedessciencesphilosophiquesii(Paris,1844)32=2ndedn(Paris,1875)356.
3
Franckisnotalone.Mabilleauwrites,Histoiredelaphilosophieatomistique195:'Onpeutdirequelesopinionssepartagentendeuxcamps:Aristoteaffirmequelesatomesde
Dmocritesontpesants,presquetouslesautrestmoignagestendenttablirlecontraire'.Heconcludes:'Lenombre,ici,balancel'autorit...'.
Page249
PARTTHREE
THECONCILIATIONOFTHEEVIDENCE
Page251
ChapterNine
TheNatureandDistributionoftheEvidence:
PrimaryEvidence
1
SourcesfortheHistoryofEarlyPhilosophy
Theperversitiesofchanceandofhumanneglecthaveleftwhatarenowalmostcertainlyineradicablescarsonourpotentialknowledgeofthethoughtandexperience
oftheancientworld.Byasingulargoodfortunethethreemostoriginal,mostinfluential,andthemostdifficultpaganphilosophers,Plato,AristotleandPlotinus,have
survivedtouswithalargepartorevenwiththewholeoftheworkswhichtheythemselvescomposed.Otherwise,withthepartialexceptionofEpicurus,everyother
majorphilosophicalfigureofearlierpaganantiquityisknowntousonlyinfragmentsandatsecondhand.
ThelossoforiginalmaterialisespeciallycrucialforthecenturyorsobeforePlato.Notonlywasthisaperiodofintensephilosophicalactivity,ofthemostvariedand
themostfascinatingkind:itwasalsoatimesufficientlyprimitiveorarchaic,oratleast,ifthosetermsaretoocrudelyevaluative,sufficientlydifferentfromourownto
makeitparticularlydifficulttorecoverfromanyotherthananexceptionallysensitivesourcethetrueintentofathinkerofthisperiod:andoursourcesarenot
exceptionallysensitive,andareoftennotsensitiveatall.
Forthisearlyperiod,werelyonfourmainblocksofmaterial:(1)thefrequentallusionstoandanalysesofearliertheoriesscatteredthroughouttheworksofAristotle,
(2)theextensivetranscriptsfromParmenides,Anaxagoras,EmpedoclesandDiogenesrecordedbySimplicius,inhiscommentariesonAristotle,(3)directfragments
fromTheophrastus'accountsoftheearlyphilosophers,andespeciallythelongfragmentonthenatureofthefacultyofsenseandoftheobjectsofsense,andfinally(4)
laterdigestsandredactionsofTheophrastus'work,principallythosecontainedinthetwosurvivingversionsofAetius.
Thereremainsanenormousnumberofotherallusionstotheearlyphilosophersscatteredthroughalmostthewholeofsubse
Page252
quentancientliterature.Thesevarygreatlyinvalue:but,withthepossibleexceptionofPlutarch,alloftheseothersourcestakentogetherhardlyexceedinvalueany
oneofthefourmajorsourcesofourknowledge,takenalone.
Fromthis,itisatonceapparenthowmuchweowe,directlyandindirectly,toAristotle:directly,becauseofthetimewhichhehimselfdevotestothediscussionand
refutationofPresocraticideas,andindirectlybecauseSimpliciusandTheophrastusaretherebyled,intheirdifferentways,totheirowninterestinearlyphilosophy.If
AristotlehadbeenasevasiveinhisattitudetothePresocraticsasPlatoinfactwas,ourknowledgeofPresocraticphilosophywouldhavebeenimmeasurably
darkened.
Ihaveaddedtheseverygeneralremarksatthebeginningofthissectionofmyargument,becauseinreviewinganylongstandingprobleminthehistoryofearly
philosophyIthinkonehasthedutytoconsider,ingeneralterms,whatchancesofsuccessareofferedbytheevidence,soastotrytomakesurethatoneisnotadding
wantonlytowhatmustseemattimes,toanyconscientiousworkerinthefield,thewearisomemountainofmodernscholarshiponthePresocratics,someofit
remarkableforitslearningandacuity,butmuchofitlooselyarguedandinconclusive,evenwhenitisnotdownrightunscholarlyorperverse.
Asitis,fromthepointofviewofthespreadofevidence,thepresentproblemshouldprovenomoreintractablethanmanyanotherprobleminthehistoryofearly
philosophy,foralthoughalltheevidenceissecondhandthereisatleastsomeexplicitinformationfromallfourmajorsources:Aristotle,Theophrastus,Simplicius
(althoughnotinthisinstanceasasourceofdirectquotation)andAetius,withoneortwootherauthorsprovidingusefuliftangentialinformation.
Whythenhasthesolutionoftheproblem,ifithasnotbeenfoundalready,provedsoelusive?
Tosuchaquestionthereisnosingleanswer.ButifImaygeneralise,thentheanswerisprobablythataseriesoflocaldifficultiesinthemaintextshasconspiredwitha
moregeneralconceptualdifficulty,thepossibledifferencebetweenPlatonicorAristoteleanandprePlatonicconceptionsofheavyandlight,soastomakeanysingle
synopsisoftheevidencemorethanusuallydifficultofattainment.
Ifinfactwestandbacktoconsiderthedistributionandrela
Page253
tionoftheevidenceasawhole,takingnowforgrantedthemoreparticularquestionsofexegesisandinterpretationwhichhavebeenhandledintheprecedingsections,
thentheformofthequestionthatweneedtoaskdetermines,almostofitself,theanswerthatweshouldgivetoit.
IsoneentryinAetiusabletooverruleanumberofpassagesinSimplicius,andtoeffectamajorqualificationofevidenceprovidedbyTheophrastusinhisDesensibusandintwo
placesbyAristotle?
Theanswer,intermsofgeneraldoxographicalprobability,isthatitmaybeabletodoso,butthatitisunlikely.
Itwillbelessunlikely,onlyiftheevidenceinAristotleandinTheophrastusencourages,oratleastleavesroomfor,thequalificationrequiredbyAetius.
Morespecifically,thequestionwhichweneedtoconsideristherefore:
IsthereanyindicationthatwhenAristotleandTheophrastuswriteoftheatoms'possessingweighttheyarethinkingonlyofatomswithinacosmos,oratleastwithinthe
beginningsofacosmos,sothatAetius'denialofweighttotheatomscanbeappliedtoatomsbeforeoroutsidetheformationofacosmos?
TothisquestionIaddressmyselfinthefollowingtwosectionsofthischapter.
2
Theophrastus
Atthispoint,IconsidertheevidenceinTheophrastusbeforethatofAristotle,sincefromthepresentpointofviewTheophrastusisperhapsthemoreusefulwitnessof
thetwo.ForTheophrastusdoesrecordDemocritus'theoryofweightforitsownsake,andasawhole.OnbothpointsthereforehediffersfromAristotle,whose
allusiontothetheoryintheDegenerationeetcorruptioneispartofamoregeneralargument,andwhoseaccountofDemocritus'theoryintheDecaeloistied
closelytohiscritiqueofPlato.
Page254
(i)
Itistrue,thereisthefearthatsinceTheophrastus'criticismofearliertheoriesisheavilyindebtedtoAristotle,sotoohisaccountofthesubstanceofPresocratic
theoriesmayalsobecolouredbyAristoteleanism.
Infact,myownimpression,forwhatitisworth,isthatthispossibilityisquitelargelycounterbalancedbythedeliberatedivisionwhichTheophrastusmakesbetween
prcisandcriticism.Forintheprciswhichhegives,Theophrastusdoesattempttowrite,asweshouldsay,objectively.Thusintheintroductiontothesecondpartof
hisDesensibus,onthenatureoftheobjectsofsense,hewrites,inrelationtoPlatoandDemocritus,cap.60(DK68A135):
.
'Itisnotourimmediateconcerntodecideonwhichsidethetruthlies.Ourpresentpurposeistotrytoconveytothereaderhowfareachthinkerwentintacklingtheproblem,and
thenatureofhisconclusions,afterfirstsketchingoutthegenerallineofapproachthateachofthetwophilosophersadopted.'
Inthiscircumstance,itseemstome,Aristotle'sinfluenceonthesubstantiveelementsofTheophrastus'historyislikelytobeapparent,ifatall,notsomuchinwhatis
included,asinwhatisomitted.
AnotableandhithertounrecognisedexampleofsuchomissionIshallattempttodemonstrateinaparallelstudytothis,onthenatureofearlytheoriesofperception
andintelligence,withparticularreferencetoEmpedocles'theoryofintelligentperceptionbyblood.IshallthereattempttoshowthatundertheinfluenceofAristotle
TheophrastushasfailedtospecifytherleofdifferencesoftemperatureinhisaccountofEmpedocles'theoryofvariationsinperceptionandintelligence,notablyatDe
sensibus1011(DK31A86).1
1
ThisworkisduetoappearinPhilosophiaAntiqua,andisprovisionallyentitledThoriesprsocratiquesdelaperceptionetdel'intelligence,tudiesd'aprslatradition
biographiqued'Empdocle.Seealsopp.3423below.
Page255
But,itmaybeobjected,thisispreciselythephenomenonwhichthemoderninterpretationofDemocritus'theoryofweightwouldhaveusfearinthepresentinstance:
theomissionofaqualification,restrictingthetheoryofatomicweighttoatomsthatarecaughtwithintheformationofacosmos.
(ii)
Infact,itseemstomethatseveralconsiderationstellagainstthis,ofwhichthesimplestandperhapstheclearestisaffordedbythestipulationwhichTheophrastus
attachestohisinitialdefinitionofweightintermsofsize,cap.61:
Ihavealreadynotedthatthementionof ishereanatom.1Iftheneachatomistobe'takenseparatelyonitsown',itwillfairlyclearlybeirrelevantwhether
wehave'takenit',sotospeak,fromacosmicvortexorfromaprecosmicvoid.
ThestipulationrequiredbyBurnet'sreconstructionofthetheorywouldbeineffecttheoppositeofthis:
'Iftheatomsareconsideredinrelationonetoanother,whentheyhavebeendrawnintoavortex....'2
(iii)
Moregenerally,thescrupulosityofTheophrastus'accountisshownbythesentenceswhichconcludehisinitialstatementof
1
Cf.ch.IV1,esp.p.121above.
2
IhavealreadynotedthetranslationofTheophrastus'stipulationas'ifweweretodivideeachsubstanceintoits<atomic>units'(Stratton,121)oras'ifanyobjectisdecomposedinto
itsparts'(Sambursky,ThephysicalworldoftheGreeks120).Inthistranslation,Theophrastus'stipulationwouldintroducetheatomsonlyindirectly,asitwere.Butthiswouldnot
reallyweakenmypresentargument.ForeveninthisformTheophrastus'stipulationwouldnotcoincidewiththestipulationrequiredbyBurnet'sinterpretation.InStratton's
translation,Theophrastusspecifiestheseparationofacompoundbodyintoitsindividualatoms,whicharethenthesubjectofthedefinition.OnBurnet'sinterpretation,Theophrastus
shouldspecifytheatomsashavingweightonlywhentheyaredrawnintoacosmicvortex,andthereforeonlywhentheyarealreadybeingbroughttogetherascompoundbodies.
Page256
1
Democritus'theoryofweight,cap.612:
ThemorepreciserelevanceofthisremarkIshalltrytouncoverlater,inconsideringthegeneralPresocraticbackgroundtoDemocritus'ideas.2Whatissignificantat
themoment,issimplythefactthatTheophrastuswasaliveto,even,onemightventuretothink,onthelookoutfor,potentialdiscrepanciesinDemocritus'theory,and
thatforthispurposehewasable,andwilling,tocomparedifferentpartsofDemocritus'writings.
ForthestatementinAetius,thattheatoms .IfthereforetherehadbeenanythingapproximatingtoAetius'statementinDemocritus'ownwritings,thenwemay
wellexpectthat,inthiscircumstance,itwouldnothaveescapedTheophrastus'attention.3
(iv)
Itmightperhapsbeargued,againstthis,thatTheophrastus'horizonsarelimitedtothediscussionofsensibilia,andthatthenature,orthebehaviour,ofatomsinthe
void,beforetheformationofacosmos,necessarilyfallsoutsidethispurview.4
Butthisargumentprovestobetwoedged.
Theophrastus'primarycriticismofDemocritus,andofPlato,isthattheyconfuseprincipleandpractice.
1.Platoclaimedtotreattheobjectsofsenseasexistentintheirownright,butinfacthereducedthemtoalterationsofthefacultyofsense.
1
Formyparaphraseseeabovep.131.
2
Pp.3728below
3
Thetwospecifications PaulTanneryfirsttranslatedas'pourcertainscorps'and'pourd'autres',Pourl'histoiredelasciencehellne(Paris,1887)359.ButDisrightly
correctedthisinthesecondedition,(Paris,1930)369,to'encertainsendroits'and'end'autres'.
4
Dyroff,Demokritstudien32:'Theophrastoslsstklarerkennen,dassdemDemokritos''SchwereundLeichtigkeit"Sinnesqualittenwaren,nichtEigenschaftenderursprnglichen
Atome'.Cf.pp.3569below.
Page257
1
2.Democritusclaimedinprincipletoreducetheobjectsofsensetoaffectionsofthefacultyofsense,butinpracticehedefinedthemasentitiesexistingindependently.
Fromthispreliminaryorientation,Theophrastusarguesthatheavyandlightinparticular,andhardandsoft,areineffectmade intheirownright,asopposed
especiallytotemperature,which,onDemocritus'theory,isnomorethananaffectionofthefacultyofsensewhenitissubjectedtoaprocessofalteration.The
repetitionofthiscriticismdemonstratesitsimportanceforTheophrastus.2
Thusinthecaseoftemperatureorcolourorflavouritwouldberighttoclaimthattheeffect,andindeedthepoint,ofDemocritus'theoryisthat'hot'or'red'or
'sweet'comestoexistonlywithintheconditionsofacosmos,orindeed,morenarrowly,comesto'exist'onlywithintheexperienceofasensiblepercipient.
ButTheophrastus'distinctionshowsthatwecannotarguefromtheformulationofDemocritus'theoryinthecaseoftemperaturetoanequivalentformulationinthecase
ofweight.ForaccordingtoTheophrastus'categorisationweightisa'nature'initsownright,andisnotsimplytheexpressionofanalterationofthefacultyofsense.
(v)
Heaviness,itmightstillbeargued,ispairedwithlight,andthetwoaregroupedwithhardandsoft:allofwhichappearonlyascharactersofcompoundbodies,and
canthereforeappearonlywithinacosmos.
TopursuethisissuefullywouldentailconsiderationofthewholeofDemocritus'theoryofsensibleperception.
Briefly,itistruethatthequestionmaynotbeassimpleforhardasforheavy.Forinthecaseofhardnesswecandistinguishwhatonemightperhapscallanontological
condition,theconditionoftheatomsrepresentedas ,andtheeffectofthiscondi
1
Desens.601(DK68A135).
2
Desens.63,68,71(DK68A135).
Page258
tionuponthefacultyofsense.Thislatterconditionalone,Democritusmightclaimiswhathemeansbyhardness.
Thequestionisagaindifferentinthecaseoflightness.ForwhileTheophrastusbeginsbysayingthatbothheavyandlightaredefinedbysize,hethengoesontogivean
alternativedefinitionoflightnessasdeterminednotintermsofsizesimply,butofvoid.
Lightnessinthissecondsense,lightnessasdeterminedbyvoid,isnecessarilyrestrictedinitsapplicationtotheformationofcompoundbodies,andtherefore,wemay
perhapsallow,toconditionswithintheformationofacosmos.1
However,neitherqualificationcanbeappliedtothedefinitionofheavyandlightintermsofsize.Heavinessisattachednottoacertaindistributionofatoms,nortoa
certainproportionofsolidandvoid,butquitesimplytothesizeofindividualatoms.Primafaciethereforethereisnoreasonforheavinesstoberestrictedtothe
interactionbetweenatomsandthefacultyofsenseortoappearanceswithinacosmos.
Theonlypointwhichinfact,itseemstome,couldconceivablytellinfavourofwhatIhavecalledthe'currentcompromise'isthatthewordwhichTheophrastushas
employedinhisaccountoftheindividualatom,theterm ,isdrawnfromtheuseofapairofscales,andso(itmightbeargued)canapplyonlytomovementin
aspecificdirection,andthereforeonlytomovementwithinacosmos.
(i)
Atfirstglance,theremightconceivablyappeartobesomesubstanceinthisargument.Butamoment'sreflectionshowsittobemeagreintheextreme.
1
Idonotfindanydiscussionofwhetherinfacttransitorycompoundbodiesotherperhapsthanthebodiesofthegodscanbeformedoutsideacosmos.
Page259
TherearethreeexpressionswhichTheophrastuscouldhaveusedforthenotionofweight:
1.
2.
3.
1.Theophrastusdoesemploy,inhisopeningsentence(cap.61),thecompositeexpression, ,ofwhichneitherterm,atleastinitsimmediatesignification,
requiresthenotionofmovement.
2.Hedoesnotemploytheterm ,whichwouldnecessarilyentailthenotionofweightexpressedasmovement.
3. isemployedintheaccountoftheindividualatom,andisintermediateinitsconnotation.
Thematerialreferenceistothemovement,orbalance,ofapairofscales.Butthetermisusedsogenerally,throughoutGreekliterature,thatespeciallywhenitisused
adverbiallyithasclearlycometoretainonlyanotionalrelationtoanyactualactofweighing.
(ii)
Ifweconsiderthematterfurther,evensuchresidualornotionalconnotationasatfirstsighttheremaybeoftheideaofmovementseemstomeeffectivelyprecludedby
theforminwhichTheophrastushaschosentocasthisstatementaboutweight.
Theophrastus'purposeistogiveacompletesketchoftheatomictheoryofweight.Fromthestartthereforehehasoneeye,sotospeak,onthedefinitionoflightness
intermsofvoid.Thisheexpressesintermsofthecomparisonofonebodywithanother,andmorespecificallyintermsofapluralityof'mixed'bodies:
.
Averynatural,ifstrictlyunnecessary,senseofantithesisleadsTheophrastustothinkofthealternativedefinition,ofweightintermsofsize,asapplyingtoasingleatom:
.
ThisantithesisleadsTheophrastustocasthisfirstdefinitionofweightinahighlyartificialform:'ifone<atom>weretobetakenonitsown...'.Nooneinfact,inany
literalsense,isgoingtotake
Page260
holdofasingleatomandmeasureitorweighit:hencethefully'unreal'formofconditionalsentence,with intheprotasis.
Thisdegreeofartificiality,orperhapsoneshouldsaymorekindlythisdegreeofsophistication,seemstometoprecludetherebeinganyliteralconnotationintheuseof
.Thatterm,Iwouldsuggest,isusedinthiscontextasaconventionalexpressionfor'weight',withonlythemostnotionalandresidualattachmenttoanyactof
'weighing',andthereforewithoutanynecessaryconnotationatallthattheweightofanindividualatomwouldnecessarilybeexpressedintermsofitsmovementina
specificdirection,andthereforeintermsofitsbehaviourwithinacosmos.
3
Aristotle
'DeGenerationeetCorruptione'
IntheDegenerationeetcorruptioneAristotleislessscrupulousthanTheophrastus,inthathetreatsheat,nolessthanweight,asacharacteristicofanatominits
ownright,andnotsimplyasaproductoftheinteractionbetweenacertainshapeorsizeofatomandasensiblepercipient.
ThismaybesimplybecauseAristotlewantstomakeaquickbreachinDemocritus'theoryoftheimpassibilityofatoms.Itmayalsobethatthenumberoftimes
Democritusreferredtothetheoryleftoccasionswhentheexpressionofthetheorywasvulnerabletoan'objectivist'interpretation:
(Theophr.,Desens.68=DK68A135).1
Itisperhapsastrawinthewindthatthementionofweightisdifferentontwocountsfromwhatissaidofheat.
1.Heat,i8,326a35: .
2.Weight,326a910: .
1
Zeller'semendation,ZN1076n.1,of (Schneider)iscertain,despiteitsomissionbyDielsinhistextinDoxographigraeci:cf.Brieger,Urbewegung6n.1.
Page261
Thecriticalcontextofbothassertionsissimilar,veryroughly:
1.'Theatomsaresupposedtobeinactiveandimpassible,andyettheydohaveheat.'
2.'Itwouldbeoddiftheatomswerecharacterisedbyanoppositionoftemperaturebutlackedotheroppositionsandyeteachatomismoreheavy<orlessso>.'
Buttherethesimilarityends.
1.Thepointaboutheatisitselfenvelopedincriticism'itisoddtomaketheatomshaveonlyheat'andtheexpressionisloose'tohandoutheattoacertainshape'.
2.Thepointaboutweightisexpressedfreefromimmediatecriticism,andtheattributionisgivendirectly:'Democritussaysthat...'.
InthislatterinstancethereforeformandimmediatecontextleavenoobviousopeningforanyqualificationoftheideaattributedtoDemocritus.
'DeCaelo'
(i)
ThestateofaffairsintheDecaeloismorecomplexthanthatintheDegenerationeetcorruptione.
InanearlierchapterIarguedthattheexpositionoftheatomictheoryintermsofbodiesdifferinginvolumewastheresultofAristotle'sownpresentationandcritiqueof
thetheory.1AnequallystrikingfeatureinAristotle'streatmentoftheatomictheoryistheconceptionoftheatomsasmovingconsistentlydownwards,andinthatsense
asapproximatingtothepossessionofabsoluteheaviness.
ThisconceptionisofcoursenosurpriseforZeller,forwhomitisindeedoneofthemainindicationsthattheatomsdidinfactfallinthevoid,forDemocritusasfor
Epicurus.
However,Zellerwasorshouldhavebeennolessembar
1
Ch.III23,pp.10014.
Page262
rassedbyAristotle'sassertion,intheDecaeloaselsewhere,thatthekindofmovementbelongingtotheatomswasneverspecified.
BriegerandLeipmann,Iamreasonablysure,wererighttotakethesecondsetofpassages,thosenamelywhereAristotledeniesthatthenatureoftheatoms'
movementwasspecified,asdoxographicallyprior.Forinthesepassageswehavethe'tag'ofpersonalisedassertion,orwhatisalmostaseffectivefroma
doxographicalpointofview,thestatementthat'theyfailedtosay,butshouldhavedone'.1
Thecredentialsoftheopposingstatement,thattheatomshaveasinglemovement,bywhichAristotlemeansprimarilymovementinasingledirection,areentirely
different.Theatomshaveasinglenature,andtherefore'itisnecessary'forthemtohaveallthesamemovement.2
Thereisafurtherpoint.Wecanactuallyseetheevolution,withintheDecaelo,ofAristotle'sassumption,fromthenotionthattheatomsmusthaveasinglemovement,
tothenotionthatthissinglemovementmustbemovementdownwards.
1.Inthefirstbook,themovementthattheatoms'must'haveiseitherupordownwhichitis,doesnotmatter,providedthattheyhaveonlyone.
2.Inthecriticismofthefourthbook,theassumptionisconvenientlythatinfacttheatomswouldhavedownwardmovementonly,andwhereAristotlewishestomakeplaywith
thenotionofupwardmovementheintroducesvoidasrepresentative,orasconstitutive,ofanelementthatwouldbelightabsolutely.3
1
Met.A4,985b1920(DK67A6),note .Thesethreepassageshavebeenquotedandparaphrasedabove,p.237.ReferencestothedisputebetweenZellerontheonehand
andBriegerandLiepmannmaybeobtainedfromtheBibliography:seealsopp.3509below.Onthequestionofmovementespecially,seeLiepmann,Mechanik338.
2
Decaeloi7,275b29276a2: b31anda2.Thepassageisquotedinfullandparaphrasedpp.1112above.
3
Decaeloi7,275b29276a6iv2,309a33b4etalibicf.pp.1119above.Iwriteof'evolution',whichwillbetrueofcourseonlyonthetraditionalorderingofthebooksoftheDecaelo.
Ishouldperhapswriteonlyofinconsistency.ButeveninconsistencyisagoodsignthatAristotleisinventing.
Page263
(ii)
ThissecondconceptionoftheatomictheoryofweightleavesitselfopentothecriticismswhichIhavequotedearlier,andwhichareallessentiallyreducibletothe
formulationwhichAristotleoffersattheendofthepenultimatechapterofthefourthbook.Theargumenthereisthatifairandwaterarebothcomposedofasingle
materialprinciple,oriftheybothcontainedtwoconstituents,onewithabsoluteheavinessandtheotherwithabsolutelightness,thentherewillbealargequantityof
waterwhichwillcontainmoreofthelightelementthaniscontainedinasmallquantityofair,andalargequantityofairwhichwillcontainmoreoftheheavyconstituent
thaniscontainedinasmallquantityofwater,sothatair,inacertainquantity,willbeheavierthanwater,andwater,inacertainquantity,willbelighterthanair.1
ThepointofthiscriticismisthatAristotlewillallownoescapefromtheconclusionthateachofthefourelementsmusthaveitsownnaturalplace,andthattheir
observablebehaviourcannotthereforebereducedeithertooneortotwosimpleconstituents,foritcanalwaysbearguedthatthiswillleadtoadisturbanceofthe
naturalmovementsandstratificationoftheelements.
ThetheorythereforewhichAristotlecriticisesatlengthinbookfouroftheDecaeloisadmittedly,inlargemeasure,aconstructionofhisown.Grantedthattheatoms
haveasinglenature,theymust(onAristoteleanprinciples)havemovementallinthesamedirection,whichsooncomestobeenvisagedasmovementdownwards:how
farthen,ifatall,cantheatomsbeusedtoexplainthemovementofthefourelementstowardstheirnaturalstratificationwhichisanobservable,andforAristotlean
indisputable,featureofthecosmos?
(iii)
IconcludethereforethatinAristotle'spresentationandcritiqueoftheatomictheorytherearetwopersistentfeatureswhichwecanreasonablyinferhaveintruded
themselvesintotheoriginalformofthetheory.
1
iv5,313a1013:thedetailofthisformulationisanalysedinmythirdandfourthessays.
Page264
1.Thedefinitionoflightnessasdependentuponatomsandvoidispresentedintermsofbodieswhichdifferinvolume.
2.Thedefinitionofweightasrelatedtosizeispresentedasrequiringtheatomstomoveconsistentlydownwards.
Incuttingawaysogenerousapoundofflesh,howmuchoftheatomictheorycanwehopewillhavesurvived?Isthereanyhopethatinpeelingawaytheaccretionsof
Aristoteleanassumptionandterminologytherewillbeleftanyresidualcoreofpossibleorprobablehistoricaltruth?
Asbefore,IthinkthatifweisolateaccuratelythedistortionswhichAristotlehasintroducedintohispresentationofthetheorywecaninfer,withreasonablecertainty,
inthisinstanceatleast,whatthereisoftheoriginaltheorythatdoesnotderivefromAristotle'spresentationofit.
AsInotedearlier,onthequestionofthedefinitionoflightnessintermsofvoid,thereissufficientcontradictionwithinAristotle'sownpresentationandcritiqueofthe
theoryforustobeabletoinfer,withreasonablecertainty,thattheAtomists'ownformulationoftheirtheoryeitherleftthecomparisonofvolumesoutofaccountor
alternativelywaspresentedintermsofbodiesequalinvolume,wherethereforethecomparisonofvoidwithvoidisasufficientindicationofweight.1
Thesameprinciple,Ibelieve,canbeappliedifweconsiderAristotle'sassertionthattheweightofatomsisdependentupontheirsize,inthelightofAristotle's
treatmentoftheatomsasneedingtomovedownwards.
(iv)
ThusBaileyarguesthatAristotle'sremarksaboutatomicweightintheDecaeloareorientatedexclusivelytowardsthebehaviourofatomswithinacosmos,withthe
conclusion,therefore,thatAristotle'sanalysisleavesthewayopenforadenialofanyprecosmicorextracosmicweighttotheatoms,asonBurnet'sthesis.
1
Cf.pp.105and11114above.
Page265
'Throughoutthediscussion',intheDecaelo,Baileywrites,'Aristotleisthinkingofweightinaformedcosmosandregards"heaviness"asatendency"downwards",thatis
towardsthecentre,andlightnessasatendencyupwards,thatis,towardstheoutside.'1
Nowitistrue,aswehaveseen,thatinhiscritiqueoftheAtomistsAristotledoesrequirethereader,orthelistener,toenvisagehowtheatomswouldbesupposedto
behavewithinacosmos.AnditistruethatinsodoingAristotleisnotdescribingatheoryofatomicweightwhichDemocritushimselfexpressedasapplyingtothe
behaviourofatomswithinacosmos.
ForDemocritus'owntheoryofcosmicweighthardlyimpingesatallonAristotle'scriticism.Thattheory,asweknowfromSimplicius,andaswecaninferinpartfrom
Aristotlehimself,wasthatheavyandlightinacosmicvortexdependupontheactionof ,withtheexpulsionofsmalleratoms,orgroupsofatoms,towards
thecircumferenceofadine.ThattheoryistoucheduponhardlyatallinbookfouroftheDecaelo,andonlyonceintheprecedingbooks,whenitisbrieflyrefuted.2
ButfromthisitdoesnotfollowthatAristotle'sinitialstatementoftheatomictheoryofweight,asdependentuponsize,isdeterminedbyhiscriticismoftheinabilityof
atoms,orofatomsandthevoid,toexplainthediversemovementsandstratificationoftheelements.
WeneedtolookagainatthecontextoftheinitialstatementwhichIsingledoutforanalysis,Decaeloiv2,309al2: .3
LaterinbookfouroftheDecaeloAristotlewillclaimthat
1
GreekAtomists145.
2
The isfirstmentionedatDecaeloi8,277a33b2.AristotledoesnothererefertoDemocritusbyname.TheattributionhastobesuppliedfromSimpliciusandfromother
authors,seeabovep.153n.3.
Inthefourthbook,cap.2,310a10,thetheoryofan isintroducedbrieflyintoanaccountofthedefinitionofweight'bylargenessandsmallness',adefinitionwhichIshall
argue,inmythirdessay,isprimarilyintendedtorepresentIonianwaysofthinking,butwhichislooseenoughtoincludefeaturesfromtheothertwomaintheoriesofweightthatare
criticisedinbookfour,thetheoryofPlatoandthatofDemocritus.
3
Seech.III1,pp.80100above.
Page266
PlatoandDemocritusareinthesameboat,andhewillapplytobothequallythecriticismwhichIhaveoutlined.ButatthispointAristotlehasnotyetsubjectedthe
AtomiststothesameformofcriticismasPlato.Aristotle'spointhere,ifmyearlieranalysisiscorrect,isthattheAtomistsavoidtheimmediatenavetofasimple
equationofsizeandweightbytheirintroductionofvoid,althoughthatsimpleequationdidinfactapplyontheleveloftheprimaryelements,wherethelargerisalsothe
heavier,andwithmorejustificationfortheAtomiststhanforPlato,sincefortheAtomiststheprimaryelementsareatleastsolids,andnotmeresurfaces,fromwhich
nobodycaneverbegenerated.
IhaverepeatedAristotle'spointinallitscomplexity,toshowhowfarAristotleisatthispointfromanyimmediateconcernwithacosmosorwithmovementwithina
cosmos.Itisonlylater,whenAristotletreatsPlatoandDemocritusasalikehavingfailedtoexplainthestratificationofheavyandlightelements,thatAristotle
persistentlyrevertstothenotionoftheatomshavingdownwardmovementwithinacosmos.Inaloosersense,wemayperhapsallowthatthenotionofcompound
bodiesinthedefinitionoflightnessintermsofvoid,andthecomparisonofgoldandfireinwhatIhavecalledAristotle's'corollary',rendersthecontextofthat
definitionacosmicone.ButattheprecisepointatwhichAristotletreatsoftheatomsthemselvesashavingweightproportionatetotheirsizeitistheprimaryelements,
whethersurfacesorsolidparticles,whicharetheobjectofattention.Atthisjuncture,Aristotleisnotconsideringhowsuccessfultheirperformancemightbein
explainingthestratificationofelementswithinacosmos.Thecontextisnotthereforeacosmicone,inanyactivesense.
Itisthereforeunreasonable,itseemstome,ifnotimpossible,toexplaintheattributionofweighttotheatoms,atthispointinAristotle'sargument,assolelytheproduct
ofhisenvisagingtheatomsasconstituting,orasrepresenting,thestratificationofelementswithinacosmos.
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ChapterTen
TheNatureandDistributionoftheEvidence:
SecondaryEvidence
1
Simplicius
AsIhavenoted,Simplicius'extensivetranscriptionsoffifthcenturytexts,which,howeversurprisingitmayseem,werestillavailabletohimlongaftertheyhadceased
toformpartofthecurrent,orevenoccasional,readingofmostotherlearnedmenoflateantiquity,placehimamongthemostimportantindividualsourcesthatsurvive
forthereconstructionofearlyGreekphilosophy.
However,byanunfortunateconjunctionofcircumstances,thecharacterandintentionsofSimpliciushimselfhavebeenlargelyneglectedbymodernscholars.Thisisin
partbecauseSimpliciushasbeenthevictimofhisowngenerosity.SoconscientiousandsoliberalisSimpliciusinhisquotationsfromearlywritersthatverbatim
quotationscanbeextractedfromhiscommentarieswithlittleattentiontothecontextfromwhichtheyhavebeentaken.Atthesametime,Simplicius'attempttoreduce
theprePlatonicphilosopherstoconformitywiththeessentialprinciplesofhisownformofPlatonismfallsfoulofthefrequentmodernEnglishlackofinterestin,and
evendislikeof,allformsofthePlatonismoflateantiquity,nomatterwhatmoreparticularguisetheymayappearin.Theconsequenceisthatanythingmorethanthe
mostsuperficialdippingintothesentenceswhichimmediatelyprecedeorfollowSimplicius'quotationsfromtheearlyphilosophersseemstobeconsideredataskas
unworthyforthemoderncriticasitisunnecessary.
Suchanattitudeisnotunscholarlymerely.Itisintellectuallystultifyingandeveninconsistent.Forthehistorianofphilosophy,ifsuchthestudentofPresocratic
philosophyconceiveshimselftobe,shouldbeaswellabletoextendhishistoricalsympathiestothelatestastotheearliestphilosophersofGreekantiquity.
Oncewedoso,wefindthatSimpliciusoccupiesinfactadistinctiveandanhonourablepositionamonghiscontemporaries.
Page268
Forthesyncretismwhichheattemptstocastuponthewritingsoftheearlyphilosophersistheresultnotofanymereintellectualflaccidity.Itisanattempt,well
meaningenoughinitspurpose,howevermisguideditmaybeinthemeanswhichitadopts,torescuethePresocraticsfromthecontemptandridiculeofthoseofhis
contemporarieswho,hetellsus,absorbedwiththeologicalnicetiesandwithsectarianbickeringsthemselvesonoccasiondippedintotherecordsofthefirst
philosophers,andwerescornfulofwhattheyfoundthere.
Thusaftertranscribingahistoryofthe .
'Thisthenisanabbreviatedsummaryofopinionsandbeliefsthathavebeenheldinthepastonthesubjectofthefirstprinciplesofphilosophyandontology.
'Thetheoriesinquestionhavenotbeenlistedinchronologicalsequence,butaccordingtotheintrinsicaffinityoftheviewsandopinionsheld.
'Itisimportantthattherecitalofsuchgreatdiscrepanciesonthesubjectofthefirstprinciplesshouldnotmisleadthereaderintothinkingthatthesereflectsomanyactual
contradictionsamongthosewhopractisedtheartofphilosophyinancienttimes.
'Thatistheimpressionwhichcertaincontemporaryscholarshaveformedoncomingacrossrecordsthatarepurelyhistoricalanddoxographical.Withoutunderstandingawordof
thespeculationsthatarethereinrecorded,theysetouttotrytoblametheearlyphilosophersfortheirwantofconsistency.
Page269
'Thisisthemoreironical,inthattheythemselvesaresplitupintothousandsofdifferentsects,andaredividedbyasmanydifferencesofbelief.
'Notindeedthattheirbickeringstouchuponthefirstprinciplesofphysicalphilosophy:ofsuchstudiestheyhavenoteventhefaintestglimmering.Theirowndisputesturnonthe
scrupulouspurificationofthedivinetranscendence.
'Nonetheless,itisperhapsaswelltoturnasideforamomentfromthemaincurrentofourenquiryinordertodemonstratetothoseofourcolleagueswhohavemoreofatastefor
truelearning,howitisthat,despitetheappearanceofdisagreementamongthephilosophersofancienttimesintheirbeliefsandopinionstouchinguponthefirstprinciplesof
philosophy,intruththeydoagreeandtheirteachingsformaharmoniousandconsistentwhole.'
TheanalogybetweenthetreatmentofthePresocraticsbySimplicius'contemporaries,andtheattitudedisplayedtowardsSimpliciusandhiscontemporariesbysome
modernscholars,wouldbeamusingperhaps,ifitwerenotsosad.
Asitis,perhapsthemoststrikinginstancesofmodernantipathytowardsSimpliciusareprovidedbythequestionofweight.
ThusLiepmannwritesofSimplicius,inrelationtoawholerangeofsources,Alexander,Aetius,Cicero,Sextus,DiogenesLaertius,thatheis'vonalienanzufhrenden
ZeugenfrDemocrit'sLehrenderunglaubwrdigste'.1Thesentimentisechoed,ifsometimesinamilderform,byanumberofwritersonthequestionofatomic
weight.2
ThemoreimmediatereasonforthisantipathyisthebeliefthatSimpliciusmustintendtheatomstomovedownwardsinthevoid,
1
Mechanik39.
2
Goedeckemeyer,EpikursVerhltnis23:'Simpliciusberhaupt...keinsoeinwandsfreierBerichterstatterist,dasswirihmaufsWortglaubenmssten'.Rivaud,Leproblmedu
devenir162n.373:'LesindicationsdeSimpliciussontcontradictoires...Simpliciusadsuivredessourcesdiverses'.(ForRivaud'sloosehandlingoftheevidencefromSimplicius,see
p.239n.1above.)Bailey,GreekAtomists131,quotesLiepmann,andwrites:'WithregardtotheevidenceofSimpliciusitmightbeurgedthattosomeextentheputshimselfoutofcourt
byhisowncontradictions'.Theonlyqualificationintendedisthat'anargumentfrominconsistencyisneverfinallysatisfactory'.Briegerhadalsowritten,Urbewegung2:'Simplicius...
sichmehrfachaufdasdirektestewiderspricht'.
Page270
invirtueofhisremarksaboutweight,andespeciallybecauseofhisassertionthattheatoms'movethroughtheyieldingandunresistingvoidinaccordancewiththeir
weight'.
Ihopetohaveshownthatthisconclusionismistaken.Simpliciusdoesattributeweighttotheatoms,including,expresslyandbyimplication,atomswhichareoutsidea
cosmos.Buthedoesnottherebyenvisagetheatomsas'falling'inthevoid.1
However,beforeturningtoconsidermorespecificallytherelevanceofthisreadingoftheevidenceinSimpliciustotheevidencefromTheophrastusandfromAristotle,
itwillperhapsbeaswelltoconsiderrathermoregenerallyanumberofpassageswhereLiepmannandothersseektodiscredittherangeofSimplicius'information
aboutDemocritus,andhispowersofintellectualconsistencywhendealingwiththeintricaciesofancientAtomism.
Thelatterquestionissomewhatcomplex,andneedstobetakencarefully.
2
The'Parts'ofAtoms:Simplicius'PowersofIntellectualConsistency
Briegeroffers,assufficientreasonfordisregardingSimplicius'accountofweightinDemocritusandinEpicurus,twopassages,fromtheDecaeloandthePhysics,
whichturnonthequestion,whetherornotDemocritus'atomshaveparts:
'AndereinenStellewerdendenAtomenausdrcklichTeilebeigelegt,anderandernebensoausdrcklichabgesprochen.'2
(i)
BriegerdoesnotrefertoapassagewhichIhavealreadyalludedto,fromlaterinthePhysics,whereSimpliciushandlesthisveryquestionwithassurance,andwith
penetration.3
1
Phys.1318.301319.5(inpartDK68A58),seeabovech.V3,pp.16673.
2
Urbewegung7(forPhys.181b5read185b5)cf.'Urbewegung'587.ThetwopassagesareDecaelo612.1117,wheretheatomsare :bothpassagesarequotedbelow
pp.272and274.Furley,Twostudies945,explainsthepassageinthePhysicsasa'hastyreference'withoutconsideringthepassagefromtheDecaelo.
3
Cf.pp.21314above.
Page271
DemocritusandLeucippus,Simpliciuswrites,foundedtheindivisibilityoftheatomsontheir .
'LeucippusandDemocritusrestedthereasonfortheirprimarybodiesnotbeingsubjecttodivision,notonlyontheirimpassivity,butequallyontheirsmallnessandontheirbeing
withoutparts.
'Epicurus,later,doesnotaccounttheprimarybodiesasbeingwithoutparts.Insteadheclaimsthatitisbecauseoftheirimpassivitythattheyare''atomic".
'OnmanyanoccasionAristotlecontrovertedthetheoryofLeucippusandDemocritus.ItispresumablyAristotle'srefutationsoftheatoms'beingwithoutpartswhichblockedthe
wayforEpicurusonthispoint.
'EpicuruswasinthepositionofworkingafterAristotleandyetofbeingingeneralsympathyandagreementwiththetheoryofLeucippusandDemocritusonthequestionofthe
primarybodies.Hethereforeretainedthenotionoftheprimarybodiesbeingimpassible,whileatthesametimeabandoningtheideaoftheirbeingwithoutparts.Heevidently
calculatedthatitwasthislatterfeatureofthetheorywhichhadleftthenotionofprimaryatomicbodiesopentorefutationbyAristotle.'
AftersoclearadistinctionbetweenEpicurusandDemocritusit
Page272
ispossibleperhaps,butunlikely,thatelsewhereSimpliciusshouldhaveconfusedthepoint.ExaminationofthetwopassagesquotedbyBriegershowsthat,inall
probability,hehasnotdoneso.1
(ii)
InthepassagequotedbyBriegerfromtheDecaelo,SimpliciusispursuingAristotle'spointthatthenotionoftherebeingatomicallyparticulatesubstances'mustneeds
beatloggerheadswiththemathematicalsciences'( ,iii4,303a202).
InelaborationofAristotle'sargument,Simpliciuswrites,612.1117(notinDK):...
'Accordingtothemathematicians,nothingthatiscontinuousisindivisibleonthecontrary,everyextendedmagnitudeisdivisible,andindeedinfinitelyso.
'Consequently,iftheAtomists<believing,astheydo,in"atoms">doawaybothwithcontinuityandwiththeinfinitedivisionofbodies<sinceabodythatisnotdivisiblecannot
becontinuous>,thentheywillfindthattheyhavedoneawaywithdivisioninanyform,and<thereby>nolesswithsensation<orperception,andindeednolesswithself
perception>andconsciousness.
'<Continuityofthebodyisessentialtosensation:>forhowcouldwebeconsciousofsomefeelinginourfoot,ifourbodieswerenotjoinedtogetherandcontinuous?
'Atthesametime,<abodywhichiscontinuousmustbedivisible,andcomposedfromelementsthataredivisible,for>howcouldanythingthatisdivisibleandthathasparts
1
Forotherevidenceonthereasonfortheatoms'indivisibility,andinparticularfortheideathatEpicurusalsoretainedhardnessasareasonfortheatoms'beingindissoluble,see
abovep.245n.1.
Page273
cometobeformedoutofelementsthatareindivisibleandthathavenoparts?'
Inthefinalsentenceofthispassage,SimpliciusspeaksofDemocritus'atomsas'withoutparts' .Butitisimportanttoappreciatethatinthispassage
Simpliciusdoesnotintendtoallowthattheatoms,iftheyexistedasextendedmagnitudes,couldinfactbe'withoutparts'.
Simplicius,andAristotle,agreewith'themathematicians',atleastwhenthetermsoftheproblemarerightlyunderstood,that'everyextendedmagnitudeisdivisibleto
infinity' ,inthesensethatitispotentiallydivisibleatanyoneofanindefinitenumberofpoints.WhenthereforeSimpliciusasks
'howfromelementsthatareindivisibleandwithoutpartscouldthereariseasubstancethatisdivisibleandresolubleintoparts?',heisineffectrepeatingthewell
knowntoposofAristoteleancriticism,whichwehavecomeuponanumberoftimesalready,totheeffectthat'noextendedmagnitudecanbeconstructedofpartsthat
arethemselveswithoutmagnitude'.1
Ineffecttherefore,inhisfinalsentence,Simpliciusis,asitwere,takingDemocritusathiswordandtreatingtheatomvirtuallyasthoughitwereapoint,whichinterms
ofhisownphilosophyitwouldhavetobeifitweretrulytobe'indivisibleandwithoutparts'.Hiscriticismisthenthatfromsuchan'atom'therecouldneverbe
constructedanysensible,orsentient,physicalmagnitude.
(iii)
ThusintheDecaeloandinthePhysicsSimpliciuswritesofDemocritus'atomsasnothavingparts.
InthepassagequotedbyBriegerfromearlierinthePhysicsSimpliciusspeaksofDemocritus'atomsasthoughtheydohaveparts.
SimpliciusispursuingAristotle'scritiqueoftheEleaticOne.Hispurposeistodistinguishthreesensesinwhichtheonemaybewithoutdivision .The
pointwillthenbetoshowthatnooneofthesesensescansatisfytheEleaticclaimtounity.
1
Aristotle'slongestdiscussion,Decaeloiii1,299a25300a19cf.pp.845and21415above.
Page274
1.Whatisonemaybedivisible,butundivided.
2.Itmaybeindivisibleinprinciple,becausewithoutparts.
3.Itmayhaveparts,butbeindivisibleinpractice.
Thefirstpossibilityisexemplifiedbyanynormalcontinuousbodythesecondbyapointorunitthethirdby'anatomofDemocritus'.
Simpliciuswrites,Phys.81.3482.3(notinDK): .
'IfwhentheEleaticsclaimthatbeingisonetheymeanthatitisindivisible,thentheywillhavetomeanthatitisindivisibleinoneofthefollowingsenses,since"indivisible"isnot
atermthathasasinglemeaning:(1)the"indivisible"maymeanwhatisnotyetdivided,butwhatcouldbedivided,andinthissenseeverycontinuousbody<is"undivided"and
yetdivisible>(2)itmaymeansomethingwhosenaturerendersitincapableofdivision,incapablebecauseithasnopartsintowhichitcouldbedivided,forexampleapoint<in
geometry>oraunit<inarithmetic>or(3)itmaymeansomethingwhich<wouldbedivisible>insofarasitdoeshaveparts,andinsofarasitdoeshaveextension,butwhichis
<infactincapableofdivisionbecauseitis>impassibleinvirtueofitshardnessandsolidity,andthiswouldbetrueoftheindividualDemocriteanatom.'
Nowinothercircumstancesitwouldperhapsbequibblingtoclaimthat .Butinthisinstance,oncareful
reflection,Ithinknotso.
ForthecontextofthispassageisverydifferentfromthatofthecontextofthepassageintheDecaelo.
Thereareintruth,forSimpliciusasforAristotle,onlytwosensesofmaterial(asdistinctfromformal)unity.
Page275
1.Thereistheunityofanextendedbodywhichisdivisibleinprinciplebutmaybeundividedinfact.
2.Thereistheunityofapointwhichisindivisibleinprincipleor,onemightsay,bynatureorbydefinition.
ThereforeonlythefirsttwosensesofunitylistedabovehaverealmeaningforSimplicius,orforAristotle.Thethirdsenseofunitymustinfactreduceitselftooneor
otherofthefirsttwosensesofunity.
1.Ifthe'atomofDemocritus'isallowedtohaveparts,thenitmustbepotentiallydivisible,likeanyotherextendedbody,andsoitwillfallunderthefirsthead.
2.Ifontheotherhandthe'atomofDemocritus'isallowedtobeindivisible,thenitcannothaveparts,anditmustbeidentifiedwithaunitorapoint,andsofallunderthesecond
head.
InthepassagethatIhavequotedfromtheDecaeloSimpliciusineffectadoptsthesecondstrategy.
Inthepresentpassagehetakesthealternativepath.The'atomofDemocritus'isengrossedunderthefirsthead,andthefirstandthirdsensesofunityareresolvedby
thesamecriticism,Phys.82.36(followingonimmediatelyfromthelinesquotedabove): .
'Ifbeingisoneinthesenseofwhatiscontinuous,thenitagainfollowsthatbeingismultiple,<asit>also<does>ifbeing<orwhatexists>isan"atom":itisofcourse<initself>
weirdanddisconcertingenoughifallthingsaretobeconstruedasasingle"atom"butthepointisratherthatthe"atom"woulditselfbecontinuousand<therefore>divisible
indefinitely,andforthatreason<whatexists>wouldbepotentiallymultiple.'
Thusthedistinctionofthefirstandthirdsensesofunity,adistinctionwhichisnotfoundinthecorrespondingpassageof
Page276
Aristotle,hasbeenintroducedassomethingofajeud'esprit.ItisnotadistinctionwhichhasanypermanentplaceinSimplicius'analysis.Itisatypicalexampleinfact
ofthekindofrefinementandelaborationwithwhichSimpliciuslikestoenlivenhiscommentary.
Atthesametime,onceSimpliciusiscommittedtothisdistinction,howevertemporarily,itisdifficult,indeedIthinkprobablyimpossible,toenvisageanythingbutan
atomwhichcouldexemplifyunityinthethirdandfinalsense.Forwhatisneededhereisan'atom'whichisclaimedtobeindivisible,andsoisdistinctfromanynormal
continuousbody,andyetwhich'hasparts',andsoisdistinguishablefromapointorunit.1
(iv)
ThusinconsideringtheapparentcontradictionbetweentheDecaeloandthepassageearlierinthePhysics,thepointweneedtoappreciateisthatan'atom'occupies
anambiguous,andatrootaconceptuallyimpossible,positionwithinthephilosophyofAristotleandofSimplicius.
1.Insofarasitisreckonedastruly'withoutparts',theatomceasestobeanextendedmagnitudeandacquiresthesameconceptualconfigurationasapoint.
2.Insofarasitisreckonedasanextendedmagnitude,theatommust'haveparts',andsoceasestobetruly'atomic',inthatitbecomessubjected,atleastinprinciple,tothe
possibilityofdivision,andevenofinfinitedivision,withintheproperboundsofthenotionofpotentiality.
ThefirstwayoflookingatanatomisthatemployedintheDecaelo,wheretheideaisthatanextendedanddivisiblemagnitudecannotbeconstitutedfromelements
whichareindivisibleand
1
Inadifferentcontext,intheMetaphysics,631.811,Alexanderoffersasanexampleofthingsthatare'oneandundivided',otherthannumber,'<eachof>theflecksofdustthat
canbeseeninthesun'srays'.ThesameimagehadbeenusedbytheAtomistsasadescriptionoftheirsoulatoms(Arist.Deanimai2,404a1620,cf.pp.1779above).
Alexander'sindirectuseoftheatomictheorymayexplainSimplicius'useofthesameideainthepresentpassage(forSimplicius'criticismofthetextfromtheDeanimaseebelow
pp.27981).
Page277
'withoutparts':onthisviewtheatomistreatedineffectasapointoraunit.
ThesecondwayoflookingatanatomisthatemployedintheearlierpassageofthePhysics,wheretheideaisthatanatomrepresentstheimpossibleclaimtoaunit
whichhaspartsbutwhichisundividedandindivisible:animpossibleclaim(forSimplicius,asforAristotle),becauseiftheatomhaspartsthenitbecomesextended,
andsomustbedivisibleatleastpotentially.
Thesetwowaysoflookingatanatomaresignalisedinthetwopassagesinquestionbytheconjunctionofthefirstwayoflookingatanatom,intheDecaelo,with
thenotionofindivisibility,andbytheconjunctionofthesecondwayoflookingatanatom,intheearlierpassageofthePhysics,withthenotionofanextended
magnitude.
1.IntheDecaelo,Simpliciustakestheatomastrulyindivisibleandtherefore'withoutparts': .
Fromthishearguesthattheatomcannotformthebasisofsensibleextendedmagnitudes.
2.IntheearlierpassageofthePhysics,Simpliciusallowsthenotionoftheatomasanextendedmagnitudeandthereforeas'havingparts':
.
FromthishearguesthatiftheEleaticunityisconstruedinthissensethenitcannotbetrulyimpervioustodivisionandmultiplicity.
Thepointisthatthetwocategorisations,thatofbeinganextendedmagnitudeandthatofbeingindivisible,arejoinedinDemocritus'conceptionofanatom,butfor
Simplicius,andforAristotle,theirconjunctionisconceptuallyimpossible.
Thus,fordifferentpurposes,theatomistreatedeitherasbeingtheonething,indivisible,andthereforeas'withoutparts',asitisintheDecaelo,orasbeingtheother
thing,anextendedmagnitude,andthereforeas'havingparts',asitisintheearlierpassageofthePhysics.1
1
ThedifferenceisnottheresultofachangeinSimplicius'owninterpretationofancientAtomism.OnlyapageortwobeforethepassagequotedfromtheDecaelo,Simplicius
takeswhatisvirtuallythepointofviewadoptedinthepassage
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page278
Conclusion
(i)
Itistruethereforethatthereremainsaformalinconsistency,inthatintheearlierpassageofthePhysicsSimpliciusallowsthattheatomsofDemocritus'haveparts',
whilehedeniesthishistoricallyinthelaterpassageofthePhysicsandconceptuallyintheDecaelo.
Infact,however,thelaterpassageofthePhysicsshowsclearly,Ithink,thatSimpliciusisnothimselfconfusedonthepointatissue,eitherconceptuallyorhistorically.
ItthereforeseemstomequiteprobablethatthesomewhatcuriousturnofexpressionintheearlierpassageofthePhysics,
,isintendedasanindicationthatthis'atom'isnottheimpossiblehybridconceptionofanatomwhichDemocritushimself
actuallydescribed,buttheatomasitwouldhavetobeonAristotle'sterms,i.e.an'atom'asanextendedmagnitudeandthereforeas'havingparts'.
Itwillinfactthereforebethesameas,oratleastonthispointequivalentto,theatomofEpicurus,althoughinconsidering,asheis,thefifthcenturyEleatics,Simplicius
fairlynaturallyturnstotheearliersystem.
(ii)
IfthisexplanationofSimplicius'behaviourisaccepted,thenasbeforeonthequestionofmovementthisissuewillturnouttoconveypreciselytheoppositelessonto
thatallegedbythosewhohavesoughttodismissortodiscreditSimplicius'evidence.
1.IconcludedearlierthatSimpliciusrecognisesthattheatomsofEpicurusfallinthevoid,whereasDemocritus'atoms'dartabout',asitwereatrandom.Simplicius'attributionof
weighttoDemocritus'atomsisthelesslikelythere
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
quotedfromthePhysics(81.3482.3).Theindividualatomsarehereallowedtobe'continuous',andtheAtomists''doingawaywithdivision'resultsnot,asinthelaterpassage
(612.1117),fromthefactthattheindividualatomsareincapableofdivision,butbecause'division'ismerelytheseparationofoneatom,orgroupofatoms,fromanother:seeDe
caelo609.1925.
Page279
1
foretobesimplytheresultofconfusionwithEpicurus.
2.InowconcludethatifSimpliciuscandistinguishEpicurusandDemocritusasclearly,andasacutely,asIbelievehedoesonthequestionofthe'parts'ofatoms,thenheisagain
thelesslikelytohaveconfusedthetwoonthequestionoftheweightofatoms.2
3
TheNatureofSoul:Simplicius'InformationonDemocritus
LiepmannquotesfromMullachtheclaimthatinhisDeanimaSimpliciuswrites,inrelationtoDemocritus'theoryofthesoul'sactivityasmaintainedbybreathing,that:
'AristotelessprchesichberdenvorliegendenFallnichtganzklaraus'.3
Thisformulationblursanissuewhichiscrucialtoourenquiry.SimpliciusdoesnotcomplainthathecannotdiscoverthefactsofDemocritus'theory,whichIthinkisthe
implicationthatthesentenceIhavequotedfromLiepmannisintendedtobear,oratleasttheimplicationwhichitwillconvey.
WhatSimpliciuscomplainsof,isthathecannotdeterminewhetherthetheoryofsmallroundatomsasconstitutingsoulwasintendedbyDemocritusliterallyorwhether
thesphericityoftheatomswasintendedparadigmatically,asanillustrationofthe
1
Cf.pp.16373and192202above.
2
LestthereaderthinksthatIamofferingtooidealisedapictureofSimplicius'powersofintellectualconsistency,hemayliketorememberthatononecrucialpointIdobelievethat
Simpliciushashadtroubleinreconcilinghisideas:theeffectivenessofweightinavoid,andthenatureofmovementas'division'.ButinthiscaseIbelievethatSimpliciushashadto
grapplenotonlywithEpicurus'reformulationoftheatomictheory,inanswertoAristotle,butwithAlexander'sextensionofAristotle'sargumentasarebuttalofEpicurus,andalso
withPhiloponus'radicalattackuponAristotle'sconceptionofmotionadauntingprospect,whereSimpliciusisnotaloneinfailingtoseethewayclearly.Ipursuethispointinmy
fourthessaymeanwhileseeabovech.VI3,pp.195202.
3
Liepmann,Mechanik39.Mullach,Democritifragmenta11213.Cf.Brieger,Urbewegung34,andPapencordt,Atomicorumdoctrina22.Onthedisputedauthenticityofthe
commentaryontheDeanimaseeabovep.226n.1.
Page280
soul'sintellectualsubstance.Foronsuchapoint,heargues,onecannotrelyonAristotle,whoinSimplicius'eyeswasnotoriouslyliabletotakeonlythesuperficial
senseofthewritingsoftheearlyphilosophers.
Simpliciuswrites,Deanima26.1119: .
'Wearenotinapositiontodeterminewhether,inadheringtothetheorythathasbeendescribed,Democritusintended<theheresyof>generatinglifefrommaterialsubstances,or
whetherhispurposewastoreveal thenatureofintelligiblesubstancethrough<hisemploymentoftheimageof>thesphere.
'OnsuchamatteronecannotrelyonAristotle'shistoricalwriting.Overthiswholefieldofenquiry,hedoesnomorethansetouttheobviousandthesuperficialsenseofthe
writingsoftheearlyphilosophers.
'ThisisapparentinthecaseofthetheorywhichhebringsforwardinconnectionwiththePythagoreans.
'HerecordsDemocritus'claimthattheelementsareanalogoustothemoteswhichoneseesinashaftofsunlight.HethenaddsthatcertainofthePythagoreansbelievethatmotes
seenintheairactuallyarethefundamentalparticlesthemselves.
'NomemberofthePythagoreanswouldeverhavethoughtsuchathing.Whattheymayhaveintended,wastoaffordanindicationofhowinthisworld thesubstanceof
soulissubjectedtoprocessesofdivision,whensheissuesforthfromthehigherworldintotheunfoldingandmanifestationofherpowersherebelow.'
ItistruethatfromthispassagewecandeducethatSimplicius
Page281
doesnotlayclaimtoanyoftheoriginalwritingsofDemocritus,oratleastnottoanyoriginalwritingsonthissubject.Forinothercaseswherehedidhaveoriginal
texts,fromParmenides,Anaxagoras,Empedocles,Diogenes,notonlydoesSimpliciusquotefromthemextensively,butheisperfectlyhappytodecidethequestionof
their'true'meaning,andatleastinthefirstthreecasestocorrectwhatheseesasAristotle'sfalselysuperficialinterpretationbyrestoringtotheearlyphilosophersthe
intellectualidealismwhichtheirpoeticalandpicturesqueterminologyisabletorevealtotheeyesofaPlatonist.1
Simplicius'inabilitytodothesameforDemocritusshowsthathedoesnothaveDemocritus'originalwritings.Butitdoesnotshowthatheconsidershimselftobe
lackingininformationaboutwhatImayperhapscallthefactsofDemocritus'theory.
Thedistinctionisasignificantone,forelsewhereSimpliciusshowsthathehastohand(ifthatisnottoofancifulanexpressionfor'isabletoquoteatlengthfromandto
referto')Aristotle'streatiseonDemocritus,andanextensiveversioneitherofTheophrastus'Physicorumopinionesorpossiblyofalaterredactionofthesame
materialtakenfromTheophrastus'owntreatiseonphysicalphilosophy.
Withthesematerialstohand,SimpliciusnowherecomplainsofhisinabilitytodeterminethefactsofearlyAtomism.Whathecomplainsof,onthisoneoccasioninthe
Deanima,ishisinabilitytodetermineforhimselftheirtruepurport.
ItisSimplicius'possessionofthesetwoworkswhichwillprovide,Ibelieve,theturningpointinourenquiry,whenfinallyweconsidertheprobabilityofAetius'denial
ofweighttotheatoms.2
1
LeadingpassagesarePhys.20.2842.5,115.10121.25,133.30190.20,1183.11186.35,Decaelo556.1562.18,603.4609.12.SimpliciusnotesatonepointthatevenAlexanderis
'unimaginativeandlackadaisical'inhisattitudetowardsthePresocratics,Phys.80.1617: .
2
MyremarkaboutalaterredactionofthePhysicorumopinionesisintendedasaconcessionIthinkprobablyanunnecessaryconcessiontoSteinmetz'sthesis:seep.4n.1above.
Simplicius'quotationsfromTheophrastusareprintedinDiels,Doxographigraeci(Berolini,1879)47395.Simplicius'quotationfromAristotle'swork'OnDemocritus',Decaelo294.33
295.20(fr.208Rose=DK68A37),istakenaccountofinmynextchapter,pp.303ff.InwritingofSimplicius''possession'ofthesetwoworks,Idonotofcoursemeanthathenecessarily
possessedboth
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page282
4
AetiusandtheSizeofAtoms
ThecollectionofPlacitaattributedtoAetiusisthemostdifficultandtreacherousworkforanyoneseekingtodisentanglereliableevidenceforfifthcenturyphilosophy
fromthesilencesanddistortionsoflaterwriters.
Aristotle'sprejudiceshaveatleastacertainconsistency.ThecontinuoussurvivingportionfromTheophrastus'historymaycoveronlyalimitedrangeofsubjectsbut
Theophrastusdoesthereatleastattempttodisengagereportedfactfromcriticism.TheveryfreedomofSimplicius'platonisinginterpretationofthePresocraticsleaves
himwithlittleneed,orincentive,totamperwiththedetailsoftheirtheories.
Ineachofthesecases,therefore,thereissomethingtolightenthehistorian'stask.Bycontrast,inAetiusthepossibilitiesofconfusionarelegion.Forherewehaveto
contendwiththeprejudicesandtheignorancenotofoneauthor,butofseveralauthors,ofwhosepersonalitiesandbackgrounditisvirtuallyhopelesstotrytoform
anyindividualimpression.
Therearehowevertwotruths,andperhapsonlytwo,whichareworthretainingasguidelinestotheinterpretationofthewhole:first,Aetius'dependenceupon
Theophrastus,andsecondlytheconstantpossibility,throughoutthePlacita,ofgrosserror,particularlyinanyentrywhichtouchesuponanylargerquestionof
principle,wherethereisacorrespondinglygreaterpossibilityofideologicalinfluence.1
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
worksintheirentirety,onlythatheknewmoreofthemthanwedo:seep.300n.1below.
ThelistofAristotle'swritingsinDiogenesLaertiusrecordsbothaworkinonebook .
1
Dielswrites,Dox.219:'Theophrasticorpusnondubiumest,quininIonicisphilosophis...fonsfueritprimarius....verisimileestde...LeucippoDemocritoMetrodoroChio.
quamquamdeatomorumdoctoribusestquoddubites.nequeenimusquamtamsaepededitscriptorinscitiaepoenasquaminillorumdogmatis'.
Page283
Itakeeachpointinturn,asitaffectsourpresentenquiry,andfirstthepresenceofgrosserrorinAetius'reportonDemocritus.
'AnAtomAsBigAsaWorld'
(i)
Intheentryweareprimarilyconcernedwith,thepossibilityofgrosserrorisexemplifiedbythewordswhichfollowdirectlythedenialofweightanditsrelationtothe
questionofmovement,i12.6(DK68A47): .'<Democritussays>itispossiblefortheretobeanatomasbigasa
world.'1
TheideaofverylargeatomsreappearsinEusebius,inthechapterswhereheisquotingfromDionysius,bishopofAlexandria.Dionysiusexplicitlydistinguishesthe
atomsofEpicurus,whichare'allverysmall,andforthatreasoncannotbeperceived',fromDemocritus'atoms,'someofwhichareverylarge'.2
Proof,ifproofisneeded,thatthisisfalse,isatonceprovidedbyAristotle.
1.IntheDegenerationeetcorruptioneAristotlewritesofLeucippus'atomsthattheyare'invisiblebecauseoftheirsmallness',i8,325a30(DK67A7):
.
2.InthefragmentwhichSimpliciushasrecordedfromthetreatiseOnDemocritus,Aristotlewritesthattheatomsare'sotinythattheyliewhollybelowthethresholdofour
1
Thewholeentryhasbeenquoted,p.223above.Itakethemeaningof tobe'asbigasaworld',asgiveninLSJs.v.,althoughnootheruseofthetermisthererecorded.
2
Eus.Praep.evang.xiv23.3(DK68A43).Itisusualtoquotethesetwopassagestogether,althoughiftheatomsvaryinsizesomewillinevitablybe'thebiggest'evenifalltheatoms
areverysmall.ButthecontrastwithEpicurusdoesmakeitlookasthoughDionysiushassomethingmorethanthisinmind.Diogenes'descriptionoftheatomsas'infiniteinsize'(
,ix44=DK68A1),istakenaccountofbelow,pp.28990.
Interestingly,Simpliciusatonepointalsoarrivesattheconclusionthatthewholeworld,or'allthings',wouldbe'oneatom',thoughbyaroutethatisperhapsunlikelytohavefound
itswayintoadoxographicalcollection:seePhys.82.5,abovepp.2756.
Page284
perception',ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.6(fr.208Rose=DK68A37): .
(ii)
ItistruethatAristotle'sevidenceonthispointhasbeendiscountedwhenithasnotbeensimplyignored.
ThustheideathatDemocritusdidbelieveinverylargeatomshasbeendefended,notablyinaseriesofarticlesbyCharlesMugler.1InthefirstofthesearticlesMugler
writesthat:
'L'hypothsed'atomesdpassanttoutelimite(sc.degrandeur)estdoncnonseulementcompatibleaveclacosmologiegnraledespremiersatomistes,maiselleenconstitueune
desreprsentationsfondamentales.'2
Itissymptomatic,however,thatbothinthisarticle,andinhismostrecentcontributiontothesubject,Muglerstartshisargumentbyquotingthepassagefrom
Simplicius,butwithoutnotingthatitoccursinthecourseofaquotationbySimpliciusfromAristotle.3
ThisomissionpossiblyhelpstoexplaintheerrorwherebyM.Moraux,intheIntroductiontohisBudeditionoftheDecaelo,
1
C.Mugler,'Surquelquesparticularitsdel'atomismeancien',Rev.dephil.srie3,anneettome27(1953)14174,'L'isonomiedesAtomistes',Rev.dephil.srie3,anneettome
30(1956)23150,'LesthoriesdelavieetdelaconsciencechezDmocrite',Rev.dephil.srie3,anneettome33(1959)738,esp.913,and'L'invisibilitdesatomes,propos
d'unpassaged'Aristote(Degen.etcorr.325a30)',REG76(1963)397403.ThereisacertaincoincidencebetweentheviewsofMuglerandtheopinionbrieflygivenbySolomonY.
Luria,Outlinesofthehistoryofancientscience,Greeceinherprime[inRussian](MoscowandLeningrad,1947)1901.
2
'Quelquesparticularits'147.
3
'Quelquesparticularits'145.'L'invisibilitdesatomes'397,seealsop.400n.5.SinceMuglerfailstorecognisethepassagefromSimpliciusasaquotationfromAristotle,heisledto
reconstructanelaboratedifferenceofdoctrineforLeucippusandforDemocritus,'Lavieetlaconscience'9ff.ButsincethefragmentfromthetreatiseOnDemocritusrepeats,for
Democritus,virtuallywhatAristotlestatesforLeucippusintheDegenerationeetcorruptione,thispartofMugler'sthesisseemstomewhollyaberrant.Ihavealreadynotedmy
disagreementwiththemovesmadeinthesamedirectionbyBailey,GreekAtomists78ff.and125ff.,cf.pp.45above.
Page285
attributestoAristotlehimselfthethesisthatforDemocritustherewere'verylargeatoms',p.cxlv:
'...ilesthorsdedoutequelesAbdritainsattribuaientauxatomesdesgrandeursdiversesetn'hsitaientpasenimaginerdetrsgros.Cettethse,rapporteparAristote,est
confirmeparlescritiquesqu'Epicureadressesesprdcesseurs'(myitalics).
SofarasAristotleisconcerned,thetruthisjusttheoppositeofthis.AristotledoessaythatDemocritus'atoms'differinsize'.1Butontheevidenceofthetwopassages
alreadyquoteditmustfollowthat,forAristotle,thesedifferencesofsizefallwhollybelowthethresholdofourperception.
(iii)
WhatofEpicurus?M.MorauxhasquotedtwopassageswhereheclaimsthatEpicurusintendstocriticisehispredecessors'beliefin'verylarge'atoms.2
InthefirstpassagequotedbyMoraux,Epicurusarguesthatiftherecouldbe'everysize'amongtheatomsthensomeatomswouldbevisible.Thishasfrequentlybeen
takenascriticismofDemocritus.3Butthereisinfactnothingtoshowthatthe'visible'atomsareintendedastherebuttalofabeliefactuallyheld,andnotsimplyasa
reductioadabsurdum.
ThepassagesalreadyquotedfromAristotleareclearenoughevidence,itseemstome,thatatthispointEpicuruscannotmeantocriticiseDemocritusdirectly,unless
wearetosupposethatEpicurushasmisunderstoodDemocritus,abizarre,andcertainlyinthisinstancenotanecessary,supposition,althoughonethatonotherpoints
somewritersdonotshrinkfrom.4
1
Phys.iii4,203a33b2(DK68A41)ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.78(fr.208Rose=DK68A37).
2
DecaeloBudedncxlvn.3:Ep.adHer.55and61.
3
Ep.adHer.556cf.Guthrie,Historyii395n.1,GrazianoArrighetti,Epicuroopere2ndedn(Torino,1973)507.
4
Alfieri'ssuggestionthatEpicurusmisunderstoodDemocritushasbeennoted,p.186n.2above.Guthrie,Historyii395n.1,repeatsBailey'ssuggestion,Epicurus204,whichisnotthat
EpicurusmisunderstoodDemocritus,butthat
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page286
(iv)
ThepositionisslightlymorecomplicatedinthesecondpassagequotedbyMoraux.Epicurusheredeniesthatlargeorsmallatomstravelwithdifferencesofspeed,and
concludesthatallatomstravelwiththesamespeed,nomatterwhattheirsize.IhavemyselfarguedthatinthispassageEpicurusmayintendtocriticiseDemocritus.1
ButthechapterisalsoastatementofEpicurus'ownbelief.Itisessentialtodistinguishbetweenthesetwofeaturesofthepassage.
1.Epicurus'criticismifsuchitiswillbearsolelyonthequestionoftherebeingdifferentspeedsfordifferentsizedatoms.
2.Theconclusionthatbothlargeandsmallatomstravelallwiththesamespeedisintended,notascriticism,butasastatementofEpicurus'ownbelief.
The'large'and'small'atomsarethesubjectbothofthecriticismandoftheconclusiontotheargument.TheymustthereforeincludeEpicurus'ownatoms.These
Epicurushasalreadytoldusfallwhollybelowthelevelofoursensibleperception.2
(v)
Thetruthisthatmostwritersseemtobesotakenupwiththeintellectualinterestof'verylarge'atomsthattheyquitefailtogivesufficientattentionoranyattention
totheconflictinthesourcesofourinformation.
Forexample,inthenotestohiseditionoftheDegenerationeetcorruptione,Muglerdoesadmitthat'Aristotesembleignorerque
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Democritusfailedtoseetheconsequenceofhisownideas:Democritus'positedatomsinaninfinitevarietyofsizes',andfailedtoseethat'thiswouldinevitablyinvolvevisible
atoms'.Thisagainseemstomeaquiteunnecessaryhypothesis,sincethereisnogoodevidencethatDemocritusdidclaimhisatomsshowedan'infinitevarietyofsizes'.Guthrie
hasalsofailedtoseethepointthatan'infinitevarietyofsizes'doesnotinfactrequirethepresenceof'everysize'amongtheatoms,andneednotthereforeentailthebeliefin
visibleatoms:seefurtherp.289n.2below.
1
Ep.adHer.61,cf.pp.1845aboveseealsopp.3256below.
2
Ep.adHer.556.
Page287
1
Dmocriteadmettaitl'existenced'atomesdetoutegrandeur'.
ButMuglerquitefailstoaskhimselfhowatheory,notknowntoAristotle,founditswayintoEusebiusandAetius.2
InthelightoftherepeatedevidencefromAristotle,itseemstomeunnecessarytomakeeventhemoremoderateconcessionstotheideaof'verylarge'orvisible
atomsthatarefoundinseveralwriters.3Forexample,thereislittlepoint,itseemstome,inwritingthatDemocritusmayhavebelievedinatomsthatwere
'comparativelylarge'.4NomerecompromisecanbridgethegapbetweentheevidenceinAristotleandtheevidenceinAetius.
1.AccordingtoAristotle,theatoms,whetherofDemocritusorofLeucippus,were'invisiblebecauseoftheirsmallness',and'sotinythattheyliewhollybelowthethresholdofour
perception'.
2.Aetius'assertionthatDemocritusbelievedinthepossibilityofanatom'asbigasacosmos'istherefore,itseemstome,plainlyinerror.
Thequestionwhichconcernsushereis:howdidthiserrorarise?Theanswertothisquestionprovestobesomewhatcomplex,butitis,Ithink,worthpursuing,forthe
sakeofthelightwhichitthrowsonthecloselyparallelproblemofAetius'denialofweighttotheatoms.
'InfiniteinSize'
(i)
Dielssuggeststhaterrorhasarisenfromconfusionwithgodsintheintermundia,whomCicerodescribesasbeingingentesquas
1
Budedn889.
2
GuthrierecognisesthedoxographicalweaknessofMugler'sthesis,Historyii395n.1.ButwhenMuglerlaunchesintoanelaboratedescriptionofthe'worldsizedatom'fallingupon,
anddestroying,aninhabitedcosmos('L'invisibilitdesatomes'399ff.),guthriefindshis'apocalypticvision...impressive'soitis,butonlyassciencefiction.
3
forexampleRobin,Lapensegrecque139,Bailey,GreekAtomists1258,Kirk,Presocraticphilosophers4089,Sambursky,thephysicalWorldoftheGreeks4089cf.11011,
Strohmaiter,'DieSonnenstubchen'13.
4
Kirk,Presocraticphilosophers408n.1:seefurtherpp.2934below.
Page288
1
damimagines,tantasqueutuniversummundumcomplectanturextrinsecus(Denaturadeorumi43.120).
Thismightperhapsexplainthesize.Buthowdid'images'ofthegodscometobeidentifiedwithindividualatoms?Thereisnoobviousmotiveforthisconflationof
ideas.
Amorefruitfullineofenquiry,itseemstome,wouldbetosupposethaterrorhasarisenfromasimplificationoftheoriginaltheory.Aristotleoffersahostof
formulationswhichdescribetheatomsinvariouswaysas:
'infiniteinnumber,infinitelyvariableinshape,andvariable(butnotinfinitelyso)insize'.2
Itwouldbepossibleforthequalificationtofallout,soastoyieldthenotionthattheatomsare:
'infiniteinnumber,andinfinitelyvariableinshape...andinsize'.
Anextremeconsequenceofthissimplifiedformulationofthetheorycouldthenbehighlighted,forpopularconsumption,ratherliketheheadlineinamodern
newspaper:'Worldsizedatomapossibility'.3
1
Dox.219n.4.
2
'Infiniteinnumber'Decaeloiii4,303a56(DK67A15),cf.303a10b8,Degen.etcorr.i2,315b911(DK67A9),i8,325a30(DK67A7),ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.2(fr.208Rose=68A37).
'Aninfinitevarietyofshapes':Degen.etcorr.i8,325b278(DK67A7)cf.Theophrastus,ap.Simpl.Phys.28.47(Dox.,Phys.op.fr.8=DK67A8and68A38).'Infiniteinnumberand
shape',Degen.etcorr.i1,314a213(DK67A9).'Infiniteinnumberanddifferinginshape':Phys.i2,184b202(cf.DKii115.7note).'Differinginsizeandinshape':Phys.iii4,203a33b2
(DK68A41),ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.78(fr.208Rose=DK68A37).
3
Theomissionofaqualificationdistinguishingshapeornumberfromsizemayseemratherfarfetched.ButitisinfactoneofseveralglissementsthatappearinMugler'shandlingof
thesubject.Hewrites,'Quelquesparticularits'143,'Ilparatnatureldeprterauxatomistespourlagrandeurdesatomesdesconceptionsetdesraisonnementsanaloguesceuxpar
lesquelsilsjustifiaientlavaritinfiniedelaformedesatomes',and143n.1:'SicetmoignagedeSimpliciusn'affirmeriendeprcissurlamargedelavariationdegrandeurdesatomes,
ilsuggredumoins,parlevoisinagedu ,l'hypothsed'unevariationdegrandeuraussitenduequecelledelaforme'.Thehesitantnote('ilparat','suggre')soondisappears,
andaninfinityofnumber,shapeandsizeispresented,withnoqualification(p.147),as'lestroisaspects'of'physicalinfinity'
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page289
(ii)
Itistruethatthislineofenquirymayseemtotakeusfurtherthanweneed:evena'worldsized'atomisnot'infinitely'large.
Andyetsomethingakintotheideaof'infinitesize'doesappeartounderlythematerialrecordedbyDiogenes,inhisLifeofDemocritus,where'theatomsareinfinitein
sizeandinnumber',ix44(DK68A1): .
Thesewordshavebeenveryvariouslyinterpreted.Eveninadoxographicalcompilation,itisdifficulttobelievethat'theatoms'withoutqualification,''<all>theatoms'
therefore,shouldhavebeenthoughttobe'infiniteinsize'inthesenseof'infinitelylarge'.Andyetthemeaningcannotbethattheatomsare'infinitelysmall',asMiss
Freemansupposes,forthiswouldconflictwiththebeliefinindivisiblemagnitudes.1
Itseemspossiblethereforethatthewriterdoeshereintendtheatomstobe'infinitein<variationsof>magnitude'.Asbeforethisideacouldencouragethebeliefthat
someatomsare'verylarge',andthereforethattherecouldevenbeanatom'aslargeasacosmos'.2
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
forDemocritus.Butthetruthisthatthepassagequoted(p.143n.1:not'Phys.p.36'itmustbeDecaelo295.78,Arist.fr.208Rose=DK68A37)affordsnojustificationfor
Mugler'sconflationofshapeandsize.
1
KathleenFreeman,ThePreSocraticphilosophers,acompaniontoDiels,'FragmentederVorsokratiker'(Oxford,1946)299300.
2
Mugleris,Ibelieve,righttoclaim,'Lavieetlaconscience'9,that:'ilpeutyavoiruneinfinitd's pcesd'atomesdegrandeursdiffrentescomprisesentredeuxvaleursfinies'.This
neednotconflict,asGuthriethinks,Historyii394n.2,withadenialof'thenotionoftheinfinitelysmall',forintheseries1,1, ,etc.,itisonlytheincreaseinsizewhichisever
smaller,thetotalsizeofeachatomwillalwaysbegreaterthan1andlessthan2.Fromthenotefollowing,Historyii395n.1,itappearsthatGuthrie,asalsoBailey,Epicurus204,has
confusedtheideaofaninfiniteincreaseinsizewithEpicurusdenialthattherecanbe'everysize'amongtheatoms(Ep.adHer.556).TheEpicureannotionofthesmallest'part'ofan
atom(cap.59)wouldrequireaninfinitevariationinsizetoyieldanatominfinitelylarge.Butifthereisno'smallestpart'thentheamountofincreasecanbeeversmaller,sothatthere
couldstillbealimittothesizeofthelargestasofthesmallestatom.
Mypoint,therefore,isnotthatDiogenes'formulamustinfactentailatoms'verylarge'or'infinitelylarge',butthatwhatwaspermittedintheorymaywellhavebeenneglectedin
practiceasinfactitisbyGuthrieandbyBailey.Aninfiniteincreaseinsize,whichcouldinprinciplebecontainedbetweentwofinite
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page290
(iii)
AdifferentinterpretationofDiogenes'wordsisgivenbyZeller,whoendorsesBrieger'sexplanationoftheformula'infiniteinsize'as'einungeschickterAusdruck
dafr,dassdieGesamtmassederAtomeunendlichgrossist'.1
TherearetwodisadvantagestoZeller'sinterpretation.First,itcollapsestheusualdistinctionbetween asrespectivelydiscreteandcontinuousquantity.2
Secondly,evenifwedoagreetoconsiderthe'wholemass'ofatomsas'infiniteinsize',thisfactthenbecomesamereduplicationoftheclaimthattheatomsare
'infiniteinnumber'.
ButitisperhapspossibletoseeinZeller'sinterpretationanalternativesourceoferrortotheoneIhavealreadysuggested.Possiblythemeaningintendedisorwas,
atsomestageinthetransmissionofmaterialcopiedoutbyDiogenesthatthewholeagglomerationofatomsis'infiniteinextent',inthesensethatthespaceinwhich
theatomsaredisposedisinfinite.
Thetwowords( )arejuxtaposedwiththismeaninginAristotle'saccountofDemocritusandinAetius:theatomsare'infiniteinnumber'andthevoidorthe
placewhichtheyoccupyis'infiniteinextent'.3ThesametwoideasandthesameexpressionsrecurinEpicurus:'thewholeiswithoutlimitbothinthenumberofbodies
andintheextentofthevoid'.4
Icouldbelievethatfromtheseorsimilarexpressionsthedistinctionbetweenatomsandthevoidhasfallenout,leavingonlytheambiguous,andpotentiallymisleading,
assertionthattheatomsare'infinitein<sizeor>extentandinnumber'.
Thisformulationcouldeitherhaveencouraged,orhavebeenencouragedby,thebeliefthatDemocritus'atomswere'verylarge'andcouldbe'asbigasacosmos'.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
magnitudes,wasthoughttorequireanatominfinitelylarge,eitherthroughamistakennotionof'infinity'(aninfiniteseriesofsizesneednotinfactincludeeverypossiblesize),or
perhapsmoreprobablybecausetheEpicureantheoryofthe'smallestpart'excludedthepossibilityofaneversmallerincrease.
1
ZN1083n.2:Brieger,Urbewegung4.
2
Onthispoint,cf.C.Mugler,'PlatonicaIII','L'antiquityclassique'25(1956)2831.
3
Arist.,ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.13(fr.208Rose=DK68A37).Aetiusi18.3(DK67A15).
4
Ep.adHer.41.Bailey'smistranslation,Epicurus23,of as'theinfiniteisboundless'reducesthissentencetoatautology.
Page291
Epicurusandthe'Parts'ofAtoms
(i)
However,wecandiscover,Ithink,anotherandyetmorecompelling,causeofconfusion.
Democritus'theoryisthatthereareinfinitevariationsintheshapesofatoms,andgradations,butnotinfinitegradations,insize.1
Epicurusallowsthattheatomsareinfiniteinnumber,butdeniesthattherecanbeinfinitedifferentiationsinshapeorinsize.2
Epicurus'adjustmenttotheoriginaltheorymightencourageadoxographicalwritertopolarisethefinalformulationsofthetwotheories.
1.ForEpicurus,theatomsareinfiniteinnumber,andvariable,butnotinfinitelyso,inshapeandinsize.
2.ForDemocritus,theatomsareinfiniteinnumber,andinfinitelyvariableinshapeandinsize.
Butwecangofurther.LucretiusconnectsthetwoelementswhichIhavequotedfromEpicurus,byarguingthatinfinitevariationsinshapewouldrequireinfinite
gradationsinsize(ii47899).
Lucretius'argumentprovidesuswithwhatisperhapsthemostprobablereasonfortheerrorinAetius.ThewriterinthePlacita,Iwouldsuggest,hasadoptedthe
argumentwhichLucretiusdeploys,andhasusedittotrytoincrease,ortoclarify,hisunderstandingofDemocritus.
1.Inordertovaryinfinitelyinshape,theatomsmustvaryinfinitelyinsize.
2.Democritusatomsdovaryinfinitelyinshape.
3.Thereforetheymustvaryinfinitelyinsize.
Therefore,anextremecase:'itispossiblefortheretoexistanatomasbigasaworld'.
1
Seethepassagesquotedp.288n.2above.
2
Ep.adHer.412(number),42(shape),559(size).
Page292
(ii)
Significantly,whileEpicurushimselfinitiallyspeaksonlyoftheneedtoavoid'atomslargeenoughtobeseen',assufficientreasonfortherenotbeing'anyandeverysize
amongtheatoms',Lucretiusdeniesthattherecanbeanatomimmanimaximitate.ThisisjustthekindofexaggerationthatappearsinAetius.1
ItisstillmoresignificantifweconsiderthecontentofLucretius'argument(ii478ff).Lucretiussupposesthattheshapeofanatomisdeterminedbythearrangementof
its'smallestparts'.Hearguesthatthenumberofwaysinwhichthesmallestpartscanbearrangedislimited.Oncethislimithasbeenreached,afurthervariationin
shapewillrequireanincreaseinthenumberofparts,sothataninfinitevariationinshapewillrequireaninfiniteincreaseinsize.
Inthisform,Lucretius'argumentcannothaveappliedtoDemocritushimself.For,aswehaveseenalready,thenotionofsmallestorminimal'parts'toanatomwasan
innovationbyEpicurus.2NonethelessitseemstomeverypossiblethattheargumentwhichwefindinLucretiustellsusbywhatprocessofthoughtthewriterarrivedat
hisconclusioninthePlacita.
Ifthatisso,thenbyasignificantparadoxwemayseeinLucretius'argumentboththereasonwhyDemocrituswasthoughttobelievein'verylargeatoms'andproof
thatthis'reason'isunhistorical.Democritus'beliefinaninfinitevarietyofshapeswasthoughttoentailaninfiniteincreaseinsize,butthatentailment,atleastintheform
inwhichitappearsinLucretius,wouldbetrueonlyfortheEpicureannotionofanatomthathasparts.
ErrorAncientandModern
(i)
ItisimportanttorealisethattheprocessIhavedescribedleads,nottotruth,buttoerror.
1
Epicurus,Ep.adHer.556.Lucretiusii498.Epicurus,laterinhisargument(cap.569),andLucretius(ii482)doalsowriteagainstthepossibilityofan'infinite'increaseofsize.
MypointisthatLucretiusisaloneinprovidingthemiddlestage,asitwere:theatomneitherinvisiblysmall,nor'infinitelylarge',but'hugelylarge'immanimaximitate.
2
Forthequestionofthe'parts'ofatoms,seeabovepp.21314and2709.
Page293
TheargumentthatinfinitevariationinshapeleadstoinfinitevariationinsizeappearsnotinEpicurus,butinLucretius.Furley,forexample,iswrongtoattributethis
conjunctionofideastoEpicurushimself,unlessofcoursewearetoattributetoEpicurusanythingandeverythingthatissaidbyLucretius.1
Itisthereforequitewrongtosuppose,asisfrequentlydone,(1)thatEpicurushimselfarguesthatinfinitedifferencesinshapewillrequireinfinitedifferencesinsize(an
unthinkingconflationofthepassagesthatIhavequoted),(2)thatthetargetofhiscriticismmustbeDemocritus(initselfapossible,butnotanecessary,premiss),and
(3)thatthereforeDemocritusmusthavebelievedinatoms'verylarge'oreven'infinite'insize(animpossibleconclusion,sinceitflatlycontradictstheevidencein
Aristotle).
Forexample,somesuchconcatenationofideasseemstohaveinspiredKirk'sobservation:
'Epicurusmaintainedthatinfiniteshapeswilleventuallydemandinfinitesizes,andindeedDemocritusmayhavesuggestedthatsomeatomsarecomparativelylarge.'2
TheargumentwhichKirkhasquotedisused,notbyEpicurus,butbyLucretius.InLucretius,theconclusionisnotthatsomeatomsare'comparativelylarge',butthat
therewouldhavetobeanatomimmanimaximitate(ii498)oreven'infinitely'large(cf.ii
1
Twostudies96(citingEp.adHer.55andLucretiusii481521)cf.p.186n.1above.Thesameconjunctionofideas,butwithoutexplicitmentionofthe'parts'ofatoms,doesseem
toappearinaratherobscurelywordedscholion,attachedtotheendofEp.adHer.42.ItispossiblyhisrecollectionofthisscholionwhichhasencouragedFurleytoreadthe
sameideaintothelaterpassage.Infact,inthelaterpassage(cap.556),Epicurusclaimsonlythat'theexistenceofeverysizeamongtheatomsisnotneededfor<anexplanation
of>thedifferencesinquality'.Thisexpressionhasapparentlybeenreadasmeaning'foranexplanationoftheinfinitevarietyofshapesintheatoms'.Butitcanaswell,andmore
naturally,betakentomeanthat'everysize'ofatomisnotneededtoexplainthequalitativedifferencesofsensibleobjects.
ThereisadetailedstudyofthescholionanditsmeaningbyE.Bignone,'Epicurea',Attidellar.AccademiadellescienzediTorino47(191112)67090,esp.68090.Beforethe
passagewasrecognisedasascholion,theideasthatwenowfindinthisscholionandinLucretiuswerefreelyattributedtoEpicurus,forexamplebyPierreGassendi,Animadversiones
3rdedni(Lugduni,1675)11314,cf.217.Butthishardlyexcusestheappearanceofthesameerrorinmorerecentauthors.
2
Presocraticphilosophers408n.l.
Page294
482:infinito...corporisauctu).Thisconclusionisexcluded,forDemocritus,byAristotle'sassertionthatDemocritus'atomsare'sotinythattheyfallwhollybelow
thelevelofourperception'.
(ii)
Butthemodernerrorrepayscloserinspection.Inseekingtoendorsetheideaof'verylarge'atomsforDemocritus,Baileywrites:
'Logicallyofcourseinfinitedifferencesinshapeimplyinfinitedifferencesinsize:forwithinthelimitsofthesamesizetherecanonlybelimiteddifferencesofshape,andfurther
varietyofformcannotbeobtainedexceptbyincreaseinbulk.'1
Idonotmyselfseethatthisisso.Anyshape,itseemstome,couldinprincipleaswellbeembodiedinalargerasinasmalleratom.Variationinshape,therefore,
couldtakeplacewithoutanyalterationinsize.
Fromthereferenceswhichhegives,itisindeedfairlyplainthatBaileythinksashedoesonlybecausehehasmadehisowntheconclusionoftheargumentin
Lucretius.2ButLucretius'argumentderiveswhatcogencyitmayhavefromthesuppositionthattheshapeofanatomisdeterminedbythevariouscollocationsof
minimal'parts'.Ifwedonotthinkoftheshapeofanatomasbeingproducedinthisway,thenthereisnoreason,itseemstome,whyanyshapeshouldnot
theoreticallybeproducedinalargerasinasmalleratom:noranyreasonthereforewhyasinglesizeofatomshouldnotexistinanyshape.
Thetruth,Isuspect,isthatBailey'sargumentatthispointillustratestheprincipleIoutlinedinmyIntroduction:themoderncriticselectstheevidencewhichis
historicallytheweaker,becauseitreflectstheprejudiceofwhichheishimselfthevictim.3
Inthisinstance,Baileyfailseventomention(atthispointinhisargument)Aristotle'srepeatedassertionthatDemocritus'atomsweretoosmalltobeperceived,and
choosestobelieveinsteadthe
1
GreekAtomists1258,esp.127,cf.7782.
2
SeeespeciallyGreekAtomists127n.4.
3
Pp.xvixviiabove.
Page295
evidenceinDiogenes,AetiusandDionysius,thatDemocritusthoughttherewere,orcouldbe,atoms'infiniteinsize'oratleast'aslargeasacosmos'or'verylarge'.1
BaileychoosestoignoreAristotle,andtobelievethelaterdoxographicalaccounts,becausetheargumentculledfromLucretius,thatinfinitevariationsinshaperequire
aninfiniteincreaseinsize,seemstohimlogicallyobvious(cf.'logicallyofcourse...').Andyetthisargumentismostlikelytheveryargumentwhichhascontaminated
thelaterdoxographicalwriters,andwhichhasledthem,asithasledBailey,totheconclusionthatDemocritusbelievedinverylargeatoms.
ThusBaileyfindsevidencetosupporthisconclusion,butfailstorecognisethattheevidencewhichhefindsconceptuallyappealingcanhaveverylittleclaimto
historicaltruth.FornotonlydoestheconclusionofthelaterdoxographicalwritersconflictwiththeevidenceinAristotle.BaileyfailstorecognisethatLucretius'
argumentturnsontheideathattheatomshave'parts',andthatthisideaatoncedeprivesLucretius'reasoningofanyimmediaterelevancetoDemocritus,since,as
Baileyhimselfrecognises,Democritus'atomswerewithoutparts.2
(iii)
IhavesingledoutBailey'sinterpretation,althoughthepresuppositionswhichitbetraysarehardlylessblatantinanumberofotheraccounts.
ThusalthoughSamburskyclaimstobewritingasaphysicistandnotasanhistorian,heisnolessconfidentthanBaileywhenitcomestolinkingvariationinshapeto
variationofsize.
'Thisdifference',betweenEpicurusandDemocritusonwhetherthenumberofshapesisfiniteorinfinite,'followsnaturallyfromavarianceintheassumptionsaboutthesizeofthe
atoms.Toeverygivensizeitispossibletoassignonly
1
Atoms'infiniteinsize',Diog.Laert,ix44(DK68A1).'Anatomaslargeasacosmos',Aet.i12.6(DK68A47).'Verylargeatoms',Dionysiusap.Eus.Praep.evang.xiv23.3(DK
68A43).ContrastAristotle,Degen.etcorr.i8,325a30(DK67A7),ap.Simpl.Decaelo295.6(fr.208Rose=DK68A37).
2
Baileyrecognises,Epicurus203,thatthe'parts'ofatomswereaninnovationbyEpicurus.
Page296
afinitenumberofdistinctlydifferentshapes,andonceallthepossiblemutationshavebeenexhausted,afreshshapecanonlycomeintobeingthroughanincreaseinthevolume
oftheatom.'1
Althoughthisisagainofferedasaselfevidenttruth(cf.'followsnaturally'),withnoreferencetothe'parts'ofatoms,andwithnoimmediateacknowledgmentof
Lucretius,nonethelessoneisnotsurprisedtofind,afewlineslateronthesamepage,that:
'Lucretius...givesanextremelyvividillustrationofhowtheincreasingnumberofshapesislinkedwiththeincreasingsizeoftheatoms.'
Samburskydoesnotappeartoappreciatethatthe'parts'ofatomsinLucretiusarenotmerelya'vividillustration'oftheargumentwithoutthem,orsoitseemstome,
theprinciplewhichSamburskyputsforwardsoconfidentlyhasnovalidityatall.
(iv)
IconcludethattheerrorintheGreekdoxographershasprobablyarisenfromtheveryphenomenonwhichwecanourselvesnowwitness,withvaryingdegreesof
directness,inthepagesofourmoderndoxographies,ThePresocraticPhilosophers,TheGreekAtomistsandThephysicalworldoftheGreeks.
TheancientandthemoderncritichavealikeacceptedtheargumentwhichappearsinLucretius,thataninfinitevariationinshaperequiresaninfiniteincreaseinsize.
Thepremissoftheargumentthe'parts'ofatomsissilentlydiscarded.Democritus,itisthenassumed,sincehebelievedinaninfinitevarietyofshapes,must
thereforehavebelievedinatomsthatwereinfinitelylarge.
Thusthemoderncriticfindsancientevidencetosupporthim,butonlybecauseheappealstopreciselythosewritersoftheancientworldwhosharehisownprejudice,
andwhorepeathisownerror.
1
ThephysicalworldoftheGreeks111,cf.p.v.
Page297
TheprinciplewhichwefindsoclearlyexemplifiedinthegrotesqueconclusionthatDemocritusbelievedinatoms'aslargeasacosmos':willthissameprincipleperhaps
provetobetruefortheideathatDemocritus'atomsaredeprivedofweight,sincetheyfailto'fall'inanendlessvoid?
Conclusion
(i)
Wehavetheinterestingpositionthattheideaofanatom'asbigasacosmos'deriveseitherfromadirectsimplificationoftheoriginaltheory,orfromamisguided
attempttomarkmoreclearlythedistinctionbetweentheearlierandthelateratomictheory,orperhapsmostprobablyfromapplyingtheEpicureanconceptionofan
atom,withminimal'parts',totheoriginalDemocriteanconceptionofanatom,andaddingtothisthelaterargumentthatinfinitevariationsinshaperequireinfinite
variationsinsize.
(ii)
InAlexanderwefoundasimilaroccasionoferror.Alexanderquestionedwhethertheatomcouldhaveweight,onthegroundthatthelogicallydistinguishable'parts'of
theatomsdidnothaveweight,whiletacitlycompoundingthiserror,orsoitwouldappearfromthesequenceofhisargument,withthelaterprinciplethatnatural
movementiscausedbyweight,sothatifabodyhasnonaturalmovementdownwardsitwillhavenoweight.1
ThuswehaveaverysimilarcircumstanceinAetiusandinAlexander.
1.InAetius,ifmysuggestioniscorrect,theatomsarethoughttohavepartsandthereforetohaveinfinitevariationsinsize.
2.InAlexander,theatomsagainhavepartsandarethereforearguedtobelackinginweight.
1
Alexander,Met.36.218(inpartDK87A6)seech.VII34,pp.21122above.
Page298
(iii)
IsitthencoincidencethatinAetiustheerroneousideaof'aworldsizedatom',anideaderived,orsoitwouldseem,fromthenotionofanatomhaving'parts',stands
cheekbyjowlwiththeonlyotherexplicitdenialinancientliteraturethattheatomshaveweight,apartfromthedenialbyAlexander,whichisagainderivedfromthe
historicallyerroneousnotionthattheatomsofDemocritushave'parts'?
Apieceofevidencecannotnecessarilybecondemnedbythecompanyitkeeps.Nonetheless,thisproximitycanonlyencouragetheconclusionthatthedenialof
weightbyAetiusislikewisetheresultofapplyingtheEpicureanandAristoteleanconceptionwhichwefind,orwhichweappeartofind,inAlexander,thenotionof
weightascauseofmovementdownwards,totheoriginalDemocriteanconceptionofatomicmovement,whereweightwasnotnecessarilytiedtothenotionofafallof
atoms.
5
Aetius'DependenceonTheophrastus
ThesecondguidingtruthtoaninterpretationofthePlacita,whichhasbeenbrilliantlyestablishedbyDiels(whoisoneoftheveryfewmodernscholarsinthefieldof
Presocraticphilosophytowhoseworkonecanproperlyapplythatadverb),isthatthegreatbulkofmaterialonthephilosophersofthefifthcenturyderivesfrom
successiveabridgmentsofTheophrastus'greathistory.
TheparticularrelevanceofthissecondtruthtoourenquiryisthatitsetsAetiusinclearoppositiontoSimplicius,notonlyconceptuallybutdoxographically.1
1
Diels'conclusionsontheoriginsofthePlacita,thoughoftenignored(forexamplebyMugler,cf.pp.2867above),havenot,Ithink,beenseriouslychallenged.Unfortunately,
however,onthequestionofdependenceasdistinctfromthepossibilityof'grosserror'Diels'thesis,fromthenatureofthecase,doesnotlenditselftocorroborationbythe
studyofasingleinstance.ForwhatisatissueisthegeneralprovenanceofmaterialsinthePlacita,andIwouldnotofcoursedenythatespeciallyonmoretechnicalquestions,
andonpointsofdetail,therehasbeensomeinterpolationofinformationfromothersources:thepossibleinfluenceofEudemus,forexample,istakensomeaccountofinmystudy,
'Derivedlightandeclipsesinthefifthcentury',JHS88(1968)114127,esp.11415.ImportantthereforethoughitisformypresentthesisthatAetius'informationshouldingeneral
betakenfromTheophrastus,nonethelessIhave
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page299
(i)
Verybriefly,Irehearsethemainpointsoftheproblemasmyargumenthassoughttoestablishthemsofar.
ThepositioninitiallyisthatTheophrastus,AristotleandSimpliciusattributeweighttotheatoms.Aetius,inasingleentry,deniesthattheatomshaveweight.
Burnetandothersattempttoresolvethisconflict,byproposingthatwelimittheattributionofweighttoatomswithinacosmos,leavingthedenialofweightbyAetius
tobetrueforatomsthatareoutsideacosmos.
Weneedthereforetolookattheevidence,fromthispointofview.
1.Aetiuscouldbespeakingonlyofatomsthatlieoutsideacosmos,sincethedenialofweightisfollowedbyanaccountoftheatoms'movement .
2.TheophrastusandAristotledonotspecifyexpresslywhethertheatomshaveweightonlywithinacosmos.
However,theydonotleaveanyobviousopeningforsuchaqualification,andonthewholetheformandthecontentoftheirremarksappeartoprecludeit.
3.Simplicius,expresslyandbyimplication,attributesweighttoatomswhichareoutsideacosmos:byimplication,whenhetiestheweightofatomstotheirhardnessandtothe
uniformityoftheirnatureexpressly,whenhewritesofatomsmovingthroughthevoid'inaccordancewiththeirweight'.
ThusconceptuallySimpliciusisdirectlyopposedtotheentryinAetius,asglossedbyBurnet.
(ii)
ThepointwhichInowwishtomakeisthatSimpliciusisnolessopposedtoAetiusondoxographicalgrounds.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
hadtoleavethispointtorestontheauthorityofDiels,andontheveryconsiderableamountofmaterialwhichhehascollectedandanalysedinhiseditionoftheGreek
doxographers.
Page300
Simpliciusletsitbeclearlyseen,intheDeanima,thathedoesnothaveanyoriginalwritingsfromDemocritusorLeucippus.
Ontheotherhand,intheDecaelo,hequotesonceatlengthfromAristotle'slostworkonDemocritus,whileinthePhysicshequotesseveraltimesfromportions,
otherwiseunknowntous,ofTheophrastus'accountofthefirstprinciplesofthephysicalphilosophers,includingalongishextractonLeucippusandDemocritus.1
TherearethereforetwoquestionswhichwemayaskofSimplicius.
Inattributingweighttotheatoms,andspecificallytoatomswhichareoutsideacosmos,isSimpliciuspossiblyrecallingsomelostportionofAristotle'sworkonDemocritusorof
Theophrastus'Physicorumopiniones?.
Alternatively,isSimpliciusdoingnomorethanhimselfjoiningtogetherpassageswhereAristotlesaysthattheatomshaveweightwithpassageswhereAristotleand
Theophrastussaythattheatomsaresolidandhaveallthesamenature,orperhapsevenexplainingsimplyinhisowntermshowitisthattheatomsmoveinthevoidwithoutan
extrinsicmovingcause?
Nowwhileitmayconceivablybepossibletodistinguishbetweenoneorotherofthesealternativeswithsomeshowofreason,inevitablythechoicewillbespeculative
andperhapseventoacertainextentsubjective.
1
Decaelo294.33295.20(fr.208Rose=DK68A37).Phys.28.427(Dox.,Phys.op.fr.8=DK67A8and68A38).OtherfragmentsquotedbySimpliciusfromTheophrastus'
PhysicorumopinionesarecollectedbyDiels,Dox.47395.
ItshouldbenotedthatIdonotsayhowmuchofAristotle'sworkonDemocritusorofTheophrastus'PhysicorumopinioneswasavailabletoSimplicius:butitseemstomereasonably
clearthatSimpliciusknewmorethanwedooftheseworks,anditisthisthatdeterminestheformofmyargument.Inparticular,Simpliciusprobablyshowsthathequotesonlyapartof
thetextthathehadbeforehimofAristotle'sworkonDemocrituswhenhewrites,Decaelo294.33295.1(DK68A37):
.AlaterscholarTzetzes,forinstancemightaddthiskindofdetailsimply
totrytoshowthatheknewmorethanhedidbutSimpliciusisquiteabovethatkindofsubterfuge.
Page301
Itisessentialtoappreciatethereforethatevenifwecanansweraffirmativelyonlytothesecondquestion,thisanswerisnotwithoutitsvalue.
ForeveniftheattributionofweighttotheprecosmicatomsisSimplicius'ownconclusion,atleastitindicatesthatneitherinTheophrastusnorinAristotlehad
Simpliciusfoundanything,oratleastrememberedanything,tocontrovertsuchaconjunctionofideasbylimitingtheweightofatomstotheirbehaviourwithina
cosmos.
ThusSimpliciusisopposedtoAetiusnotonlyconceptually,butdoxographicallyaswell.1
Conclusion
Itis,Ithink,onthisgroundthatthedenialofweighttotheatomsbyAetiusfinallyloseswhatevershredsofprobabilityitmayhaveretainedhitherto.
Simplicius'attributionofweighttotheatomsshowsatleastthathehasfound,orremembered,norestrictionbyTheophrastusorbyAristotleontheattributionof
atomicweighttoatomsthatformpartofacosmos.
ButTheophrastuswouldhavebeenbyfarthelikeliestsourceofsuchinformationinAetius,ifithadbeentrue.
1
Theargumentwillbemorecogentifwebelieve,asIdo,thatSteinmetz,DiePhysikdesTheophrastos33846,isright,asagainstDiels,Dox.11213,inarguingthatSimplicius'
quotationsarenotderivedfromAlexander,butaretakendirectlyfromTheophrastus,oratleastsoSteinmetzarguesfromahandbookcontainingexcerptsfromTheophrastus
(apossible,evenprobabledistinction,butonewhichismuchmoredifficulttoestablishthanSteinmetzappearstosuppose).ThishadalsobeentheconclusionofKarlReinhardt,
ParmenidesunddieGeschichtedergriechischenPhilosophie(Bonn,1916)92n.l,andofO.Regenbogen,'Theophrastos',RealEncyclopdieSupplementbandvii(1940)1536.
Ontheotherhand,Steinmetz'sthesisslightlyloosensmyargument,sincehesupposesthatAetius'excerptsrepresentaversionofTheophrastus'earlierwork,thePhysicorum
opiniones,initsmiddlestateasitwere,whenithadalreadybeenputtogetherfromanumberofmonographs,whileSimplicius'quotations,hesupposes,derivefromTheophrastus'
ownlaterworkonPhysics.
ThispartofSteinmetz'sthesisseemstomerathertenuous(cf.p.4n.labove):butinanycasetheoriginsofSimplicius'informationandofthatinAetiuswouldstillbesufficientlyclose
forthepurposeofmyargument,sinceSteinmetzallowsthatthedoxographicalportionsofTheophrastus'ownworkonPhysicswillberewrittenfromtheearlier,morepurely
doxographicalwork.
Page302
ThusnotonlydowehaveTheophrastus'ownaccountofDemocritus'theoryofweightfromtheportionofhishistorydealingwiththesensesandtheobjectsofsense,
wherethereisnohintofanysuchqualification,andwhereindeedanysuchqualificationwouldseem,atleastbyimplication,tobeexcluded.Onaproperreadingof
theevidence,wehaveareasonableguaranteefromSimpliciusthatnosuchqualificationwascontainedinthosepartsofTheophrastuswhicharelosttousbutwhich
werestillavailabletoSimplicius.
Wemusttherefore,Ithink,haverecoursetotheexplanationoferrorwhichalreadyliessoeasilytohand.
Onlyoneotherancientwriterdenies,oratleastquestions,theattributionofweighttotheatoms.ThereasonsforwhichAlexanderdoessoaredemonstrablyfalse.Itis
significantnonethelessthatheisfairlyclearlyledtohisconclusion,inpartbecausehefindsaninconsistencybetweenthepossessionofweightandtheabsenceofa
'fall'ofatoms.
MostlikelythewriterinthePlacitahasfallenintothesametrap.
1.Theatomsmovebyrecoilinthevoid,andthereforeatrandom.
2.Theatomshavenosingledownwardmovement,therefore.
3.Therefore,itissupposed,theycanhavenoweight.
Theclaimthattheatoms'havenoweight'willbeasvaluelessasthegrotesqueassertion,inthesameentry,thatDemocritusthoughttherecouldbeanatom'aslargeas
acosmos'.
Page303
ChapterEleven
IndirectEvidence
1
Aristotle'OnDemocritus'
(i)
Atthispoint,Ishouldperhapsconcludetheargumentativepartofmystudydirectly,foralltheobvioussourceshavebeenransacked,andtheargument,suchasitis,
hasacertainconceptualsimplicity,whichanyfurtherandmorespeculativeconsiderationsmayserveonlytoblurandtoweaken.
However,todosowouldnotbealtogetherhonest.
Inargument,thereisoftenatemptationtodeployonlythosefactorswhich,onehopes,willstandupwelltocriticism,eventhoughtheymaynotinfacthavebeenthe
mostfertileinfluencesontheformationofone'sconvictionoropinion.
Soitisinthiscase.Thereremainsonepieceofevidencewhichascepticalopponentcouldeasilydismiss,butwhichIfindmyself,atleastinthelightofthemoreformal
argumentwhichhaspreceded,particularlypersuasive.
(ii)
SofarIhavesaidscarcelyanythingofAristotle'sworkonDemocritus,otherthanthatafairlylengthyextractfromitiscopiedoutbySimplicius.
Thisextract,however,dealspreciselywiththenatureandbehaviouroftheatoms,andthemanneroftheirmovementinthevoid.Clearly,thisispreciselythekindof
contextwhichwouldhaveprovidedSimpliciuswithhisnotionofatomsmovinginthevoid'accordingtoweight',ifthatconjunctionofideasisnotwhollytheproductof
hisownreflection.
Needlesstosay,thereisnospecificmentionofweightintheextractwhichSimpliciusquotes.1Iftherehadbeen,theextract
1
ContrastCherniss,ACP211n.253,cf.p.17n.1above.
Page304
wouldhavebeengivenprideofplaceinourearlieranalysis.ButIthinkitpossiblethatthenotionofweight,andevenofmovementinsomeway'accordingtoweight',
isinfactimplicitinthefollowinglines,andwasperhapsknowntobesobySimplicius.
Decaelo294.33295.24(fr.208Rose=DK68A37): .
'ThetranscriptionofafewsentencesfromAristotle'streatiseOnDemocrituswillgiveusanideaofhowthesepeoplethought.
''Democritusconsidersthattheidentityofthingseverlastingissuchastomakethemtinysubstances,infiniteinnumber,andhethensupposes<that>forthese
<substancesisneeded>aplace,other<thanthemselves>,whichisinfiniteinextent....
"Thesesubstanceshereckonsaresotinythattheyfallwhollybelowtherangeofoursensibleperceptions.Theyhaveallkindsofshapesandallkindsoffiguresand
alsodifferencesinsize.
"Objectswhichwecananddosee,and<ingeneral>
Page305
objects<ormasses>whichdofallwithintherangeofourperceptions,aremadeupdirectlyandwithoutintermediary(sc. )fromtheagglomerationsofthese
substances,which<therefore>havetheroleofelements<inrelationtothesensibleobjectswhichareformedfromthem>.
"Theoriginalsubstancesareinmovementinthevoid,theyareatwar,becauseoftheunlikeness<betweenthem>andbecauseoftheotherdifferences<ofshapeandof
size>alreadyspecified.
"Astheymove<aboutinthevoid>thesetinysubstancesknockagainst<oneanother>,andgetentangled<withoneanother>insuchawaythattheirentanglement
bringsthemintocontactandkeepsthemclosetooneanother....Theyhangtogether,withoneanother,andstaytogether,hereckons,forhoweverlongitmaytake
beforesomemorepowerful<influenceor>necessityintervenesfromthespacearoundthem,insuchawayastosmash<theatoms>apartandscatterthemindifferent
directions."
'Democritus'descriptionofhowthingscomeintoexistence,andoftheseparationthatistheoppositeoftheircomingintoexistence,coversnotonly<theproduction
of>animalsitincludesplantsand<whole>worldsinaword,itembracesallobjectsthatareperceptibletosense.
'Thelessonwemaydraw :ifthecomingintobeing<ofsensibleobjects>is<explainedas>aconjunctionofatoms,andifthedestruction<ofsensibleobjects
isexplainedas>theirseparation,thenitwouldfollowthatcomingintobeing,sofarasDemocritusisconcerned,wouldbe<reducedtowhatAristotlewouldcall>
alloiosis,<andisnotwhatwewouldrecogniseasproperlyachangeofsubstance>.'1
1
IhavetakenthedirectquotationfromAristotletoendat295.20thefollowingparagraphinmyparaphrase,295.202,Ihavetaken(perhapsarbitrarily)asmostlikelySimplicius'
rewritingofwhathefoundinAristotlethefinalparagraphofmyparaphrase,295.224,isSimplicius'ownjustificationforhisquotation.TheinterpretationthatSimpliciushas
chosenoftheatomictheoryallowsDemocritus,nolessthanEmpedocles,295.246,tobeenlistedagainstthe
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page306
Simplicius
(i)
ItisperhapsAristotle'spreoccupationwithasingleandeternalworldwhichhasledhim,itwouldseem,unliketheconventionaldoxographicalsourceswhichdealwith
Democritus,toruntogethereverykindofgenerationanddestruction,whetherofworldsoroftheindividualentitieswhichconstituteacosmos.
However,itisreasonablyapparent,itseemstome,thattheexpression referstomovementoutsideacosmos,notonly
becausethereferencetovoidismostsimplytakenasbeingtoanoncosmicvoid,butalsobecausethemovementdescribedbytheexpressionisfairlyclearlyintended
tobeatoncedistinctfromandantecedenttothetwokindsofmovementthatproduce,respectively,generationanddecay.
1.Ofthesethefirstisintroducedintheclauseimmediatelyfollowing: .
2.Thelatterisintroducedinthesentencebeginning: .
ThetwokindsofmovementarethensummarisedbySimpliciusasthepair .
(ii)
NowthisispreciselythedistinctionwhichwehavealreadyseenadoptedbySimpliciusinhiscommentaryonbookeightofthePhysics,wherehespeaksoftheatoms
as'movinginaccordancewiththeirweight'.
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
<Christian>theoryofaonceandforalldestructionofthecosmos,295.269.
IhavedepartedfromHeiberg'stextonthefollowingreadings: (ofsize,295.11).
Page307
1.Thereisthe'primaryandonlymovement'whichislocalmovement,andwhichissaidtohavebeendescribedbytheAtomiststhemselvesas .
2.Subordinatelytothistherearethetwoformsofmovementwherebytheatomsarejoinedandseparated,whicharedescribedbythesameverbasinSimplicius'accountof
Aristotle,butwithdifferentprefixes, .1
(iii)
InSimplicius'ownaccount,threefactorsarespecifiedinrelationtotheprimarymovementoftheatoms.
1.Ittakesplaceinthevoid.
2.Itisdescribedbyapairofterms, .
3.Itoccurs'accordingtoweight': .
InAristotle'saccount,therearealsothreefactorsrelatingtotheprimarymovementoftheatoms.
1.Ittakesplaceinthevoid.
2.Itisdescribedbyapairofterms, .
3.Itoccurs'becauseofunlikenessanddifference': .
Thefirstfactorisidenticaltothetwoaccounts.
Thesecondfactorisremarkablysimilar.Ineithercase,thereiswhatonemightcallaneutralexpressionformovement, ,whichSimpliciusspecifies
asatermtakenfromtheoriginalexpressionofthetheory.2
1
Phys.1318.301319.5,abovech.V3,pp.16673.
2
Formydefenceandexplanationofthisreadingseeabovepp.16970.
Page308
(iv)
Whatofthethirdfactor?
Ihavealreadysuggested,fromcomparisonwithothercontextsinSimplicius,thattheprefix mayberelatedtothequestionofweight.Theatoms'dartaround',
they'leaphitherandthither',becauseoftheforceofimpactgenerated,oroccasioned,bytheirweight.1
ThusinSimpliciusthethirdfactorwouldappeartoberelatedtothemoreidiosyncraticofthetwoexpressionswhichfallwithinwhatIhavecalledthesecondfactor.
1.Thereisnoparticularassociationthatspringstomindbetweenmovementexpressedas andthenotionofweight,unlessweassociateweightwithmovement
downwards,whichIhavearguedisnotSimplicius'intentionhere.
2.ButtheexpressionwhichSimpliciusspecifiesasdrawnfromDemocritushimselfcanbereadilyassociatedwithweight,inthemannerIhaveindicated.
ThereisaparallelassociationoftheequivalenttwotermsinAristotle.
1.Thereislittleassociationthatisimmediatelyapparentbetweenmovementexpressedconventionally,andcolourlessly,as andthenotionsofunlikenessand
difference.
2.Thereisanobviousconnection,ifonlyperhapsonapsychologicalplane,betweenunlikenessanddifferenceandthemuchmoreidiosyncraticexpressionwhichAristotle
coupleswith .
WehavetheninSimpliciusandinAristotlethefollowingconjunctionofideas.
1.InSimplicius,itappearsthattheatoms'darthitherandthither'or'shootthiswayandthat'becauseof,orinaccordancewith,theirweight.
1
Pp.1701and1925above.
Page309
2.InAristotle'sfragmentonDemocritus,theatomsare'atwarwithoneanother'becauseofthe'unlikeness'andthe'differences'betweenthem.
(v)
AmongthedifferencesthatAristotlehasspecifiedascausing,oraccompanying,the'war'oftheatomsaredifferencesofsize .
FrompassageselsewhereinAristotleandinTheophrastusweknowthatinfactdifferencesofsizegohandinhand,fortheAtomists,withdifferencesinweight.
DoesthegeneralsimilarityofstructurebetweenthepassageinSimpliciusandAristotle'sfragmentonDemocritus,andinparticularthesimilaritybetweenthecontext
andfunctionof inSimplicius?
Canweperhapsconclude,fromthecollationofthesetwopassages,thatthetheoreticalequivalencebetweensizeandweightwasinfactintendedasanelementinthe
originaltheoryofthemovementand'strife'ofatomsinthevoid?
(vi)
Onefinalhintpossiblyhelpstoindicatethatwecan.
Ihavesaidthat .
However,intheclauseimmediatelyfollowing, )'attack'oneanother.
ThisnotiontakesusclosetotheideaofcollisionthatIhavesuggestedwemayhaveinthecollocationof inSimplicius.
The'unlikeness'andthe'differences'oftheatomsleadto
Page310
'strife'betweenthem.InAristotle'saccountisitperhapsalsodifferencesofweight,andnotonlydifferencesofsize,whichdeterminetheforceofimpactwhenthe
atoms'fallupon'or'attack'eachother?
Conclusion
InotedinmyearlierdiscussionofthepassagefromSimplicius'Physicsthatthephrasewhichisappliedtothevoid,'yieldingandunresistant',isrepeatedinPlato's
Cratylus.Plato'suseoftheexpressionwouldseemtoconfirmtheantiquityofthematerialwhichSimpliciushashererecorded.1
ThislendsaddedauthoritytoSimplicius'descriptionoftheatomsinthevoidas'movingbecauseof'or'inaccordancewiththeirweight',andas'dartinghitherand
thither', ,averbwhichSimpliciusspecifiesastakenfromtheoriginalexpressionofthetheory.
Simplicius'accountoftheatoms'movementinthispassageinthePhysicsisparallelinseveralwaystotheaccountoftheatomisttheorywhichherecordsintheDe
caeloastakenfromAristotle'streatise'OnDemocritus'.
Simpliciusisnotamindlesscopyist.IcouldmyselfbelievethatthematerialwhichSimpliciusrecordsinthePhysicsisalsotakenfromhisreadingofAristotle'streatise
'OnDemocritus'.Butthatisonlysurmise.Whatremainssignificantisthatthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwopassagespromptthequestiontousenostronger
expressionwhetherwhenAristotlewritesoftheatomsas'attacking'oneanother .
1
Pp.1678above.
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2
MovementandDifference
AnaffirmativeanswertothesamequestionisperhapsindicatedforIhopeIhavealreadystressedsufficientlythatinthischapterwehavetodowithindications,and
notwithproofsfromquiteanotherangle,ifwetakeabroader,andadmittedlystilllooser,view,wherebythesesentencesinAristotleappearaspartofawide
complexofpassages,andoftheories,whichjoinunitywithrest,andmovementwithpluralityandvarietyordifference.
ThesepassagesIhavealreadygroupedinmystudyonEmpedocles.1AcoupleofpointswhichIrepeatareofaverygeneralnatureareperhapsrelevanttothe
presentenquiry.
EarlierThinkers
(i)
IfweconsiderthisalignmentandassociationofideasamongDemocritus'moreimmediatepredecessors,thereisawidespreadinthekindofvarietyordifferencewith
whichmovementisassociated.
ThusforParmenides(fr.8.401)theantithesistounityandrestisthatthingsshould'comeintobeingandpassaway,existandnotexist,moveaboutfromplaceto
place,andaltertheirbrightcolour'.
ForAnaxagoras(fr.4),theentitieswhichwillbereleasedfromtheprimal,andstatic,unity,are'thedampandthedry,thehotandthecold,theshiningandthedark,
muchearth,andseedsinfiniteinnumber,innowayliketooneanother".
ForEmpedocles,theequivalentassociationofideasisslightlycomplicatedbyhiscyclicaltheory.Thevarietyofelementswhichhavebeenunfoldedfromtheunity,and
immobility,oftheSphereisemphasised:thesunwhichisbrightandhot,waterwhichisdarkandshivering(fr.21).However,thevarietyandmultiplicityoftheworld's
presentexistencedoesnotrepresentatimeoftotal
1
Empedocles'cosmiccycle,areconstructionfromthefragmentsandsecondarysources,intheseriesCambridgeclassicalstudies(henceforwardECC)(Cambridge,1969)3845.
Page312
separation.WhentheelementsarefullydividedbyStrife,thensun,earthandseaarenolongervisibleintheirpresentform.EvenatthetimeoftotalStrifethere
remains,however,thecollocationofmovementandofseparation.Eachelement'goesitsownway'withnoadmixtureofanyother.1
(ii)
AnaxagorasandEmpedoclesretainthenotionthatmuchofthevarietyofsensiblephenomenaisultimatelyreal.Certainly,themostfamiliartraditionalpairingsof
opposites,hotandcold,lightanddark,dryandwet,belongtotheelements,oraretheelements.
Inthesetheories,therefore,multiplicityisthesameasdiversity.Thedistinctionbetweenunityandpluralitycoincideswiththedistinctionbetweenuniformityandvariety.
NotsofortheAtomists.Theatomicsystemisevidentlydesignedtoeffectadrasticsimplificationofthevarietyofexistence.Aristotleisright:theatomshavealla
'single'substanceor'nature',inthesenseatleastthattheatomsarenotspecificallycharacterisedbydistinctionsfromthetraditionalpairingsofopposites.2Hotand
cold,wetanddry,lightanddark,arisefromtheconfigurationsofatoms(and,inastrictersense,fromtheirinteractionwithasensiblepercipient),butnoneofthe
atomspossessesanyofthesecharactersintrinsically.The'variety'oftheatomsisprimarily,andalmostexclusively,avarietyofshapeandofsize.
Thusintheatomicsystemthereisanextrememultiplicityindeedaninfinityofprimaryelements,buttheirvarietyisreducedtovariationsofshapeandofsize.
(iii)
Itisthemoreinteresting,therefore,that,ifwebelieveAristotleinthefragment'OnDemocritus',thentheAtomistsstillappar
1
Fr.26a,withtheaccompanyingparaphrasebyPlutarch,Defacie926D927A(onlyinpartDK31B27),quotedpp.36970below.OnthisfeatureofEmpedocles'system,andfor
thisdistinctioninthenumerationofthefragments,seeECC316and14954.
2
Arist.Decaeloi7,275b32276al(DK67A19),quotedabovepp.1112.
Page313
entlywishedtoadopttheassociationofmovementwhichisprobablyalsotoalargeextentan'explanation'ofmovementwith'differences'and'unlikeness'.
Iftheydidso,itwouldseemtomeperhapslikelythattheywouldemploythefullrangeofvarietyallowedbytheirtheory:andthereforethatvariationsinsizeshould
entail,inthiscontext,variationsinweight.
Plato's'Timaeus'
Thissamecollocation,ofmovementwithpluralityanddiversity,isafairlyprominentfeatureofthecosmogony,andcosmology,oftheTimaeus.
OnamechanicallevelifthatisnottoomisleadinglymodernanexpressionPlatowritesoftheoriginsofrestandmovementasresultingfromtheconjunctionof
movedandmoverbutonthegroundthatmovedandmovercanneverbe'homogeneous'or'alike'(57DE).Theprominencegiventothedistinctionofmovedand
moverisperhapsspecificallyPlatonic,buttheconcludinggeneralisation,thatrestisdependentupon,orconsequentupon,homogeneity,whilemovementsomehow
belongstoheterogeneity,isthoroughlytraditional(cf.57E658A1: .
ThetwoprinciplesarerepeatedinseveralplacesintheTimaeus:intheaccountwhichPlatogivesoftwokindsofwater,ofwhichthemorefluidandthemoremobile
kindissobecausetheelementalparticleswhichitismadefromaresmallandunequalinsize,alsobecauseof'thenatureofitsshape',whiletheotherkindismore
nearlystaticbecauseoftheuniformityofitscomponentsandagainintheaccountofshivering,whichiscausedbythestrugglethatariseswhenlargerparticlesofwater
enterthebodyandeffectachange'frommobilityandlackofuniformitytouniformityandimmobility'.1
Onamorenearlycosmogonicallevel,thesameprincipleisappliedtothetransformationoftheelements.Whenthemaincosmicmassesareformedfromthevarious
combinationsoftheelementaltriangles,andmoveeach'totheirownproperplace',
1
Tim.58D4E7(noteesp.58D78: .
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1
theydosobecause'theyareunliketoeachother,andliketosomethingelse'.
Theearlierandmoregeneralstatementofthiscircumstancespecifieslackof'balance'asafactorresponsibleforlackofuniformity,52D4E5:
.
'Thenurseofbecominggrowswetandfiery,takesupimpressionsofearthandair...ismanyadifferentkindofsighttosee.
'Butsincethepowersitisfilledwitharenotofthesamekind,andarenotequallybalanced<inweight>thereforethereisnobalanceinanypartofitonthecontrary,swayed
unevenlyoneveryside,thenurseofbecomingisshakenbythepowers<thatfillit>andbytakingup<their>movementshakestheminreturn.'2
Conclusion
ThetextofAristotle'sfragmentonDemocritusdoesnotspeakexplicitlyofweight.Ontheotherhand,thecontextispreciselyofthekindwherewemightexpectto
findaplacefortheinclusionofweightasdeterminingthemovementofatomsinthevoid,ifthatconjunctionofideasisnotsolelytheproductofSimplicius'own
imaginings.Infact,comparisonwithSimpliciusindicatesthatthe
1
Tim.57B7C6.
2
Ijustifytakingthesetwopassagestogether(52D4E5and57B7C6)inmysecondessay.Ihavetaken .Seefurtherp.363n.1below.
Page315
'strife'ofatomswhichAristotleassociateswiththeunlikenessanddiversityoftheirshapesandwiththeirdifferencesofsizemayequallybeassociatedwithdifferences
ofweight,andperhapsinparticularthattheatoms'forceofimpactisdeterminedbytheirweight.
Atthesametime,thereisinthefifthcenturyatraditionofunityanduniformitybeingassociatedwithrest,andofmovementleadingto,orstemmingfrom,pluralityand
diversity.If,asappearsfromAristotle,theAtomistsintendedtoassociatethemselveswiththistradition,thenitmaybethoughtlikelyforthemtohaveaddedweightto
sizeandshapeastheonlyultimatefactorsofdiversitywhichtheirsystemleavesroomfor.
Thesameassociation,ofrestwithunityanduniformity,andofmovementwithpluralityanddiversity,isasignificantfeatureofPlato'sTimaeus.IntheTimaeus,the
diversitythatisassociatedwithmovement,andmoreparticularlywithmovementonacosmogonicallevel,isinfactspecifiedasdiversityofsizeandof'balance'or
weight.
3
Aristotle'Physics':SpeedandWeight
Aristotle'sfragmentonDemocritushasonefurtheruse,inenablingustogainamorepreciseknowledgeofthebackgroundandimplicationsofthepassagewhichI
touchedonearlierfromthefourthbookofAristotle'sPhysics.
Aristotle'sargumentistheredirectedagainstthenotionofmovementinavoid.EarlierIleftitanopenquestionwhetherornotthemeansbywhichAristotleargues
againstthisideaweredrawnsolelyfromhisownreflectionsandtheories,orwereperhapsrelatedtooriginalfeaturesintheatomictheoryofmovement.Tothis
questionInowreturn.1
1
Phys.iv8,215a259and216a1121,pp.1879and1902above.IhavealreadynotedthatAristotle'sargumentsarenotdirectedexclusivelyagainsttheAtomists.Democritusand
LeucippusareintroducedasthetargetofAristotle'scriticismatthebeginningofhisanalysis,butincompanywith'manyotherofthephysicalphilosophers'(iv6,213a34b1,cf.
p.189above).
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Shape,SizeandWeight
(i)
Aristotle'saimistoconcludethatinavoidbodiesofdifferentweightwouldhavetomoveallwiththesamespeed.Thisistakenassufficientrefutationofthepossibility
ofmovementinavoid.
Aristotlearguesthattherearetworeasonsfordifferencesofspeed:differencesintheresistanceofamediumanddifferencesofweightinthebodymoved.
Aristotlefirstargues,atlength,thatavoidcannotprovidefordifferentlevelsofresistance,andtherefore,byafavouriteturnofargument,thatmovementinavoid
wouldbe,invariousways,infinitelyincommensurablewithmovementinamedium.
Aristotlethenturnstodifferenceswithinthebodymoved,inordertoargue,muchmorebriefly,thatnoneofthefactorswhichmight,orwhichdo,producedifferent
speedsofmovementinamaterialmediumcouldhavethesameeffectinavoid.
However,insteadoflimitinghimselftoweight,whichearlierhadtwicebeenspecifiedasthefactorwhichwouldbelikelytoleadtodifferencesofspeed,Aristotlein
factwritesofweight,ofsize,andofshape,iv8,216a1820:...
'Alargerbodydivides<themediumthroughwhichitpasses>morequicklyby<virtueofitsgreater>force:foritdivides<themedium>eitherbyitsshapeorbytheweight<and
impetus>whichthebodypossesseswhenitmovesorisreleased.'
(ii)
Shape,sizeandweightarepreciselythethreefactorsthatwehaverecoveredfromSimpliciusandfromthefragmentonDemocritus.
1.ShapeandsizearethetwofactorswhichaccompanymovementinAristotle'sfragmentonDemocritus.
2.Weight,aswehaveseen,isaddedbySimplicius.
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ThesesamethreefactorsAristotlehimselfbelievesaccountfordifferencesofspeedwithinamaterialmedium.AllthreerecurintheDecaelo.
1.AsInotedearlier,alargerportionofanelementmovesmorequicklytoitsnaturalplacethandoesasmallerportion,andisthereforeheavierorlighter,accordingtowhetherthe
movementistowardsthecentreortowardsthecircumference.1
2.Inthefinalchapter,Aristotleexplainshisowntheoryoftheeffectthatshapehasuponspeed,whichpossiblysignificantlyhesetsinoppositiontoatheoryofDemocritus
(cap.6,313a1415: ).
ItisbecauseallthreefactorsrecurinAristotle'sowntheory,andmoreparticularlybecauseinAristotle'sowntheoryweightandsizearecommensurateatthispoint,
thatfromtheformofargumentinthePhysics,takenalone,wecannottelldirectlywhetherthemechanismofAristotle'sargumentisintendedtohaveanyparticular
relevancetothetheoriesofDemocritus.
Butwhatwenowknow,fromthefragmentonDemocritus,isthatofthethreefactorswhichinthePhysicsAristotlesayscannotexplaindifferencesofspeedfor
bodiesmovinginthevoid,twodoinfactinsomesensebelongtoDemocritus'theoryofthemovementofatomsinthevoid,namelydifferencesofshapeandofsize.
Canweperhapsinferfromthisthatthethirdfactorinexplainingdifferencesofspeed,namelydifferencesinweight,mayalsoperhapsbetakenfromDemocritus'
theory?
'DeAnima'
Apassageelsewherepossiblyhelpstoindicatethatwecan.
(i)
ShapeandsizearespecifiedascausesofmobilityinAristotle's
1
NotablyDecaeloi8,277a279,andiv4,311a1821:acompletelistofpassagesisgiveninmythirdessay.Aristotle'suseofspeedasacriterionofweighthasalreadybeen
noted,p.54n.1,andisexploredinmythirdessay.
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accountintheDeanimaoftheatomswhich,forDemocritus,constitutemindandsoul,i2,405a813(DK68A101): .
'Democritus'utterancewasmoreprofound....Soulheclaimedwasthesameasmind,andsoulormindheclaimedwasoneoftheprimaryandindivisiblebodies,anespecially
mobileonethankstoitssmallnessandtoitsshape.Hisargumentisthatwhatissphericalisthemostmobileshape,andthat<theatomsof>mindandfirearethisshape.'
Itwouldbeprecipitate,Ithink,toarguedirectlyfromthispassageintheDeanimatothecalculationofAristotle'smethodsinthePhysics,sincethePhysicsdeals
withmovementinthevoid,includingtherefore,onemightsuppose,voidwhichisoutsideacosmos,whiletheDeanimadealswithmovementwithinthecosmos.
WiththemediationofthefragmentonDemocritus,Ithinkthatwehavesomerighttobridgethisgap.ForthefragmentonDemocritusestablishesthatthetwofactors
whichlendsoulitsespecialmobility,namelysizeandshape,arethesametwofactorswhichaccompany,oreveninsomesenseexplain,themovementofatoms
outsidethecosmos.
(ii)
However,thereisafurtherdistinctionbetweentheDeanimaandthefragmentonDemocrituswhichispotentiallysignificant.
1.InthefragmentonDemocritus,itisdifferencesofsizeandofshapewhichleadto,oraccompany,movement.
2.IntheDeanima,itisaspecificshapeandaspecificsizewhichareintendedtolendtheatomswhichconstitutesoulanespecialmobility.
However,thisdistinctionisnot,Ithink,enoughtodisallowthe
Page319
conclusionthattheexplanationofmovementintheDeanimacanbecarriedovertothemovementofatomswhichareoutsideacosmos.
Onthecontrary,thisdistinctionperhapsserves,onreflection,toincreasethepossibilitythatthemechanismofAristotle'sargumentinthePhysicscoincideswith
Democritus'owntheories.
Forthegeneralinferencefromthedistinctionispresumablythatdifferencesofsizeandofshapeaccountformovementingeneral,whilecertainsizes,andcertain
shapes,ofatomsareespeciallymobile.
WhatwehavethereforeintheDeanima,whichwedonothaveinthefragmentonDemocritus,istheideathatshapeandsizenotonlyaccompanymovement,butare
relatedtovariationsinmobility.
AndthatisverynearlytheideawhichAristotleemploysintheargumentofthePhysics:differencesofshapeanddifferencesofsizeshouldcausedifferencesofspeed,
butinthevoidaccordingtoAristotletheycannotdoso.
'Bitter'and'Sweet'inTheophrastus''DeSensibus'
ApassageinTheophrastus'Desensibuspossiblytakesusastepfurtherinthissamedirection.
ForinDemocritus'theoryofbitterandsweet,theshapeandthesizeofatomsareassociatednotsimplywithmovement,norevenwithvariationsinmobility,but
specificallywithdifferencesinspeed.
(i)
Ireturnforamomenttothemobilityofsoul.
Thereason,oronereason,whyasphericalatomis .
'Oftheseatomsthesphericalshapedoneshesaysaresoul,becauseshapesofthiskindarebestabletododgeinandout
Page320
1
throughanythingelse,andarebestabletomoveotherthings,beinginmovementthemselves.'
Presumablysomethingofthesamereasoningwillapplytosize.Thesmall,roundatomsthatconstitutesoulcandartinandoutamong,orperhapseventhrough,
conglomerationsofotheratoms,makingtheirwaythroughgapsthatwouldbetoosmallforlargeratoms,whileatthesametimetheyarefreefromthehooksand
projectionsthatwoulddelaythepassageofothershapesofatoms.
(ii)
EssentiallythesesameideasrecurintheaccountinTheophrastusofatomswhichcauseabittertaste.
Theseatomstoo,liketheroundatomswhichconstitutesoul,areable'toinsinuatethemselveseverywhere': ,oftheatomswhich
constitutesoulintheDeanima.
Thedifferenceisthattheatomswhichcauseabittertastearesmall,liketheatomswhichconstitutesoul,butinsteadofbeingroundtheyaresharporangular.
Presumablythereforetheideaisthatinsteadofmanagingtoslideinandoutbetweenotheratoms,orotheragglomerationsofatoms,asdotheroundatoms,these
angularatomsforcetheirwaythroughthings,throughthehumanbody,orifperhapsinthevoidthroughthewhirlingmassesofatoms,bycuttingapassagewiththeir
edges.
Thepointwhichisespeciallyrelevanttoourpurposeisthatinthisinstancethemovementofatoms,consequentupontheirsizeandshape,isspecifiedasbeing'fast',
Desens.65(DK68A135): .
'Atartflavourhesaysis<equivalenttoanatomthatis>angularandtwistedinshape,aswellasbeingsmallandthin
1
Aristotlenotesthat isDemocritus'wordfor'shape',Met.A4,985b1519(DK67A6).
Page321
the'sharpness'makesitabletoedgeitswayquicklyinandoutofanywhere.'
(iii)
Theconverseideaappliestoatomswhichexplainthesensationofsweetness.
Wemaysupposethatitisbecause'bitter'and'sweet'areoppositesthatatomswhichcausethesensationofsweetnessmustbethe'opposite'shapeandsizetoatoms
whichcausethesensationofbitter.Theyarethereforeround,insteadofbeingangular,andtheyare'notparticularlysmall'.
Itispresumablybecausetheseatomsare'notparticularlysmall'thattheeffecttheyproduceis'notaquickone',althoughatthesametimeitispresumablytheir
roundnesswhichstillallowsthemto'slipthroughthings'( .
'Asweetflavourismadeoutofroundshapes,thatarenotparticularlysmall,whichiswhy...theydonotgetthroughalltheirworkquickly.Theydohoweverhaveadisturbing
effectontheotherflavours,becauseastheyslidethroughotherthingstheystretchandliquefythem.'1
Conclusion
(i)
Thepositionthenisthis:
1.InthePhysics,therearethreefactorswhichAristotlesayscannotexplaindifferencesofspeedinthevoid:shape,sizeandweight.
1
IntheDecausisplantarum,vi1.6(DK68A129),thereisasummaryofDemocritus'theoryofflavours,andtheatomsresponsibleforasweetflavouraretheredescribed
positivelyas .
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2.FromthefragmentonDemocritus,weknowthatintheoriginaltheorytwoofthesefactors,shapeandsize,doaccompanythemovementofatomsinthevoid.
3.FromtheDeanima,welearnthatthesesamefactorsnotonlyaccompanythemovementofatoms,butcause,orareassociatedwith,differencesinmobility.
4.Finally,fromTheophrastuswediscoverthatthesesametwofactorswerecorrelatedspecificallywithdifferencesofspeed.
ThepassagesintheDeanimaandintheDesensibusdonotinthemselvesdealwithnoncosmicmovement,asdothepassagesinthefragmentonDemocritusand
perhapsinthePhysics.ButthefragmentonDemocritusestablishesthatshapeandsize,thefactorsaffectingorcontrollingvariationsofmobilityandofspeedintheDe
animaandintheDesensibus,arealsoinsomewayassociatedwithmovementofatomsinthevoid.
(ii)
FromtheargumentinthePhysics,andfromtherelatedargumentinEpicurus,ZellerconcludedthatDemocritus'atoms,inmovingdownwardsinthevoid,didsowith
differencesofspeed.1
IhavealreadysaidthatIthinkZeller'scriticswererighttoabandontheideaofafallofatomsforDemocritus.2Iamnotsurethattheywererighttoabandontherefore,
astheydid,Zeller'suseoftheargumentinthePhysics,initsentirety.
Admittedly,fromAristotle'sargumentinthePhysics,takeninisolation,wehavenomeansoftellingwhethertheprincipleswhichheemploysaredrawnsolelyfromhis
owntheories,orwhethertheymayhavesomemoreparticularrelevancetotheideasofDemocritus,whomAristotlehasincludedamongthetargetsofhiscriticism.
ItisonlybecausewecandiscoverfromelsewherethattwoofthefactorsincludedinAristotle'sargument,shapeandsize,wereinfactemployedbyDemocritusinhis
accountofthebehaviour
1
Zeller,ZN10889.Arist.Phys.iv8,215a259and216a1121.Epicurus,Ep.adHer.61.
2
Cf.pp.1634and2612above.
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ofatoms,includingtheirbehaviourinthevoid,andspecificallyincluding(thoughinanothercontext)differencesofmobilityandofspeed,thatwemayhavesome
groundforsuspicionIamdeliberatelypitchingtheargumentativeelementinthisproposalnohigherthatthethirdfactorinAristotle'sargument,namelyweight,may
alsohavebeenreckonedbyDemocritusasaffectingthemovementofatomsinthevoid,andperhapsmoreparticularlyasdeterminingtheirspeed.
4
SpeedandSize
(i)
IhavebeencarefultodissociatemyselffromZeller'suseoftheargumentinAristotle'sPhysics,andoftheparallelpassageinEpicurus,asdirectevidencethat
Democritususeddifferencesofweightintheatomstoexplaindifferencesinspeed.1
Myreason,sofar,hasbeenthatwithouttheadditionalpassageswhichIhavecitedfromthefragmentonDemocritus,fromtheDeanima,andfromTheophrastus,
therewouldbelittlegroundforassociatingthemechanismofAristotle'sargumentwithDemocritus'owntheory.Itis,Ihaveargued,onlybecausetheseothersources
attributeshapeandsizeasdeterminantsofmovement,andevenofspeedofmovement,toDemocritus,thatwecanhavesomegroundforsuspectingthatthethird
elementinAristotle'sargument,weight,mayalsopossiblybelongtoDemocritus.
Thereisanadditionalreasonforcaution.ThealignmentofspeedorofmobilitywithsizeintheaccountofDemocritus'atomsintheDeanimaandinTheophrastusis
notthesameasthealignmentofspeedwithsizeandweightinAristotle'sargumentinthePhysics.
1.ForAristotle,thelargerbody,whetheritisheavierorlighter,movesthefaster.
2.ButinDemocritus'theory,accordingtoAristotle'sreportintheDeanima,theatomswhichconstitutesoulhaveanespecialmobility,notbecausetheyarelargebutbecause
theyaresmallandround.
1
Zeller,ZN10889.Arist.Phys.iv8,215a259and216a1121.Epicurus,Ep.adHer.61.
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ThereisasimilaralignmentinTheophrastus'accountofDemocritusintheDesensibus.Thesmaller,angularatomswhichproducethesensationofbitteract'quickly',whilethe
roundbut'notparticularlysmall'atomswhichproduceasweettastedonotworkquickly.
ThereforetheforminwhichAristotlepresentshisargumenthasevidentlybeencastintermsofhisownkinetics,whereabodyislighterorheavier,andsomoves
faster,ifitislarger:alargerquantityoffiremovesupwardsmoreswiftlythanasmallerquantity,andalargerquantityofearthfallsmorequicklythanasmaller
quantity.1
(ii)
Ipausethereforetotakestockofthestateofaffairssofar.
1.Size,shapeandweightarepresentedbyAristotleasfactorswhichmightbeexpectedto,orwhichdo,effectdifferencesofspeed,butwhichinavoid,accordingtoAristotle,
cannotdoso.FromanumberofpassageselsewherewediscoverthatsizeandshapewereinfactassociatedbyDemocrituswiththemovementofatoms,evenofatomsthatare
movinginthevoidmorespecifically,Democritusevenassociateddifferencesofsizeandshapewithdifferencesofspeed,thoughwhetherstillforatomsthataremovinginthe
voidwedonotknow.
FromallthiswemightbetemptedtosuspectthatthethirdfactorinAristotle'sargument,namelyweight,wasalsoafeatureofDemocritus'originaltheory,andthatthethree
factorswereusedbyDemocritustoexplainadifferenceofspeedforatomsthataremovinginthevoid.
1
ThisdifferencebetweenAristotleandDemocritushardlyimpingesonearlierdiscussions.ThusAlfieri,whosereconstructionIhavealreadynotedasclosetomyown,p.154n.1
above,unthinkinglyassumesthat'...ladifferenzadipesoavrebbefattosichegliatomipipesantisarebberostatipivelocideipileggeri'(Atomosidea81).Itisdifficultnotto
supposethatAlfierihasunconsciouslyselectedthisalignmentsimplybecauseitistheonethatisfamiliartohimfromhisreadingofAristotlealthoughevenforAlfieri'sformula
tobetrueofAristotleweshallhavetoconstrue'pileggeri'asmeaning'lighter'inapurelynegativesense,i.e.'lessheavy'.Seealsop.326n.1belowandp.328n.1below.
Page325
2.However,fromthesesamepassageswelearnthatforDemocritussmalleratomsmovemorequickly,whileinAristotle'sargumentitisthelargerbodywhichmovesfaster,
accordingtotheprovisionsofAristotle'sowntheory,aselaboratedintheDecaelo.
Thisconsiderationtendstoundermine,ifitdoesnotwhollyoverthrow,anysuggestionthatthemechanismofAristotle'sargumentisrelatedspecificallytothetermsof
Democritus'owntheory.
Facedwiththissecondconsideration,wemightwellbeinclinedtowashourhandsaltogetherofanyproposaltoreadbackgenuineelementsinDemocritus'theory
fromanargumentinAristotlewhichisdemonstrablycastintermsofAristotle'sownprinciples.
IhavenonethelessventuredtoincludetheargumentinthePhysicsaspartofanetworkofevidencecentringontheaccountofDemocrituspreservedbySimplicius
fromAristotle,becausethereisafurtheranglefromwhichwecanapproachtheproposalthatIhaveoutlinedintheprecedingsectionandthisIthinkfeedsback,asit
were,intotheproposalsomeofthesubstancethatisnecessarilydrainedfromitbytheconsiderationthatthemannerinwhichsize,weightandspeedarealignedin
Aristotle'sargumentcannotbethesameasthemannerinwhichtheywouldhavebeenalignedbyDemocritushimself.
(iii)
Inthefirstplace,itisinterestingtodiscoverthatEpicurustakesaccountofbothalignments.Heavyatomsdonotmoveanyfasterthanatomswhicharesmallandlight,
nordosmallatomsmoveanyfasterthanlargeones,Ep.adHer.,61: .1
Thedenialoftheformerpossibility,thealignmentoflargeandfastatoms,makesitimpossibletotakeEpicurus'criticism,inthe
1
Thispassageisquotedmorefullypp.1845above.Forthesubjectofthesentence('atoms'or'bodiesingeneral')seepp.15960above.
Page326
waythatZellerdoes,asorientatedspecificallyandexclusivelyagainstDemocritus.
ButarethetwopossibilitiespossiblyintendedrespectivelyasananswertoAristotleandasacriticismofDemocritus?
Oristhedisjunctionnomorethanalogicalalternative,withnoparticularhistoricalrelevance?1
(iv)
Inthesecondplace,thereisevidencethatthealternativealignmenttothatinAristotle,namelyofsmallandlightandfast,asopposedtolargeandheavyandslow,did
featureinpreAristoteleanphilosophy.
IntheTimaeus,inapassagewhichIhavealreadymadeuseof,
1
ItisperhapssignificantthatonlytheAristoteleanhalfofthisassociation,namelythattheheavier<andthereforethelarger>bodymovesthefaster,appearsintheequivalent
argumentinLucretius,ii2259,quotedpp.1856above.
AnumberofmodernwritersalsoattempttoexcludethenonAristoteleanassociation,bymakingEpicurusdenythatsmallatomsmovemoreslowly.ThusUsenerwrites,Epicurea
(Lipsiae,1887)18: .MargheritaI.Parente,OperediEpicuro(Torino,1974)1601,rejectsUsener'semendation,butsomehowmanagestotranslatethe
secondhalfofthesentence:'...naverrchecich'grandesimuovapivelocementedicich'piccolo'.Usener'semendation(retainedbyAlfieri,Atomisti104)producesa
tautologyParente'smistranslationmakesthesecondsentenceauselessrepetitionofthefirst.
JeanandMayotteBollackandHeinzWismann,Lalettred'Epicure(Paris,1971)121and21516,translatethesecondhalfofthesentencecorrectly,butthenreintroducethesame
suppositionthatwefindinUsenerandParentewhentheywriteintheirnotethatthephraseimmediatelyfollowing, ,'nepeutavoird'autrefonction,en
insistantsurlacommoditofferteauxatomespetits,quedecorrigerindirectementl'ideque,dansl'invisiblecommedanslevisible,lescorpslgerstomberaientmoinsvitequeles
corpslourds'.TheAristoteleanpresuppositionishereexplicit.
Thequalificationcontainedinthephrase etc.isdesignedtocorrectwillbethatsmallatomsmightmovemorequicklythanlargeonesjusttheopposite,therefore,of
theAristoteleansupposition,introducedbyM.andMmeBollackandbyM.Wismann,thatsmallatomswouldbeexpectedtomovemoreslowly.
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Platodistinguishestwokindsofwater,ofwhichthemoremobilekindissobecauseitisconstitutedfromsmallerelements,whilethekindwhichisheavyandmore
nearlystaticisconstitutedfromlargerelements(58D4E7).1
Admittedly,theTimaeusisatwoedgedswordwhenusedasevidenceforearlierphysicaltheories.Plato'streatisealmost,inmodernterms,aprosepoemisfairly
obviouslysaturatedwithelementsofPresocraticbeliefandterminologybutinthecompleteabsenceofanyspecificattributionitisimpossibletotell,incontextsofthis
kind,whetheranyparticularfeatureisdrawnfromearlierliterature,orisPlato'sowninvention,unlesswehavesomeotherexternalevidence.
(v)
Fortunately,inthiscasethereisoneotherpieceofevidenceofpreciselythekindthatisneeded.
ThePlatonicalignment,theideathatsmaller<lighter>bodiesmovethefaster,whilelargerandheavierbodiesmovemoreslowly,isineffectthealignmentwhich
Plutarchattributesgenerallytothefirstphilosophers.InapassagefromtheDeprimofrigido,Plutarchtellsusthatindistinguishingheavenlyandearthlyelementsthe
earlyphilosophersdividedwhatisslow .2
(vi)
WecanthenapproachDemocritusbyakindofpincermovement.
1.Aristotleemployssize,shapeandweightinhisargumentthattheatomswouldhavetomoveinthevoidwithdifferencesofspeed,whichAristotleholdswouldbeimpossible.
Democritus,weknow,didassociatedifferencesofsizeandshapewiththemovementofatomsinthevoid,anddidelsewhereassociatedifferencesofsizeandshapewith
differencesofspeed.
1
Cf.pp.31314above.
2
955BC:forthefurtheruseofthispassageseebelowpp.36672.
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2.ForAristotle,thelargerbodywillbeheavierorlighterandineithercasewillmovefasterforDemocritus,smalleratomsmovefasterandlargeratomsmovemoreslowly.
However,thesamealignmentasinDemocritus,butincludingweight,isrejectedbyEpicurus,recursinPlato'sTimaeusandisattributedgenerallyto'thefirstphilosophers'by
Plutarch.
ThuswedonothaveanydirectattributionoftheassociationofweightandspeedtoDemocritus,norcanthemechanismofAristotle'sargumentinthePhysicsapply
toDemocritus,directlyintheforminwhichitappearsinAristotle.
ButwedoknowthatalargepartofthemechanismofAristotle'sargumenthasparticularrelevancetoDemocritus'theoryofmovement,andinparticularwedoknow
thattherealignmentofassociationsthatwouldberequiredifthemechanismofAristotle'sargumentweretoapplyspecificallytoDemocritusdoescorrespondinfactto
ageneralpreAristoteleanandPresocraticbeliefthatwhatissmallandlightmovesquickly,whilewhatislargeandheavyisslow.1
1
Onefinalpieceofevidenceshouldperhapsbementionedhere,namelyAristotle'scriticism,inbookfouroftheDecaelo,ofatheorywherebyabodywouldbelighterinthe
senseonlythatitwaseither'squeezedout' ,referencesp.153n.3above),fromPlato,andfromwhatheimaginestohavebeenanIoniantheoryofweight:fromsuch
acontext,itisimpossibletoconfirmortodenytheattributionoffreshdetailtoDemocritus'theory,withoutindependentevidence.
Inhisowntheory,Aristotledoesonoccasionwriteofthe'smallerandlighter'bodyastheeasiertomove,Decaeloiii2,301b116.Buthere'lighter'isagainusedinanegativesense,
anddescribesnotthenaturalmovementofanelement,butmovementthatistheproductofforce:Ireturntothispassageinmyfourthessay.
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Conclusion
Theargumentsofthissection,asoftheprecedingsectionsinthischapter,arenotdemonstrativeinastrictsense.Theyareallusiverather.Thevariousconsiderations
thathavebeenadvancedareconvergent,butdonotnecessarilyconverge.
ThetextofAristotle'sfragmentonDemocritusdoesnotspeakexplicitlyofweight.Itisaquestionthereforeoftryingtocalculatethepreciseresonanceandimplication
ofthepassage,inpartbycomparisonwithSimplicius'treatmentofsimilarissuesinacloselysimilarcontext,andinpartbyattemptingtorelatethepassagetoother
textsfromAristotlehimself,fromthePhysicsandfromtheDeanima,andalsototextsfromTheophrastus.
ComparisonwithSimpliciusindicatesthatthe'strife'ofatomswhichAristotleassociatedwiththeunlikenessanddiversityoftheirshapes,andwiththeirdifferencesof
size,mayequallybeassociatedwithdifferencesofweight,andperhapsinparticularthattheatoms'forceofimpactisdeterminedbytheirweight.
ComparisonwiththeDeanima,whereshapeandsizelendtheatomswhichconstitutesoulanespecialmobility,andwithTheophrastus'Desensibus,whereshape
andsizeareassociatedwithdifferencesofspeed,possiblyindicatesthatintheargumentwhichAristotleemploysinthePhysicsagainstmovementinthevoidweight,
aswellassizeandshape,maybefeaturestakenfromtheoriginalatomictheoryofmovement.
IfDemocritushasadoptedthenotionofatomsmovingwithdifferentspeedsinthevoidaccordingtodifferencesofsizeandweight,thenhisconceptionwillhavebeen
thatsmaller,lighteratomsmovethefaster,whilelargerandheavieratomsmovemoreslowly.
ThisisnotthealignmentwhichappearsinAristotle,butitisoneofthealignmentswhichistakenaccountofbyEpicurus,anditisthealignmentwhichPlatousesinthe
Timaeus,andwhichPlutarchattributestothefirstphilosophersgenerally.
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ChapterTwelve
TheWeightofAtoms
1
TheMinimalConclusion
Whatthenistobeourfinaljudgmentontheevidence?
Itwouldbefalse,Ithink,topresentasingleandunqualifiedanswertothequestionwhichIaskedintheopeningchapterofthisessay:whether,orinwhatsense,the
atomsofDemocritus,orofDemocritusandLeucippus,haveweight.1Qualificationisneeded,notonlybecausecriteriafortheexpressionofweightneedtobe
specified.Thereisalsoneededastratificationofthekindoflikelihoodthatattachestodifferentelementsinouranswer.
Apreliminarydistinctionisneededbetweenthecertaintythatmayattachtotheanalysisofvariousitemsofevidencetakensinglyandthedegreeofprobabilitythatmay
attachtoanyevaluationoftheevidenceasawhole.Thisdistinctionmighthavebeenlessnecessary,ifanyoriginaltextfromDemocritushadsurvivedonthesubjectof
weight.Asitis,whileIthinkthatwecaninfactbereasonablycertainofthemeaning,andofatleasttheimmediateintention,ofthemaintextsthatIhaveanalysed
fromAristotle,fromTheophrastus,andevenfromSimplicius,itdoesnotfollowthatwecanbecertaininthesamewayabouttheoriginaltheoryofDemocritusto
whichthosetextsrelate.
Althoughthisdistinctionmayseemplainenoughwhenpresentedabstractly,inpracticeitisoften,Ifind,blurred.Ifthetextofapassageisreasonablysecure,andif
thereisawideenoughrangeofcontextandallusion,thenitseemstomethatmoreoftenthannottheimmediatesenseofthetextcaneventuallybeestablishedbeyond
doubt,howeverdifficultandcontroversialtheestablishmentofitssensemayprovetobeinpractice.Itdoesnotfollowthattheinterrelationoftexts,andtheirvarying
authority,canbemadeequallysecure.
Itisimportantnottoallowlegitimatedoubtonthismoregeneralleveltoseepbackintotheanalysisofindividualtexts.Itis
1
Cf.p.5above.
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equallyimportantthatone'scertaintyovertheinterpretationofparticulartextsshouldnotspillover,andseektoestablish,byitsownmomentumasitwere,amore
generalcertaintyonthewiderquestionstowhichthosetextsrelate.
Naturally,whenfacedwithsomeseeminglyimpossiblecruxinthemoregeneralinterpretationofsomeproblem,onemayexpectthesolutiontobefound,ifatall,only
throughthereinterpretationofindividualitemsofevidence.Butinprinciplethereisnoreasonwhythemeaningofindividualtextsshouldnotbeestablishedbeyond
reasonabledoubt,althoughtheirmoregeneralinterrelationandauthoritymayremainobscure.
Thedangeristhatlegitimatedoubtoversomegeneralcruxofinterpretationorofreconstructioncanalltooeasilyconspirewithadesiretobe,oratleasttoappear,if
onlytooneself,cautiousandconservative,sothatineffectoneshrugsone'sshouldersoverawholerangeofreferencestotheproblem,untilevenelementswhichin
themselvesmaybedecipherableareallowedtoslipintotheshadowsofuncertainty.
Ontheotherhand,alegitimateconfidenceovertheinterpretationofspecificitemsofevidencemayconspirewithamoredubioussenseofcertaintyaboutone'sown
intuitionsintotheintentionsofaparticularthinker,orintothenatureofarchaicthought,sothatargumentandanalysisveeroffintoidiosyncrasyanddogmatism.
Eitherfaultseemstomeequallyundesirable.
ThusinthepresentinstanceitseemstomethatnoreasonabledoubtneedattachtothemeaningoftheprimarytextswhichIhaveanalysed,fromAristotle,from
Theophrastus,andevenfromSimplicius.ButIdonotattachthesamelevelofcertaintytoourknowledgeoftheoriginalatomictheoryofweighttowhichthesetexts
relate.Theminimalposition,itseemstome,whichiscompatiblewiththeevidence,isthattheatomsshouldhavebeenendowedwithdifferencesofweightinvirtueof
theirdifferencesinsize,butthatnoexpressionoftheirweightshouldhavebeenspecified,otherthanthatofthedistributionofatomswithinadine,andthatoftheir
attachmenttothedefinitionoflightnessintermsofvoid.
Bothexpressionsofweight,itcanproperlybeargued,areinfactrestrictedtoatomswithinacosmos,orwithinthebeginningsofacosmos.
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1.InthecosmogonywhichherelatesforLeucippus,whichItoucheduponinanearlierchapter,Diogeneswritesofatoms'whirling'inthevoid,butatthesametimehemakesit
clearthattheaggregationofatomsinto'asingledine'leadstotheformationofacosmos.1
2.Thedefinitionoflightnessintermsofvoid,sinceitappliestobodiescompoundedofatomsandthevoid,canagainreasonablybearguedtoapplyonlytothebehaviourof
atomswithinacosmos.2
Fromthisitfollowsthatthispreliminary,andminimal,conclusiontomyargumentcoincidesinitsresultswithwhatIhavecalledthecurrentcompromise.Thereis
howeverthedifference,andIshallclaiminamomentitisacrucialdifference,thatIdonotsupposethattherecanhavebeenanyexpressdenialofweightforatoms
thatwereoutsideacosmos,sincetheexistenceofanysuchdenialseemstometobeexcluded,inparticularbythetextsthatIhaveanalysedfromTheophrastus,and
fromSimplicius.3
Forthemoment,however,itisnotthisdifferenceincontentwhichIwishtoemphasise,butthedifferenceinargumentandevidence.
InthestudyofPresocraticphilosophy,thenoveltyofaninterpretationislessimportant,itseemstome,thanthereasonsonwhichaninterpretationisfounded:the
selectionofevidence,itsanalysisandevaluation,anditsincorporationintoageneralschemeofreconstructionandofinterpretation.
Ihopethatitwillnotseempedanticthereforetopauseforamomenttoinsistthatthereasoningbehindeventhispreliminaryconclusionisverydifferentfromthatwhich
liesbehindwhatIhavecalledthecurrentcompromise.
1
ix301(DK67A1)ch.VII12,pp.20311above.
2
Aristotle,Decaeloiv2,308b28309a18ch.III,pp.80114above.Theophrastus,Desens.612(DK68A135)ch.IV,pp.11550above.
3
Theophrastus,Desens.612(DK68A135)ch.IV,pp.11550above.Simplicius,Phys.42.1011(DK68A47),1318.301319.5(inpartDK68A58)Decaelo269.414(notinDK),569.59
(DK68A61),583.202(DK67A16),712.2731(DK68A61)ch.VandVI,pp.15373and174202above.
Page333
(i)
Inthefirstplace,itseemstomeunlikelyintheextremethatthestatementinAetius,thattheatomshavenoweight,shouldbeanythingotherthantheproductof
doxographicalconfusion,inthekindofwaythatIhaveindicated.1
Totaketheextremecase:eveniftheatomsofDemocritushadinfactbeenstatedexplicitlyintheoriginaltheorytobeincertaincircumstanceswithoutweight,or
withouttheexpressionofweight,evenso,itseemstomeunlikelythatthestatementinAetiuswouldrepresentagenuinehistoricaltradition,giventhecombinationof
thekindofcontextinwhichitappears,thelackofanysignofasimilarstatementinthetextswhichsurviveofAristotle,ofTheophrastusandofSimplicius,andthe
particularbearingwhichthosetextsmusthaveontheoriginsoftheinformationcontainedinthePlacita.
(ii)
Secondly,andnolessimportantly,thecurrentcompromise,althoughtheconnectionisexpressedwithvaryingdegreesofexplicitness,seemsinvariablytogohandin
handwiththenotionthatweightforthePresocraticscanonlyhavebeenexpressedbyafall,bymovementdownwards.
HeretooitseemstomeunlikelyintheextremethatthenecessaryexpressionofweightintermsofmovementdownwardsthatwefindinAristotleshouldhaveapplied,
withanythinglikethesamerigour,inthefifthcentury.
Againtotaketheextremecase:eveniftheatomsofDemocritushadbeenexplicitlystatedtobewithoutweightoutsidetheformationofacosmos,itseemstomethat
itwouldnotnecessarilyfollowthatthereasonforthiswouldhavebeentokeeptheatomsfrom'falling'inthevoid.
(iii)
Finally,thispreliminaryconclusiondoesnotrequireusto
1
Aet.i12.6,cf.i3.18(DK68A47)ch.VIII12,pp.22339abovecf.ch.X4,pp.28298above.
Page334
abandonSimpliciustothesimpleconfusionofDemocritusandofEpicurus.
IfthepositionisasIhavestateditsofar,thenthetextsofSimpliciuswhichIhaveanalysedwillstillstandasevidencethatnoexplicitdenialofweightfoundaplacein
AristotleorinTheophrastus,evenif,onthisminimalinterpretationoftheevidence,wethensupposethatSimpliciushasinfactbeenledtohisattributionofweightto
atomsoutsideacosmos,notbyanypositiveevidenceinAristotleorinTheophrastus,butasaresultofhisownreflections.
Fromthis,itneednotfollowthatSimplicius'reflectionshavebeendeterminedtoanysignificantextentbyhisknowledgeofEpicurus.Simpliciusiswellenoughableto
distinguishearlierandlaterformsofAtomismonthequestionofmovementandonthe'parts'ofatoms.ThetextsofAristotlewillhaveprovidedsufficient
encouragementforSimpliciustothinkthatweightwasanintrinsic,andthereforeapermanentcharacterofatomicsubstance.
Conclusion
Thuseveninthecontextofthisminimalandpreliminaryconclusion:
1.IdonotsupposethatAetiuspreservesoriginalinformation,explicitlydenyingweighttoatomsthatcanbeconstruedasbeingoutsideacosmos.
2.Idonotsupposethatlackofweightwasanecessaryconcomitantoftheabsenceofafallofatoms.
3.IdonotsupposethatSimplicius'evidenceisthesimpleresultofconfusionwithEpicurus.
Iemphasisethesepoints,notinordertotrytostakeoutapersonalclaimtosomemeasureoforiginality,buttotrytostaveoffthecrudificationthatIcanwellforesee
ofthispreliminary,andminimal,conclusiontomyargument.
1.Thepreliminaryandminimalconclusionwillbetakenastheprincipal,ifnottheonlyconclusiontomyargument.
2.Thedifferenceincontentbetweenthisconclusionandthecurrentcompromisewillbelostsightof,eitherbysup
Page335
pressingthequalificationthattherecannothavebeenanyexpressdenialofweighttoatomsthatwereoutsideacosmos,orbyattachingthisqualificationtowhathasbeenthe
currentcompromise.
3.Finally,thispreliminaryandminimalconclusionwillbestrippedofthatstructureofargumentandevidencewhichalonecanprovideitwithanyhopeofpermanentsignificance
asacontributiontothereconstructionandtheinterpretationofPresocraticphilosophy.
2
TheProbableExtension
TheminimalandpreliminaryconclusionwhichIhaveoutlinedIregardasreasonablycertain.ThisdoesnotmeanthatIthinkitcontainsthewholetruth,noreventhatit
containsallthetruththatcanberecoveredfromtheevidenceavailable.Onthecontrary,Ihavepresenteditasaminimalconclusion,preciselybecauseitavoidsthe
moreproblematicalpartsoftheevidence.Theminimalconclusiongainsincertainty,becauseitlosesinscope.
Ihavealreadystressedthatthestructureofevidenceandargumentwhichliesbehindthepreliminaryandminimalconclusionissignificantlydifferentfromthatwhichis
usedtosupportwhatIhavecalledthecurrentcompromise.
Ifwearetogobeyondtheminimalconclusion,thenitisnolessimportanttostressthedifferenceofcontentbetweenthetwointerpretations.
1.Accordingtothecurrentcompromise,Aetiusisrightinhisdenialofweighttoatoms,iftheyareatomsthatareoutsideacosmos.
2.Theminimalandpreliminaryconclusionofthisessayisthattherecanhavebeennoexplicitdenialofweighttoatomsthatareoutsideacosmos.
Thisdistinctionisobviouslycrucialtoanyattempttoextendthepreliminaryconclusion.Onlyifweconcludefromaminimalinterpretationoftheevidencethattherecan
havebeennospecificdenialofweighttoatomsthatareoutsideacosmos,arewethenabletomoveontoconsiderationofwhetherabroader,ifless
Page336
certain,interpretationoftheevidencewillallowus,withanyreasonabledegreeofprobability,todeterminewhatexpressionsofweightmayinfacthavebeenattached
toatomsthatwereoutsideacosmos.
(i)
ItistothisproblemthatInowturn.
ItwouldbeoutofplacetoattemptanysystematiccharacterisationofthethoughtofDemocritusinamonographwhich,howeverlong,isintendedtodealwiththe
reconstructionofonlyonefeatureofDemocritus'physicalsystem.
Ontheotherhand,itwouldbedishonestatthispointtoevadealtogetherthequestion:howlikelyisit,ongeneralgrounds,thatDemocrituswillhavesimplyfailedto
specifythepresence,ortheabsence,ofanyexpressionofweightforatomsthatareoutsideacosmos?
InmystudyonEmpedocles,Itoucheduponasimilarquestionofprinciple:howlikelyisitthatEmpedocleswillhavefailedtospecifythetemporaldimensionsofhis
cycle?ItislikelythatEmpedocleswillhavefailedtospecifythedurationoftheSphere,inrelationtothetimeoftotalStrife,ortotheworldsofincreasingLoveand
increasingStrife?1
OneofthedistinctionswhichIdrewthereisneededalsohere.Ithinkitisessentialforstudentsofearlyphilosophy(amongwhomIincludemyself)toappreciatethat
certaindistinctions,andnotablythatbetweenwhatonemayperhapscallmaterialandabstractorspiritualformsofexistence,wereintroducedonlywiththe
philosophiesofPlatoandofAristotle,ifindeedthen.Ontheotherhand,someatleastofthelaterPresocraticswere,Ithink,thoroughgoingintheexploitationofthose
categoriesandareasofthoughtwhichdoformpartofthefabricoftheirphilosophy.
OurbestandalmostouronlyguideonthiskindofpointisAristotle.Forwhatisinquestionhereisnotthecontentofsomeparticularbelief,butsomenotionofhow
vigorousandfarreachingthephilosophyofDemocritus,orofEmpedocles,mayhavebeenasawhole.Thisisaquestionwhichamerelydoxographicalsource,
almostbyitsverynature,isprecludedfrom
1
ECC715.
Page337
answering.Itisalsoapointwheretheprejudicesandpreoccupationsoftheveryfewauthors,mostnotablyAristotle,whowillhavereadalargepartorthewholeofa
philosopher'swork,willbeattheirmostvirulent.
Ilimitmyselftotwopointsonly,onegeneralandonemoreparticular.
(ii)
MymoregeneralpointissimplythattowardsthebeginningofhisanalysisofgenerationandalloiosisintheDegenerationeetcorruptione,aftersomeremarkson
Plato,AristotleturnstoDemocrituswitharemarkwhichagainstthebackgroundofhisusualattitudetowardsearlierphilosophersisremarkableforitsgenerosity.He
writes,i2,315a34b1(DK68A35): .
'Generallyspeaking,noonehasappliedhimselftoanyoneoftheseproblems,beyondthemerestsuperficialities,withtheexceptionofDemocritus.
'Democritusseemstohaveappliedhismindtothewholerangeofproblems,aswellassinginghimselfoutfromhiscontemporaries byhismethod.'
IwillnotpursuethismoregeneralpointexcepttoaddthatinhisevaluationofearliertheoriesofthenatureofsensibiliaTheophrastusjoinsDemocritusandPlatoina
waythatisnotdissimilartothepassagethatIhavequotedfromAristotle.
Afterremarkingonthegeneralpaucityandthelimitationsofotherearliertheoriesinthefield,Theophrastuswrites,Desens.60(DK68A135):
.
'DemocritusandPlatoaretheonlyoneswhohavereallycometogripswiththesubject.Theyadvanceadefinitionforeachoneofthesensibles.'
WasDemocritusasthoroughgoingasthis,andobliviousto
Page338
1
whetherornotatomsoutsideacosmosmanifestweight?
(iii)
Mymoreparticularpointemploysanargumentofatypewhichcanbeusedonlysparingly,andwithgreatcircumspection:itisanargumentfromsilence.
Theperilsofthisformofargument,appliedtoDemocritusandonthesamequestionofweight,areexemplifiedwithchillingclaritybyaremarkofMabilleau.Heis
attemptingtominimisetheforceofAristotle'sevidenceontheatomictheoryofweight,andwrites:
'Lesquatreoucinqpassages,ouAristoteexposeaulonglaphilosophiedeDmocrite,necontiennentriensurlapesanteurnisurlachaleurdesatomes,cequialieude
surprendre,quandils'agitd'unethoriedecetteimportance.'2
Thecomparisonwithheattellsall.Forwehappentoknow,fromTheophrastus,thattheexplanationofheatintermsofsphericalatomswasmentionedbyDemocritus
'often',Desensibus68(DK68A135): .3
1
ItistruethatTheophrastusconcludeshisaccountofDemocritus,'andsohefailstospecifysomepoints'(cap.83=DK68A135).ButthisrelatesonlytoDemocritus'theoryof
smell.Theanalysesthathavebeengivenofflavours(cap.657andofcolours(cap.738)amongthesensibiliahaveinfactbeenverydetailed.
Aristotle'sgenerosityisperhapslesscharacteristic.CertainlyhisjudgmentinafamouspassageoftheMetaphysicsisrathermoresevere:Socratesaloneprovidesananswertothe
Heracliteanfluxwithhissearchfor'generaldefinitions'(M4,1078b12ff.)Democritusishereagainsingledoutfrom'thephysicalphilosophers'(thePythagoreansareinadifferent
category),butonlyashaving'touchedalittleonthequestion',andashavinggiven'somesortofdefinitionofhotandcold'(1078b1920).Comparablepassages:Phys.ii2,194a201
(whereDemocritusisjoinedwithEmpedocles),andDepart.anim.i1,642a2431.FortheprioritygiventotemperatureinthepassagefromtheMetaphysics,seep.377n.1below.
2
Histoiredelaphilosophieatomistique196.
3
Forthereading seeabovep.260n.1.Ratheramusingly,Mabilleau'sremarkisadirecttranscription(unacknowledged)ofasentenceinLafaist,
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page339
Surpriseisadangerousindulgence.TherecaninfactbenogoodreasonforsurprisethatAristotledoesnotelaborateupontheatomictheoryofweight,outsidethe
fourthbookoftheDecaelo.Ifweimagineforamomentthatwehadtorely,say,solelyontheevidenceofTheophrastus,inordertoknowthattherehadbeenan
atomictheoryofweightatall,thenitisonlyinthefourthbookoftheDecaelothatwecouldreasonablyhaveexpectedtofindadeliberateanalysisofthetheory:and
itwouldbeonlyfromitsabsenceinthatcontextthatanyargumentfromsilencewouldhavebeenworthitssalt.
ItiswithduediffidencethereforethatIadducethefollowing,verytentativeconsideration.
Atleastonquestionsofgenerationandalloiosis,Aristotletellsus,Democritus'seemstohavethoughtabouteverything'.
IhavealreadylistedthepassageswhereAristotlepointsout,withgreatemphasis,oneofthequestionswhichDemocritushadnotthoughtabout:thecauseandthe
nature(inAristoteleanterms)ofthemovementofatomsinthevoid.1
InthethirdbookoftheDecaelo,Aristotlearguesatlength,againstPlatoandagainst'certainPythagoreans',thattheconsequenceoftheirtheoriesisthattherewould
beelementswithoutweight.2
ThereisnocriticismonthissamescoreofDemocritus,and,aswehaveseen,itisvirtuallyonthispointthatDemocritusisinfactopposedtoPlatoinbookfourofthe
Decaelo.3
Iftheatomshadbeenleftwithoutanyexpressionofweightoutsideacosmos,wouldwenotperhapshavehadsomecriticismofthefactatthispoint,ofthekindthat
wedohappentofind(inwhat,historically,isanobviouslyerroneousform)inAlexander?4
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Philosophieatomistique70:'LesquatreoucinqpassagesoAristoteexposeassezaulonglaphilosophiedeDmocritenenousprsententabsolumentriensurlapesanteuretla
chaleurdesatomes'.Therepetitionisworsethanitseems.LafaistwroteashedidwithonlytheevidenceoftheDegenerationeetcorruptioneinmind(cf.Philosophie
atomistique71).Mabilleau,withtheadvantageofZeller,hasjustquoted,195,therelevantpassagesfromtheDecaeloandfromTheophrastus.
1
Pp.237and2612above.
2
Decaeloiii1,299a25300a19cf.pp.845and214ff.above.
3
Decaeloiv2,308b35309a2(inpartDK68A60)cf.ch.III,pp.80114,esp.836above.
4
Alex.,Met.36.218(inpartDK67A6)cf.ch.VII34,pp.21122above.
Page340
(iv)
ThereremainsoneothersidetothethoughtofDemocritus,whichtouchesmorecloselyontheevidencewehaveconsidered.
StudiesofthePresocratics,andmoreespeciallystudiesofAnaxagorasandofDemocritus,displayoftenastrongleaningtowhatIcanperhapscallpure
intellectualism:theattempttodrawouttheessentialsofasystembyaprocessofalmostapriorideductionfromwhatarethoughtofascertaincentralprinciples.
Thisisnotaltogetherareprehensiblepolicy.Attheendoftheday,wecannotperhapsdobetterthanattempttoreconstructtheessentialsofancientAtomismby
placingtheactualevidenceonaconceptualwebdesignedatoncetoholdthevariouspiecesofevidenceinplaceandtogivesomeideaofthelikelyconfigurationof
thepartsthataremissing.
ButthereisanextremeformofintellectualisminthereconstructionandtheinterpretationofideaswhichIthinkcompletelypervertsthehistoricalreality,eveninthe
caseofasystemasadvanced(foritstime)andassophisticated(withintheconceptuallimitsofitsgeneration)asthatofDemocritus.TheattitudeIhaveinmindis
perhapsmostacuteinstudieswhichtreatlaterandearlierformsofAtomismtogether.ItisperhapssufficientlyexemplifiedbyRobin,whoineffectexcludesthenotion
ofweightfromtheearlieratomictheory,almost,itseems,fornootherreasonthanthatitsintroductionwouldinterruptthelogicalsimplicityofthatversionoftheearlier
systemwhichRobinhasconstructedforhimself.
IhopethatthisisnottooextremeadescriptionofRobin'sarticle,'L'atomismeancien',andoftherelevantpagesfromthechapteronancientAtomisminLapense
grecque(pp.1369).AsIhavenoted,Robindoesrecognisethattheevidenceforweightis'unequestionparticulirementpineuse'.1ButIthinkitisfairtosaythatat
leastpartofthereasonwhyRobinleavesthequestionopeninhisarticle,andwhyearlier,inLapensegrecque,hetakestheattributionofweighttoDemocritusto
betheresultofconfusionwithEpicurus,isthathisextremelyabstractandintellectualanalysisoftheatomisttheoryleaveshimwithnoroom,conceptu
1
'L'atomismeancien'211(=Pensehellnique745)citedp.42n.2abovecf.p.154n.1above.
Page341
ally,fortheatomstohaveweightinthevoid.ThusinLapensegrecquetheonly'dterminationspositives'whichRobinwillallowtotheatomsarethosewhichhe
conceivesofas'impliquesparl'tendue'(pp.1378).Weightisnotoneofthese,andisthereforenecessarilysuspect.
'Toutescesdiffrencessontproprementgomtriquesetanalytiquementliesal'tendue.Ilsembledoncdifficile,quoiqu'onenaitdit,d'yjoindrelapesanteur,enrelationavecla
grandeurdesatomes.'(Pensegrecque138)
ThesametendencyisstrikinglymarkedinLafaist'streatmentofweightinhisDissertationsurlaphilosophieatomistique(pp.1113and5879).Lafaist'streatiseis
asuperbpieceofclearandelegantFrenchprosewriting,butinitLafaistmakesvirtuallynoconcessiontothepossiblepresenceofprimitiveorarchaictraitsinancient
Atomism.LafaistdoesclaimthattheatomsofLeucippusare'gauxenpoids'(p.32),buttheideaofdifferencesinweight(pp.6875)hedismissespreciselybecauseit
wouldupsetthesimplicityandthesymmetryofthesystemthathehasconstructedfortheancientAtomists.ThusaccordingtoLafaistDemocritusretainedonly'les
propritsessentiellesdelamatire'(p.21).Forexample,'onneconoitpaslamatiresansforme,parconsquentlesatomespossdentcetteproprit'(p.22).But
weight,forLafaist,isnotoneofthese.Therefore,althoughherightlyopenshisdiscussionofweightinDemocrituswithananalysisofthepassagefromtheDe
generationeetcorruptione,heprefacesitwiththeremarkthatifwhatAristotlesaysistruethenDemocritus'aurafaitfaireunpasenarrirel'atomisme'(p.69),and
hefollowshisquotationofthepassagebyasking,70:
'Restesavoirsicesabsurdits,avancesparAristote,sontbienlgitimementmisessurlecomptedeDmocrite.'
Placedinthiscontext,theevidenceofAristotlehasnohopeofsurvival.1
1
TheCartesianismlatentinLafaist'sanalysisisexplicitinlaterFrenchinterpretations:seepp.34850below.
Page342
(v)
ToattempttocorrectthisgeneralviewofancientAtomismwouldagainbebeyondthescopeofthisessay.Imentiononlyonedetail,whichIhopetoelaborateina
studyparalleltothis,onsomeearlyGreektheoriesofperceptionandintelligence.1
Inthisstudy,Iattempttouncovertwotraditionaltypesofexplanationofintelligenceandunintelligence:theone,amonisticexplanation,identifyingbothintelligenceand
unintelligencewiththesupremacyofasingleelementtheother,essentiallyapluralisticexplanation,identifyingintelligencewithabalanceofelements,andunintelligence
withthepredominanceofasingleelementareversal,atthispoint,ofthemonisticexplanation.
WhatisrelevanttomypresentpointisthatDemocritusoccupiesareasonablywellestablishedplacewithinthissecondtradition.
NowonacertainviewofDemocritus'philosophy,thiswouldbeunexpected.Democritus'theoryoftherelativismofsensibleperceptionisstrikinglyoriginal:andwe
mightwellhavethoughtthat,apartfromestablishingthegeneralprincipleofthedependenceofsensibiliaupontheinteractionofatomsandsensiblepercipient,
Democritus'energieswouldhavebeensufficientlyoccupiedintheextremeelaborationofthemechanismsofsensation,andoftheveryvarioustypesofatomthat
constitutethesourceofsensibilia,allofwhichareattestedtobythelongchaptersinTheophrastus'Desensibus(cap.657,738).
Butinfactwediscover,alongsidethisinnovationandelaboration,thatDemocritusfoundroomforIamtemptedtoadd'wasanxioustoinclude'atraditional
conceptionofintelligenceandofunintelligenceintermsderivingfromabalance,oralackofbalance,betweentraditionalpairingsofopposites.
RecognitionofthiskindofelementinDemocritus'thinkingisessentialifwearenottoscornthekindofconsiderationsthatIhaveattemptedtodrawfromAristotle's
fragmentonDemocritus.2
PerhapsIhaveexaggeratedthedegreeofanimismlatentin bytranslating'tobeatwar'and'to
1
Cf.pp.2545above.
2
Ap.Simpl.,Decaelo294.33295.24(fr.208Rose=DK68A37)ch.XI1,pp.30310above.
Page343
attack'.Thatwasnotmyintention.ButitismyintentiontoseeinAristotle'sdescriptionoftheatomicsystematthispointamuchmoretraditionalcastofconceptand
associationthanwouldbeallowedintherigorouslyintellectualinterpretationoftheatomicsystemofthekindthatwefindinRobinandinLafaist.
(vi)
Thistraditionalelementisofcourseparticularlysusceptibletothewitheringwindsofsecondhanddoxography.
EventhemuchricherandmoreexoticconceptualisationsofEmpedoclestheblissfulSphere,rejoicinginitsimmobility,thebroadoath,Striferushingforwardtoseize
itshonourswhenitsturnisduequicklywiltinthebarrenairofdoxographicalabbreviations.Wehavenomore,often,thanasimpleoppositionofunificationandof
separation.1
Thepositionofsuchtraditionalelementsastheremayhavebeenintheatomictheoryisstillmorefragile:forDemocrituswroteprovincialproseinsteadofinspired
poetry,andSimpliciushasnotbeenabletorecordforustheipsissimaverba.NordoIintendthecomparisonbetweenDemocritusandEmpedoclestobealtogether
afairone.Itisintendedatonceasanextremereminderofhowmuchislost,oftraditionalelementsofthoughtandexpression,indoxographicalevidence,and
thereforeasanindicationoftheextremevalueofAristotle'sfragmentonDemocritus.
ForinthisfragmentwefindAristotlesettingout,asneverquiteagainelsewhere,torecordDemocritus'theoryinitiallyatleastforitsownsake,andthereforeasone
mightsayobjectively.Andboththevalue,andtheincipientweakness,ofthatattemptisverylikelysymptomisedintheconjunctionthatIhavealreadydweltuponof
thetwoverbsformovement: .2
1
Empedocles,frr.27.34,28,30.ContrastJustinMartyr(ob.circa165A.D.),CohortatioadGraecoscap.4(PGvi249A,cf.Dox.2867testimonia)[Galen,]Historiaphilosopha
cap.18(xix2434ed.Khn=Dox.610.1820)AchillesTatius(2nd3rdcenturyA.D.),IsagogainAratumcap.3(p.31.1418ed.Maass,cf.Dox.287testimonia)Hermias
philosophus(3rdcenturyA.D.?),Irrisiogentiliumphilosophorumcap.8(Dox.653.914)EpiphaniusConstantiensis(ob.403A.D.),Adversuslxxxhaeresesiii2:Defideix23(iii
506.259ed.Holl=Dox.591.812).NoneofthesetextsisincludedinDK.
2
Seepp.30710above.
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Democritusmay,orperhapsmorelikelymaynot,haveusedthelatterexpression.Butitsappearancehere,anditsepexegeticalrelationto ,indicate
clearlythepotentialreductionoforiginalfifthcenturyterminology,andthought,tothestandardisedvocabularyofAristotleandthedoxographers.
(vii)
Aristotle'sevidenceinthefragmentonDemocritusisthereforeofpeculiarimportanceasthenearestapproachthatwecanhopefornowtoDemocritus'own
expressionofhistheory.
ThereforetheextensionofDemocritus'theorytoincludeanexpressionofweightforatomsthatfindthemselvesoutsideacosmosdependsquitelargelyonhow
probableitisthatanysuchexpressionofweightshouldfindaplaceinthekindofcontextprovidedherebyAristotle.
Tothisquestionthereisnosimpleanswer.
Aristotlewritesofsizeandofshape.Hedoesnotwriteofweight.Thereisasenseinwhichhissilenceisfinal.Itprecludescertainty.
Ontheotherhand,againstthissilence,thereareanumberofconvergentpossibilities.
Inaverysimilarcontext,Simpliciuswritesexplicitlyofweight.Thiscouldbesimplytheexpressionofhisownideas.Ontheotherhand,Simpliciushadalmostcertainly
readthecontinuationofAristotle'saccountofDemocritusheprefaceshistranscriptionbysayingthatheisgoingtocopyoutonlyashortextract:andthatis
somethingthatwecannotdo.1
FromthefragmentonDemocritus,andfromtheDeanimaandfromTheophrastus'Desensibus,weknowthatshapeandsizewereassociatedwithmovement,and
effectedmodificationsofmobilityanddifferencesofspeed.2
ThemechanismofAristotle'sargumentagainstvoid,inthePhysics,isthereforeinpartDemocritean:andthereisaclearpossibilitythattheremainingelementin
Aristotle'sargument,theassociationofweightwithdifferencesinspeed,mayalsotherefore
1
Phys.1318.301319.5(inpartDK68A58)cf.ch.V3,pp.16672above.Seealsopp.299302above.
2
Evidenceandargument,ch.XIesp.1and3,pp.30310and31523above.
Page345
1
betakenfromtheoriginaltheory,asaresizeandshape.
Differencesofsizeandofweight,asfactorsaffectingpluralityandmovement:thereisthesameconjunctionofideasinPlato'sTimaeus.2Aperiloussource:awealthof
intricatedetail,muchofitheavilyarchaicintoneandcharacter,withvirtuallynoattribution.ThisconjunctionofideasintheTimaeuswillperhapsbesignificantonlyfor
thosewhobelieve,asIdo,thataveryhighproportionofthedetailedimageryoftheTimaeusisPresocraticinorigin,adeliberateattemptbyPlatototemperthe
rejectionofphysicalphilosophyputinto(orrecordedascomingoutof)themouthofSocratesinthePhaedo,andtoresumethewholecharacteroffifthcentury
physicalspeculationsinsubordinationtotheprinciplesofhisownepistemologyandmetaphysics.
(viii)
Arich,butatrickyterraintherefore.Thereisnotthedaylightofcertainty.Buttherearemoreelementsthancanconvenientlybeignored.
Therecanbenoquasimathematicalcalculationofprobability.TherangeofdetailinDemocritus'speculationsabouttheprecosmicmovementoftheatoms,the
presenceoftraditionalelementsinhisthinking,arenotpointsthatcanbeimposedbythesimplestatementofthem.
Myowncalculationofprobabilitiesisthatverypossiblyanexpressionofweightwasgiventoatomsinthevoid:thelargerandheavieratomsperhapsdistinguishedby
theirforceofimpact,thesmallerandlighteratomsdistinguishedbytheirgreatermobilityandspeedofmovement.
3
Summary
TheMinimalConclusion
Theatomshaveweightinproportionto,anddependentupon,theirsize.Largeratomsareheavier,andsmalleratomsarelighter.
Onebodyislighterthananother,ifitcontainsalargeramount
1
Phys.iv8,215a259and216a1121,cf.pp.1879,1902and315ff.above.
2
Evidenceandargument,ch.XI2,pp.31115,esp.pp.31314above.
Page346
ofvoid.Thevolumesofthebodiesbeingcomparedareeithernotstated,orheldtobeequal.
Withinthecosmos,theweightofatomsisexpressedbythedistributionoflargerandsmaller,orheavierandlighter,atomsinadine,andasanelementinthedefinition
oflightnessintermsofvoid.
Thereisnoexplicitdenialofweighttoatomsthatareoutsideacosmos,andthereisnonecessaryassumptionthatweightmustbeexpressedasmovement
downwards,northereforethatatomswhichareoutsideacosmos,wheretheymoveaboutinalldirections,mustbeweightless.
TheProbableExtension
Theweightofatomsmovinginthevoidwasexpressedbyforceofimpactandbyspeed.Thelargerandheavieratomsperhapshaveastrongerimpact.Smallerand
lighteratomsarethemoremobile,andmovethemorequickly.
Page347
ChapterThirteen
Perspective
1
ModernScholarship:TheProgressofError
Havingreachedthisconclusion,Iturnatoncetoasubjectthathaslainuneasilyatmysidethroughouttheprecedingchapters.
Afterconsiderableheartsearching,Idecidedtolimitmydiscussioninmostofthetexthitherto,andinthemajorityoffootnotes,toworkthathasappearedinthelast
seventyyearsorso,sincethefiftheditionofZeller(1891)andthesecondeditionofBurnet(1908).InhisfiftheditionZellerhadhadtheopportunityofconsideringthe
argumentsofBrieger(1884)andofLiepmann(1885)againstthetheoryofdownwardmovementforDemocritus'atoms,andhaddecidedagainstthem.1Inthe
secondeditionofhisEarlyGreekphilosophyBurnetputforwardthecombinationofviewsthathassincebeenmostfashionable:thattheatomsdonotmove
downwardsinthevoid,andthattheyhaveweightonlysubsequentlytotheformationofacosmicvortex.2Itis,Ithink,afairreflectionofcontemporaryopinionthatin
thesecondvolumeofhisHistoryofGreekphilosophyProfessorGuthrieadoptsessentiallyBurnet'sview,withZeller'sinterpretationofferedasthediscredited
alternative,andwithbriefacknowledgmenttoBriegerandtoLiepmanninafootnote.3
However,inreflectingcontemporaryopinionashedoes,ProfessorGuthriesymptomisesthatneglectofnineteenthcenturyscholarshipwhichinthisinstance,asoften,
hasledtoalackofflexibilityinresponsetothesourcesofourknowledgeofprePlatonicphilosophy,andtotheunreflectiveacceptanceofa
1
PhilosophiederGriechen5thedn86888=ZN107699.TheworksbyBriegerandLiepmann,UrbewegungandMechanik,havealreadybeencited:fullreferencesmaybe
recoveredfromtheBibliography.
2
EarlyGreekphilosophy2ndedn(1908)3949(=3rdedn3416).
3
History4004,seeespecially401n.1.Tworecentcontributions,byHahmandbyFurley,reachedmetoolatetobeincludedinthissurvey:detailsaregivenintheBibliography.Itis
howeversignificantthatHahmreproducesessentiallyBurnet'sview,whileFurleyadoptsaversionofZeller'sinterpretation.
Page348
familiardistributionofevidenceforparticularproblems.Itwouldbesatisfyingindeedtothinkthatcertainpermanentgainshadbeenwonbythescholarlylaboursof
ourpredecessors,andthatfromthefirmbasisofcertainachievedpositionsonecouldadvancetomoreremoteortomoredetailedareasofreconstruction,ortomore
reconditeformsofinterpretationandanalysis:butonlyinafewcasesisthisso.Moreoften,neglectandignoranceofthevarietyofinterpretationsofferedbyearlier
scholarship,thetrustthatZellerorevenBurnetwillhaveskimmedthecreamfromearlierwork,leadseithertotheunconsciousrepetitionofearlierconstructionswhich
hadalreadyintheirdaybeensubjectedtoatleastpartialrefutation,asisinstancedbymodernnoncyclicinterpretationsofEmpedocles'cosmicsystem,oratleast,as
inthepresentcase,tothenarrowingofone'schoicetoalternativesthatseemattractiveonlybecausetheyrestonasimplificationofthedoxographicalevidence,and
oncriteriaofinterpretationthatrequirenofresheffortofthehistoricalimaginationinthetranspositionofourowncategoriesofthinkingtowardstheverydifferent
habitsofthoughtthatcharacterisedphilosophicalreflectioninthecenturybeforePlato.
InthemainbodyofthismonographIhavethereforerestrictedmycitationsanddiscussionofnineteenthcenturyinterpretationsofweighttotheoccasionalfootnote,
notbecauseIthinkthatmorerecentscholarshipisnecessarilybetter,butbecauseitismoreinfluential.ThefirstsectionofthisfinalchapterofmystudyofDemocritus
isintended,briefly,torightthebalance,andtoacknowledgethatseveralelementsessentialtomypresentinterpretationhadbeenmootedbyscholarsinthenineteenth
century,whileatthesametimeIshalltrytoexplainwhyinnineteenthcenturydiscussionsoftheproblemtheseelementswereneverbroughttogetherintoasingle
synthesis,norrelatedtoananalysisoftheevidenceasawhole.
(i)
InterpretationsfromtheearlierpartofthenineteenthcenturyarelistedandanalysedbrieflybyLiepmann.1Hislistdoesnot,
1
Mechanik1015.
Page349
however,includeapotentiallyfruitfuldefinitionofweightthatappearedinanaccountofDemocritusbyRenouvier.
'Lepoidsnesubsistepasdansl'atome,maisilsemanifestedanslechoc,etonnedoitpasentendreparcemot,poids,uneforceuniqued'unedirectionconstante,maiscetteforce
gnrale,variabledegrandeuretdedirection,qu'exercetoutatomequesemeut,sans,pourcela,laporterensoicommeunequalitnativeetessentiellehorsdumouvementetdes
composs.'1
Unfortunatelyonlyoneelementinthisdefinition,andasithappenedthewrongelement,cametobetakenupbythoseofhisfellowcountrymenwhotooknoteof
Renouvier'swork.Insteadofreflectingonthepossibleexpressionofweightasforceofimpact,theyseizedinsteaduponthenotionofweightasafactorwhich,like
positionorarrangement,wouldcomeintoplayonlywhenonebodywasrelatedtoanother.ThisdeflectionofRenouvier'soriginalconceptionarosethrougha
comparisonwithDescartesproposedbyPillon.DescarteshimselfhadsoughttodistinguishhisowntheoryfromthatofDemocritus,onanumberofpoints,including
thequestionofweight:Democritus,heheld,hadattributedweighttotheatomshehimselfsoughttodenythattherewasweightinanybody,'entantqu'ilestconsider
seul,pourcequec'estunequalitquidpenddumutuelrapportqueplusieurscorpsontlesunsauxautres'(Descartes'ownitalics).2PillondeniedthatDemocritus'
atomshadweight,andthereforefounditeasytoidentifyDescartes'viewwiththeversionofDemocritus'theorythathadbeengivenbyRenouvier.3Thisconflationof
thetwoideas,thatofDescartesandthatofRenouvier,wasrepeatedbyMabilleau,whoconcludedofDemocritusandofDescartestogetherthat:
'Aucuncorpsn'estconsidrcommepesant,entantqu'ilestprisisolment.'4
1
Manueli246.
2
Principiaphilosophiaeiv202.AnaccountofDescartes'theory,andofitsfortunesamonghisimmediatesuccessors,maybefoundinPaulMouy,Ledveloppementdelaphysique
cartsienne16461712(Paris,1934).
3
F.Pillon,'L'volutionhistoriquedel'atomisme'1213.
4
Histoiredelaphilosophieatomistique199.
Page350
Onceexpressedinthisform,Renouvier'sinterpretationwasfatallyvulnerable,fornowitconflicteddirectlywiththestipulationinTheophrastus'accountoftheatomic
theoryofweight:'ifeachatomweretakenseparatelyonitsown...'.TheinevitabledeathblowwasdealtbyGoedeckemeyer.1
(ii)
ThepotentiallyfruitfulfeatureofRenouvier'sdefinitionhadlaininitsattempttogiveweightapositivemeaningotherthanthatofcauseofmovementinaspecific
direction.TheauthorslistedbyLiepmannwereforthemostpartconcerned,inhowevertentativeandconfusedafashion,toassertortodenythatweightwascauseof
theatoms'movement.ThispreoccupationwasgivenclearestandmostforcefulexpressionbyZeller,whoattributedtoDemocritustheideawhichisattackedby
Lucretius,andinaslightlydifferentformbyAlexander,totheeffectthattheatomsmovedownwardsinthevoid,withgreaterorlessspeedaccordingtotheirweight,
andthusbecomeentangledwithoneanotherwithoutanyneedforadeclinatio.2
Zeller'spursuanceofhisthesisexertedupontheinterpretationoftheevidence,andinparticularupontheinterpretationofthedoxographicalevidenceandof
Simplicius,whatcanIthinkbest
1
Goedeckemeyer,EpikursVerhltnis1213.EvenbeforeGoedeckemeyer'sfatalattack,thealternativeelementinRenouvier'sdefinitionhaddegeneratedintotheideathatthe
atomsaremovedby'impulsion'or'choc',asanalternativetotheirhavingweight,preciselyasintheentryinAetius(p.223above).ThisatleastishowthecaseappearsinFlix
Ravaisson,Essaisurlamtaphysiqued'Aristoteii(Paris,1846)8990,andinLiard,DeDemocritophilosopho434.InRenouvierhimselftheideaisthat'force'or'choc'isan
expressionofweightthisisamuchmoresubtleidea,howeverimplausiblemayhavebeentheinterpretationthatRenouvierthentriedtogiveoftheformulainAristotle.
(Renouvier'sinterpretationof hasbeenquotedabovep.45.)
Theuncertainty,whether'force'isanadmissionoradenialofweight,isneatlyillustratedbythewayinwhichanEnglishwriterrepeats(withoutacknowledgment)Renouvier's
formulation,GeorgeH.Lewes,ThehistoryofphilosophyfromThalestoComte5thedni(London,1880)102:
'Democritusalsodeniedthatatomshadanyweighttheyhadonlyforce,anditwastheimpulsiongivenbysuperiorforcewhichconstitutedweight.'
2
Zeller,ZN10668and107699.Lucretius,ii2259Alexander,ap.Simpl.Phys.679.1222cf.Epicurus,Ep.adHer.61seepp.185ff.above.
Page351
bedescribedasagravitationalpullfromwhicheventhosewhohaveabandonedZeller'sconclusionshavestillscarcelybeenabletoextricatethemselves.ForZeller
claimedasprimaryevidenceforhisthesispreciselythosepassageswhereAristotleandTheophrastusattributeweighttotheatoms,andmoreparticularlythepassage
whereSimpliciusattributesthemovementoftheatomstoweight.1TheerosionofthetestimonyofAristotleandTheophrastushasbeenaslowandonlyapartial
process,takentoitsmostextremebyCherniss.2Simpliciushasbeenaneasiervictim.EvenwheretheyhavebeenabletodisproveZeller'sconclusionsonthe
downwardmovementoftheatoms,Zeller'sopponentshavebeenunwillingtorescueSimplicius'evidenceasawholefromthelimboofselfcontradiction,orofplain
error,wherealoneheseemsnolongerabletothreatentheirarguments.3
OfthetworefutationsofZellerbyLiepmannandBrieger,thatbyBriegerisatoncetheclearerandIthinkonthewholethemorecompetent:itisalsothemore
obviouslyatalossonthequestionofweight.Thusatthebeginningofhisessay,Briegerrejectstheattributionofmovement'byweight'totheatoms,astestifiedby
SimpliciuswhileattheendofthisfirstpartofhisessayheequallyrejectsAetius'denialofweighttotheatoms.4Simplicius'evidenceBriegerrejectsbecauseheseesit
astellinginfavourofdownwardmovement.Aetius'evidenceheseesaspossibleonlybecausetheatomsdidnotmovedownwards,andwerethereforesupposedto
beweightlessbuthetreatsthedenialofweightasnonetheless
1
Thesepassageshavebeenstudied:Aristotle,Degen.etcorr.i8,326a911(inpartDK68A60),ch.II,pp.4179aboveDecaeloiv2,308b35309a2(inpartDK68A60),ch.III,
pp.80114aboveTheophrastus,Desens.612(DK68A135),ch.IV1,pp.11531aboveSimplicius,Phys.1318.301319.5(inpartDK68A58),ch.V3,pp.16673above.
2
ThusChernissclaimsthatofthetwopassageswhereAristotleissupposedtoattributeweighttotheatoms,theone(Decaeloiv2,308b28309a11)doesnotdescribeatomsatall,
whileintheother(Degen.etcorr.i8,325b36326a14)Aristotledoesnotattribute'real'weighttotheatoms.SeeACP979and20913fortheequivocationbetweenabsoluteweight
and'real'weight,esp.ACP211n.253:forthedenialofabsoluteweighttotheatoms,esp.ACP211n.253.Contrastpp.6ff.above(thedenialofabsoluteweight)pp.46ff.above(the
passagefromtheDegen.etcorr.)pp.81ff.above(thepassagefromtheDecaelo).
3
ForattacksonSimplicius'consistency,andintegrity,seeabovepp.269ff.
4
Urbewegung78and1213,cf.'Urbewegung'587and596.Simpl.Phys.1318.301319.5(inpartDK68A58),ch.V3,pp.16673above.Aet.i12.6,cf.i3.18(DK68A47),ch.VIII1
2,pp.22339above.
Page352
mistaken,becauseoftheevidenceofAristotleandTheophrastus.ThusBriegerendsupassertingthattheatomshaveweight,butnotallowingtheirweighttohaveany
effectontheirmovementoronanyotheraspectoftheirbehaviour.HisthesisisthereforetotallyexposedtoBurnet'sobjection:
'Thisweight,sinceitproducesnoeffect,doesnotyetexist.'1
Liepmannattemptstobeadegreemorepositive,inspeakingofalatentweightorPseudoschwere,whichheseesasconsistingprimarilyinresistancetoforce.2Butin
attemptingtoexplicatethisnotionheisdriventowritesuchdesperate,althoughatthesametimesuchpromising,sentencesasthat:
'DieDemocritscheSchwere...ineinemSinneSchwere,undimanderenSinnedochnichtSchwerewar.'3
Brieger'sfailuretoattributesomepositiveexpressiontoweightisthemoreremarkableinthatheconcludesthefirstpartofhisoriginalessaywithsomeremarks,
admittedlyinaverytentativeform,onthepossibilityoftheatoms'movingwithdifferencesofspeedorwithdifferencesintheirforceofimpact.
'Wennwirnunfragen,wiewirunsdieUrbewegungderAtomedesnherendenkensollen,sosindwirfastalleinaufSchlssegewiesen,undzwaraufSchlsseauseinemusserst
drftigenMaterial....ObdasgrssereAtommitgrssererKraftstossen,dasmitgrssererKraftgestossenesichschnellerbewegensoll...dieseundanderenaheliegende
Fragenvermagichnichtzubeantworten.'4
Theideaofdifferencesofspeed,aswehaveseen,occursinbookfourofAristotle'Physics,whereitisofferedpreciselyasanexpressionofdifferencesinweight.5
Briegermakesnomentionof
1
EGP345n.1.
2
Mechanik2830,cf.42,47.
3
Mechanik323.
4
Urbewegung13.
5
Phys.iv8,215a259and216a1121,cf.pp.1879,1902and315ff.above.
Page353
weight,andexpressestheideasolelyintermsofthesizeoftheatoms.Since,however,theweightofatomsisdeterminedbytheirsize,thedistinctionisonlyaformal
one,andBrieger'stentativequestionthereforecomesclosetoexpressingthetheorywhichAristotlecriticisesinthePhysics.
TheextremetentativenessofBrieger'sproposal,andhisavoidanceofweightatthispoint,areboth,Ithink,symptomaticofhisunresolvedattitudetowardsevidence
thathadbeenemployedbyZeller.ForZellerhadattachedthispassageinthePhysicstotextsinEpicurusandLucretius,andhademployedthewholeasprimary
evidenceforhisinterpretationoftheatomsmovingdownwards,withdifferentspeeds,inthevoid.1
InattemptingtoneutraliseZeller'semploymentofthepassageinthePhysics,BriegerhadarguedthatitwasnotdirectedspecificallytoDemocritus,orindeedagainst
anyparticularthinker.
'DasErgebnis,zuwelchemergelangt,dasssichnmlichimLeerennichteinesrascheralsdasanderebewegenknne,aberauchnichtallesgleichschnell,worausfolge,dass,
wenneseineBewegunggbe,keinLeeresexistiere,interessiertunshiernicht'(myitalics).2
IhaveitalicisedthefinalphrasebecauseitissoclearlyatoddswithBrieger'semploymentofvirtuallythisidea,minusweight,inhisfinal,tentativereflectionsonthe
natureoftheatoms'movementonlyapageortwolater.
ButthisisnotthewholeextentofZeller'sinfluenceonBrieger'sinterpretationofthispassage.Briegercontinues:
'Nurdaswollteichbeweisenundglaubeesbewiesenzuhaben,dasskeinGrundvorliegt,diewiderlegteAnnahmeeinesungleichschnellenFallesimLeereneherdemDemokrit
alsirgendeinemandernvondenNaturphilosophenzuzuweisen,jadassberhauptankeinbestimmtesSystemzudenkenist'(myitalics).3
1
EspeciallyZN10889.
2
Urbewegung910.
3
Urbewegung10.
Page354
ButinAristotlethemovementthatisenvisagedinthevoid,andthatismadetheobjectofcriticism,containsnonecessaryconnotationofbeingmovementexclusively
downwards.ItseemssotoBrieger,onlybecauseZellerhadjoinedthispassagetothoseinEpicurusandLucretius,aspartofhisthesisofDemocritus'fallofatoms.
BriegerhasfailedtobreakawayfromZeller'sinterpretationandconflationoftheevidence,andsohasfailedtoappreciatethat,onhisowninterpretation,thepassage
couldaswellrefertoDemocritusasnot.1
(iii)
ThequestionofdifferencesofspeedisthemoreinterestinginthatitwassingledoutinaremarkablystraightforwardandperceptivepassageinareviewofBriegerby
Lortzing.2Inthecourseofasympathetic,andindeedflattering,review,Lortzingwrote:
'Inderhauptsachemssenwirdemverfasserbeipflichten,darinnmlich,dassallerwarscheinlichkeitnachdielterenatomikernichtdiefallbewegungderatomealsdieprimre
angesehenhaben.Eineanderefrageistdie,obsiedamitzugleichauchjedewirkungderschwereaufdieatomenbewegunggeleugnethaben.Eswredochwunderbar,wennsie
denurkrperneineausihremwesenresultierendeeigenschaftbeigelegthtten,dievlligunwirksamundlatentbliebe.OhnezweifelistnachDemokritdieursacheallerbewegung
derstossaberdiestrkediesesstossesunddamitauchdieschnelligkeitderbewegunghngtvonderungleichenmasseoderschwerederatomeab.'3
EveninLortzing,however,theinfluenceofZeller,inhisemploymentofLucretius,canbefelt,forLortzingcontinues:
1
Theonlyconnotationofmovementdownwardsorupwardsliesintheassociationofweightandsize:Aristotleassumesthatthelargerbodywilltravelthemorequickly,asin
hisowntheoryofthemovementofearthandfire.ThisinturnmeansthatthecorrelationofsizeandweightinAristotle'sargumentwillhavetobemodified,ifthemechanismof
Aristotle'sargumentistoapplydirectlytoDemocritus:seepp.3239above.
2
PhilologischerAnzeiger15(1885)57883.
3
PhilologischerAnzeiger15(1885)581:theGermanisprintedthusintheoriginal.
Page355
'DenneineungleichheitderbewegungmussdochwohlDemokritangenommenhaben,daohnedieseeinaufeinandertreffenderatomekaumdenkbarwre.'
Adifferenceofspeedwillindeedbeneedediftheatomsaremovingdownwards,whichisasthetheoryappearsinLucretius,inAlexanderandinZeller:buttherewill
benonecessityfortheatomstohavedifferencesofspeed,inordertocatcheachotherup,if,asonBrieger'stheory,theyaremovingindifferentdirections.1
ThisblemishinLortzing'spresentationofhissuggestionmaypossiblyinpartexplainwhythewholeideaisignoredwhenBriegerreturnstothefraysometwentyyears
later.2Butthereis,Ithink,amorepowerfulinfluenceatworktoconfuseBrieger'spowersofreceptivity,eveninhislateressay.Inthefinaleditionofhisgreatwork,
ZellerhadrejectedBrieger'sandLiepmann'sinterpretation,forcefullyandatlength.3Eveninhislateressay,therefore,Brieger'swholepreoccupationisstillcentredon
counteringZelleronthenarrowfrontofdownwardmovement,whileleavinginabeyanceanyradicalrethinkingonthequestionofweight.Thusitisfascinatingto
observethatinhisrehandlingofthepassagefrombookfourofthePhysics,BriegersuccessfullydetachesthepassagefromitsidentificationwithEpicurusand
Lucretius,andrightlyarguesthattakeninitselfthepassageaffordsnoevidencefordownwardmovement.ButBriegerstudiouslyavoidsanyrepetitionofhisearlier
suggestion,despiteitsendorsementbyLortzing,thatdifferencesofspeedmighthavebelongedtotheatoms,anideawhichintheabsencenowofanyconnectionwith
downwardmovementshouldonlyhavebecomethemoreplausible.Instead,hearguesthatthepassageinthePhysicsiscouchedexclusivelyintermsofAristotelean
categories,andheconcludes,almost,onefeels,asarebuketohisearliertentativeintuitions:
'WelcherArtabernachatomistischerAnsichtdieUrbewe
1
Lucretius,ii2259Alexander,ap.Simpl.Phys.679.1319cf.pp.18590above.
2
AdolfBrieger,'DieUrbewegungderDemokritischenAtome',Philologus63n.F.17(1904)58496.
3
PhilosophiederGriechen5thedn(1891)86888(=ZN107699).
Page356
1
gungimLeerenseinsoll,darausistausdieserStelledurchausnichtszuentnehmen.'
Thereason,Ithink,whyBriegercurbsinthiswayhisearlierintuitionsisthathehasfeltitnecessary,forthesafetyofhisthesis,toendorseZeller'sdefinitionofweight.
Inhisfinaledition,Zellerhadwritten:
'UnterderSchwerehat...niemandimAltertumetwasanderesverstandenalsdiejenigeEigenschaftderKrper,vermenderensiesichnachuntenbewegen,wennihnendies
nichtdurcheinusseresHindernisverwehrtwird.'2
BriegerrepeatspreciselyZeller'sformula:
'UnterSchwereversteheich...dieEigenschaft,dassdieAtomesichineinerbestimmtenRichtung,wirsagen:nachunten,bewegen,wennsienichtuntersttztwerden.'3
Clearly,onceweadoptthisdefinitionofweight,Democritus'atomscouldnotmovewithdifferencesofspeedaccordingtotheirsizeorweightwithouttheiralsobeing
atoncecommittedtomovementdownwards.
(iv)
Butthetruthisthatitisimpossible,asoftenasnot,tohiveoffoneelementonlyinthereconstructionortheinterpretationofapieceofearlyphilosophy,andhopeto
achieveadefinitivesolutiontothispoint,withoutaconsciousgraspoftheneighbouringconceptionswhichmightimpingeuponit.BriegerhopestodemolishZeller's
argumentonmovement,whileacceptingcarteblancheZeller'sconceptionofweight.ButZeller'sconceptionofweightisinfactdoublywrong.Thereisnosingle
ancientconceptionofweight.Weight,forthePresocratics,isnotprimarilyorexclusivelyexpressedbymovementinaspecificdirection.Butso
1
'Urbewegung'593.
2
PhilosophiederGriechen5thedn876(=ZN1084).
3
'Urbewegung'586.
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authoritativeisZeller'stonethatalthoughZelleroffersnoevidencetosupporthissweepingdefinitionnonethelessBriegeracceptshisdefinitionunflinchingly,althoughin
doingsohenotonlyabandonshisearlierintuitionsaboutdifferencesofspeed:inacceptingblindlyZeller'sdefinitionofweight,Briegerlayshiswholeinterpretation
opentooneorotheroftwofatalobjections.
1.Iftheatomshaveweight,theymustmovedownwards.
2.Iftheatomsdonotmovedownwards,thentheyhavenoweight.
ThesecondalternativehadalreadybeenadoptedbyDyroff:
'...DemokritosdenursprnglichenAtomenSchwereundLeichtigkeitnichtbeigelegthatte,sondern...erbeideEigenschaftenerstbeidenAtomenderErdeundbeiden
SinnesqualitteneineBetrachtungunterwirft.'1
Briegerwasabletowriteslightingly,inhislateressay,oftheideathattheearthshouldbelightaswellasheavy.2ButhisobjectiontouchesonlythesurfaceofDyroff's
idea.ByacceptingZeller'sdefinitionofweight,andbyleavingtheprecosmicatomsthereforewithoutanyexpressionofweightpossibletothemthatwouldnotleadat
oncetoZeller'stheoryofafallofatoms,BriegerinevitablyleftthewayopenforBurnettorestateDyroff'sinterpretation,whichhedidbyaddingseveralpagestothe
secondeditionofhisEarlyGreekphilosophy,substitutingonlyworldforearth.3EventhischangeislessimportantthanitmayseemfromBurnet'sbrief
acknowledgmentofDyroff.4Forinwritingoftheearthbeinglightaswellasheavy,andinlimitingtheintroductionoflightandheavytotheearth,insteadoftothe
cosmosatlarge,Dyroffwasdoingnomorethantrytofollowfaithfullythedoxographicalaccountsofhowtheworldgrowsfromtheseparationoflightandheavy
elementsfromwithinwhatiscalledtheearth.5Burnet'ssupposedcorrectionisasimplifica
1
Demokritstudien35.
2
'Urbewegung'586.
3
EGP2ndedn(1908)3948(3rdedn3416).
4
EGP2ndedn398n.1(=3rdedn344n.4).
5
EspeciallyAet.iii13.4(DK68A95)cf.p.153n.3above.
Page358
tionofDyroff'sthesisitisinnowayanimprovementuponitwhileBrieger'sslightingreferencetotheexistenceofbothheavyandlightelementswithintheearth
simplyignorestherefinementofDyroff'sargument.
MuchmoretothepointwasBrieger'sargumentagainstDyroffthattheatomshaveallthesamenature,andcannotthereforedifferradicallyinhaving,orinnothaving,
weight,althoughthereisatouchofwilfulpolemicinBrieger'sobjectingthatitisimpossibleforsomeatomstohaveweightandforothersnotto,whileDyroff'sideais
clearlythatthesameatoms,atdifferenttimes,have,anddonothave,weight.Briegerwrites:
'Daraufistzuerwidern,dassdieAtomeabsolutwesensgleichsind,Aristot.decaelo.I7.275b29ff.,alsoknnennichtdieErdatomeSchwerehaben,whrenddiebrigen,d.h.die
nichtindieErdverbindungeingegangenenAtomegewichtlossind.'1
ItisamoreseriousfaultthatBriegerrefersonlytotheDecaelo.Indoingso,heshowsthatheisstilltooabsorbedincontroversytobeabletoexploittheevidence
independentlyoftheusethatZellerhadmadeofit.ForinthepassagereferredtofromtheDecaeloAristotlewritesonlythattheatomshaveallthesamesubstance,
andthereforemustbealleitherheavyabsolutelyorlightabsolutely.Fromthisitcouldperhapsconceivablybeargued(inDyroff'sfavour)thatinfactthereforethey
canhavebeensaidtobeneither.Farmoretothepoint,forBrieger'sargument,isSimplicius'statementthataccordingtoDemocritustheatoms'haveweightinvirtue
oftheuniformityoftheirnature'.Butinhandlingthispassage,BriegerisstillconcernedonlytoargueagainstZellerthatthedownwardmovementofbodiesthere
spokenofisthemovementofcompoundbodiesandnotofatoms,andismovementwithinthecosmosandnotoutsidethecosmos.2ThusBrieger'spotentiallymost
valuableally,Simplicius,islost.HispointagainstDyroffislefttostand,faultedatoncebyhisownpolemic,andunattachedtotheonepieceofancientevidencethat
supports
1
'Urbewegung'586.ForthepassagefromtheDecaeloseeesp.pp.1115above.
2
'Urbewegung'58990.Simpl.,Decaelo569.59,cf.pp.1547above.
Page359
1
itmostclearly:Simplicius'statementthattheatomshaveweight,asitwereintheirownright.
(v)
BurnetignoresBrieger'sobjection.Hetakesinstead,insupportforhisrevisionofDyroff'stheory,Brieger'sfinalargument:the
1
IhavetracedtherouteZeller,Liepmann,Brieger,Dyroffwhich,tojudgefromthereferencesgiveninEGP,infactledBurnettohisinterpretation.
Analternativeroutelayopen.AnumberofwritersarguefromDemocritus'generaltheoryofthenatureofperceptionthattheatomsarewithoutanyqualities,suchasheatorflavour,
andthattheyarethereforewithoutweight.ThisistheargumentinLafaist,Philosophieatomistique735,andinJohannE.Erdmann,GrundrissderGeschichtederPhilosophie4th
edni(Berlin,1896)545,andwithsomequalificationinRenouvier,Manueli245.ItalsoappearsfleetinglyinthepassageIlastquotedfromDyroff,Demokritstudien35.
DespitesomesensibleandcogentremarksagainstthisviewbyLiepmann,Mechanik32,theideareappearsinHamelin,andtheretakesonaformveryclosetoBurnet'sinterpretation,
'Lapesanteurdel'atome'198:
'Ildemeureacquiseneffet...queDmocrite(cequiestd'ailleursbienconnu)niel'existencedesqualitsaffectivesdanslesatomesmaislesfaitdpendretoutefoisdes
propritsgomtriquesdesatomes:telestexpressmentlecasdelachaleurettelparaittrelecasdelapesanteur.'
Hamelincontinues,198n.3:
'Sicen'estpeuttreque,considrerlesatomesquifontpartied'unmonde,lapesanteuryexisteenellemmetellequ'ellenousapparat,parcequ'elleestuneforcedont
l'atomesetrouvealorsrellementdou,d'oqu'ill'aitreue.'
Morerecently,thisinterpretationseemstohavelapsed,thoughtheideathattheatomsarewithoutweightbecausetheyhavenosensiblequalitiesdoescropupinpassinginI.A.
Boricevskij,'DemokritundEpikurimKampfumdieGrundlagendesAtomismus'[inRussian],Archiveforthehistoryofscienceandtechnology[inRussian],series1,number8(1936)
125.SeealsoHahmintheBibliography.
Therelationof'subjective'(hot,red,sweet)to'objective'properties(round,small)isofcourseacrucialquestionintheanalysisofancientAtomism.Ihavetoucheduponthepoint
earlier,pp.2568andinthefinalchapterofmysecondessayIshallarguethattheinclusionofweightamongthe'subjective'propertieswasasteptakenonlybyPlato.ButIshallnot
attempttodealwiththeatomictheoryofperceptionasawhole:althoughitisalwaysdangeroustodealwiththeideasofanythinkerpiecemeal,Ithinkthatinthiscasetheevidence
forweightmustbeanalysedonitsownterms,beforethenotionofweightcanproperlyberelatedtothelargerquestionoftheAtomists'conceptionofmaterialbodiesandtheir
relationtohumanperceptionorintelligence.
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useof inDiogenesLaertius.1Briegerhadarguedfromthisthattheprecosmicatoms'imGleichgewichteschwebten'.2Burnetchanges'imGleichgewichte'
to'theabsenceofweight',althoughinadaptingBrieger'sargumenthefailstoappreciatethat,ashisowntranslationofthepassagefromDiogenes,copiedoutfromthe
firsteditionafewpagesearlier,hadmadereasonablyclear,thisdescriptionappliesnottoatomsoutsidethecosmos,buttoatomsthatarealreadycaughtintothe
beginningsofacosmogonicalprocess.3
ButifonlybecauseBurnetandBriegerareatthispointcompanionsinerror,itiseasiertoask:whatdifferenceofsubstanceisthereinBurnet'sandBrieger's
interpretationof ?
Burnet'svacillationsonthesubjectarechillinglyclear,ifwecomparethewordingofthesecondandthethirdedition.
'...theword isthereforethatinwhichthetendencyinonedirectionisexactlyequaltothetendencyinanyother,andsuchastateismorenaturallydescribedasthe
absenceofweightthanasthepresenceofoppositeweightsneutralisingoneanother.Thatwayoflookingatitmaybeusefulfromthepointofviewoflaterscience,butitisnot
safetoattributeittothethinkersofthefifthcenturyB.C.'4
'...theword isthereforethatinwhichthetendencyinonedirectionisexactlyequaltothetendencyinanyother,andsuchastateismorenaturallydescribedasthe
absenceofweightthanasthepresenceofoppositeweightsneutralisingoneanother.'5
1
ix301(DK67A1)seeesp.ch.VII2,pp.20710above.
2
'Urbewegung'596.
3
EGP3389,cf.345.
4
EGP2ndedn398.
5
EGP3rdedn3445.Ihavemarkedinitalicsthedifferencesbetweenthetwoeditions.
Page361
Inthesecondeditionitfollowsnaturallyenoughperhapstoarguethat iscauseandnottheeffectofweight,whichishowtheideaappearsinthethirdedition.
Thenewpremissisinanycaseasophism.If isusedinthecontextofweight,thenthemovement,orthetendencytomovement,indicatedbythewordisquite
simplytheexpressionofweight:ithardlymakessensetochoosebetweensayingthatthemovementisthecauseoristheeffectofweight,outsidethecontextofa
particulartheoryofweightandifwewereforcedtochoose,thenitwouldevenseemmorenaturaltosayperhapsthatthemovementistheeffectofweight.1
ButtherealconfusionofBurnet'sargumentliesinhisattemptatoncetodisengage fromanyconnotationofweight,andatthesametimetoconcludethat
themeaningofthewordinDemocritusis'theabsenceofweight'.
1.If neednot,andinthispassagedoesnot,haveanynecessaryconnotationofweightthenwecanconcludeneitherthatitmeansofequalweightnorthatitmeans
withoutweight.
2.If,ontheotherhand,wearetomakethechoicebetween'imGleichgewichte'and'theabsenceofweight',thenitcanbeonlybecause inthiscontextdoesreferto
weight:whetheritthenreferstothecauseortotheeffectofweight,makeslittledifference.
1
ThedistinctionmakessomesenseinthecontextofDescartes'theory(cf.pp.34950above),wheremovementisprimaryandweightisinsomesensesecondary,sothatPillon
canclaim,forDemocritusasforDescartes,thatweight'estunrsultat,nonunprincipedumouvement'('L'volutionhistoriquedel'atomisme',122).MabilleaumisquotesPillon's
viewasthat'lapesanteuresticilersultatetnonlacausedumouvement'(Histoiredelaphilosophieatomistique199).ItistemptingtoseeBurnet'sformula(1920)that 'is
thecauseratherthantheeffectofweight'assimplyareversalofMabilleau'smisquotation(1895)ofPillon(1891).Ifso,theoriginoftheformulawoulddemonstrateitsweakness.
TheassertionorthedenialofPillon'sformulahardlyhasmeaningoutsidethecontextofCartesianismorunlesswedistinguishbetweenweightandmomentum.
Page362
Andintruth,ifhavingthreadedourwaythroughBurnet'sconfusion,wepausetoconsider,eithermoreparticularly,whether isthemorelikelytomean'of
equalweight'or'ofnoweight',ormoregenerallywhetheritisbettertosaythattheatomsoutsideacosmoshaveaweightwhichtheydonotexpressuntiltheyare
drawnintoacosmos,ortosaythatatfirsttheyhavenoweightandthatlatertheygainweight,thenwesoonrealise,Ithink,thatineithercasewearefacedwitha
distinctionwithverylittledifference.ForifthiswerethestateofaffairswhichtheevidenceforancientAtomismpresenteduswiththenthemostobviousconceptual
expressiontothesolutionwouldbetosaythattheprecosmic,orintercosmic,atomshavepotentialweight:andwhenitisthenpointedoutthatthedistinctionof
potentialandactualhasnofirmfootinginprePlatonicthought,itwillbeobviousthatthedistinctionbetween'noweight'and'noweightthatisasyetapparent'isfairly
arbitrary,andthattheattractionofchoosingthesimplerformulationlies,ifnotinitsnavet,theninthedesiretoaccommodatetheentryinAetiuswhichdeclaresthat
Democritus'atoms'havenoweight',onthecrudelysimplisticprinciplethatoneshouldfindaplaceinone'sreconstructionforasmuchoftheancientevidenceas
possible,nomatterwhatitsrelativeworth.
ButthefinalfallacyinBurnet'shypothesisdoesnotlieinhisfalsechoicebetweentheatoms'havingnoapparentweightandtheirhavingnoweightatall.Itliesinthe
suppressionfromhisthirdeditionofthesentencewhichconcludedhisoriginalanalysisofweight:
'Thatwayoflookingatit',namelyasthepresenceofoppositeweightsneutralisingeachother,'maybeusefulfromthepointofviewoflaterscience,butitisnotsafetoattributeit
tothethinkersofthefifthcenturyB.C.'
Thisfinalsentencecomesdangerouslyclosetoadmittingthat as'theabsenceofweight'insteadof'thepresenceofoppositeweights'.Nosuchsleightof
handcanmakeit'safe'totransposetothefifthcenturytheterminologyofthefourthcenturyorlater.
Page363
Thetruthisthat symptomisesthewholenotionofweightconceivedprimarilyandnecessarilyintermsofmovementthatispeculiartoPlatoandto
Aristotle.ItisthisnotionthatBurnet,BriegerandZelleralike,unreflectinglytransfertothefifthcenturywhentheysupposeeitherthatbecausetheatomshaveweight,
theymustmovedownwards,orthat,sincetheatomsdonotmovedownwards,thentheycanhavenoweight,oratleastnoappearanceormanifestationofweight.1
(vi)
ItisthissamenotionofweightthatdeterminestheaccountofAtomisminthecurrentmanuals,andthatinsodoingshowshowlittlehasyetbeenlearntofwhatthe
Presocraticshavepreeminentlytoteachus:thedifficulty,thefascination,andtherelief,ofescapingfromunconsciouspresuppositions,andfromingrainedhabitsof
thought.
Anotherwisesensiblescholar(withthelimitationsaswellastheadvantagesimpliedinthatdescription)writesrecently,whenhecomestothequestionthathasbeen
thesubjectofthisessay:
'Wemayherepausetoconsiderwhatweightmeans:itmeansatendencytomoveconsistentlyinacertaindirection,whatwecall''downwards",andaresistanceto"upward"
movement.'2
1
TheconceptualerrorthatIhavesoughttouncovershouldnotblindustothedoxographicalusethatcanproperlybemadeofthetwoterms
canapply,orsoIhaveargued,onlytothemovementonatomsatanearlystageintheformationofacosmos(cf.pp.20311
above).
Fromadoxographicalpointofviewtherefore,theerrorinBriegerandinBurnetconsistsinattemptingtoapplythepositiveuseoftheterm ,impliedbyDiogenes,toatime
priortotheformationofthecosmos,asdescribedintheTimaeus.Theaccompanyingconceptualerrorconsistsinthesupposition(1)thatatomswhichareoutsideacosmos,and
whichdonotfall,cannothaveweight,and(2)that'balance'canproperlybeaccountedalackofweight.
2
Kirk,Presocraticphilosophers415.
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Ifonlythewriterofthesewordshadpausedtothink.Andifonly,inpausing,hehadtakentimetoreflectnotonwhatweight'means',asthoughmeaningsexistedin
themselves,norevenonwhatweight'means'forus,butonwhatweightmighthavemeantforthosefirstphilosophersofGreece,whosewaysofthinkingarerelated
to,butareremotefrom,ourown.
2
EarlyGreekConceptionsofHeavyandLight
(i)
IfwearetotrytoplaceDemocritus'theoryofweight,howeverbriefly,initspropercontextinthehistoryofearlyGreekphilosophy,andmoreparticularlyifweareto
correcttheinfluentialbutfacilepictureofearlynotionsofweightofferedbyBurnet,soastodistinguishclearlybetweentheAtomists'conceptionofweightandthe
necessaryentailmentofweightandmovementthatwaslateranintegralpartofPlatonicandAristoteleanphilosophy,weneedfirsttoreturntothenotionthat
movementandrest,forthePresocratics,formedpartofacircleofassociationsthatwhenAristotlewrotewerealreadyoutdatedasadeterminativeforcein
philosophicalthinking,andthateveninPlatoappearonly,Ithink,aspartoftheconsciousanachronism,instyleanddetail,oftheTimaeus.1
ForthePresocratics,restandmovementwereprimarilyassociatedwiththeoppositionbetweenunityandplurality,likenessanddifference.FortheAtomists,in
particular,themovementoftheatomswasprobablysufficientlyexplainedby,orperhapssufficientlytakenforgrantedasaconcomitantof,theireternallypreexisting
pluralityanddiversity.2
ForAristotle,thesesameassociationsarenolongerviable.Unityandplurality,samenessanddifference,insofarasthey
1
Cf.ch.XI2,pp.31115above.ForBurnet'sinterpretation(EGP3417),seeabovepp.1757and35963.
2
Eternity,insomesense,isexpresslystatedbyAristotleasthearcheofnaturalphenomenafortheAtomists,andinthatsenseasprovidingacauseorexplanation,orperhapsone
shouldrathersayasobviatinganyneedforacause:Phys.viii1,252a32b5(inpartDK68A65),Degen.anim.ii6,742b1735(amazinglynotinDK:perhapsoneofthemostimportant
passagesforanunderstandingofPresocraticnotionsofcausality),cf.Eus.Praep.evang.i8.7(DK68A39).
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page365
havenotbeenaltogetherabandoned,aresubsumedunderthenewoppositionsofformandmatter,andofpotencyandact.Fortheelements,andfortheinanimate
substanceswhichareformedfromthem,movementandrestarenowprimarilytheexpressionofweight,asdefinedbythetheoryofnaturalplacesfortheelements.
ThusattheveryoutsetofhisanalysisofweightinbookfouroftheDecaeloAristotlewritesofhisenquiryintothenatureofthingsheavyandlightasbeing'proper'
tothestudyofquestionsconcerningmovement,'sincethingsheavyandlightaresocalledbytheircapacityfornaturalmovementofsomekind'(307b28
32).
ThereisanolesssymptomaticprefacetothelongerofthetwoaccountsofheavyandlightintheTimaeus.Platostartspreciselybyclaimingthat'heavyandlightmay
beexplainedmostclearlyiftheyareexaminedinconjunctionwiththenatureofwhatis"above"and"below"'(62C34:
Platocontinues(62C563A6)byisolating,andrejecting,thenotionthatthereareintheuniversetwooppositeplaces'whichdividethewholebetweenthem',aplace
'below'towhichanythingmoveswhichhasanybodyorbulk,andaplace'above'towhichthingstravelonlyinvoluntarily.TheviewwhichPlatorejectshereisthat
expressed,manycenturieslater,bySimplicius,as :onDemocritus'theory,asseenfromthepointofviewofAristotle's
philosophy,'onlywhatisheavyisthoughttoexist'(Decaelo712.30).Inrejectingthisview,Platobetraysthatpreoccupationwithplacewhichdeterminesthe
orientationofhisownconceptionofheavyandlight,andthatofAristotle.ForthepurportofPlato'sowntheoryisthatearthorfirewillbeheavyorlightinsofarasa
largerorsmallerpartofeitherelementhasthetendencytoreturntowhatwemightthinkofasitsparentbody(cf.63A6E7).
Thusforallthecriticismofdetailandofexpressionwhich
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Mypointhereisbrieflytoemphasisethatwhatiseternalisnolessimportantasprovidingasatisfactoryexplanationofmovementinthefifthcentury.
Again,Aristotlewritesofvoidascause,orperhapsmoreproperlyascondition,ofmovementinanatomisttheory,Phys.viii9,265b239(inpartDK68A58),cf.iv8,214b12215a24
(notinDK).Void,fortheAtomists,Iwouldseeasaconcomitant,andasanecessaryconditionof,plurality.
Page366
AristotleheapsonPlato'stheoryintheDecaelo,Plato'stheoryisinitsessentialssimilartothatofAristotle,inthatbothphilosophersthinkofheavyandlight,notas
beingrestrictedtosomeintrinsiccharacterorquality,butasthetendencyofabodytomoveinacertaindirectionandtobelocatedinacertainplace.1
ThedifferencebetweenthisnewalignmentofinterestsandtheolderprePlatonicconceptionofweightisstatedexplicitlybyPlutarchattheendofhistreatiseOnthe
primalandessentialnatureofcold.Thequestion,whichofthethreeelements,otherthanfire,istheprimaryrepositoryofcoldness,lendsitselfeasilytothecitation
ofpiecesofPresocratictheorising,andfromPlutarch'spennotallofthisinformationislikelytohavebeenculledatsecondhand.Hisconcludingremarkstherefore,
despitetheloosenessoftheirattribution,carryconsiderableauthority,Deprimofrigido955BC: .
Wemustrecognisethatthewisemenandintellectualsofoldsetagulfbetweenterrestrialandcelestialbodies:theydidsohowevernotbecauseofthedifferentplaces<thatthose
bodiesoccupy>,asthough<weighingthem>onabalance,andexamining<theirmovements>upanddownonthecontrary,<inancienttimestheydistinguishedthetwokindsof
element>bythedifferenceintheir<intrinsic>powers.
'Bodiesthatarehotandshining,andswiftandlight,theyassigntothebeing thatisdeathlessandendless.
'Bodiesthataremurkyandcold,andslow<andheavy>,theydeclaretobethehaplesslotofcreatureswhodwellintheshadowofdeathbelow.'
1
IamtouchinghereuponthemesthatwillbeofcentralimportancetomylateressaysonPlatoandAristotle,whichwillincludeadetailedanalysisofAristotle'scriticismofPlato.
ForthecontextofthequotationfromSimpliciusseeabovepp.15760.
Page367
TheseremarksofPlutarchareinthemselvessufficienttodispelBurnet'simaginings.NotonlydoesPlutarchevidentlyseenodifferenceinkindbetweenheavyorlight
andothertraditionalpairingsofopposites,specificallyincludinghotandcold.Hestatesexplicitlythatfortheearlyphilosophersweightwasseenasanintrinsic
characteror'power',andwasnotdefinedintermsof'places',asforAristotle,norregarded ,afairlyplain
allusiontotheuseofthebalanceintheexpressionofPlato'stheoryofweightintheTimaeus,inthepassagewhichIhavecited(62C363E7).
(ii)
Plutarch'sgeneralisationisconfirmedwhenweturntothefragmentsof,orreportson,individualphilosophers.Atthesametime,wecangleanfromtheseamore
preciseideaofwhatkindof'power'weightwasthoughttobe.
ThusParmenidesdescribesthetwoprincipleswhichformtheworldofappearanceasrespectively :weightistherebyalignedwithdensity.
VirtuallythesametwopointsrecurinEmpedocles.InacriticismofEmpedoclesattachedtohisownanalysisofalloiosisintheDegenerationeetcorruptione,
AristotleliststhepairsofcharacteristicswhichEmpedoclesattachedtofireandtoearth,i1,315a1011(notinDK):'firehesaysiswhiteandhot,earthisheavyand
hard' .Amomentortwobefore,Aristotlehashimselfquotedtheversesdescribingsun
andrain,orfireandwater.Byaratherremarkablechance,Simpliciushappenstoquote,inanothercontext,thewholesetofversescontainingEmpedocles'own
accountofthecharacteristicfeatures,orproducts,ofthe
1
Simpl.,Phys.31.47.
Page368
fourelements.ThusweknowthatofearthEmpedocleshimselfwrote,fr.21.6:
Bothadjectivesareextremelyunusual. isagainawordwhichisdescriptiveofdensity.3
ThesametwofeaturesrecurwithAnaxagoras.ThanksagaintoSimplicius,wehaveAnaxagoras'ownaccountoftheoppositesthatareseparatedoutfromtheoriginal
mixture,fr.12subfinem: .
'Fromthethinlyspreadthereisseparatedwhatisthick,fromthecoldthehot,fromthedarktheshining,fromthewetthedry.'
InthedoxographicalcompilationtranscribedbyHippolytus,whatareessentiallythesamepairingsappearthus,Ref.i8.2(DK59A42):
.
1
Simpl.,Phys.33.8ff.,159.13ff.
2ECC2667,280.
3Inwritingthus,IhavesupposedthatAristotlereplaces etc.).ButthismaybetoorestrictiveaninterpretationofAristotle'sprocedure.PossiblyAristotle'stwo
adjectivesareintendedtocorrespondtoEmpedocles'twoneologisms,withoutbeingintendedtocorrespondexactlytoadifferenceinmeaningbetweenthem.
Page369
'Andsothethickanddamp,thedarkandcold,andallthingsheavy,jointogetherinthemiddle...whileallthethingsopposedtothese,thehotandtheshiningandthedryand
thelight,hastenfarintotheaether.'
ThereisnosingleexpressioninAnaxagorasforthephrasewhichHippolytustacksontohisfirstlistofopposites: (inthefragmentquotedbySimplicius).Again
thereforethereductiontolaterterminology.Again,theassociationoralignmentofweightanddensity.1
(iii)
Ontheotherhand,inHippolytus'accountofAnaxagorastheseoppositesaretreatedcosmogonically,andarethereforealignedwithposition.Theaccountsof
Parmenides' .
1
Theadjectiveswhichdiffer,butwhichareobviouslyintendedtocorrespond,are: .Thesechangesaffordaneatinstanceof
thetransformationofgenuinefifthcenturyvocabularyintothestandardisedterminologyofthedoxographicaltradition:cf.pp.30710andpp.3434above.Fortheinclusionof
weightinDiogenes'reportonAnaxagoras,seebelowp.378n.3.
Page370
'Watchout,myfriend:takeheedlestyoubringuponyourselfthevisionofthattimeofcosmiccatastrophe,thatterrifyingdiscordancythatwereadofintradition<forsoitwill
be>ifinoneplaceyousetapartallthatisheavy,andinanotherplaceyousetapartallthatislight."Thenthereisnotseentheshiningfaceofthesun,nonortheshaggyearth,
norsea",asEmpedoclestellsus.Earthhad<then>noshareinheatwaterhadnoshareinairofheavythingsnonewasaloft,andoflightthingsnonebelow.'1
Thisassociationofweightandmovement,oratleastofweightandposition,inAnaxagorasandinEmpedocles,mightperhapsseemtoundomyearlierconclusion,
drawnfromPlutarch'sremarksintheDeprimofrigido,andtoactasconfirmationofBurnet'sthesis,thatheavyandlightrelatetothebehaviouroftheelements,and
arenotanintrinsiccharacterofwhateverkindhotandcoldwerethoughttobe.Wehaveinfactanumberofseeminglydisparateconclusions.
1.InPlutarch'sDeprimofrigidothereisagroupingofheavyandlightwithothertraditionalpairingsofopposites,specificallyincludinghotandcold,andwithafairlysharp
denialthattheseopposites,forthe'intellectualsandwisemenofold',weredefinedintermsofplaceorofdirection.
2.Ontheotherhand,inEmpedoclesandinAnaxagoras,heavyandlight,inacosmogonicalcontext(ifwemayallowthattermtoinclude,forthemoment,Empedocles'timeoftotal
Strife)areinfactrelatedtoplace,andtherefore,atleastbyimplication,tomovementinaspecificdirection.
3.Atthesametime,heavyandlight(whethersinglyorjointly)areeitheralignedwithdensity,asinParmenides,or,inaccountsofAnaxagorasandEmpedocles,theyareofferedas
aparaphraseoftermswhichdescribedensity.
ThankstoTheophrastus,wecanseethateachoftheseseeminglydisparateconclusionshasaparttoplayinthePresocraticconceptionofweight.Whenheturnsfrom
hishistoricalaccount
1
FormyinterpretationofthispassageinrelationtoEmpedocles'systemseeespeciallyECC316and14754.
Page371
oftheoriesofthefacultyofsensetogiveapreliminaryaperuofearliertheoriesofthenatureofobjectsofsense,Theophrastuswrites,Desens.59(DK68A135):
....
'Whenweturntotheobjectsofsensation,theothers<i.e.apartfromDemocritusandPlato>failtospecifythenatureofthesensiblesandthekindofthingthateachoneofthem
is.
'Takefirstobjectsofsensationthatfallwithintheprovinceoftouch:theirideasonheavyandlight,andhotandcold.
'<All>theysay,forexample,<is>thatwhatisrareandfineishot,andthatwhatisdenseandthickiscold:thatatleastisthefashioninwhichAnaxagorasdistinguishesairand
aether.
'Heavyandlighttheyalsoaccountforbymoreorlessthesesamefactors,andfurtherbymovementsupanddown.'
Inthispassage,Theophrastusstatesexpresslythatearlierphilosophersattributedheavyandlightto'moreorlessthesamefactors'asthosetowhichtheyattributed
hotandcold,namelyfineandrareandthickanddense,'andfurther'to'movementsupanddown'.Thisisperhapstheclearestandmostconvincinglyembracive
statementofthepositionthatwecouldhopefor.Heavyandlightwereassociatedwithmovement,althoughnotatallexclusivelyso.Foratthesametimetheywere
treatedlikehotandcold:thatis,theywererankedwith,andwereliabletobereducedto,differencesofdensity.1
1
Stratton,119,givesjusttheoppositesensebytranslating as'thatistosay',andsotreatingdifferencesindensityanddifferentdirectionsofmovementasasinglekindof
explanation.ButthatisclearlynotthemeaningoftheGreek.
TheverbthatistobeunderstoodinthefinalsentencethatIhaveparaphrased
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page372
Thismultiplicityofideasisreallynomore,andnoless,thanwemighthaveexpected.Therewasnosuddenandunseenrevolution,hiddeninthedarknessbeforethe
dawnofGreekphilosophy,asBurnetimagines.Heavyandlightwereseenasoppositesnotradicallydifferentfromothersensibleoppositionssuchashotandcold,or
brightanddark,andinparticulartheywereseenaspartlyreducibletodifferencesofdensity:whatisheavyisthickanddense,whatislightwillbefineandrare.Atthe
sametime,especiallyinacosmogonicalorinsomerelatedcontext,heavyandlightordenseandrarewereassociatedwithdifferencesinpositionandwithmovement
butthiswasinnowaythatinvariableandnecessaryentailmentofweightandmovementthatwastobeanessentialandadeliberatefeatureofAristoteleanand
Platonicphilosophy.
(iv)
Inthelightofthisconclusion,thefinalsentenceofTheophrastus'mainaccountofDemocritus'theoryofweight,whichIquotedearlier,gainsconsiderablyin
significance.'Inotherplaces'Democritus'sayssimplythatwhatisfine( )islight'.1
WhatItaketobeonepossibleexampleofDemocritus',orperhapsLeucippus',useof ishappilypreservedforusinthedoxographicalsources,ifwe
comparethefollowingtwoaccounts.
1.DiogenesLaertius,ix31(DK67A1): .
'Therearesomanyoftheparticlesthattheycannotcontinuetheircirclingmovementwithoutbeingdrivenoffinonedirectionoranother:consequentlyfineatomsaresievedout,
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
isperhapsnotquiteclear.Itiseasiertopickup .Thedifferenceinmeaningismarginal.
1
Desens.62(DK68A135),quotedp.116aboveforthetranslationcf.pp.131and256n.3above.
Page373
asitwere,andmaketheirway<back>intothespaceoutside<thewhirl>,whiletheatomsthatareleftbehindstaytogetherandastheybecomeenmeshedwitheachotherthey
movearoundtogether,andatthesamerateaseachother,soproducingthefirst<primitive>structuretohavetheshapeofasphere.'
2.Aetiusi42(DK67A24): .
'Whentheatomsclustertogetherinonespot,whicheverarethelargerandheaviestonessettledownbeneathall<theothers>,asopposedtowhicheveratomsaresmalland
roundandsmoothandslippery:thesearesqueezedoutbytheveryprocesswhichbringsthe<other>atomstogether,andarecarriedaloftintotheupperregion.'1
Thesearefairlyobviouslyintendedtobethesametwogroupsofatoms,althoughtheyarepresentedtheoppositewayround:skyandearthinDiogenes,earthandsky
inAetius.InAetiustheexpression inDiogenes.Atthesametime,Aetius'expressionindicatesfairlywellthattheopposinggroupofatomsshouldbe
1
FormyparaphraseofthepassagefromDiogenesLaertiusseeabovep.205.Thepointof Itaketobethattherearesomanyatomsshootingaroundthatthey
cannotavoidbecomingentangledwitheachother.
InthepassagefromAetiusIhavefollowedUsener,Epicureafr.308,andDK67A24,inwriting etc.asreferringtoatoms.Fortheequivalentdiscrepancyintexts
fromEpicurusandSimplicius,seepp.15960above.
ThecosmogonyrecordedfromAetiusisnotascribedtoanyspecificthinker,buttheformofmyargumentrequiresonlythat,atthispoint,theideasinitshouldcorrespondtothe
passagequotedfromDiogenes'LifeofLeucippusandthistheyobviouslydo.
Page374
accountedaslight.InDiogenes'reporttheatomsintheopposinggroupareinfactdesignatedpreciselyas .
Thesameassociationsappearintheaccountofsmell.Herewhatisrareorfine( .
'Democritusdidnottroubletomarkoffaseparatedefinitionforsmell,excepttonotethatwhatisfinemakesasmellwhenitfloatsoffheavythings.'1
Theconverseassociation,ofheavinessand'thickening',appearsintheaccountoftheearth'sformation,inAetius,iii13.4(DK68A95):
.
'Democritussaysthatatthebeginningthesmallnessandlightnessoftheearthallowedittowanderabout,butthatitwasthickenedinthecourseoftimeandthatonceithadbeen
madeheavyitcametoahalt.'2
Thesepassagesadequatelyillustratetheremarkthat'inotherplaces'Democritus'saidsimplythatwhatisfineislight'.Buttheydomore.Fromhistone,Theophrastus
isevidentlynotquitesurewhethertheassociationoflightnesswith,oritsreductionto,densitywasintendedtobethesameasDemocritus'moresophisti
1
ThisconjunctionofideasisnotpeculiartoDemocritus.Theequivalentassociation,ofwhatisrareorfine( ).
2
Dyroffchanged ,Demokritstudien35n.8.Althoughthiswouldaddtomyargument.IthinkDielsisperhapsrighttotreatthechangeasunnecessary.
Page375
catedtheoryoflightnessascausedbyapreponderanceofvoid.WhatTheophrastus'earlierremark(cap.59)shows,however,isthatDemocritus'association,or
identification,oflightnesswithdensityisessentiallyacontinuationofearlierwaysofthinking,towhichDemocritushasgivenmoreformalisedandmoresophisticated
expressionbyhisdistinctionbetweenatomsandcompoundbodiesandbyhisdeliberateadoptionofvoid.
(v)
ButperhapstheclearestillustrationofTheophrastus'remarkthat'elsewhereDemocritussaysthatwhatislightisfine'(cap.62)isprovidedbyTheophrastushimself,
nothoweverinhisaccountoftheatomictheoryofweight,butindirectlyinacoupleofremarksattachingtohisreportsonDemocritus'theoryofflavoursandcolours.
ApassagequotedearlierfromAristotle'sDeanimatellsusthatfire,forDemocritus,ismadefromsmall,roundatoms.1Aredcolour,TheophrastustellsusintheDe
sensibus,ismadefromthesameatomsaswhatishot,exceptthatforaredcolourtheatomsarelarger(cap.75).Thereishoweveradifference,Theophrastus
continues,betweenwhatisredandwhatisbrightorshining.Coloursthatare'brightest' ).
Thispassageneedstobecomparedwithadetailfromtheanalysisofflavours.IhavealreadyquotedDemocritus'explanationofatartorbitterflavour.2Thesmall,
sharpatomswhichproducethisflavouralsoproduceasensationofwarmth,Theophrastustellsus,'bymakingemptyspaces:forwhathasmostemptyspaceismost
inclinedtogrowhot'(cap.65: ).
Nowthislastexpression, ,exactlyrepeatstheformulawhichAristotleuses,intheDecaelo,to
1
Arist.,Deanimai2,405a813(DK68A101)cf.pp.31718above.
2
Desens.65(DK68A135)cf.pp.3201above.
Page376
explainwhyfire,fortheAtomists,isthelightestelement,iv2,309a1516: .'Andthatis
whyfiretheysayislightest,becauseithasmostvoid.'1
Wehavethereforethefollowinghighlysignificantconjunctionofideas.TheformulawhichAristotleattributestotheAtomistsastheexplanationofwhyfireisthe
lightestelementisexactlyrepeatedinTheophrastus'accountofwhythingsgrowhot,inhisreportontheanalysisofflavourswhilelater,intheanalysisofcolours,what
ishotisidentifiedwithwhatis fortheformulawhichdescribeslightnessintermsofvoid.
ThusTheophrastushimself,inthecontinuationofhisreportonDemocritus,neatlyillustratestheambiguitywhichheremarksuponinhisaccountofheavyandlight,
betweenthedefinitionofweightintermsofvoidandthedescriptionintermsofdensitywiththedifferencethattheambiguityrecursinthedescriptionnotofweight
butoftemperature.
Butthistransposition,fromweighttotemperature,ispreciselywhatweareledtoexpectfromTheophrastus'earlierandmoregeneralremarkthatearlierthinkers
explainedheavyandlightby'moreorlessthesamefactors'asthosetheyusedtoexplainhotandcold:'whatisrareandfineishot,andwhatisdenseandthickis
cold'(cap.59).
Theonlysurprise,forthemoderncritic,isthatDemocritusandPlatohadappearedtobeexemptedfromthiscriticism,onthegroundthatthesetwothinkershadalone
'providedadefinitionforeachoneofthesensibles'(cf.cap.601).Butwhatweseenow,evenmoreclearlythanbefore,isthatDemocritus''definition'ofweightdoes
notexcludetheassociation,commontothosewhofailedtoprovideadefinitionofweight,wherebydifferencesofweightanddifferencesoftemperaturewerealike
ascribedtodifferencesofdensity.
1.TheambiguitywhichTheophrastusremarksuponin
1
ForapreliminaryanalysisofthecontextofAristotle'scriticism,seeabovepp.101ff.
Page377
hisreportonDemocritus'theoryofweight(cap.612),betweenadefinitionintermsoftheproportionofvoidandadescriptionintermsofdensity,isexactlyrepeatedinremarks
whichTheophrastusmakesabouttheatomictheoryoftemperatureinhisanalysisofflavours(cap.65)andcolours(cap.75).
2.Theexplanationof'growinghot'whichTheophrastusprovidesinhisaccountofDemocritus'theoryofflavours(cap.65)exactlyrepeatsthedefinitionwhichAristotleattributes
totheAtomistsoffireasthe'lightest'body(Decaeloiv2,309a1516).1
(vi)
Thusthegeneralmessageisunmistakablyclear.Itisnottrue,asBurnetclaims,thatheavyandlightwerethoughtofasinsomewayradicallydifferentfromother
oppositions,includinghotandcold.Onthecontrary,heavyandlight,nolessthanhotandcold,forDemocritusasforotherPresocratics,werereducibleto,andwere
explainedby,differencesofdensity,atleastwithregardtothenatureofcompoundbodies.ThedifferencebetweenDemocritusandtheotherPresocraticswill
presumablylieinDemocritus'conjunctionoftheexplicitadmissionofvoidwithhisconceptionofasinglekindofmaterialsubstancetheatomswhichareinvariable
indensity.
Thisatleastwouldexplain,inpart,Aristotle'sremarkintheDecaelothat'someofthosewhodenythevoidgavenodefinitionofheavyandlight,asisthecasewith
AnaxagorasandEmpedocles'(iv2,309a1921).ThepointisnotthatDemocritus'predecessors
1
TheprioritywhichTheophrastusgivestothedefinitionoftemperature(cap.59)isreflectedinAristotle'sremarkintheMetaphysics,quotedearlier,whereDemocritus'
approximationtoadefinitionofhotandcoldissingledoutastheloneprecursor,amongthewritingsofthe'physicalphilosophers',toSocrates'searchforgeneraldefinitions(Met.
M4,1078b12ff.,esp.b1920cf.p.338n.1above).Theophrastus'claimthattheAtomiststreathotandcoldas presumablyreflectsthesameidea(Desens.71).Thepriority
ofhotandcoldinrelationtotheothersensiblesperhapshelpstoexplaintheleadingrlegiventotemperatureinAristotle'scriticismofDemocritusinthepassagefromtheDe
generationeetcorruptioneanalysedinmysecondchapter(i8,325b36326a14,seepp.57ff.above).
Page378
1
failed'togiveanyexplanation'ofweight'atall,oreventosayanythingaboutit',asBurnetsupposes. Onlythefirstpartofthesentenceistrue.Anaxagorasand
Empedoclesfailedtodefineheavyandlight,butasAristotleremarksatthebeginningofbookfouroftheDecaelo'everyoneusesthepowers'ofheavyandlight
'althoughfewpeoplehavedefinedthem'(iv1,308a34).2
ThisisessentiallyTheophrastus'point.Anaxagorasisspecifiedashavingdistinguishedhotandcoldbyvariationsindensity(Desens.59).ButTheophrastusevidently
doesnotcountavariationindensityassufficientforanexplanationoradefinitionofhotandcold,forAnaxagoras'accountofhotandcold,inthischapteroftheDe
sensibus,isintroducedpreciselytoexemplifythosewho'failtospecifythenatureofthesensibles'.ThesamewillbetrueforAnaxagoras'useofheavyandlight.I
havealreadynotedthewayinwhichAnaxagoras'owndistinctionbetween'thick'and'thin'appearsinthedoxographicalsummaryrecordedbyHippolytusasa
distinctionbetween'thick'or'heavy'and'light'.PresumablythereforeAnaxagoraswillbeincludedamongthosewhomTheophrastuswritesofinthissamechapterof
theDesensibusasaccountingforheavyandlightby'thesamethings'thattheyusedtoaccountforadifferenceofhotandcold,namelyvariationsindensity(cf.
,cap.59).Butagaintheassociationofheavyandlightwithavariationindensityisintroducedpreciselytoexemplifythosewho'failtospecifythenature
ofthesensibles'.
DemocritusandPlatoareexceptedfromthiscriticism,bybothAristotleandTheophrastus.Butthisneednotmeanandthepointabout indicatesthatit
doesnotmeanthatDemocritusthereforehassomeradicallynewandexclusiveconceptionofthenatureofweight.Thepointwouldappeartoberatherthat
Democritus'essentialstepistoplacetheoldconceptionofheavyandlightasdistinguishedbydensityonwhatAristotleandTheophrastusrecogniseasanewandso
tospeakscientificorphilosophicalfooting.3
1
EGP342(myitalics),quotedincontextpp.1756above.
2
Thedetailedinterpretationofthispassagemustawaitmythirdessay.Meanwhilecf.ECC346.
3
IhavetakenAnaxagorastorepresentthe'old'conceptionofheavyandlight,despitetheaccountthatisgivenofhistheorybyDiogenes.InDiogenes'report,ii8(DK59A1),the
stringofoppositeswhichwefindinfr.12andinHippolytus(cf.pp.3689above)isreducedto'heavy'and'light',exemplified
(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)
Page379
(vii)
Fromonepointofviewthechangehasbeenasimpleandanobviousone.ThematerialcomponentofDemocritus'world,theatoms,arenolongersubject,
individually,tochangesindensity.Ifoneatomcannolongerbeheavierorlighterthananotherbecauseitismoredenseormorerare,ifitisimpossible,sotospeak,to
stuffmorematerialintothesamevolume,thenanincreaseofweightcanonly,oratleastmostobviously,beachievedbyanincreaseofsize.Fromthispointofview,
theassociationofheavyandlightwithdenseandrareistransferred,intheatomicsystem,toanalignmentofheavyandlightwithlargeandsmall:weightbecomesa
functionofsize.
Butthatisonlypartofthestory.Thedirectassociationofheavyandlightwithdifferencesofdensitycontinues,intheaccountthatDemocritusgaveofbodies
compoundedofatomsandvoid.Fromthispointofview,wehavetoturntheevidenceonitshead,sotospeak.Ihavespentmostofthisessayattemptingto
disentangletheevidencefortheweightoftheindividualatoms:fortheevidenceontheweightofcompoundbodies,intheDecaeloandinTheophrastus,isless
controversial,exceptperhapsforthequestionofthedifference,orthelackofdifference,involumebetweenthebodiescompared.Butasoftenthedifficultyin
disentanglingtheevidenceisnotproportionatetotheimportanceofthequestion.WhenSimpliciuswritesthattheatomsare
(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
byearthandbyfire,withwaterandairofferedasintermediateelements,allpreciselyasinAristotle'sscheme.
ScholarshavesiezeduponthisreportasevidenceofAnaxagoras''anticipation'ofAristotle'sview,mostnotablyandmostrecentlyW.D.Ross,intheintroductiontohiseditionof
Aristotle'sPhysics,26n.2.This,Iamafraid,isnotuntypicaloftherathermechanicalfashioninwhichRossintroducesmaterialfromDieFragmentederVorsokratikerintohis
commentariesonAristotle.Forthetruthismuchmorelikelytobetheotherwayround:thatthetraditionallistingsofoppositeswhichwefindinfr.12,andwhichhavealreadybeen
partlyAristoteleanised,orsoIhaveargued,inHippolytus,havenowbeendresseduptolookwhollylikeAristotlebyDiogenesorhissource.Thisatleastwouldseemtobethe
conclusionindicated(1)byAristotle'sownremarkthat'someofthosewhodenytheexistenceofvoid,suchasAnaxagorasandEmpedocles,havegivennodefinitionofheavyand
light'(Decaeloiv2,309a1921),and(2)byAristotle'sstatementthatEmpedocleswasthefirsttousefourelementssimultaneously(Met.A4,985a313),coupledwithmyconclusion
thatAnaxagoraswrotebeforeEmpedocles(cf.'TherelationofAnaxagorasandEmpedocles',JHS88[1968]93113).
Page380
'causesofheavinessincompoundbodies,justasvoid<iscause>oflightness'(Decaelo269.1314),hislanguageinpartreflectstheAristoteleannotionofheaviness
andlightnessasdistinctandoppositeprinciples.Buttheremarkthattheatoms'invirtueofbeingfull<ordense>dothemselveshaveheavinessandare<thereby>
causesofheavinessincompoundbodies'(269.1213)doesperhapscorrectlyreflectonepreoccupationintheoriginaltheory:theatomshaveheavinessinorderto
accountforthedensity,andtheheaviness,ofthecompoundbodies,whichalonefalldirectlywithinourperception.1
Andfromthispointofviewwearriveatthesameconclusion,onlybyadifferentroute,sotospeak.IfDemocritusistocontinuethetraditionalassociationofheavy
andlightwithdenseandrare,andmoreparticularlyifatomsaretoactwithvoidasacoordinatoroftheweightofcompoundbodies,thenadifferenceofsizeinthe
atomscannotbutfindexpressioninadifferenceofweight:moreandsmalleratomswillgivethesameproportionofsolidtovoidasfewerandlargeratoms.The
individualatommustthereforeagainbereckonedashavingweightinproportiontoitssize.
ButthiswayoflookingatDemocritus'theory,thoughIthinkinonesenselegitimate,inanothersenseactsonlytocasttheburdenofexplanationfromonefactorin
Democritus'theorytoanother.Itismoreimportant,Ithink,toappreciatethatthepreoccupationwithdensity,andtherebywiththesizeandwiththeweightof
individualatoms,isnotdependentuponanynotionofweightas,torepeattheexpressionofProfessorKirk,'atendencytomoveconsistentlyinacertaindirection'.2
Onthecontrary,iftheindividualatomsaretobedistinguished,apartfromtherolethattheyplayinthecompositionofcosmicbodies,bytheirspeedorbytheirforce
ofimpactinthevoid,thentheearlyconceptionofweightasrelatedprimarilytodensity,andonlyinpartto'movementsupanddown',willnotrequirethespeedof
atomsthataremovinginavoidtobeattachedtothenotionofmovementinaspecificdirection,norwillimpact,asinEpicurus'system,needtobesubordinated,soto
speak,toanynotionofa'fall'ofatoms.Fromthispointofviewtheessentialmovewillbe
1
ThepassageinSimpliciushasbeenconsidered,ch.V2,pp.1616above.
2
Presocraticphilosophers415,cf.p.363above.
Page381
toridourmindsequallyofweightastiedprimarilytomovementinaspecificdirectionwithinacosmos,andofitsconverse,thenotionofweightlessbodiesina
vacuum.Ifheavyandlightarenotdefinedprimarilyintermsofmovementupanddownwithinacosmos,thenbodiesoutsideacosmoswillbeliabletoretaintheir
differencesofweightnolessthantheirdifferencesofsize.
(viii)
IreturnthereforetothepassageinTheophrastus:thenotionofdifferencesindensityandof'movementsupanddown'asthetwocriteriaofweightinearlyGreek
thought.InthisdisjunctionandassociationofideasIthinkweseemostclearlythecontinuityandthedifferencebetweenearlyGreekconceptionsofheavyandlight,as
epitomisedbyDemocritus,andthelaterPlatonicandAristoteleanconceptionsofweight.
DemocritusandPlatoaresingledoutbyTheophrastusashavingaloneprovidedanexplicitlyphilosophicaltheory,a'definition',ofthenatureofsensibilia,explicitly
includingweight,Desens.5960(DK68A135): .
'Theothersleaveoutanyaccountoftheobjectsofsense....DemocritusandPlatoaretheonlyoneswhohavereallycometogripswiththesubject.Theyadvanceadefinition
foreachoneofthesensibles.'
AsIhavenoted,thereismuchthesameimplicationintheequivalentremarkintheDecaelo,thatthosewhodeniedtheexistenceofvoid,Anaxagorasand
Empedocles,gavenodefinitionofweight.IfonlyinthelightofwhatTheophrastussays,wemust,Ithink,treatthetheoryofweightasdefinedby'largenessand
smallness'whichAristotleregularlyintroducesalongsidePlatoandDemocritusinthefourthbookoftheDecaelo,butwithoutattachingittoanynamedphilosopher,
asinlargepartAristotle'sownelaborationoftheassumptionsaboutweightwhichheheldtobeimplicitinthetheoriesofDemocritusandofPlato.1
1
Iexplorethispointinmythirdessay,whereIarguethatthe'third'theoryisalsoinpartAristotle'sextrapolationfromIonianideas.
Page382
IfthereforewerestrictthefieldofearlydefinitionsofweighttoPlatoandDemocritus,wefindthatthephilosophicalexplicationofearlynotionsofweightfollowsa
typethatisatoncefamiliartothosewithaneyeforacharacteristicmodeinthedevelopmentofphilosophicalideas.Intheearlierfifthcenturytwoconceptionsof
weightexistsidebyside.
1.Weightisnodifferentintypefromhotandcold:likethemitisassociatedwith,oreveninsomesensereducibleto,density.
2.Atthesametime,lightandheavyareassociatedwiththebehaviourofthings:withtheirmovementandwiththeirposition.
Philosophicalreflectionsinglesoutfirstoneandthentheotherofthesetwoconceptions.
1.TheassociationofweightwithdensityisadoptedbytheAtomiststoformthebasisforwhatisprobablythefirstexplicitlyphilosophicalexplanationofweight.
2.ThelatterassociationisdevelopedintoaPlatonicorAristoteleantheoryofnaturalplacesfortheelements,withheavyandlighttiedtothenotionofmovementinaspecific
direction.
Admittedly,thesearenotexclusiveassociations,oneitherside.
1.MovementtowardsaspecificplacehasitsfootinginthetheoryofDemocritus.Largeatoms,anddenseagglomerationsofatoms,whentheyaredrawnintoacosmos,willmove
towardsthecentre,whilesmallatoms,andrarefiedagglomerationsofatoms,aresqueezedoutandforcedtowardsthecircumference,orbeyond.
2.Fromtheotherpointofview,althoughPlato'sdefinitionofweightasdeterminedbyresistanceisprecededbyasophisticatedanalysisofthenotionofplaceanddirection,
nonethelessPlatoalsoincludesinhistheory,Ishallargue,theolderconceptionofweightasdeterminedbysizeandbydensity.
3.Equally,inAristotle'stheory,thedifferencebetween
Page383
heavyandlightinfactgoeshandinhand,welearninthePhysics,withadifferenceofdensity,althoughareadingofbookfouroftheDecaeloleavesnodoubtthatitisplaceand
positionwhicharethedeterminativeforcesinAristotle'sconception.1
Withthesequalifications,itremainstruethatdensity,orsizeanddensity,aretheprimarydeterminantsoftheearlierconceptionofweight,asexpressedmostdirectly
byDemocritus,whileforDemocritus,asforotherofthePresocratics,thedistinctionofplaceissecondaryandderivative,whereasforAristotleitisplaceandposition
thatareprimary.
Thequestionoftheorderinwhichthesetwoconceptionsofweightweredistinguished,whytheassociationwithdensityshouldhavedevelopedearlierthanthe
associationwithplace,veersoffintolargerquestionsofontology.Democritus,withnosinglenoreternalworld,wouldscarcelyhavebeenabletodefinetheweightof
hisultimateelementsintermsoftheirlocationwithinthetransitoryphenomenaofskyandearth.Theatomsthereforemustcontainwithinthemselveswhatever
characterispeculiartotheirexistence.Ontheotherhand,inaworldthatissingleandeternal,asforPlatoandforAristotle,centreandcircumferencearethemore
abletoactasapermanentreferencefor,andthereforeassufficientexplanationof,thenatureofthesubstancesthathabituallyfindthemselveslocatedthere.
1
Ileavethesetwopoints(cf.Phys.iv9,216b22217b20)foranalysisinmythirdessay.
Page385
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ihavenotattemptedtoproduceacompletebibliographyofmoderncriticalworksontopicstoucheduponinthecourseofthisstudy.Thefollowinglistcontains
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worthyofconsideration,andthentodealwiththeseinterpretationsfairlyfully,atthecostofcuttingoutreferencestolesswellknownandtolessinfluentialworksof
criticism.Ihavehopedtherebytogaininclarityandincontinuityofthought,althoughitisnotwithoutsomeregret,andhesitation,thatIhaveabandonedthe
completenessofreference,anddetail,thatIhadaimedatinsomeofmyearlierpublications.
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booksonlywhensignificantadditionsorchangeshavebeenmadetothetext.Whererelevant,referencesaregivenattheendofanentrytothepagesofthepresent
workonwhichtheitemsinquestionhavebeencited.
IhavesometimesaddedbriefcriticalnotesinoneortwocasesIhaveusedtheBibliographyasaplacetoexplainwhysomeitemsarenotdealtwithmorefullyinthe
text.
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ampliata'.GiulioEinaudieditore,Torino.1973.Pp.liii+793.
285n.3.
ASULANUS.IhaveconsultedthetextofAsulanus'LatintranslationoftheDegenerationeetcorruptioneintheversionattachedtoAverroes'works,published
Venetiis1483.Thesameorasimilartranslationiscontainedinanearlieredition,Patavii1474.BothworksareintheBibliothqueNationale,Paris,respectively:Rs.
R355andRs.R357.
Theformerworkhasforcolophon:novetranslationilibrorumdegenerationeetcorruptioneabAveroiCordubensicommentate...finisimpositusest.
ImpensaatquediligentiaAndreedeasulaVenetiisimpresse.AnnosalutischristianeMCCCCLXXXIIIseptimocalendasoctobris.(Hain,Repertorium
bibliographicum1660.)
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NobilisvicentiniloannisphilippiAurelianietfratrumimpensa.Operavero:atqueingenioLaurentiiCanoziiLendenariensis.ImpressePataviiAnno
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AUBENQUEPierre.'Physiquearistotlicienneetlangage',Archivesdephilosophie,recherchesetdocumentation31(1968)12532.
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xixn.1.
BAEUMKERClemens.DasProblemderMaterieindergriechischenPhilosophie,einehistorischkritischeUntersuchung.DruckundVerlagder
AschendorffschenBuchhandlung,Mnster.1890.Pp.xv+436.
ArepetitionofZeller'sview,823and945.
BAILEYCyril.Epicurus,theextantremains,withshortcriticalapparatus,translationandnotes.ClarendonPress,Oxford.1926.Pp.432.
45.160n.4.184n.1.231n.1.285n.4.289n.2.290n.4.295.
BAILEYCyril.TheGreekAtomistsandEpicurus,astudybyC.B.ClarendonPress,Oxford.1928.Pp.viii+619.
DespitethevirtuesofBailey'sworkonEpicurus,readersofthislaterstudy,andespeciallyofthepagesonweightandmovement,12348,cf.824,shouldbeon
theirguardagainstmisinterpretations,andevenmistranslations,oftheevidence,onlysomeofwhichIhavesingledoutforattentioninthecourseofmyessay.
45.8n.1.46n.3.54n.1.1378.1402.1489.154n.1.15861.177n.4.186.203n.3.2246.231n.1.232n.2.245n.1.248n.1.2646.269n.2.284
n.3.287n.3.2945.2967.SeealsoBOLLACK(1969)intheBibliography.
BALDESRichardWilliam.Aristotle'srelationtoDemocritusreconsideredandvindicatedasagainstthecriticismofHaroldCherniss.Dissertation...inthe
departmentofclassicalstudiesofLoyolaUniversity,Chicago.1972.Typescript,pp.332.
AusefulcheckonCherniss'treatmentofAristotle:theproblemofweightisnotdiscussed.
BEAREJohnIsaac.GreektheoriesofelementarycognitionfromAlcmaeontoAristotle.ClarendonPress,Oxford.1906.Pp.vii+354.
BIGNONEEttore.'Epicurea',Attidellar[eale]AccademiadellescienzediTorino47(191112)67090.
293n.1.
BIGNONEEttore.L'AristoteleperdutoelaformazionefilosoficadiEpicuro,intheseriesIlpensieroclassicono.4.'LanuovaItalia'editrice,Firenze.2parti,
1936.Partei,pp.xvii+410.Parteii,pp.633.
187n.4.
Page387
BIGNONEEttore.'Ladottrinaepicureadel''clinamen",suaformazioneesuacronologia,inrapportoconlapolemicaconlescuoleavversarie,nuovelucisullastoria
dell'atomismogreco',AteneeRomaserie3anno8(1940)15998.
187n.4.
BOLLACKJean.'Deuxfiguresprincipalesdel'atomismed'aprsAristote:l'entrecroisementdesatomesetlasphredufeu',SymposiumAristotelicum4ed.I.
During(Heidelberg,1969)3250.
Thisstudycontainsseveralremarksonthenatureofweight.Bollackatfirststatesclearly,39n.39:'Lesatomesnepsentpas'.Laterhoweverheappearsto
qualifythisinthewaythatBurnetdoes.ThushavingquotedbothAetius'denialthattheatomshaveweight,andAristotle'sassertionintheDegenerationeet
corruptionethat'eachatomisheavieraccordingtoitspreponderance',hewrites,46n.77:'Danslemonde,lepluslourd,pourDmocrite,estleplusgranddonc
lesatomes,quandilstaientplusgrands,devaienttrepluslourds'.Inthefollowingnote,47n.78,hecontinues:'Lepoidssedgagedelagrandeurrelative,une
foislescorpsrassembls'.Later,48n.84,hequalifiesSimplicius'attributionofweighttotheatomsinvirtueoftheuniformityoftheirnature(Decaelo569.59,
pp.1547above)asapplying'danslemondedeschosesdevenues'.
IhavethereforethoughtmyselfjustifiedinspeakingofBollack'sinterpretationasaversionofBurnet'sview(p.154n.1above).
However,inthenotethatIfirstquoted,39n.39,Bollackcontinues:'Ilestcertainqu'aprslesanalysesd'Aristote...lagrandeurdesatomespeuts'exprimeren
poids.Lesatomesseraientpluslourds,sil'onpeutdire,dansl'ordreintelligible,quandilsexcdentparleurvolume'(myitalics).
ThephrasethatIhaveitalicisedisperhapsexplainedbyBollack'soddnotionthat'lesatomes,pareuxmmes,sontimmobiles'(p.46n.75).Thereisthesame
curiousnotioninPillonandBailey(seepp.2246above).WithBollack,theidearesultsfromtomymindablatantmisinterpretationofDegen.etcorr.i8,
325a216asanaccountofLeucippus'ownacceptanceofEleaticarguments,andnotasAristotle'saccountoftheimpasseinEleaticismfromwhichLeucippus
thoughthathehadfoundasuccessfulescape(cf.325a23b11:Bollack,3442).
ThislineofthinkingcomestotheforeinthefinalpagesofBollack'sarticle,promisinglyintroducedbytheremark,46:'Onalongtempschanglesargumentssur
cepoint,quiparaissaitobscur,delarelationqu'entretiennentlepoidsetlemouvementdesatomes'.ThesolutionwhichBollackoffersspringsfromafurther
misunderstandingofatextinAristotle,where (Decaelo310a10,cf.p.328n.1above)istakennotasalternativedescriptionsofhow,in
theatomistsystem,orelsewhere,accordingtoAristotle,thingsappeartobelight,butascomplementarydescriptionsofearthandfire,wherebyfire'semblelger
parcequ'ildlimiteetcirconscritlelourdqu'ilabandonnesalourdeur'(p.48).Thisleadstosomecharacteristicrhetoriconthesphereoffire,4950:
'D'unepart,ellereprsente,dansl'antithselatique,laplnitudedel'treenfaceduvide....Seule,elleestpleinementellemmefaceauxcorpsquil'entourent....Le
feuintroduitlapulsationrgulireetl'ordredutemps.Lecerclequilimitelesystemecosmiqueestissudesasphricit....
'Cequelasphrereprsenteentantqueformeetentantqu'ide,commandeunautreniveau,danslaphysique,cequ'elleaccomplitentantquecorps.Cettecohrence,
cescorrespondancesquistructurentetconfondentl'ordreintelligibleetlemondedescorpss'opposentabsolumentl'arbitraireetl'enchanementaveuglequedsigne
l'tiquettemcanistequel'onappliqueDmocrite.'
DespitethecriticismofmyconclusionsandmymethodsthathavebeenlavishedonmebyProfessorBollackandbyhispupilandcollaboratorM.Wismann,Ican
onlyhonestlyrepeatwhatIwroteinmyearlierstudyonEmpedocles(ECC161):thiskindoflanguageseemstomequiteunprofitablefor
Page388
thestudyofaPresocraticevenEmpedocles,andperhapsmoreespeciallyDemocritus.
154.n.1.171n.1.
BOLLACKJean,BOLLACKMayotte,WISMANNHeinz.Lalettred'Epicure[i.e.theLettertoHerodotus,text,translationandnotes]inaseriesLesens
commun.Lesditionsdeminuit,Paris.1971.Pp.312.
326n.1.
BOLLACKMayotte,seeunderBOLLACKJean.
BONITZHermann.IndexAristotelicus,inAristotelisopera,ed.AcademiaregiaBorussica,vol.v.Berolini,typisetimpensisGeorgiiReimeri.1870.Pp.viii+878.
45n.1.133n.1.
BORICEVSKIJI.A.'DemokritundEpikurimKampfumdieGrundlagendesAtomismus'[inRussianwithanabstractinGerman],Archiveforthehistoryof
scienceandtechnology[inRussian],series1,number8(1936)11136.
359n.1.
BOSSIERF.andSTEELC.'Tekststudie:PriscianusLydusendeIndeanimavanPseudo(?)Simplicius',TijdschriftvoorFilosofie34(1972)761822.
226n.1.
BRIEGERAdolf.DieUrbewegungderAtomeunddieWeltentstehungbeiLeucippundDemokrit,inJahresberichtdesStadtgymnasiumszuHalleA/Svon
Ostern1883bisOstern1884.DruckderHeynemannschenBuchdruckerei,HalleA/S.1884.Pp.28.
Thisisacarefulandusefulwork,whichfailsfullytoresolvethequestionswhichittouchesuponbecauseofanoverpreoccupationwithrefutingthethesisofZeller
onthedownwardmovementofDemocritus'atoms.ThushavingshownthattheatomsdonotmovedownwardsinthevoidBriegerfailstoretracehisstepsandto
thinkthroughfullytheimplicationsofhisnewthesisfortheevidenceonweight.
Theworkisintwosections,(1)'DieUrbewegungderAtome'(pp.313),and(2)'Kosmogonie'(pp.1328).Theargumentsofthefirstsectionarerepeatedin
1904:seetheentryimmediatelyfollowing.
44.46n.3.Ch.IV1,11831.1378.156n.1.159.1601.163.1712.175.189.228n.2.242.243.260n.1.262.269n.2.Ch.X2,2709.279n.3.
290.Ch.XIII1,34764,esp.35160,3634.
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Thisisarehandlingofargumentsputforwardin1884,withoutanyreallyneworientationontherelationofweightandmovement.
435.1378.156n.1.1601.163.1712.175.189.203.228n.2.243.262.Ch.X2,2709.Ch.XIII1,34764,esp.35560,3634.Seealso
HAMMERJENSEN(1910)intheBibliography.
BURCHARDJohannFriedrichWilhelm.CommentatiocriticadeDemocritiAbderitaedesensibusphilosophia,underthesuperscriptionAdsollemnia
saeculariaScholaeMindensisantehosCCCannosinauguratae....Asecondtitle:DemocritiAbderitaephilosophiaedesensibusiisquequaesensibus
percipiunturfragmentaeTheophrastieiusdemargumentilibello,maximumpartemdeperdito,eruereetinterpretariconatusestJ.F.G.B.Mindae,typis
F.G.H.Muelleri.1830.Pp.41.
TheophrastusDesensibus612iscontainedin5,pp.1416and2930.
Ch.IV1,11631,esp.11921.
BURNETJohn.EarlyGreekphilosophy.1stedn1892.2ndedn1908.3rdedn1920.4thedn,areprintofthe3rdedn.A.andC.Black,London.1930.Pp.vii+
375.
Burnet'saccountofweightdoesnotappearinthefirstedition(1892).Itiscontainedonlyinthesecondedition(1908)394401,whenceitisrepeatedlargely
unchangedinthethirdedition(1920)3417.
Page389
xvi.8n.1.434.46n.3.153ff.163.1712.Ch.VI1,17482,esp.1757.Ch.VII12,20310,esp.20710.Cf.21213.223n.1.255.264.299302,
314n.2.Ch.XIII1,34764,esp.35964.372.3778.SeealsoHAHM(1976)andHAMMERJENSEN(1910)intheBibliography.
BURNETJohn.GreekphilosophypartIThalestoPlato(nomorepublished).MacMillanandCo.,London.1914.Pp.x+360.
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153n.2.
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88n.1.
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InthesectionsofmystudydevotedtoAristotle,IhavetendedtoconcentratemycriticismontherelevantpartsofCherniss'work,96100and20413,both
becauseofthepotentialimportanceofitsthesis,andbecauseoftheinfluencewhichithaswon.InfactitseemstomethatCherniss'work,welcomethoughitisfor
itsaccumulationofmaterialandforitsexhaustiveness,isunsoundonmanypointsofdetail.ThisisnotofcoursetodenythatAristotle'saccountsof,andallusions
to,hispredecessorsareinfluencedatalmosteveryturn,bothconsciouslyandnodoubtonalessconsciouslevel,byhisowncategoriesandhisownideas:butthe
natureandtheextentofthisinfluenceisinmyviewoftenoversimplifiedbyCherniss,andsometimesgrosslyso.However,Iaddtheseremarkshereonlyasa
passingcaution:inthebodyoftheworkIhavelimitedmycriticismofChernissstrictlytothematterinhand.
xvxvi.Ch.I25,640,esp.711,1415,1618,40.468.Ch.II2,4957.Ch.III1,81100,esp.947.11214.303n.1.351.
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187n.4.
CORNFORDFrancisMacDonaldandWICKSTEEDPhilipH.Aristotlevolsivv,The'Physics'withanEnglishtranslationbyP.H.W.andF.M.C.,intheLoeb
classicallibrary.W.Heinemann,London.HarvardUniversityPress,Cambridge,Massachusetts.2vols,192934,vol.i'revisedandreprinted'1957.Vol.i,pp.xciv
+427.Vol.ii,pp.xii+440.
187n.4.
CORNFORDFrancisMacDonaldThelawsofmotioninancientthought,aninaugurallecturebyF.M.C.TheUniversityPress,Cambridge.1931.Pp.47.
177n.2.
COUTANTVictor.Theophrastus'Deigne',apostAristotelianviewofthenatureoffire,editedwithintroduction,translationandcommentarybyV.C.
RoyalVanGorcumLtd,Assen.1971.Pp.xxvi+72.
131n.1.
DELLINGGerhard.'ZumsteigerndenGebrauchvonKompositamit beiPaulus'Novumtestamentum11(1969)12753.
44n.1.
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77n.1.128n.1.
DESCARTESRen.Principiaphilosophiae,inOeuvresdeDescartes,publiesparCharlesAdametPaulTannery.LopoldCerfimprimeurditeur,Paris.12
tomes,18971910.Latinversion:tomeviii,1repartie,1905.Pp.xviii+348.Frenchtranslation:tomeix,[2mepartie,]1904.Pp.xx+358.
34950.Cf.341n.1.Cf.361n.1.
DIELSHermann.Doxographigraeci,collegitrecensuitprolegomenisindicibusqueinstruxitH.D.Berolini,typisetimpensisG.Reimeri,1879.Pp.x+854.
4n.1.Ch.IV1,11631.133n.1.223n.1.Cf.260n.1.281n.2.282n.1.2878.298.300n.1.301n.1.373n.1.374n.2.
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16971.193.SeealsotheIndexLocorum.
DIELSHermann.DieFragmentederVorsokratiker,griechischunddeutschvonH.D.1stedn1903.Thepaginationisunchangedfromthe5thednbyWalther
Kranz.WeidmannscheVerlagsbuchhandlung,Berlin.3Bnde,19347.Bandi,pp.xi+482.Bandii,pp.416.Bandiii,pp.651.ThereareanumberofNachtrgein
thelatereditions.
378n.3.Cf.364n.2.Passageswithcrossreferencesto'DK'arenotrepeatedhere.
DIELSH.'Aristotelica',Hermes40(1905)30116.
16971.193.
DRINGIngemar(ed.)NaturphilosophiebeiAristotelesundTheophrast,Verhandlungendes4.SymposiumAristotelicumveranstaltetinGteborg,August
1966,herausgegebenvonI.D.LotharStiehmVerlag,Heidelberg.1969.Pp.292.
ApartfromareferencetoDring'sown'ZurEinfhrung',717,contributionsarelistedseparatelyundertheirauthors'names:seeBOLLACK,FURLEY.
GIGON.VERDENIUS.
4n.1.
DYROFFAdolf.Demokritstudien.Dieterich'scheVerlagsBuchhandlung,Leipzig.1899.Pp.188.
AlthoughDyroff'sdiscussionofweight,319,concludesbybeingundulynegative,itcontainsnonethelessmanyusefulpointsofdetail,andisespeciallynoteworthy
forattemptingtoplaceDemocritus'conceptionofweightinitshistoricalsetting.
5n.1.8n.1.42ff.50ff.612.256n.4.35760.374n.2.
EICHHOLZDavidEdward.Theophrastus'Delapidibus',editedwithintroduction,translationandcommentarybyD.E.E.ClarendonPress,Oxford.1965.
Pp.vi+141.
131n.1.
ELDERSLeo.Aristotle'scosmology,acommentaryonthe'Decaelo',intheseriesPhilosophicaltextsandstudiesno.13.VanGorcumandCompany,Assen.
1966.Pp.370.
88n.1.
ENRIQUESFederigoandMAZZIOTTIManlio.LedottrinediDemocritod'Abdera,testiecommenti.NicolaZanichellieditore,Bologna.1948.Pp.xxii+339.
Thesectionentitled'Pesoegravitazione',626,startsoffbyendorsingBurnet'sinterpretation,andthen,undertheinfluenceIthinkofLwenheim(whoisnot
acknowledged,butwhoisincludedinthebibliography),suggeststhatDemocritusmayhavebelievedintheuniversalattractionofmatter:
'NontroviamodatidelladossografiachepermettanodiattribuireaDemocritounataleipotesimanonsipuescluderecheeglisiaccostasseadunaqualcheintuizionedella
cosa'(pp.656).
154n.1.
Page391
ERDMANNJohannEduard.GrundrissderGeschichtederPhilosophie.1stedn1866.4thedn'bearbeitetvonBennoErdmann'.VerlagvonWilhelmHertz,
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359n.1.
FRANCKAdolphe.Article'Dmocrite',inDictionnairedessciencesphilosophiques'parunesocitdeprofesseursetdesavants,sousladirectiondeM.Ad.
Franck'.1stedn,6tomes,184452(withseparatepagination,excepttomesvandviwhicharepaginatedconsecutively).2ndedninonevolume.LibrairieHachette
etCie,Paris.1875.1stedn,tomeii(1844)pp.2836=2ndedn,pp.3548.Fortheauthorshipofthearticle,seethefinalpageofthevolume.
248.
FREEMANKathleen.ThePreSocraticphilosophers,acompaniontoDiels,'FragmentederVorsokratiker'.BasilBlackwell,Oxford.1946.Pp.xiii+486.
289.
FURLEYDavidJohn.TwostudiesintheGreekAtomists,studyIIndivisiblemagnitudes,studyIIAristotleandEpicurusonvoluntaryaction.Princeton
UniversityPress,Princeton,NewJersey.1967.Pp.viii+256.
117n.1.184n.1.270n.2.293.
FURLEYDavidJ.'AristotleandtheAtomistsoninfinity',SymposiumAristotelicum4ed.I.Dring(Heidelberg,1969)8596.
221n.1.
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science,ed.PeterK.MachamerandRobertG.Turnbull.OhioStateUniversityPress.1976.Pp.83100.
Furley'scontribution,asalsothatofHahm,didnotreachmeintimetobetakenaccountofinthebodyofmywork.FurleyintroducesaversionofZeller's
interpretation,wherebyforDemocritus'weight,meaningatendencytofallvertically,isaprimary,irreduciblepropertyoftheatoms'(p.87).Furley'spromiseofa
fullerstudyoftheevidenceforthisview(n.20)has,sofarasIknow,notyetbeenrealised.Furley'spreliminarystatementofhispositiondoesnotaddsignificantly
toZeller'sanalysisoftheevidence.
154n.1.163n.1.347n.3.
GASSENDIPetrus.P.G....AnimadversionesindecimumlibrumDiogenisLaertii,quiestdevita,moribus,placitisqueEpicuri....1stedn1649.3rdedn.
Lugduni,sumptibusFrancisciBarbier,typographiregii.2tomi,1675.Tomusi,Indextitulorum+pp.611.Tomusii,pp.458+Indexrerumacverborumtotiusoperis.
293n.1.
GERTHBernhard,seeunderKHNERRaphael.
GIGONOlog.'Die derVorsokratikerbeiTheophrastundAristoteles',SymposiumAristotelicum4ed.I.Dring(Heidelberg,1969)11423.
Gigonargues,Ithinkratherimplausibly,thatTheophrastus'Physicorumopinionesispriorto,andwasusedbyAristotlefor,thedoxographicaldiscussionsatthe
beginningofthePhysicsandMetaphysics.
4n.1.281n.2.
GOEDECKEMEYERAlbert.EpikursVerhltniszuDemokritinderNaturphilosophie.KarlJ.Trbner,Strassburg.1897.Pp.157.
Inalengthydiscussion,1127and10724,oftheproblemsofweightandmovementinDemocritus,GoedeckemeyerismainlyconcernedtosupportBrieger
againstZeller,andtodemolishtheideaofadownwardfallofatomsinthevoid.OnthequestionofweightGoedeckemeyerconcludes,245,that'beiDemokrit
eineeinheitlicheAuffassungderSchwerenochnichtgesuchtwerdenkann'.
133n.1.224n.3.239n.1.269n.2.350.
Page392
GOMPERZTheodor.GriechischeDenker,eineGeschichtederantikenPhilosophie.3Bnde,18961909.Therewereanumberofsubsequenteditionsofthe
variousvolumes:Bandifinallyappearedas'vierteAuflage,AusgabeletzterHandbesorgtvonH.Gomperz',thesonoftheauthor.VereinigungWissenschaftlicher
Verleger(WalterdeGruyter&Co.,etalii),BerlinundLeipzig.1922.Pp.x+499.
xxi.
GUTHRIEWilliamKeithChambers.Aristotle'Ontheheavens',withanEnglishtranslationbyW.K.C.G.,intheLoebclassicallibrary.W.Heinemann,
London.HarvardUniversityPress,Cambridge,Massachusetts.1939.Pp.xxxvi+379.
10n.3.812.85n.1.98n.1.
GUTHRIEWilliamKeithChambers.AhistoryofGreekphilosophy.UniversityPress,Cambridge.Currentlyappearinginseveralvolumes.Vol.i,1962,pp.xv+
359.Vol.ii,1965,pp.xvii+554.
MyfrequentreferencestoProfessorGuthrie'sHistorymayhaveobscuredthefactthatthemajorityofmycriticismsarelimitedtosomefourorfivepagesofhis
text(vol.iipp.4004)whichcontainabriefaccountofatomistnotionsofmovementandweight.MysinglingoutonepartofProfessorGuthrie'sworkinthisway
willnot,Ihope,bethoughtinvidious.MyintentionhasbeentouseProfessorGuthrie'sHistoryasrepresentativeofcurrentscholarlyopinion,andinsodoingto
hopetoachievegreaterclarityandunityinthepresentationofmyownexpressionofdissent.
467.62n.1.Ch.III1,81100,esp.945.Ch.V1,15361.163.1712.177n.2.1779.1812.187n.4.203.203n.3.Cf.21213.245n.1.285n.3.
285n.4.287n.2.289n.2.3478.
HADOTIlsetraut.Unpublishedpaper.Seenowthefollowingentry.
226n.1.
HADOTIlsetraut.LeproblmeduNoplatonismeAlexandri,HraclsetSimplicius,intheseriestudesAugustiniennes.tudesAugustiniennes,Paris.1978.
Pp.243.Appendice,pp.193202:'Aproposdel'articledeF.BossieretC.Steelsurle"Deanima"attribuSimplicius'.
HAHMDavidE.'WeightandlightnessinAristotleandhispredecessors',inMotionandtime,spaceandmatter,interrelationsinthehistoryofphilosophyand
science,ed.PeterK.MachamerandRobertG.Turnbull.OhioStateUniversityPress.1976.Pp.5682.
Iregretthatthisitem,asalsoFurley'scontributiontothesamevolume,didnotreachmeintimetobeconsideredinthebodyofmywork.Hahmendorses
Burnet'sinterpretationofDemocritus,pp.589,withtheriderthatheavyandlightrequirethepresenceofanobserver,asdootherofthesensibilia.Onthislatter
pointcf.p.359n.1above.
154n.1.347n.3.359n.1.
HAMELINO.'Lapesanteurdel'atomedanslesystmedeDmocrite',AnnalesdelafacultdeslettresdeBordeaux(1888)1949.
45n.1.223n.1.359n.1.
HAMMERJENSENIngeborg.DenaeldsteAtomlaehre,intheseriesStudierfraSprogogOldtidsforskningutgivneafdetphilologiskhistoriskeSamfund
no.77.Kjbenhavn.1908.Pp.180.
Theconclusionsofthisworkaresummarisedinthefollowingentry.
HAMMERJENSENIngeborg.'DemokritundPlaton',ArchivfrGeschichtederPhilosophie23n.F.16(1910)92105and21129.
Alfieri,Atomisti2n.4,writesofthisandoftheprecedingentrythattheauthor,byheranalysisofDiog.ix303(DK67A1)inconjunctionwithPlato'sTimaeus
esp.45B69A,'hadatolaverasoluzionealtormentatoproblemadellaUrbewegung,proseguendoperlastradaapertadalBriegeredalLiepmann,ma
riconoscendola
Page393
funzionedelpesoinconnessionecolmovimentooriginario'.ThispromisedoesnotseemtoberealisedinHammerJensen'sarticle.Althoughtheauthortheredeals
withmuchoftheevidenceconsideredinthepresentvolume,sheappearstoconsiderthequestionofweightsolelywithinthecontextofacosmicdine.In
particular,HammerJensendoesnotrefertoBurnetherworkfallsinthelimbo,sotospeak,betweenBrieger's'Urbewegung'(1904)andBurnet'ssecondedition
(1908),andhersilenceonthequestionoftheprecosmicatomsisareminderthatforallhisotherfaultsBurnetdoesatleastdisplayacertainforthrightnessand
clarity.
HINDENLANGLudwig.SprachlicheUntersuchungenzuTheophrastsbotanischenSchriften,intheseriesDissertationesphilologicaeArgentoratenses
selectaevol.xivfasc.2.K.J.Trbner,Strassburg.1910.Pp.200.
131n.1.
HIRZELRudolf.UntersuchungenzuCicero'sphilosophischenSchriften.VerlagvonS.Hirzel,Leipzig.3Theile,Theiliiim2Abtheilungen,18771883.Theili,
pp.244.Theilii,pp.913.Theiliii,pp.576.
2445.
INHELDERBrbel,seeunderPIAGETJean.
JARKHO(orYARKHO)V.N.'Onthemeaningofepicadjectiveswithprefix '[inRussianwithanabstractinEnglish],Journalofancienthistory[inRussian]
117(1971.3)7886.
44n.1.
JOACHIMHaroldH.Aristotle,'Oncomingtobeandpassingaway'(Degenerationeetcorruptione),arevisedtextwithintroductionandcommentary'.
ClarendonPress,Oxford.1922.Pp.xxxviii+303.
46n.3.5961.64.
JOACHIMHaroldH.TranslationoftheDegenerationeetcorruptione,inTheworksofAristotletranslatedintoEnglished.W.D.Ross.ClarendonPress,
Oxford.Vol.ii,1930.Thereisnoseparatepagination.
43n.1.
JRSSFritz,MLLERReimarandSCHMIDTErnstGnther.GriechischeAtomisten.TexteundKommentarezummaterialistischenDenkenderAntike,aus
demGriechischenundLateinischenbersetztundherausgegebenvonF.J.,R.M.undE.G.S.,intheseriesReclamsUniversalBibliothekBand409.1stedn
1973.'2Auflage'.VerlagPhilippReclamjun.,Leipzig.1977.Pp.623.
Someratherconfused,butultimatelyconventional,remarksonthe'weight'ofatomsareincludedinthe'Einleitung',289.
KERCHENSTEINERJula.'ZuLeukipposAl',Hermes87(1959)4418.
203n.3.
KIRKGeoffreyStephenandRAVENJohnEarle.ThePresocraticphilosophers,acriticalhistorywithaselectionoftexts.UniversityPress,Cambridge.1957.
Pp.xi+487.
TherelevantchapterbyKirkcontainsacoupleofpagesonweight,41416,whichreproduceBurnet'sinterpretation.
xvi.434.46n.3.154n.1.172n.1.177n.2.177n.4.287.2934.2967.3634.380.
KRANZWalther,seeunderDIELSHermann.
KHNERRaphael.AusfhrlicheGrammatikdergriechischenSprache.1stedn1834.3rdedn,2Teile,jederTeilimzweiBnden,18901904.TeiliiBand2'in
neuerBearbeitungbesorgtvonDr.BernhardGerth'.HahnscheBuchhandlung,HannoverundLeipzig.1904.Pp.ix+714.
54n.2.
Page394
LAFAISTPierreBenjamin.Dissertationsurlaphilosophieatomistique.L'imprimerieroyale,Paris.1833.Pp.118.
Thequestionofweightoccupiesmostofthesection,6875,'Propritsdesatomes':thesepagescontainalucidandforcefulpresentationofthethesisthatthe
atomswerewithoutweight.
210n.1.2401.338n.3.3413.359n.1.
LANGEFriedrichAlbert.GeschichtedesMaterialismusundKritikseinerBedeutunginderGegenwart.1stedn1866.2ndedn.VerlagvonJ.Baedeker,
Iserlohn.2Bcher,18735.Buchi,pp.xiv+434.Buchii,pp.xiii+573.Therewereanumberofposthumouseditionsandreprintings.
Iincludethiswork,becauseitisfrequentlycitedinnineteenthcenturydiscussionsofDemocritus,includingthequestionofweight.Langesupposes,2ndedni16
18,thattheatomsfallinthevoid,andcatcheachotherupbecauseoftheirdifferencesofspeed:thereisthenapassingidentificationofweightwithsize,andsome
briefremarksonweightinAristotleandEpicurus.
LEWESGeorgeHenry.Abiographicalhistoryofphilosophy.1stedn,4vols,18456.5thednunderthetitleThehistoryofphilosophyfromThalestoComte.
Longmans,GreenandCo.,London.2vols,1880.Vol.i,pp.cxiv+410.Vol.ii,pp.x+773.
350n.1.
LIARDLouis.DeDemocritophilosopho,followedbythenote'haecapudfacultatemlitterarumParisiensemdisputabatL.L.'.Versiliis,extypisCerfetfiliiedebat
ParisiisLadrangebibliopola.1873.Pp.61.
3n.1.350n.1.
LIEPMANNHugoCarl.DieMechanikderLeucippDemocritschenAtome,unterbesondererBercksichtigungderFragenachdemUrsprungder
Bewegungderselben.ThiswasfirstpublishedasanInauguralDissertationzurErlangungderDoctorwrdederhohenphilosophischenFakulttder
UniversittLeipzigvorgelegtvonH.C.L.BuchdruckereivonGustavSchade(OttoFrancke),Berlin.1885.Pp.69.Thesametextwaspublishedinthefollowing
year,1886,withthesametitle,butwithouttheadditionInauguralDissertation...,andwiththesamepagination,byGustavFock,Leipzig.
Especiallynoteworthyarepp.313,'berdasGewichtderAtome,alseinzigestreitigeEigenschaftderselben'.
1314.46n.3.1367.163.1712.175.182.223n.1.240n.2.262.26970.Ch.X3,27981.Ch.XIII1,34764,esp.3512,359n.1.
LONGOOddone.Aristotele'Decaelo',introduzione,testocritico,traduzioneenotediO.L.,describedasintheseriesClassicigrecielatini,contestoa
fronte,secondaserie,operediAristotele,sottoladirezioneeconlacollaborazionediCarloDiano.G.C.Sansoni,Firenze.1961.Pp.lxxiii+396.
81n.2.85n.1.
LORTZINGF.ReviewofBrieger,Urbewegung1884,inPhilologischerAnzeiger,alsErgnzungdesPhilologusherausgegebenvonErnstvonLeutsch,Band15
(1885)57883.
118n.1.3546.
LWENHEIM.'DerEinflussDemokrit'saufGalilei',ArchivfrGeschichtederPhilosophie7(1894)23068.
LWENHEIMLouis.DieWissenschaftDemokritsundihrEinflussaufdiemoderneNaturwissenschaft,herausgegebenvonLeopoldLwenheim.Druckund
VerlagvonLeonhardSimion,Berlin.1914.Pp.xi+244.Thefirst48pageswerealsoprinted,withthesametitle,asaBeilagetoArchivfrGeschichteder
Philosophie26n.F.19Heft4(1913)148.
Thiswasplannedasaworkinthreevolumes:therewerecompletedonlythepresentvolume,andasketchofthewholeinAGPhfor1894,aslistedabove.
Pp.3979,entitled'DieLehrevonderSchwereundvonderallgemeinenAnziehung',containalengthyandinplacesaveryinterestingdiscussionof
Page395
Democritus'conceptionofweight.LwenheimconcluesthattheconflictintheevidenceistoberesolvedbytheNewtoniantheoryofgravitation,73:
'NachmeinerAnsichterklrtsichdasRtselaufdieeinfachsteWeise:DemokritdachtesichdieSachegenauebensowiewird.h.erbetrachtetedieSchwerealseinen
speziellenFallderallgemeinenAnziehung....DieserAnsichtstehtdieallgemeinherrschendeAnschauungentgegen,dassvorNewtonniemanddaran...denkenkonnte,
weilerstdieEntdeckungen,welcheKepleramHimmelgemachthat,dergleichenAnsichtennahezulegenvermochten.'
WhileitseemstomethatLwenheimconfusesconceptualandhistoricalsimplicity,hehasatleastmadeagenuineattempttoaskhimselfwhatexpressionof
weighttherecanhavebeen,inthelightoftheevidencethatoutsideacosmostheatomsdohaveweightanddonotmovedownwards.Lwenheim'sdiscussionof
theevidenceisalsomorecarefulandmorebalancedthanthatwhichleadstomanyasupposedlymoreorthodoxinterpretation,andhemakesnoattempttomask
themodernaffiliationsoftheideasthatheattributestoDemocritus.
Thework(withLwenheim'searlierarticle)remainsausefulintroductiontoGalileo'sknowledge,anduse,ofDemocritus.ItisagreatpitythatLwenheimdidnot
livetocompletehismajesticenterprise.
154n.1.
LURIA(orLUR'E)SolomonYakovlevich.Outlinesofthehistoryofancientscience,Greeceinherprime[inRussian],inthecollection,Academyofsciencesof
theU.S.S.R.,popularscientificseries[inRussian].PressoftheAcademyofSciencesoftheU.S.S.R.,MoscowandLeningrad.1947.Pp.402.
284n.1.
LUR'ESolomonYakovlevich,seeunderLURIASolomonYakovlevich.
MABILLEAULopold.Histoiredelaphilosophieatomistique.Imprimerienationale,FlixAlcanditeur,Paris.1895.Pp.vii+560.
'Lapesanteur',pp.194200.
3n.1.210n.1.248n.3.338.34950.361n.1.
MCDIARMIDJ.B.'PhantomsinDemocriteanterminology: ',Hermes86(1958)2918.
16971.
MCDIARMIDJohnB.'TheophrastusDesensibus6162:Democritus'theoryofweight',Classicalphilology55(1960)2830.
Ch.IV1,11631.
MARTINThomasHenri.tudessurleTimedePlaton.Ladrangelibrairiediteur,Paris.2tomes,1841.Tomei,pp.xii+428.Tomeii,pp.462.
xvii.
MARXKarlHeinrich.Doktordissertation:DifferenzderdemokritischenundepikureischenNaturphilosophienebsteinemAnhange.Thiscomprises:Erster
Teil:DifferenzderdemokritischenundepikureischenNaturphilosophieimallgemeinen.ZweiterTeil:berdieDifferenzderdemokritischenund
epikureischenNaturphilosophieimeinzelnen.[FragmentausdemAnhang]:KritikderplutarchischenPolemikgegenEpikursTheologie.Written1840
March1841:printedinKarlMarx,FriedrichEngels:Werke...ErgnzungsbandTeili.DietzVerlag,Berlin.1968.Pp.257373.
ThesecondchapteroftheZweiterTeil,'DieQualittendesAtoms',pp.28590,containsanotuninterestingaccount,wherebyforDemocritusweightisnota
primarycharacteroftheatomsbecause'wir...beiDemokritblossehypothetischeBestimmungenzurErklrungderErscheinungsweltfinden'(p.287),whereas
forEpicurus,'dieAtomesindselbstsubstantialeSchwerpunktewiedieHimmelskrper'(p.289).
Page396
MAZZIOTTIManlio,seeunderENRIQUESFederigo.
MORAUXPaul.'EinigeBemerkungenberdenAufbauvonAristoteles'SchriftDecaelo',Museumhelveticum6(1949)15765.
ThereisalaterversionofthisarticleintheRevuethomistefor1951:thesubstanceofbotharticlesisincorporatedintotheintroductiontoMoraux'sBudedition.
MORAUXPaul.'RecherchessurleDecaelod'Aristote,objetetstructuredel'ouvrage',Revuethomisteanne59tome51(1951)17096.
Thesubstanceofthisarticleisresumed,withsomecorrections,intheintroductiontoMoraux'sBudedition.
1011.
MORAUXPaul.Aristote'Duciel',textetabliettraduitparP.M.,intheseriesCollectiondesUniversitsdeFrance,publiesouslepatronagedel'Association
GuillaumeBud.Socitd'dition'LesBellesLettres',Paris.1965/6.Pp.cxc+165(pp.1154double).
Pp.cxliiclvii,'Lapesanteuretlalgret',containananalysisofbookfour.
10n.3.42n.2.64n.1.81n.2.85n.1.112n.1.2846.
MOUYPaul.Ledveloppementdelaphysiquecartsienne16461712,intheseriesBibliothqued'histoiredelaphilosophie.LibrairiephilosophiqueJ.Vrin,
Paris.1934.Pp.x+343.
349n.2.
MUGLERCharles.'Surquelquesparticularitsdel'atomismeancien',Revuedephilologiesrie3,anneettome27(1953)14174.
2847.288n.3.
MUGLERCharles.'L'isonomiedesAtomistes',Revuedephilologiesrie3,anneettome30(1956)23150.
2847.
MUGLERCharles.'Platonica',L'antiquitclassique25(1956)2031.
290n.2.
MUGLERCh.'LesthoriesdelavieetdelaconsciencechezDmocrite',Revuedephilologiesrie3,anneettome33(1959)738.
2847.289n.2.
MUGLERCh.'L'invisibilitdesatomes,proposd'unpassaged'Aristote(Degen.etcorr.325a30)',Revuedestudesgrecques76(1963)397403.
2847.
MUGLERCharles.Aristote'Delagnrationetdelacorruption',textetabliettraduitparC.M.,intheseriesCollectiondesUniversitsdeFrance,publie
souslepatronagedel'AssociationGuillaumeBud.Socitd'dition'LesBellesLettres',Paris.1966(printed1965).Pp.xviii+101(pp.174double).
46n.3.64.2867.298n.1.
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46n.3.Ch.IV1,11631.172n.1.Ch.X3,27981.
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326n.1.
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226n.1.
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224n.3.239n.1.240n.2.34950.361n.1.SeealsoBOLLACK(1969)intheBibliography.
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350n.1.
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301n.1.
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154n.1.
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301n.1.
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45.34850.359n.1.
RIVAUDAlbert.Leproblmedudeveniretlanotiondelamatirsdanslaphilosophiegrecquedepuislesoriginesjusqu'Thophraste.FlixAlcanditeur,
Paris.1906.Pp.488.
Pp.16075'Lepoidsdesatomes'containadetailedandonthewholeajudiciousaccountoftheevidence,andofpreviousinterpretationsofit.Inthefirstpagesof
thissection,1604,Rivaudconcludesthattheatomsdohaveweight.Hethenaskshimself,veryproperly,1645:
'Mais,silesatomessontpesantsquelleideLeucippeetDmocritesefaisaientilsdelapesanteur?Lapesanteurestellelacausedumouvementdesatomes?'
Inthepageswhichremain,16575,Rivaudfairlyclearlyanswersthesecondquestionnegatively.ButfromhisverydetaileddiscussionIcannotdiscoverwhether
Rivaudthoughtthattherewasanyalternativeexpressionfortheweightofatoms,andifsowhatitmayhavebeen.Itis,Ithink,forthisreasonthatapartfroma
passingreferenceinRobin('L'atomismeancien'211n.1=Pensehellnique74n.1),Rivaud'sworkseemstohaveremainedwithoutinfluenceonsubsequent
scholars.
88n.1.133n.1.154n.1.239n.1.269n.2.
ROBINLon.Lapensegrecqueetlesoriginesdel'espritscientifique,intheseriesL'volutiondel'humanit,bibliothquedesynthsehistorique.La
RenaissanceduLivre,Paris.1923.Pp.xii+480.[Reprinted]ditionsAlbinMichel,Paris.1948.Pp.xxi+504.Thepaginationuptobutexcludingthebibliography
(pp.457ff.)isunchangedinthisreprintingandin:
Page399
'nouvelleditionavecunebibliographiecomplmentaireparPierreMaximeSchul',inthesameseries.ditionsA.Michel,Paris.1963.Pp.xxi+517.
154.n.1.287n.3.3401.
ROBINLon.'L'atomismeancien',Revuedesynthse,organeducentreinternationaldesynthse,fondation'Pourlascience'6(1933)20516.
ReprintedinLapensehllnique6780.
42n.2.154n.1.171n.1.3403.SeealsoRIVAUD(1906)intheBibliography.
ROBINLon.Lapensehellniquedesoriginespicure,questionsdemthode,decritiqueetd'histoire,intheseriesBibliothquedephilosophie
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187n.4.378n.3.
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121n.1.255n.2.287n.3.2957.
SAMBURSKYS.'ADemocriteanmetaphorinPlato'sKratylos',Phronesis4(1959)14.
1678.
SCHMIDTErnstGnther,seeunderJRSSFritz.
SCHNEIDERIoannesGottlob.TheophrastiEresiiquaesupersuntoperaetexcerptalibrorumquatuor[eventuallyfive]tomiscomprehensaadfidemlibrorum
editorumetscriptorumemendavithistoriametlibrosVIdecausisplantarumconiunctaoperaD.H.F.LinkiiexcerptasolusexplicareconatusestI.G.S.
SumtibusF.C.G.Vogelii,Lipsiae.181821.Vol.i,pp.xl+896.Vol.ii,pp.vi+630.Vol.iii,pp.843.Vol.iv,pp.873.Vol.v,pp.lxvi+549.
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1416,cf.233.
Ch.IV1,11631.
SCHWABOtto.HistorischeSyntaxdergriechischenComparationinderklassischenLitteratur,BandivofBeitrgezurhistorischenSyntaxder
griechischenSprache,herausgegebenvonM.Schanz.A.Stuber'sVerlagsbuchhandlung,Wrzburg.3Hefte,18935.Pp.viii523(alsopaginatedseparatelyfor
eachHeft.)
98n.1.
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EspeciallyrelevanttothisstudyistheBeilage,'TheophrastsPhysikundihrVerhltniszuden '(pp.33451).
4n.1.281n.2.301n.1.
Page400
STEPHANUSHenricus.AristotelisetTheophrastiscriptaquaedam,quaevelnumquamantea,velminusemendataquamnunc,editafuerunt.Exofficina
HenriciStephaniParisiensistypographi.1557.Pp.168.
ThisincludestheeditioprincepsofTheophrastusDesensibus,pp.1746.
116.
STOCKSJohnLeofric.TranslationoftheDecaelo,inTheworksofAristotletranslatedintoEnglished.W.D.Ross.ClarendonPress,Oxford.Vol.ii,1930.
Thereisnoseparatepagination.
81n.2.85n.1.
STRATTONGeorgeMalcolm.TheophrastusandtheGreekphysiologicalpsychologybeforeAristotle.GeorgeAllenandUnwin,London.MacMillanand
Company,NewYork.1917.Pp.227.
ThiscontainsDiels'text,withatranslation,andnoteswhicharelargelyderivedfromcorrespondencewithA.E.Taylor.
xvixviii.Ch.IV1,11631,esp.121n.1.149.255n.2.371n.1.
STROHMAIERGotthard.'DemokritberdieSonnenstubchen,einneuesFragmentinarabischerberlieferung',Philologus112(1968)119.
177n.4.287n.3.
SWEENEYLeo.InfinityinthePresocratics:abibliographicalandphilosophicalstudy.MartinusNijhoff,TheHague.1972.Pp.xxxiii+222.
214n.1.
TANNERYPaul.Pourl'histoiredelasciencehellne,deThalsEmpdocle.1stedn,1887.2ndednbyA.Dis.GauthierVillarsetCie,Paris.1930.Pp.xxiv
+435.
'AppendiceI',pp.34880,containsatranslationofTheophrastusDesensibus.
Ch.IV1,11631,esp.120n.1.256n.3.
TAYLORAlfredEdward.AcommentaryonPlato's'Timaeus'.ClarendonPress,Oxford.1928.Pp.xv+700.
xviixviii.149.314n.2.
TAYLORAlfredEdward,seeunderSTRATTONGeorgeMalcolm.
TIEDEMANNDieterich.GeistderspekulativenPhilosophie.InderneuenAkademischenBuchhandlung,Marburg.6Bnde,17917.[Bandi]'VonThalesbis
Sokrates',pp.xl+391.
42.
TRICOTJules.Aristote,traitduciel,suividutraitpseudoAristotliciendumonde,traductionetnotesparJ.T.LibrairiephilosophiqueJ.Vrin,Paris.1949
(printed1948).Pp.xviii+204.
10n.3.
USENERHermann.Epicurea.Lipsiae,inaedibusB.G.Teubneri.1887.Pp.lxxviii+445.
326n.1.373n.1.SeealsotheIndexlocorum.
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48n.1.60n.1.66n.1.77n.1.100n.1.
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VERDENIUSW.J.Privatecommunication.
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WASZINKJanHendrik,seeunderVERDENIUSWillemJacob.
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PrinzipienforschungbeiAristoteles.VandenhoeckundRuprecht,Gttingen.1962.Pp.354.
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xxin.1.
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adjecitF.W.Paristis,Didot.1866.Pp.xxviii+547.
ThisaddsaLatintranslationtoWimmer'sTeubneredition(3vols,185462):pp.xvi,xviiiand32140containtheDesensibus.
Ch.IV1.11631.
WISMANNHeinz,seeunderBOLLACKJean.
YARKHOV.N.,seeunderJARKHOV.N.
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GriecheninihrergeschichtlichenEntwicklung.1stedn1844.Finallyinvariouseditionsandwith'DreiTeile,jederTeilimzweiAbteilungen'.TeiliAbteilung2,6th
ednbyWilhelmNestle'mitUnterstutzungvonFranzLortzing'.O.R.Reisland,Leipzig.1920.Pp.viii+7831460.
OnweightandmovementinDemocritus,i2pp.10668and107699.
xvi.154n.1.156n.1.163.1712.1745.186n.1.186n.2.189.21213.223n.1.243.
260n.1.2612.290.322.323.3256.338n.3.Ch.XIII1,34764,esp.3567,3634.
Page402
INDEXLOCORUM
TheeditionsspecifiedareintendedprimarilyasjustificationofthetextsIhavetranscribed,althoughwhereitdoesnotsignificantlyalterthesenseIhavefeltfreeto
changepunctuationandaccentuation,andonoccasiontoadoptareadingfromtheapparatus,withoutfurtheracknowledgementofthefact.Longerdiscussionsare
precededbyareferencetochapterandsection.
TheEnglishversionsofGreektextsaremyown.Exceptwhentheyarespecificallyintroducedastranslations,theyhavebeendeliberatelycastintheformofan
expandedtranslationorparaphrase.Thisisintendedasaneconomicalwayofmakingmyinterpretationofminorpointsimmediatelyclearitmeanshoweverthatthese
versionsmustbereadasacommentaryuponthetext,andcannotbeusedasasubstituteforit.
BT BibliothecaScriptorumGraecorumetRomanorumTeubneriana.
Bud CollectiondesUniversitsdeFrance,publiesouslepatronagede
l'AssociationGuillaumeBud.
CAG CommentariainAristotelemGraeca,editaconsilioetauctoritateAcademiae
LitterarumRegiaeBorussicae.
GCS DieGriechischenChristlichenSchriftstellerdererstendreiJahrhunderte.
LCL LoebClassicalLibrary.
OCT ScriptorumClassicorumBibliothecaOxoniensis(OxfordClassicalTexts).
PG Migne'sPatrologiaeCursusCompletus,seriesgraeca.
AchillesTatius
IsagogainAratum
ed.E.Maass,Berolini1898.
3,p.31.1418Maass343.
Aetius
Deplacitisphilosophorum
ed.H.Diels,Dox.267444.
Cf.[Plutarchus]Moralia:deplacitisphilosophorumed.J.Mau,BTvfasc.2pars1,1971.OccasionalcorrectionshavealsobeentakenfromDKandfromH.
Usener,Epicurea(Leipzig,1887).
i3.18=[Plut.]877EF1534.221n.1.223.224n.3.Ch.VIII2,22939.3336.351ff.
i42=[Plut.]878DE153n.3.184n.1.3724.
i12.5=[Plut.]883AB133n.1.2269.2323.
i12.61534.176n.1.1801.212.Ch.VIII1,2239.2323.240.248.Ch.X45,283302.3336.350n.1.351ff.
i18.3=[Plut.]883F290.
iii13.4=[Plut.]896AB153n.3.357.374.
Alexander
Metaphysica
ed.M.Hayduck,CAGi,1891.
36.121821415.
36.2181801.Ch.VII34,21122.2978.339.
631.811178n.3.276n.1.
Page403
ap.Simpl.Decaelo
575.27821517.
576.101221517.
ap.Simpl.Phys.
679.12221856.18890.1912.1959.221.350ff.,esp.355ff.
679.3271979.
Anaxagoras
Fragmenta
DKii3244
431112.369.
123689.378n.3.
Archimedes
Opera
ed.C.Mugler,Bud3vols,19701.
Deplanorumequilibriis
i1sqq.209n.1.
Aristophanes
Comoediasquaeextantetfragmenta
edd.F.W.HalletW.M.Geldart,OCT2vols,[2ndedn]1906.
fr.488.45209n.1.
Aristoteles
Deanima
ed.W.D.Ross,Oxford1961.
edd.A.JannoneetE.Barbotin,Bud1966.
i2,403b31404a201779.276n.1.Cf.27981.31920.3213.3235.329.3445.
i2,405a81331719.3213.3235.329.3445.375.
iii1,424b30133n.1.
Decaelo
ed.D.J.Allan,OCT1936,reprintedwithcorrections1965.
ed.O.Longo,Firenze1962.
ed.P.Moraux,Bud1965.
i2,268b1416143n.2.
i7,275b29276a61115.20.223.54n.1.Ch.IV23,13250.2345.262.312.3589.
i7,276a10224n.3.232n.2.
i8,277a279317.
i8,277a33b2153n.3.265.
iii1,299a25300a1950n.1.84.21415.273.339.
iii2,300b816138.221n.1.2368.2612.
iii2,301b116328n.1.
iii2,301b1622143n.2.
iii4,303a56288.
iii4,303a8171n.1.
iii4,303a10b8133n.1.2345.272.288.
iii8,306b29307b961n.1.67n.1.723.
iv1,307b28332089.365.
iv1,308a3439.378.
iv1,308a91378.1011.1415.3240.
iv1,308a3138n.2.14n.1.
iv2,308a34b38.1415.3240.
iv2,308b328456.62.63n.2.83ff.
Page404
iv2,308b28309a1156.17n.1.Ch.III1,80100,esp.801(text),98100(paraphrase).100.101.1034.1068.110n.1.11314.129n.1.150.202.
21819.235.Ch.IX3,2616.299302.332.338n.3.339.351ff.
iv2,309a1118Ch.III23,10114.332.3757.
iv2,309a19213778.378n.3.381.
iv2,309a2930101n.1.129n.1.
iv2,309a33b41619.223.278.312.3340.54n.1.10814.262.
iv2,309b684950.52n.3.63.
iv2,309b18232932.3440.
iv2,309b32310a322n.1.235.35n.1.36n.1.
iv2,310a710265.328n.1.SeealsoBOLLACK(1969)intheBibliography.
iv3,310b20144.
iv4,311a152967.51.55n.1.317.
iv4,311a29b1302.3440.
iv4,311b14198n.2.911.1415.3340.158.
iv4,311b26914n.1.
iv4,312a1221145.
iv5,312a22b2145.
iv5,312b193214n.1.203.3440.145.
iv5,312b32313a624n.1.258.312.3440.36n.1.
iv5,313a1013263.
iv6,313a1415317.
iv6,313a21b5281n.2.317.
Degenerationeanimalium
ed.H.J.DrossaartLulofs,OCT1965.
ii6,742b1735237.364n.2.
Degenerationeetcorruptione
ed.H.H.Joachim,Oxford1922.
ed.C.Mugler,Bud1966.
ForASULANUS'LatintranslationseetheBibliography.
i1,314a2142345.288.
i1,315a10113678.
i2,315a34b13378.
i2,315b6152345.288.
i2,315b2430218.
i2,315b30316a14218.2345.
i7,324a24b2471.
i8,325a216SeeBOLLACK(1969)intheBibliography.
i8,325a23b112837.288.2945.SeealsoBOLLACK(1969)andMUGLER(1963)intheBibliography.
i8,325b17192345.
i8,325b243641.71.84.2345.288.
i8,325b36326a1456.Ch.II,4179,esp.412(text),779(paraphrase).100.11314.150.202.245n.1.Ch.IX3,2601.299302.338n.3.341.351ff.
377n.1.
i8,326a14152345.
i8,326a21484n.1.
i8,326a249245n.1.
i9,327a18192345.
ii2,329b1826578.74n.2.
ii7,334b82052n.3.65n.1.
Page405
Departibusanimalium
ed.B.Langkavel,BT1868.
ed.A.L.Peck,LCL1937.
ed.P.Louis,Bud1956.
i1,642a2431338n.1.
i4,644a162347n.2.
i5,645b22647n.2.
iv10,690a19201823.
Fragmenta
ed.V.Rose,BT1886.
Fragmentaselectaed.W.D.Ross,OCT1955.
SomecorrectionsarealsotakenfromDKii934.
208Rose(=pp.1435Ross)17n.1.46n.2.168n.1.17981.2345.281.2837.288.288n.3.290.2945.299301.Ch.IX,esp.1,30310.316ff.329.
3425.
Historiaanimalium
ed.L.Dittmeyer,BT1907.
ed.P.Louis,Bud3vols,19649.
librosivi,ed.A.L.Peck,LCL2vols,196570.
i1,486a21b1747n.2.
iv4,583b131447n.2.
Metaphysica
ed.W.D.Ross,Oxford1924,acorrectedimpression1953.
ed.W.Jaeger,OCT1957.
A4,985a313378n.3.
A4,985b10192345.320n.1.
A4,985b1920138.211.2368.2612.
H2,1042b11152345.
I1,1052b243150n.2.
6,1071b317138.221n.1.2368.2612.
M4,1078b1220338n.1.377n.1.
Meteorologica
ed.F.H.Fobes,CantabrigiaeMassachusettensium1919.
iv4,382a816168n.1.
Physica
ed.W.D.Ross,Oxford1936,acorrectedimpression1955.
i2,184b2022345.288.
i5,188a2262345.
ii12,192b8194b15143n.2.338n.1.
iii4,203a33b246n.2.2345.285.288.
iv6,213a12ff.224.
iv6,213a34bl189.224.315n.1.
iv8,214b12215a24167n.1.21921.224.224n.3.2323.364n.2.
iv8,215a25216a21434.1879.1912.Ch.XI34,31529.3445.352ff.
iv8,216a216167n.1.
iv9,216b22217b203823.
viii1,252a32b5237.364n.2.
viii9,265b2391934.364n.2.
[Aristoteles]
Problemata
ed.C.A.Ruelle,recensueruntH.KnllingeretI.Klek,BT1922.
viii14,891a31801.
Page406
Cercidas
Fragmenta
ed.J.U.Powell,CollectaneaAlexandrina,pp.20113,Oxonii1925.
ed.E.Diehl,Anthologialyricagraeca,BTfasc.3,editiotertia,pp.13952,1952.
fr.4.2937Powell=fr.1.1924Diehl209n.1.
Cicero
Dedivinatione
ed.A.S.Pease,intheseriesUniversityofIllinoisstudiesinlanguageandliteraturevi23(1920)andviii23(1923).
ii13241n.2.
Defato
ed.A.Yon,Bud1933.
ed.W.Ax,BTfasc.46,1938.
10.2232418.
20.4681534.1801.223.Ch.VIII3,23948.
Definibusbonorumetmalorum
ed.J.N.Madvig,editiotertiaemendata,Hauniae1876.
ed.J.S.Reid,Cambridge1925.
ed.A.Selem,Romae1962.
i6.17202448.
Denaturadeorum
ed.A.S.Pease,2vols,Cambridge,Massachusetts,19558.
librum1ed.M.vanderBruwaene,CollectionLatomus,Bruxelles1970.
i25.6926.73210n.1.223n.1.2408.
i43.1202878.
DiogenesLaertius
Vitaephilosophorum
ed.H.S.Long,2vols,OCT1964.
ii8369n.1.378n.3.
v26281n.2.
v27281n.2.
ix303153n.3.163n.1.Ch.VII12,20310.332.35963.3724.
SeealsoHAMMERJENSEN(1910)intheBibliography.
ix44163n.1.245n.1.283n.2.28990.2947.
ix4693n.1.
FortheLettertoHerodotus(x3583),seeEPICURUS.
DiogenesOenoandensis
Fragmenta
ed.A.Grilli,intheseriesTestiedocumentiperlostudiodell'antichitno.2,IstitutoEditorialeCisalpino,MilanoeVarese1960.
ed.C.W.Chilton,BT1967.
32col.ii9Chilton(=fr.30col.ii9Grilli)1801.
DionysiusBishopofAlexandria
Fragmenta:
ed.C.L.Feltoe,ThelettersandotherremainsofDionysiusofAlexandria(Cambridge,1904)12764.
1(=Eus.Praep.evang.xiv23)245n.1.283.2947.
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Empedocles
Fragmenta
DKi30874.
2131112.3678.
26a31112.36970.
27343.36970.
28343.
30343.
Forthedistinctioninthenumerationoffrr.26aand27,seeECC316and14954.
Epicurus
ap.Diog.Laert.Vitaephilosophorumed.H.S.Long,OCTvol.ii,1964.
EpistolaadHerodotum(=Diog.Laert.3583)
412290.2918.
47326n.1.
54236n.1.
55921314.2856.289n.2.2918.
61160.1848.1912.2278.231n.1.2856.322323.3256.3279.350ff.
OthertextsincludedinH.Usener,Epicurea(Leipzig,1887)havebeenlistedundertheauthorinwhichtheyappear.
EpiphaniusConstantiensis
Adversuslxxxhaereses
ed.K.Holl,3vols,GCS25,31,37,191533.
excerptaed.H.Diels,Dox.58593.
iii2:Defideix23=iii506.259Holl(Dox.591.812)343.
Eusebius
Praeparatioevangelica
ed.K.Mras,GCS43.12=EusebiusWerkeBandviiiTeile12,19546.
i8.7364n.2.
xiv14.5230n.1.
xiv23.3245n.1.283.2947.
xv32.2373n.1.
Galenus
ed.K.G.Khn,20vols,Lipsiae182133.
DeelementissecundumHippocratem
ed.G.Helmreich,Erlangae1878.
i2=i41819Khn1801.245n.1.
[Galenus]
Historiaphilosopha
ed.H.Diels,Dox.595648.
18=xix2434Khn(Dox.610.1820)343.
HermiasPhilosophus
Irrisiogentiliumphilosophorum
ed.H.Diels,Dox.64956.
8=Dox.653.914343.
HesychiusAlexandrinus
Lexicon
ed.M.Schmidt,5vols,Ienae185868.
(K.Latte'sedition,Hauniae195366,hasnotyetgotthisfar.)
s.v. 170.
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Hippolytus
Refutatioomniumhaeresium
ed.P.Wendland,GCS26=HippolytusWerkeBandiii,1916.
i8.23689.378n.3.
Homerus
Ilias
ed.T.W.Allen,Oxonii1931.
i8890183.
JustinusMartyr
CohortatioadGraecos
PGvi241312
4=PGvi249A343.
[Lucianus]
Amores
ed.M.D.Macleod,LCLviii,1967.
451801.
Lucretius
Dererumnatura
ed.C.Bailey,Oxford1947.
ii8381834.1912.
ii89171.
ii11241171.1789.
ii217181834.1912.
ii22591856.1912.326n.1.350ff.,esp.354ff.
ii25671789.
ii2889184n.1.
ii4785212918.
ii548171.
MalalaIoannes
Chronographia
PGxcvii64718
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Parmenides
Fragmenta
DKi22746.
ed.L.Tarn,Princeton1965.
8.401311.
8.5693678.
PhiloJudaeus
edd.L.CohnetP.Wendland,7vols,Berolini18961926.
Deaeternitatemundi
8=CWvi75.891801.
Philoponus
Degenerationeetcorruptione
ed.H.Vitelli,CAGxivpars2,1897.
167.111746n.3.5861.
Plato
ed.J.Burnet,OCT5vols,19007volsiii[2ndedn]190510.
Cratylus
420D1678.310.
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[Plato]
Deiusto
373E209n.1.
Plato
Phaedo
102BD434.
109A46209.
Timaeus
45B69ASeeHAMMERJENSEN(1910)intheBibliography.
50AB143.
52D4E531415.345.363n.1.
52E553A8314n.2.345.
56AC72.
57B7C631315.345.
57D58A131315.345.
58D4E731315.3267.3279.
62A6B631315.345.
62B6C3168n.1.
62C363E7162.164.168n.1.3656.367.
Plotinus
Enneades
edd.P.HenryetH.R.Schwyzer,3vols,Paris/Bruxelles/Leiden,195173.
iv7[2]4.26758n.1.
Plutarchus
AdversusColotem
ed.M.Pohlenz,BTeditioaltera,quamcuravitaddendisqueinstruxitR.Westman,vol.vifasc.2,1959.
edd.B.EinarsonetP.H.deLacy,LCLxiv,1967.
1110F236.
Defaciequaeinorbelunaeapparet
ed.M.Pohlenz,BTeditioaltera,addendaadiecitH.Drexler,vol.vfasc.3,1960.
ed.H.Cherniss,LCLxii,1957.
926D927A31112.36970.
Deprimofrigido
ed.K.Hubert,BTeditioaltera,addendaadiecitH.Drexler,vol.vfasc.3,1960
955BC3279.36672.
[Plutarchus]
Moralia:deplacitisphilosophorum
seeunderAETIUS
SextusEmpiricus
Adversusmathematicos
librosviixi(=Adversusdogmaticos,librosiv)ed.H.Mutschmann,BT1914.
vii117153n.3.
x731801.
Simplicius
Categoriae
ed.C.Kalbfleisch,CAGviii,1907.
216.31217.5241.
[Simplicius?]
Deanima
ed.M.Hayduck,CAGxi,1882.
26.1119178n.3.276n.1.Ch.X3,27981.300.
39.28312256.
62.24245n.1.
Page410
Simplicius
Decaelo
ed.I.L.Heiberg,CAGviii,1894.
242.19245n.1.
267.30153n.3.
269.414113n.3.160.Ch.V2,1616.168n.1.1723.1923.2012.299302.3325.37980.
294.33295.29(=Aristotlefr.208Rose)17n.1.46n.2.168n.1.17981.2345.281.2837.288.288n.3.290.2945.299301.
Ch.XIesp.1,30310.316ff.329ff.3425.
378.21199.
556.1562.18281.
569.59Ch.V1,15361,esp.1547.1623.1656.1712.1723.2012.299302.3325.3589.
SeealsoBOLLACK(1969)intheBibliography.
575.27821517.
576.101221517.
576.121921718.
583.2021656.1923.1945.200.2246.3325.
603.4609.12281.
609.1719245n.1.
609.1925171n.1.277n.1.
612.1117Ch.X2,2709.
684.192296.162n.1.
685.911967.113n.3.
685.1317957.
685.17ff.97.
685.22496.162n.1.
712.2731Ch.V1,15361,esp.15761.1623.164.1656.1723.2012.299302.3325.3656.
Physica
ed.H.Diels,CAGixx,188295.
Cf.A.H.Coxon,'ThemanuscripttraditionofSimplicius'commentaryonAristotle'sPhysicsiiv',Classicalquarterlyn.s.18(1968)705.
20.2842.5281.
28.427(=Theophrastus,Physicorumopinionesfr.8)2345.288n.2.299301.
28.3029.5Ch.X1,26770.
31.47367.
33.8ff.3678.
42.10111656.1801.1923.1945.200.2246.2303.239n.1.3325.
80.15199.
80.1617281n.1.
81.3482.6245n.1.Ch.X2,2709.283n.2.
115.10121.25281.
133.30190.20281.
159.13ff.3678.
679.12221856.18890.1912.1959.221.350ff.,esp.355ff.
679.24680.9195202.
925.132221314.245n.1.Ch.X2,2709.
938.212190.
1183.11186.35281.
1318.301319.5154n.1.Ch.V3,16673.Ch.VI3,192202.26970.299302.Ch.XI1,30310.316ff.329.3325.3445.351ff.
Page411
Theophrastus
Decausisplantarum
ed.F.Wimmer,BT3vols,185462Didot,Parisiis,1866.
librosiiiedd.B.EinarsonetG.K.K.Link,LCL1976.
vi1.6321n.1.
vi3.3133n.1.
Fragmentumdeigne
ed.V.Coutant,Assen1971
1133n.1.
8133n.1.
Fragmentumdeodoribus
ed.F.Wimmer,BT3vols,185462Didot,Parisiis,1866.
1133n.1.
6133n.1.
Fragmentumdesensibus
ed.H.Diels,Dox.497529.
ed.G.M.Stratton,TheophrastusandtheGreekphysiologicalpsychologybeforeAristotle,LondonandNewYork1917.
9374n.1.
1011254.
22374n.1.
593702.375.3767.378.
5960381.
60127.235.254.3378.
6012567.3767.
61235.
61282.Ch.IV1,11531,esp.116(text),131(paraphrase).150.202.Ch.IX2,25360.299302.3325.338n.3.351ff.3728.
632567.
6573203.3235.329.338n.1.342.3445.3757.
682567.260.338.
711315.Ch.IV23,13250.202.248n.1.2567.299302.377n.1.
738338n.1.342.3757.
82374.
83168n.1.338n.1.
87168n.1.
8838n.1.
Physicorumopiniones:fragmenta
ed.H.Diels,Dox.47395
8(=Simpl.Phys.28.427)2345.288n.2.299301.
Ageneralindextoallfourvolumeswillbeaddedattheendofvolumefour.
Page412
RSUMENFRANAIS
Introduction
ThoriesdelaPesanteurdansl'Antiquit
Commentsedgagerdesprsuppossd'unepenseanachronique,eninterrogeantlestextesdel'Antiquit?Ceproblmeestcrucialpourquiveuttudierlesthories
delapesanteurexposesdansleTimedePlatonetdansletraitDucield'Aristote:l'uneetl'autrethoriefontdenosjoursl'objetd'analysesol'onvoit
transparatrel'influenced'idespostrieures,trangreslapensedel'AcadmieetduLyce.
Leproblmedevientencorepluscomplexesinousessayonsd'atteindrelathorielaquelles'opposrentAristoteetPlaton.LescritsdeDmocrite,nombreux,
avaienttrsttdisparubiendeshistoriensdel'Antiquitn'enontconnuladoctrinequ'traversdesidesforgesparAristotepourlarenverser.Ainsieneston
venuconfondantlacibleetletireurrapprocherlathoriedeDmocritedecelledesonadversaire.
Leshistoriensmodernesrenchrissentsurcetteerreur.Ilssonteuxaussitributairesd'Aristote,etpartagentsurplusd'unpointsamentalit:ilenrsultequeles
documentsimprgnsd'idespripatticiennesretiennentseuls,ouparprivilge,leurattention,sibienqu'aujourd'huiencoreoninterprteDmocritetraverslesides
d'Aristote,toutcommeoninterprteAristotetraverslesidesdespenseursduMoyenAgeetdelaRenaissance.
Pourporterremdecesinconsquences,ilfaudramettrenutoutautantlesprsupposspropresAristotequelesprsuppossquiluisonttrangers:ceuxci
altrentnotreexgsedelapensed'Aristoteceuxlobscurcissentnotreintelligencedelathoriequ'ilavoulurenverser.
Premirepartie:tmoignagesdirects
ChapitreI
CritiquegnraleparAristotedelathorieatomiste
CommenonsparAristote,etparsescritiquescontrelesAtomistesdansletraitDuciel.Onapensqu'Aristoterefusaitsesprdcesseurs,etplusparticulirement
auxAtomistes,leconceptd'unepesanteurabsolue,sibienqu'iln'auraitreconnuauxatomesqu'unepesanteurrelative,voireirrelle.Maissi,pourAristote,les
Atomistesappartiennenteneffetcettemajoritquiignorelanotiond'unepesanteurabsolue,ilsappartiennentaussiuneminorit,quireconnatdumoinsl'unedes
espcesdelapesanteur,nonpointlalgretabsolue,maislalourdeurabsolue.
Ceparadoxes'expliqueparladistinctiondesatomesetdescorpscomposs.L'airetlaterresontcompossd'atomesunequantitd'airtomberadoncplusvitesielle
estfaited'atomesplusgrosouplusnombreuxqueceuxd'unecertainequantitdeterre.Deuxconclusionspourraientalorss'imposer.L'airtantpluslourdquela
terre,cellecineseraitpas,pourDmocrite,d'unelourdeurabsolue,commeellel'estpourAristote.Maislesatomesquiconstituentcesdeuxlmentsn'ensontpas
moinsd'unelourdeurabsolue,dansl'exactemesureoplusnombreuxilstombenttoujoursplusvite.
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ChapitreII
LeDegenerationeetcorruptioned'Aristote
LanotiondepesanteurabsolueestessentiellelacritiqueexposedansleDegenerationeetcorruptione.Aristotes'lvedanscetextecontrel'impassibilitdes
atomes,enfaisantappelunedifferencedepesanteur:siunatomeestpluslourdqu'unautre,ildevraityavoirunatomepluschaudqu'unautremaisl'atomequi
l'emporteraitenchaleurnepourraitpasalorsnepasaffecterl'atomemoinschaudquelui.Lesatomesdoiventdoncptir,lesunssousl'effetdesautres.
Cettecritiquereposesurl'inactivitdelapesanteurdanslaconceptionduStagirite:silefeurchauffequandons'enapproche,enrevanchelapierrequicrasene
rendpaspluslourdencessens,elleestinactive.C'estdonclachaleuretnonlapesanteurquimetenevidencel'activitdesatomes.
Maislanotiondepesanteuresttoutaussiessentiellel'argument.Lalourdeurabsoluesupposequelesatomessontplusoumoinslourdslesunsquelesautres,sans
d'ailleursquel'atomemoinslourdsoitdecefaitplusleger.Latheorieatomistedelatemperatureestsurcepointanalogue:Democriterattachelachaleurala
rondeurdesatomes,maisiln'ensauraitexpliquerlafroideur,puisquelarondeurn'admetpasdecontraire.Aristotetirepartideceparalllisme:l'absenced'un
secondtermedanslesdeuxoppositions(froid/leger)luipermetderapprocherlachaleurdelalourdeurdesatomes.
Onsaisitdslorslenerfdecetteargumentation:ladiffrencedelourdeursupposeunediffrencedechaleurladifferencedechaleurrendlesatomesactifset
passibles(sujetsptir).
ChapitreIII
LeDecaelod'Aristote
Enquoiconsistelapesanteur?AristotelaisseentrevoirsapensecesujetdansuntexteduDecaelo,oilopposelatheoriedePlatoncelledesAtomistes.Platon
nepeutexpliquercommentlecorpsleplusgrosestparfoislepluslger:lestrianglestanttousd'uneseuleetmmeespce,uneaugmentationdevolumedansles
corpsqu'ilsconstituentdevraitncessairements'accompagnerd'uneaugmentationdepoids.Lecorpsleplusgrosseraitdonctoujourslepluspesant.LesAtomistes,
aucontraire,peuventaugmenterlevolumed'uncorps,enlegonflantdevide,sansaccrotresonpoids.Lecorpsleplusgrosdevientalorsparfoislepluslger.
Cecontrasteenappelleunautre.Ontombedansl'absurde,quandonchercheconstruiredescorpsmatriels,enutilisantdessurfaces.Enrevanche,lesAtomistes,
quiconsidrentlescorpsindivisiblescommedessolides,auraientdroitdedirequeleplusgrosd'entreeuxestaussilepluspesant.
Onaconfonducesdeuxcritiques,eninterprtantlaformuleleplusgros...lepluspesant.commevisantuniquementlescorpscomposs.Ilestaucontraireevident
que,sicetteformules'applique,danslapremirecritiqued'Aristote,auxcorpscompossdePlaton,ellenes'applique,danslaseconde,qu'auxatomes.Deladuvide
danslescorpscomposs,ils'ensuit,pourlesAtomistes,quelecorpscomposeprsenceleplusgrosestaussiparfoislepluslger(premirecritique)enrevanche,ce
sontlesatomesqui,plusgros,sontpluspesants(secondecritique).
Ondevine,certes,danscetexte,l'accentuationdedtailsquiattestelessoucisd'AristotepluttqueceuxdeDtmocrite.Parexemple,Aristoteobserve,danslasuite
desacritique,qu'enfondantlalgretdescorpscomposssurlapartdevidequiesteneux,lesAtomistesontngligdepreciserlapartdesolide.Maisla
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proportiondevidesuffiteneffetpourtablirunecomparaisonentredescorpsdevolumegal.Enngligeantlapartdesolide,lesAtomistesnecherchaient
probablementpascomparerdescorpsdevolumesingauxc'estAristotequiainflchiencesenslathorieprimitive,pourmieuxl'adaptersacritiquedePlaton.
Queconclure?Malgrlesrisquesd'anachronismeimputablelapolmiqued'Aristote,ilnoussemble,aprsavoirrapprochleDegenerationeetcorruptioneetle
Decaelo,que,selonDmocrite,ladifferencedepesanteurvadepairavecunedifferencedegrandeur.
ChapitreIV
Theophraste
LammethoriesefaitjourdansletraitSurlafacultdesentiretsurlesobjetsdessensdeThophraste:lapesanteurdesatomesestdfinieparlagrandeur,
toutediffrencedeformemisepartdanslescorpscomposs,lecorpslepluslgerseraceluiquiauradavantagedevide.
Onamalcompriscetexte,enconfondanttailleetfigure.Thophrasteeneffetneparlepasd'atomesdontlafigureseraitlammec'estlatailledesatomesquien
dterminelapesanteur,sibienque,mmes'ilsdiffrentparlafigure,deuxatomesdemmetaillesontaussidummepoids.
Pluscomplexeestlapartiecritiquedutrait.PourThophraste,commepourAristote,lapesanteursetraduitparunediversitdemouvementsetdenaturesdansles
corpscosmiques(l'air,l'eau,lefeu,laterre).Endfinissantlapesanteurparlaseulegrandeurdesatomes,Dmocriteauraitimposauxatomescosmiquesunmme
mouvement,doncuneseuleetmmenature.
Mouvementetnatureseretrouventdansuntexted'Aristote,cettedifferenceprsque,pourcedernier,lesatomesauraientuneseulenature,doncunseulet
mmemouvement.Cerenversementdestermesdelacritiquereposesurdeuxconceptsdifferentsdenature.LanaturedontparleAristoteestcellemmedes
Atomistes:c'estl'homognitdelasubstanceatomique.MaisAristotedduitdecetteidentitdenatureuneidentitdemouvement.Cetteconclusiond'Aristotesert
depointdedpartlacritiquedeThophraste:unmmemouvementtraduitunemmenatureunemmenature,ausensaristotlicienduterme,contreditdefaon
flagranteladiversitqu'AristoteetThophrasteprtaientauxcorpscosmiques.
Cettecritiqueinflueraprofondmentsurlatraditiondoxographiqueultrieure.Maiss'entenirauxseulstmoignagesdirectsdontnousdisposions,celuide
Thophrasteaprsceluid'Aristote,laconclusiondenotrechapitreIIIs'avreetseprcise:lesatomessontdotsd'unepesanteur,laquelleestproportionnelleleur
taille.
Deuximepartie:tmoignagesindirects
ChapitreV
Simplicius
Lagrandemajoritdesexgtesrepoussentlaconclusiondelatraditiondirecte.Danslatraditionindirecte,notammentchezAtius,lesatomesseraientprivsde
pesanteur.Pourconcilierlesdeuxtmoignagesd'Atiusetd'Aristote,onaproposdevoirdanslapesanteurundesproduitsdutourbilloncosmique:ainsilesatomes
neseraientpesantsqu'auseind'unecosmogonielesatomesnoncosmiques,eux,nesontpaspesants.
||Pourconfortercettehypothse,oninvoqueSimplicius,lequelaffirmerait,danssoncommentaireduDecaelo,quelapesanteurestunesimpleapparence,
Page415
n'intervenantparconsquentquedansunmondestructur.Maiscetteinterprtationrsulted'unemprise.Simpliciusestenfaitsolidaired'Aristote:pourtousles
deux,cen'estpaslalourdeur,maislalgretquiestuneapparencedanslesystmeatomiste.Simpliciusexpliqueeneffetcommentletourbillon,quiimprimedes
atomesunmouvementverslehaut,faitapparatrelalgret.Maisilneconsidrepascommeadventicelalourdeur,danslamesureoill'attachelasoliditet
l'homognitdesatomes.
LecommentairedelaPhysiqueestencoreplusexplicite.Enparlant,sembletil,desatomesquinesontpasdansuncosmos,Simpliciusaffirmequ'ilssemeuvent
selonlapesanteurquiesteneux.Impossibledeconciliercetmoignageavecl'hypothsed'uneabsencedepesanteurdanslesatomesnoncosmiques.
ChapitreVI
Simpliciusetl'opinionreue
LetexteducommentairedelaPhysiquemetencauselerapportdelapesanteuretdumouvement.Aristotelaissepressentirdansplusieurspassagesquelesatomes
sedirigententoussensdanslevide.D'oladifficultdesavoircomment,pourSimplicius,lesatomessemeuventselonlapesanteurquiesteneux:lapesanteur
n'estellepascensesetraduireparunmouvementenunseulsens,dehautenbas?
Cettequestionfondamentaleaprovoqujusqu'icideuxrponsesdiamtralementopposes.Pourlesuns,notammentpourZeller,ondevraitadopterletmoignage
d'Aristotesurlapesanteur,maisrejetersontmoignagesurlemouvement.DanslesystmedeDmocrite,commedansceluid'picure,lapesanteurimprimeraitdonc
auxatomesunmouvementdehautenbasdanslevide.Lesautres,lasuitedeBurnet,ontenvisagl'hypothsecontraire:lesatomesnetombentpasdanslevideils
seraientparconsquentprivsdepesanteur,commel'affirmed'ailleursAtius.
Ceconflitnepeutsersoudrequesil'onselibreduprjugquifaitdelapesanteurunecausedemouvementenunsensdtermin.Lisonsencesenslecommentaire
deSimpliciussurlaPhysique.Celuiciparled'unclaboussementdesatomes,toutendonnantleurmouvementcommeconformelapesanteur.Detoute
vidence,dansl'optiquedeSimplicius,lemouvementenunsensuniquen'accompagnepasncessairementchezDmocritelapesanteur.Celleci,sil'oninvoque
d'autrestextes,apparatliedesphnomnesdechocoudevitessedanslemouvementdesatomes.
Simpliciusrenchritdoncsurletmoignaged'AristoteetdeThophraste:lapesanteurestunepropritinnedesatomeslemouvementdesatomesnoncosmiques
luiestenquelquesorteconforme,sanspourautantqu'elleleurimprimeunmouvementdehautenbas.
ChapitreVII
DiogneLarceetAlexandred'Aphrodise
Examinonsd'autrestmoinsdelatraditionindirecte.DiogneLarceparledel'quilibredesatomes,maisc'esttortqu'onacruvoirdanscetteexpressionune
allusionl'absencedepesanteurdanslesatomesnoncosmiques.Diognevoquelaformationd'unmonde,danslequellesatomesseraientaspirsparuntourbillon
lesatomesresteraientensuspension,avantdeserpartirentrelecentreetlapriphriedumonde.
PlusparlantestuntexteducommentairedelaMtaphysique,oAlexandre
Page416
d'Aphrodises'interrogesurlespartiesdesatomes,enfaisantappelunpassagedutroisimelivreduDecaelo:commentpourraitonimaginerqu'uncorpsdou
depesanteursoitconstruitdepartiesquienseraientprives?Cetextesuperposeanachroniquementdeuxmprises.encroireSimplicius,cen'estpasDmocrite,
maispicurequipostulalepremierdespartiesconceptuelles,pouresquiverlescritiqueslaboresparAristotecontrel'indivisibilitdesatomes.Parailleurs,ce
n'estpasDmocrite,maisbienPlatonquiestvisdansletexteduDecaelocitparAlexandre.
Encommentantcetexte,AlexandremetenparalllelestrianglesdePlatonetlesatomesdeDmocrite.Cerapprochementexpliquel'erreurqu'ontrouvedansle
commentairedelaMtaphysique:legriefqu'AristotefaisaitPlaton,dansleDecaelo,d'avoirfondlapesanteursurdeslmentsquienseraientprivs,Alexandre
lereportesurlathoriedeDmocrite,contrelespartiesdesatomes.
Cetteerreurpremiren'atellepasengendrunesecondeerreur?DanslemmecommentairedelaMtaphysique,Alexandremetsurunpiedd'galitpesanteuret
mouvement:quelleseraitl'originedumouvement,silesatomesn'ontpasdemouvementnaturel?Quelleseraitl'originedelapesanteur,silespartiesdesatomesen
sontprives?Ceparalllismesuggreque,dansl'espritducommentateur,lapesanteurtaitcauseetseulecausedemouvementnaturelparimplicationrciproque,
absencedemouvementnaturelsignifiaitncessairementpourluiabsencedepesanteurdanslespartiesdesatomes.
ChapitreVIII
AtiusetCicron
Retrouvetonlemmeenchanementdeconceptschezl'auteurquimitladerniremainlaCollectiond'opinionsphysiques(lePhysicorumopiniones),dontles
originesremontentThophraste?PourAtius,lesatomesn'auraientpasdepesanteur,leurmouvementseproduiraitenvertudeleurchocmutuel.Cetteexpression
rappellel'oppositiondumouvementviolentetdumouvementnatureldanslesystmed'Aristote.L'absencedepesanteurneseraitelledonc,pourAtiuscomme
pourAlexandre,qu'unsimplecorollairedecechocmutuel,decetteabsencedemouvementnaturel?
LeconceptdemouvementviolentatrsprobablementdteintsurlanoticeprcdentedelaCollection,ol'auteurnumrelesmouvementssuccessifsdesatomes
danslesystmed'picure:lachute,ladclinaison,enfinlechocetlerebondissement.Pourpicureluimme,cechocetcerebondissementimprimentauxatomesun
mouvementlatraletunmouvementverslehaut.Atiusnefaitallusionqu'aumouvementverslehaut.Sonsilencetrahitl'influenceduLyce:pourpicurecomme
pourAristote,lemouvementlatralestunmouvementviolentenrevanche,ilappartientenpropreauseulsystmed'picurededterminercommeviolenttout
mouvementverslehaut.
UnenoticeantrieuredelammeCollectionprsentelapesanteurcommeuneinnovationd'picure,lesatomesdeDmocritenesedistinguantlesunsdesautresque
parunediffrencedetailleetdefigure.L'auteurpeutvouloirdire,icicommedanslanoticepostrieure,qu'picurefutlepremierparlerd'unepesanteurdesatomes.
Maissil'onsesouvientqu'entoutehypothselapesanteurn'apaschezDmocritel'importancequ'elleaurachezpicure,unesecondeinterprtationestpossible:
Epicureainnovenvalorisantlapesanteur,pourrpondreauxcritiquesd'Aristotesurl'originedumouvement.
UntmoignagedeCicronn'estgureplusclair.IlopposelechocdesatomesdanslesystmedeDmocriteleurpesanteurdanslesystmed'picure,sans
toutefoisnierlapesanteurdesatomeschezlepremier.
Page417
Onaexaminlestmoignagesmarquantsdelatraditionindirecte.Contrairementcequ'asupposlamajoritdesexgtesmodernes,lesauteursnesontpas
unanimes.Atiusrefuseunepesanteurauxatomes.Simpliciuslaleurconcdeplusieursreprises,notammentdanssadescriptiondesatomesnoncosmiques.
Troisimepartie:conciliationdestmoignages
ChapitreIX
Valeurdestmoignagesdetraditiondirecte
Commentmesurerlavaleurrelativedecesdiverstmoignages?L'avisd'Atiusl'emportetilsurletmoignagecontrairedeSimplicius?Peutilmodifierletmoignage
detraditiondirecte,celuid'AristoteetdeThophraste?
Aristote,ilestvrai,inflchitsouventlesthoriesdesesprdcesseurs.Thophrastedemme,bienqu'ilspareenprincipeexgseetcritique,envientparfoisles
confondre.Doitoneninfrerquecesdeuxauteursontpungligerdeprciserquelesatomesnesontdousdepesanteurqu'l'intrieurd'uncosmos?Enfait,les
textescitsnelaissentvoiraucunetracedecettengligenceplusd'unindiceaucontrairesembleladmentir.
ChapitreX
Valeurdestmoignagesdetraditionindirecte
Simpliciusasubidesvrescritiquesdelapartdeshistoriensmodernes.Onletaxenotammentd'inconsquence:lesatomesquiauraientdespartiesselonle
commentairedelaPhysique,nelesauraientpasselonlecommentaireduDecaelo.Maiscen'estquemconnatrelessubtilitsdelapensedeSimplicius.Pourlui
commepourAristote,toutcequiesttenduest,parlmme,divisible.Sidonclesatomessontconsidrscommetendus,c'estqu'ilsdoiventavoiraussides
parties.Enrevanche,silesatomesn'ontpasdeparties,c'estqu'ilsnesontpastendusetnepeuventpasconstituerlescorpsmatrielsdumondesensible.
SimpliciusadoptelapremireperspectivedanssoncommentairedelaPhysique,etlasecondedanssoncommentaireduDecaelo.Aureste,ilreconnat
explicitement,dansunautretexteducommentairedelaPhysique,quelesdeuxconceptsd'extensionetd'indivisibilit,quipourluicommepourAristotesont
inconciliables,coexistaientdanslareprsentationprimitivedel'atomeselonDmocrite.
Toutautreestl'espritquianimelaCollectiond'Atius.FruitderdactionssuccessivesdescritshistoriquesdeThophraste,cerecueilprsentedemultiples
dformationsdelapenseprsocratique,particulirementdelapenseatomiste.Entmoigne,entreautres,accolelangationgnraledelapesanteurdesatomes,
cetteaffirmationquepourraitexisterunatomegrandcommeuncosmos.Aristoteaffirmeexpressmentquelesatomestaientsipetitsqu'ilsn'atteignaientpasle
seuildelaperception.L'affirmationcontraired'AtiussefondetrsprobablementsurunecomprhensionerronedelavaritinfiniequeDmocritepostulaitdansles
figuresdesatomes.Eneffet,selonLucrce,lafigured'unatomes'expliqueraitparladispositiondesesparties:unevaritinfiniedefiguressupposeraitpar
consquentunnombreinfinideparties,doncuneaugmentationinfiniedegrandeur.L'atomed'Atius,grandcommeuncosmos,estsansdouteissudumme
raisonnementquel'atomedeLucrce,dotd'uneimmensetendue.
Leshistoriensmodernes,quanteux,sonttentsparlamdiocritd'unjustemilieuentrecesextrmes,quesontd'uncotl'atomegroscommeuncosmosd'Atius,
etdel'autrelesatomesd'Aristote,imperceptiblesparleurpetitesseils
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optentainsipourdesatomesdegrosseurmoyenne.Enralit,aucuncompromisnepermetd'harmonisersurcepointletmoignaged'Aristoteetceluid'Atius.Il
fauttrancher.Atiusoul'undesesprdcesseurss'estempardeconceptsenl'occurrencetoutfaitanachroniques,sansdoutepourenrichirsesconnaissancesde
Dmocritelesaffirmationscontrairesd'Aristote,etl'allusionauxpartiesdesatomesdansleraisonnementdeLucrce,sontunepreuvepatentedelafaussetdesa
notice.
Laconclusionquis'imposequantlagrandeurdesatomess'imposegalementquantleurpesanteur.AtiusesttributairedescritshistoriquesdeThophraste,au
mmetitrequeSimplicius.SiSimpliciusnesaitriend'uneabsencedepesanteurdanslesatomesnoncosmiques,ilestfortpeuprobablequ'Atiusenaitpuisla
connaissanceleursourcecommune.Derriresontmoignage,l'historienn'apasdtecterunesourcenouvelle,maisbienuneerreur:cellemmed'Alexandre.
L'absenced'unmouvementnaturel,ausensaristotliciendeceterme,luifaitcroirel'absencedepesanteur.
ChapitreXI
Letraitd'AristoteSurDmocriteetsonexploitationparSimplicius
PeutoncernerdeplusprslesdocumentsdontseservaitSimplicius?LetexteducommentairedelaPhysique(lemouvementdesatomesselonlapesanteur)se
rapprocheparplusd'untraitd'unelonguecitationdutraitd'AristoteSurDmocrite,rapporteparSimpliciusdanssoncommentaireduDecaelo.Aristoteneparle
pasicidepesanteur:ilaffirmetoutefoisquelemouvementdesatomesdanslevideseraitlefaitdeleurdiffrencesdetailleetdefigure.Simpliciusatilpucroireat
ilpusavoir?quelesdiffrencesdetaillecomportaientdanscecontexteunediffrencedepoids?
Taille,figure,poids:aucundecestroisfacteursnesauraitentranerunediffrencedevitesse,selonlesargumentsdveloppsparAristote,danslaPhysique,contrela
possibilitdumouvementdanslevide.Unediffrencedetailleetdefiguredanslesatomestaitlie,pourDmocrite,unediffrencedemobilitetdevitesse:la
diffrencedepoidsl'taitelleaussi?Cestroisfacteursdansl'argumentationdelaPhysiqueviseraientilslathoriedeDmocrite?
Certes,danslaPhysique,lecorpsleplusgrosalemouvementleplusrapide.PourDmocrite,aucontraire,lesatomeslespluspetitssontaussiceuxquivontleplus
vite.Maislerapportvitesse/lgretseretrouvedansleTimeilfaitl'objetd'unecritiquedelapartd'picureencroirePlutarque,ilappartientaupatrimoine
commundeshommessagesdel'antiquit.FautilcompterDmocriteparmiceuxci?
ChapitreXII
Conclusion:lapesanteurdesatomes
Mmesicertainesdesquestionsposesauchapitreprcdentdoiventrestersansrponse,desrsultatsdfinitifssemblentdsormaisacquisautermedecette
enqute.Onnesauraiteneffetdouterqu'ilfailleaccorderplusdecrditauxexgsesd'Aristote,deThophrasteetdeSimpliciusqu'lanoticed'Atius.Nousen
tironsdeuxconclusions,quisesituentdesniveauxdecertitudediffrents.Conclusionminimale:s'iln'apasrefusunepesanteurauxatomesnoncosmiques,
Dmocriten'apastoutefoisprcislafonctionqu'illuiaccordait.Conclusionmaximale:lapesanteurdesatomesnoncosmiquess'expliqueraitparleurchocetleur
diffrencedevitesse,lesatomeslespluslgerstantaussilesplusrapides.
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Noussouhaitonsquecesdeuxconclusions,quelqueponctuellesetlimitesqu'ellessoient,puissentmettrelepointfinall'undesproblmeslespluspineuxdontsont
del'histoiredelapenseprsocratique.
ChapitreXIII
Nouvellesperspectivessurlesconceptionsdelapesanteurchezlesprsocratiques
Quelquesrflexionss'imposentautermedecettetude,etquidonnerontl'enqutemeneicisaportevritableetplusvaste.
suivrelecheminementdeshistoriensdelaphilosophieprsocratique,unedoubleractions'impose:nepasselaisserabsorberparlapolmique,nepasselaisser
obnubilerparleprinciped'uneautoritreue.Personnedansl'Antiquitn'aentenduparpesanteurautrechosequelapropritparlaquellelescorpssedirigentde
hautenbas,siriend'extrieurnelesenempche.C'estainsiqueZellerdfinissaitlapesanteur.OrcettedfinitionnecorrespondnilathoriedePlatonnicelle
d'Aristote.Zellern'acitaucundocumentpourl'appuyer.Etpourtantoncontinued'enfairelapierredetouchedetouteinterprtationd'unethoriedelapesanteur
selonDmocrite.Onvoitdslorsparquelparadoxeleshistoriensdelaphilosophieprsocratique,toutenpolmiquantcontreZeller,ontacceptsadfinitionsans
jamaislarvoquerendoute.
Unefoisdtruitceprjuge,onpeutdgagerdesdocumentsunetoutautreconceptionduphnomnedelapesanteur.Pourlespenseursprsocratiques,eneffet,la
pesanteurnesecaractrisaitpasprincipalementpardesdiffrencesdelieuoudemouvement,commeceseralecasplustardpourPlatonetAristote.Lelourdetle
lgerserangeaientpluttductdesautrespouvoirs,lechaudetlefroid,lelumineuxetl'obscur.C'estPlutarquequil'affirme,lequelavaitsurnousl'avantagede
possderunepluslargeconnaissancedespremiersphilosophes.
Certes,selonThophraste,lelourdetlelgersetraduisaientaussipardesmouvementsverslebasetverslehaut.Mais,selonlemmeauteur,cesdiffrencesde
mouvementtaientenquelquesortesubordonnesdesdiffrencesdedensit:sontpaislefroid,l'obscur,lelourdsontrares(=peudenses)lechaud,le
lumineux,lelger.
VoilretrouvlepointdedpartdeDmocrite.quelleestdoncsonoriginalit?Avecunemarged'interprtation,biens,maisens'entenantuneextrme
simplicitsignepuettred'authenticitonpourraitreconstituerainsisadmarche.Lescorpscomposs,enraisonduplusoumoinsdevide,varientendensit:
celuiquiavaitdavantagedevide,doncleplusrare,seraitaussilepluslger.Enrevanche,lesatomesprisisolmentnepeuventvarierendensitilsnepeuventtre
nipluspaisnimoinspaismaisilsvarientengrosseur:l'atomeleplusgrosestdonclepluspesant.Ladfinitiondelapesanteurentermesdemouvementne
verralejourqueplustard.Mouvementetlieunepeuventdterminerleconceptdepesanteurquedansunmondeuniqueetternel,ceseraceluidePlatonet
d'Aristote.
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PUBLICATIONSDUMMEAUTEUR
OUVRAGES
Empedocles'cosmiccycle,areconstructionfromthefragmentsandsecondarysources..DanslacollectionCambridgeclassicalstudies.UniversityPress,
Cambridge.1969.Pagesx+459.
PourinterprterEmpdocle.Danslesdeuxcollections,Philosophiaantiquavol.XXXVIIIetCollectiond'tudesanciennes.E.J.Brill,Leyde.LesBellesLettres,
Paris.1981.Pagesix+138.
ARTICLESPRINCIPAUX
SurlesPrsocratiques
Anaximander'smeasurements,dansClassicalQuarterlyn.s.17(1967)423432.
TherelationofAnaxagorasandEmpedocles,dansJournalofHellenicStudies88(1968)93113.
Derivedlightandeclipsesinthefifthcentury,dansJournalofHellenicStudies88(1968)114127.
Theeffectofasimile:Empedocles'theoriesofbreathingandseeing,dansJournalofHellenicStudies90(1970)140179.
TempsetintemporalitchezParmnide,dansLestudesPhilosophiques:leTemps(1980)257272.
SurPlaton
ThelastargumentofPlato's'Phaedo',dansClassicalQuarterlyn.s.17(1967)198231,n.s.18(1968)95106.
SurAristote
Aristoteetlacatgoriedequantit:divisionsdelaquantit,dansLestudesPhilosophiques:Aristoteetl'Aristotlisme(1978)2540.
Aristote:quantitetcontrarit:unecritiquedel'coled'Oxford,dansunouvragecollectif.Conceptsetcatgoriesdanslapenseantique,tudespublies
sousladirectiondePierreAubenque,danslacollectionBibliothqued'histoiredelaphilosophie.Paris:Vrin.1981.Pp.89165.
SurPlotin
Plotinusonevil:astudyofmatterandthesoulinPlotinus'conceptionofhumanevil,dansLeNoplatonisme:ColloguesinternationauxduCentre
NationaldelaRechercheScientifique(Royaumont913juin1969)113146.
Levolontaireetlancessit:rflexionssurladescentedel'medanslaphilosophiedePlotin,dansLaRevuePhilosophiquedelaFranceetdel'tranger
anne102tome167(1977)401422.el'medanslaphilosophiedePlotin,dansLaRevuePhilosophiquedelaFranceetdel'trangeranne102tome167(1977)
401422.