Book - Chemistry in Laos - Grade 12

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C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPGJQRKS TGPJUNVLMONRGIWCVXGEFVF
DY IXK[
ZY \]^ EO ZVS \]_
LMONRGIWCVXGE`MONEFMaDIXK[ JaK[ RWbI

Y cGHLMFNHO
N NPGFd[ \Zef[ePJeOGgb[ VhGRGEWiI
JLDIhjEHGIaZeaDIkEYEVD[ IKlY

-./01234567289:;69<;37=>?@A8/<6
C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPG mrn o
BC/27=>DE;F-
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C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO

N NPG mrn o
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BC/27=>DE;F-

pIHdOMIKXK[LMFNHO
N NPGJQRKXK[XGEFVF
DY I
ZY \]_ XGE`MONEFMaDI\GHRK\]GPHe[Gfb[ V
gMINEJqZGcMe DErXHC DEFGHGI\]^ EO ZVWCVXGEFVF

DY I
ZY \]_ cMe DErXHHGIJaK[ RWbI
Y WCV

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bY H DsQeGRhMEeHpIHGIe DErXHt \Zef[ePe DErXH
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D FGHGIJHKE LMFNHO
N NP GJQRK cMpgYrsspEI I
DY WbYIuj[H DsOH
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Z f[ePJLD I g VD FK r RDE HYC I (cm3) UYG JLD I XGEOMOGPJqZ G pgY\ e

HGh JqZ G pgY\ e Z f[e P
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N NPGJHKE gYG CGEe DErXHwEP pgY\ e
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N NPGJQRKcVb[ RK\e
Z f[ePJLDI HvGRFd[ eNIGXK xSg DVFKrRDEHYCIFd[ eNIGXK xSwROFd[ eNIGXK
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Z f[ePXK[ INP ZRpgYrR [IwROFd[ ONEFd[ eNIGXK (mol/L.s).
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C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPGJQRKe DErXHpIqjsWCVHGIL[iIrLVQeGRJWDR
Y WÎ
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Y WÎ
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Y Fd[ H Ds
\Zef[ePJeOG JgD[ IlSLMFNHO

N NPGOM\e[GVXGE A H DsXGE B rOYeJHKEJLDIXGE C
rOMSXGE D
A + B C + D (1)
UYGQeGRJWDR
Y WÎ
Y WCVXGE A XK[ JeOG t1 JXZ[ GH Ds [A]t1 rOM JR_[ CJeOG`[GI
kLJLDI t QeGRJWDR Y WCVXGE A \]^ EO ZVJLDI [A]t EVD[ IIDY QeGRJWDR

Y WÎ Y WÎ
Y WCVXGE
A XK[ L[iIrLVkLrR [I [A] gCH\GkEYcGHl [A] o [A]t [A]t1 .
J23->K3L-6MC21B4:;14A;3456728 A
C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPG mrn =
F/N.BC/27=>DE;D3J23->K3L-6MC21B4:;14A;3456728 A
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N NPGJLDIC DEFGHGI
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DY I
ZY mpIIKX
Y GEFVF
DY IQ_
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JaK[ RWbI
Y WCVQeGRJWDR
Y WÎ
Y WCVXGE`MONEFMaDI mpIIKX
Y GE`MONEFMaDIQ_XGE C rOM
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C DEFGHGI\]^ EO ZVWCVXGE A o
t
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C DEFGHGI\]^ EO ZVWCVXGE B =
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d ZEp\YC DEFGHGI\]ÊO ZVRKJQ_[ CVTGPJLDIO ZsSrOMSJQ_[ CVTGP zSS{ rXIp\YQeGR
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Y WCVXGE C oS|
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Y WCVXGE D oS|
t
HGId ZEp\YC DEFGHGIJaK[ RWbI
Y WCVLMONRGIWCVXGERKJQ_[ CVTGPJLDIseHn
cGHh ZR`ZI myn J\D Ie[GC DEFGHGI\]ÊO ZVS\]_SmJhPkLnSWCVXGE A rOMXGE

B JXZ[ GH DsC DEFGHGIJHKEJLDIXGE C rOMSXGE D EVD[ IIl
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[A] [B] [C] [D]

N NPG mrn o
C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO o - = | o |
t t t t

h dGO DsLMFNHO
N NPGXK[ XGEFVF
DY I
ZY rOMS XGE`MONEFMaDIRKcGIeIwROsd[
d JXZ[ GH DI
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N NPGFYCVQ dGIbVJUNVcGIeIwROWCVXGEF
d VF
DY IrOMWCV
ZY

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LMFNHO
N NPGl A + 2B 3C (2)
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h dGO DsLMFNHO
N NPGXZ[ ekL aA + bB cC + dD
1 d[A] 1 d[B] 1 d[C] 1 d[D]

C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPG mrn o - = - = + =+
a dt b dt c dt d dt
3
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C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPGhGRGEe DErXHkEY\]GPrssSJgD[ IlSe DErXHrssQeGR
kehMJO[P \]_Se DErXHrssQeGRkeujJ[ eOGpEfb[ Vt

l
+ JqDEHGIXZEOCVH[ieH DsLMFNHO
N NPGOM\e[GVwO\MRGJPgKCCR(Mg) H DsCG
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d E
K vNH (HCl).
yt UCHXGEOMOGPCGgNE HCl JWDR

Y WÎ
Y 0,2 mol/L ph[sVq[
DY GPXK[ RKWE
K TGPWM
fGESy~ mL c ZIJUNVWNE y~ mLt
}t JO_CHJCZ GECIC DEXK[ RKWMfGEad EH

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PGep\YJLDIq[CVIYCP Ja_[ Cp\YXGEOMOGPCGgNEk\] CCHkEYJR_[ CHGhqKwEvrgIJHKE
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Y \] VD cGHJHKELMFNHO
N NPGJQRKt
t I dGJCZ GJhDYIOeERGJPgKCCRXK[ W DEUjhMCGEPGeLMRGI 10 cm RGW ZEQYGP
Q_hMLN V mOd gdn rOYehisJWZYGph[ECIC DE \] VD cGHIII

DY dGJCZ GECIC DERGC DELGHsVq[
DY GPt
t WeGLGHs
dY Vq[
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dY V
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[ E
K TGPX dGCNEh[eIJXNVWCVsVq[
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DY GPWeGLGHn
dY c DsJeOG rOMS s DIXbHJeOGX^HkOPMXK[ XGEOMOGPCGgNE\]^ EO ZV
y mL c ZIJUNVWKEH[CIXK[ cMJ\D IhIOeE

ZY Mg aZI
Y WbI
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q[GP rOYes DIXbH`ZIHGIXZEOCVt
pIHGIhbHhGC DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPGRKh ZR`ZIEVD[ IKlY
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
4
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C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPGg[eVJeOG y~ gCHkEYcGH
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C DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO
N NPGpIg[eVJeOG }~ gCHkEYEVD[ IKlY
V 5-4 1
r= = = mL/s
t 40-28 12
cGHqjs yty WYGVJXNVC DEFGHGIJHKELMFNHO

N NPGJQRKue N GXKSXKS ~ gCH\GkEY
[j I
EVD[ IKlY ! X dGCNEp\YrFYRJhDYIhMrEVOM\e[GVsdONRGEWCV H2 H DsJeOG wEP
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d ZEp\YsdONRGEWCV H2 ujF
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N NPGujc
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7 7P6W9I
G H 5sQF6Q =VX8F 2 5EF6 A.4SQ/6+@W5+
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7 7P6H 5IA.G/@H8EX6E
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aA + bB X6E`4.7EF4a5I
H =E@HI2 5EF6Q: 2 5EF6Q/6+D/W2VH6I@H8EL4F7H.

7 7P6 (r) = k [A]x [B]y (1)

c6H0<E+8Q/6+J6P/F6 2 5EF6Q/6+D/W2VL4F7H.
7 7P6W9I
G H 5sQ/6+@W5+
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G W;I
G W2VX6EFVF
5G IF
=G =/I9F V
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7 7P6EV5F I8G
7
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@35EH6IX=E.2V
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5G Q/6+@W5+
G W;I
G W2VX6EFVF
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7 7P6
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G @.8F +FI(mol/dm
=G 3
) 2 5EF6@.8F +FI
=G (mol/ dm3.s)
[NO [Cl2
5G S
QVX8 x x 2,3 x 10-4
5G S
QVX8 x x 9,2 x 10-4
5G S
QVX8 x x 1,15 x 10-4
c6HH =E@HI2 5EF6X=F /DL0 H6. 5sL4F7H.

7 7P6I8G
H =E@HI2 5EF6Q: 2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.

7 P6 (r) = k [NO]x [Cl2]y (2)
c6HWH+
G I
< CIF6F4.6V cV=F g2H16
H cV=F W?IH =E@HI2 5EF6
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7 7P6
Q cV=F g2H16QF6 k mQF6Q =VX8F 2 5EF6n
V cV=F g2H162 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.
7 7P6 (r) @+:F 2 [NO] = 0,03 mol/dm3 A.4
[Cl2] = 0,04 mol/dm3.
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7 7P6S 1>:S H6Ig2H16QF6 x, y g2H16DEG
EG/PS S/7X8SQ:
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7 7P6W9I
G H 5s [NO
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8
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G W2V Cl2 Q =VX8F AFFQ/6+@W5+
G W;I
G W2V NO LF?IALV
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7 7P6@L5I2 5EF60F/IH =VH 5sQ/6+@W5+
G W;I
G W2VW2V NO H H6. 5V Q:
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G W;I
G W2V NO @a8F +W9I
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7 7P6@L5I @X=F 6S 1>: mc6H 2.3x10-4Ms1

2 5EF6Q/6+D/W2VH6I@H8EL4F7H.
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G W2V NO H6.
H 5V 06+6EW?IDEGEV5F I8G

2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H. G H 5s [NO m r [NO n IIQ:
7 7P6 W9I 5G x
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5G 5EH6I@H8EL4F7H.
7 7P6@+:F 2L?sX?sH 5sX6E NO @L5IL4F7H.
7 7P62 5IE 5s
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H6Ig2H16QF6 y 1>:S H6Ig2H162 5EF6Q/6+D/W2VL4F7H.

7 7P6X8F W9I
G H 5s

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G W;I
G W2V Cl2S +81>H
5 H6IAssE?/H 5IH 5sH6Ig2H16QF6 x IIQ:
5G C1G@.:2H
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5G 2VC1G+Q
8 /6+@W5+
G W;I
G W2V NO

Q =VX8F AFFC1GQ/6+@W5+
G W;I
G W2V Cl2 LF?IALVCII8@G .:2HH6IX=E.2VX8 A.4 H6IX=E

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7 6LF?IALVBEPH =VH 5sQ/6+@W5+
G W;I
G W2V
Cl2 Q: @+:F 2Q/6+@W5+

G W;I
G W2V Cl2 @a8F +W9I
G @L5I @X=F 6 mc6H 0,01 M @L5I 0,02 Mn

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7 7P6c4@a8F +W9I
G @L5I @X=F 6 mc6H 1,15 x10-4 M.s1 @L5I
.
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2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.
7 7P6x r [Cl2 mSIIQ:
5G y = 1)
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5G 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.
7 7P6@+:F 2L?sX?sH 5sX6E Cl2 @L5IL4F7H.
7 7P62 5I
E 5sI9F V
H =E@HI2 5EF6Q:SS2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.

7 7P6 mr ) = k [NO]2[Cl2] (3)
9

" # # H6Ig2H16QF6W2V x BEP/7X8 I+
8G 1
8 >H
5 H6IAssE?/H 5sH6Ig2H16QF6W2V
x CI/7X8 X8 Q: @.:2H@2= 6H6IX=E.2VX8 A.4SH6IX=E.2VX8 @a64/F6H6IX=E
.2VX5V02VI8+
G 8 [Cl2 Q =VX8F AFF [NO LF?IALV 1> V5 c6HII
5G AXIQF62 5EF6Q/6+D/
W2VL4F7H.
7 7P6Q:AXIQF6 [NO A.4 [Cl2 W2VH6IX=E.2VX8 A.4SH6IX=E.2V
X8 @W=G6C0FCI0 =+`=IH =E@HI2 5EF6 m

n EV5F I8G
AXIQF6WH+
G I
< H6IX=E.2VX8 C0FCI0 =+`=I m
nSc4DEG
2,3 x 10-4 = k (0,01)x (0,02)y (1)
AXIQF6WH+
G I
< H6IX=E.2VX8 C0FCI0 =+`=I m
nSc4DEG
9,2 x 10-4 = k (0,02)x (0,02)y (2)
H6c
H 5EQF6 BEP@2= 60 =+`=I m nS16IC1G0 =+`=I mnSEV5F I8G
(1) 9,2x10-4 k(0,02) x (0,02) y
= =
(2) 2,3x10-4 k(0,01) x (0,02) y
4 = 2x
22 = 2x
@3=6DEG x = 2
H6Ig2H16QF6 y HH+1
8 >H
5 H6IAssE?/H 5IH 5sH6Ig2H16QF6 x CI/7X8 X8F Q:
@.:2HH6IX=E.2VX8 A.4H6IX=E.2VX8S
1>V5 c6HIIAXIQF
5G 62 5EF6Q/6+D/W2V
7 7P6 mrx AXIQF6 [NO A.4S AXIQF6

L4F7H. [Cl2 W2VH6IX=E.2VX8 A.4
H6IX=E.2VX8
@W=G6C0FCI0 =+`=IH =E@HI2 5EF6 m
nSEV5F I8G
2,3 x 10-4 = k (0,01)x (0,02)y
1,15 x 10-4 = k (0,01)x (0,02)y
4
(1) 2,310 k (0,01) x (0,02) y
= =
k (0,01) x 0,01
4
(3) 1,1510 y
2 2y
y = 1
10
AXIQF6 x A.4SQF6 y C0FCI0 =+`=I@s:2
G VFISc4DEG
=G H =E@HI2 5EF6X8F g2H162 5I
E 5sL4F7H.
7 7P6A.G/c4DEG
7 7P6 (r) = [NO [Cl2
H =E@HI2 5EF6SQ:SS2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.

"
" " !
2 5IE 5s./+W2VL4F7H.
7 7P6 = x + y = 2 + 1 = 3
EV5F IIx
5G 2 5IE 5s./+W2VL4F7H.
7 7P6 @L5IL4F7H.
7 7P62 5IE 5s06+
!! *! &

#* ! k) ! &(!

F =/,F6VScV=F g2H16QF6Q =VX8F 2 5EF6 mk) ,<2
F I
; 14a<+ 300 K 0 H6. 5sL4F7H.
7 7P6

FHF DLI8G
2NO(g) + Cl2 (g) 2NOCl(g)
c6HWH+
G I
< H6IX=E.2VCIF6F4.6VSm n @15 I/F6L4F7H.
7 7P6I8+
G H
8 =E@HI2 5EF6@L5I

r
r = k[NO]2 [Cl2 ] k =
[NO]2 [Cl2 ]

AXIQF6Q/6+@W5+
G W;I
G SA.4S2 5EF6@.8F +FIW2VH6IX=
=G E.2VX8S
Sc6HF6F4

.6VSm n c4DEG
1,15x10-4 mol/dm3 .s
k=
(0,01mol/dm3 ) 2 (0,01mol/dm3 )

k = 1,2x102 mol/dm3 .s
.
UG6AXIQF6Q/6+@W5+
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< W2VH6IX=E.2VX8
.
A.4 H6IX=E.2VX8 c6HF6F4.6V m nSHHc4DEGQ6F k = 1,2 x 102 mol2dm6s1

@X=F 6H 5IX5V02VH6IX=E.2V EV5F IIx
5G CIH6Ig2H16QF6Q =VX8F 2 5EF6 mk) W2VL4F7H.
7 7P6
CEI9F Vc4CgGW+
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< c6HH6IX=E.2VCEHHDEG @a64/F6sHF /F6c4CgGWH+
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= W2VQF6Q =VX8F 2 5EF6@X=F 6H 5I

!!!!(#"
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EV5F IIxSUG
5G 6 [NO] = 0,03 mol/ dm3 A.4 [Cl2] = 0,04 mol/ dm3 @+:F 2AXI
QF6 kx QF6 [NO] A.4SQF6 [Cl2] @W=G6 c4DEG
r = m1,2 x 102 mol2/dm6.s1nm0,03 mol /dm3n m0,04 mol /dm3n
r = 4,3 x 10-3 mol/ dm3.s1
&*!
X6E A, B A.4 C L4F7H.
7 7P6H 5I@H8E@L5IX6E ABC EV5F 0 =+`=I
A + B +C ABC
cV=F g2H16
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7 7P6@+:F 2L?sX?sH 5sX6E A 1>:SL?sX?sH 5s
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W cV=F g2H162 5IE 5s./+W2VL4F7H.
7 7P6
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7 7P6
CgGWH+
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< W2VH6IX=E.2V04AEVCIF6F4.6VS
F6F4.6V 04AEVWH+
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7 7P6EV5F I8G
H6IX=E.2V Q/6+@W5+
G W;I
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=G mmol/Ln 2 5EF6@.8F +FI
=G
X8 [A] [B] [C] mmol/Ln
1 1,0 0,15 0,3 7,2 x 10-3
2 1,0 0,15 0,1 2,4 x 10-3
3 2,0 0,15 0,1 9,6 x 10-3
4 1,0 0,15 0,1 2,4 x 10-3
"#)+
c6HH =E@HI2 5EF6X=F /DLX=F /DL2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.

7 7P6 mrn= k [A] [B]n [C]x (
g2H16QF6W2V mx I H6CgGW+
HG I
< c6HH6IX=E.2VX8 A.4 H6IX=E.2VX8
c4@15 I
/F6 [B] A.4 [C] +8Q6F Q =VX8F SQ:@L5I 0,15 mol/L A.4 0,1 mol/L AFF [A]
12
LF?IALVQ:Sx mol/L A.4S x mol/L CgGWH+
G I
< c6HH6IX=E.2VX8 AXIQF6@W=G6
CI0 =+`=I mn
2,4 x 10-3 = k (1,0)m (0,15)n (0,1)x (1)
-3 m n x
9,6 x 10 = k (2,0) (0,15) (0,1) (2)
m
2,4x10-3 1,0
@2= 6 mn 16I m n c4DEG -3

=
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m
1
1

=
4 2
2 m
1
1
=
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EV5F II5G m = 2

g2H16QF6W2V nx @.:2HCgGH6IX=E.2VX8S SA.4SH6IX=E.2VX8SS@a64/F6CI02V

H6IX=E.2VI8G [A] A.4 [C] Q =VX8F AFF [B] LF?IALVx AXIQF6@W=G6CI0 =+`=IS
c6HH6IX=E.2VX8S 2,4 x 10-3 = k (1,0)m (0,15)n (0,1)x mn

@2= 6 m n 16I mn c4DEG

2,4x10-3 k(1,0) m (0,15)n (0,1) x
=

2,4x10-3 k(1,0) m (0,01)n (0,1) x

.
n
0,15
1 =
0,15
.
c4DEG 1 = 1n
EV5F IIx
5G n SS
g2H16QF6W2V x x @.:2HCgGWH+
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< W2VH6IX=E.2VX8 A.4S H6IX=E.2VX8
AXIQF6@W=G6C0F0 =+`=I
13
c6HH6IX=E.2VX8S 7,2 x 10-3 = k (1,0)m (0,15)n (0,3)x (1)
7,2x10-3 k(1,0) m (0,15) n (0,3) x

(1) / (2) -3
=
2,4x10 k(1,0) m (0,01) n (0,1) x
3 = 3x
x = 1
EV5F IIxS2
5G 5IE 5sW2VL4F7H.
7 7P6@+:F 2L?sX?sH 5sX6E @L5IL4F7H.
7 7P6E 5sI9F V
W 2 5IE 5s./+W2VL4F7H.
7 7P6SQ: m + n + x = 2 + 0 + 1 = 3
Q H =E@HI2 5EF6 = k [A]2 [B]0 [C]1 1>: r = k [A]2 [C]1
&("(# (' (Differential rate law)
EV5F DEGH6F /+6A.G//F6H =E@HI2 5EF6@L5I0 =+`=IX6VQ4I7E06EX8F 04AEVC1G@15 I
/F62 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.
7 7P6W9I
G ,<H
F 5sQ/6+@W5+
G W;I
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aA + bB + cC dD + eE (1)
W?IH =E@HI2 5EF6DEGEV5F I8G 2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.

7 7P6 mrn = k [A]x [B]y [C]z (2)
H6I/ 5EAXH2 5EF6H6I@H8EW2VL4F7H.

7 7P6CEI9F Vc4/ 5EAXHCI3<sW2VH6I
1>; E. =VW2VX6EFVF
5G IS
=G 1>: c4/ 5EAXHCI3<sW2VH6I@a8F +W9I
G W2VX6E`4.7EF4a5IFHF
1=/IF/P@/.6S EV5F IIxS
5G 2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.
7 7P6c9F VW?ICI3<sAssE7s@*8 @-Ig?.DEG
EV5F I8G 2 5EF6H6I@H8EL4F7H.
7 7P6 EV5F I8G
1 d[A] 1 d[B] 1 d[C] 1 d[D] 1 d[E]
mrn = - = - =+ =+
a dt b dt c dt d dt e dt
AXIQF6 r CI3<sAssE7s@*8 @-Ig?.CIH =E@HI2 5EF6S1>: 0 =+`=I m nSHHc4DEGH =E
@HI2 5EF6@+:F 2L?sX?sH 5sX6EFVF

5G IW2VX6ECEX6EI9F
=G VS 1>: @+:F 2L?sX?sH 5sX6E
`4.7EF4a5IX6ECEX6EI9F VEV5F I8G
1 d[A]
- k [A]x [B]y [C]z
a dt
14
1 d[B]
- = k [A]x [B]y [C]z
b dt
1 d[C]
- = k [A]x [B]y [C]z
c dt
1 d[D]
+ k [A]x [B]y [C]z
d dt
1 d[E]
| k [A]x [B]y [C]z
e dt
H =E@HI2 5EF6X8F W?ICI3<sAss0 =+`=IE7s@*8 @-Ig?.AssI8+
G g
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7 7P6 A + B C +8Ì
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H6IX=E.2VX8 Q/6+@W5+
G W;I
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. HNO3 6,66g /" " 1 dm3

. Na2CO3 20,5g /" " 1 dm3
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& 5*3>.#9*.?> Kf = 1,86 oC.
1.2. 3"50= (41

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m 2 M m 2 M
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(Kf = 1,8; Kb= 0,51 )

:
)
" : Kf = 1,8; m1 = 15g; M = 342 Kb = 0,51; m2 = 200g; M= 18
Tf =? Tb =?
m11000
4 Tf =K f m=K f
m 2 M
m 1000
Tb =K b m=K b 1
m 2 M
1,8 u 15 u 1000
Tf
200 u 342
0,51 u 15 u 1000
Tb
200 u 342
1,8 u 15 u 1000
Tf 0, 4qC
200 u 342
0,51u 15 u 1000
Tb 2,125qC
200 u 18
% : #! /&!!

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"
+
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+ !

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!
(Na+ + Cl- ) +
Tb 1,86 x 2 = 3,72 oC.
44

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1. 5= /<&=).3>.#9 9&, 3"5*.&,&.&4: ;.0=

?> #0'.#
8-#
> 3
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?> .= Kb= 0,51 oC/m 9&, Kf =1,86 oC/m .
2. 5= *).'.#8-#
> 3
> (m) * ( C2H6O2) 0= ,2= #& 5;.
?> .'
? 37,8 g 8!2= *
3 9=.&,&.=0#
0
3 >.#9 - 0,150 oC +4'
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?> .= Kf =1,86 oC/m.
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. .&,&..*8.6%
? 5' 3,00g ;9-9 190g. (kf = 5,12 )

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4.
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3>.#9 11,25 oC , .!.&,&.#0
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0
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.
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[N 2 O 4 ] [N 2 O 4 ]

0.000 0.670 0.0547 0.643 0.0851 4.65x10-3
0.0500 0.446 0.0457 0.448 0.102 4.66x10-3
0.0300 0.500 0.0475 0.491 0.0967 4.60x10-3
0.0400 0.600 0.0523 0.594 0.0880 4.60x10-3
0.200 0.000 0.0204 0.0898 0.227 4.63x10-3

[NO 2 ] [NO 2 ] 2
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[N 2 O 4 ] [N 2 O 4 ]
'42B ,0<*B<!9B 2 1# x y~
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Kc
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A
51
n
p RT
V
< B: A12@-C%:
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C C+B'7D N2O4

2
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0D
aA(g)

bB(g)
a :@ b 2A0< B2@<C,S:@S'B' I(/D &0,,(A 0D
[B]b PBb
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[A]a PAa
7F > PA :@ PB 2A0';B7, A0+>+&>( A :@ B ,+< I77G,;B%B<7D: A%<@0@
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n A RT
PA (9.2)
V
V 7 01:C7B,&>(%B<7D=;
I ;+2A0:C,Smn :@ PBV = nBRT
n B RT
PB
V
/0'B&IB5F >*>%=B KP
b
nB R T nB

b

V
R T
V b a
KP a
(9.3)
nA R T nA

a
V
V
52
)B%< I73I0/C(=I;;+&>( nA/V :@ nB/V 2A0 mol/L :;<B7B,/0,;+
!" :@ !" -B7: B, A1,(A 0D
B RT n
b
KP K C (RT)n (9.4)
A
a
7F > n 'F)B0;07:&>(%B<3@:C
,-@5A0: I1)B0;07:&>(%B<

-(- I ( n b a )
A 0
';B7, A0/D *7=

D ;
I ;+2A0 atm

'B' I(/D &>(%B<'F atm/K.mol )B%00?I
A B,%B05I;5A0:@=;B( KC
% A1 KP ,,(A 0D
K P K C RT K C 0,0821 T
n n
(9.5)

,+/I ;2:; K P K C + I%;A0
7F > n = 0 - I;8B(2@-C%:
C C+B/D %D,&E0
:@

=;B( H2 % A1 Br2
2HBr(g)

H2(g)+ Br2

K P K C R T K C 0,0821 T
n 0
,

<@00
A KP = KC
- I;8B(

CH3COO- (aq) + H3O + (aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + H 2 O(l)

CH COO H O

.
-
K C 3 3
CH 3 COOHH 2 O
.
->(*'F >(B+2A0 K 5F >+%';B7-%-B(&>('B' I(/D ,G0,(11
/ B7@,B/D %B:
A(<@,(8H&
B (:G7
0D
,+'C,;B0BS
S :C,S A%/I B% A1 1000#
(18,02g/mol) =JF $$$ mol ,(A 00

A H 2O 55,5 mol/L =JF 55,5 M )B%'B/D ,
.F;B 2A0'B/D <H(=JB+S 7F >/1% A1';B7&A7

&G0
&>(/B,- I;>F 0/D 8H 0:@1 I1S *C (<;0
=J B+)@7D'B 1 M =JFS 0>+%;B)E (.F;B ';B7&A7

&G0
&>(0B2
02(>+=JB+S =JF 1
53
202(:D+7F >/1% A1/B,>F 0S m.F;B ';B7&A7
&G0
&>(0B7D
'B ' I(/D n )E (<B7B,&0
< I73I0,,(A 0D
KC
CH COO H O
3
-
3

CH 3 COOH
KC K C H 2 O
*2//$ * &/ (/,
,+2I%%@-C'B ' I(/D ,G0,()@1 &0S=JFS <@,(=I;;+S:@S0/B(/D7,

0B7C%'B' I(/D ,G0,(7 A%)@%B0
I,,;+( /B(';B7=B;=A0 (activities) =JB+%;B/D )@
*';B7&A7
&G0 I /D 2A0< I77G, ';B7=B;=A0&>(/B,'F> A,-B<;0:@=;B(
S 0:@11
';B7&A7
&G0
S =JFS ';B7, A0+>+% A1';B7&A7
&G0
7B,-@.B0 (1M) =JFS ';B7, A0
7B,-B.B0 1 #%& )B%00?A
A ,=<B7B,' A,=I;;+>>%,S )E (?A,= K 1 7D=;
I
;+
'B' I(/D ,G0,( K )@&E0
% A1>G0=@5H7'FS 7F >>G0=@5H7' I(/D 'B K %)@' I(/DS -
7F >>G0=@5H7202('B K %)@202(
2@-C%:
C C+B*@0C,-B(% A0)@7D)'B K )@7D=;
I ;+-B(% A0S:@1B(2@-C%:
C C+B1
7D=;
I ;+*A 0

2HI(g)
H2(g)+ I2(g)

HI
2
(mol/L) 2
K
H 2 I2 (mol/L)(mol/L)
=A 0,;B 'B1 7D= I;;+5B@= I;;+.F%= A%:B(% A02,
I
3H2(g) +N2(g)

2NH3(g)

NH 3
2
(mol/dm 3 ) 2
K
H2 N2
3
(mol/dm 3 )(mol/dm 3 )3
1
dm 6 /mol 2
(mol/dm3 ) 2
54
- I;8B(:G7
0D<
@,(.C(;C/D%B0' B0;0=B'B' I(/D S';B7&A7
&G0
&>(/B,8H5
B;@
,G0,(S:@S%B0&0'B' I(/D
*/$ )(I <@,(%B0*>%=B'B' I(/D ,G0,( KC :@ KP &>(2@-C%:
C C+B-
20D
1) HF(aq) + H 2 O(l)

H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)

2) 2NO(g) + O2 (g)

2NO2 (g)

CH3 COOC2 H5 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
3) CH 3COOH(aq) + C2 H5 OH(l)

%>0)@<@,(%B0*>%=B'B' I(/D ,G0,( KC :@ KP ->(' B0E(.C(S
1 A0=B'F
%S< B: A12@-C%:
C C+B/D 2A0%B<
&S';B7&A7
&G0

&>(0B.F
;B 2A0'B' I(/D S/D 1 *0%B0' B0;0

nS2@-C%:
C C+B/D %D,&E0
1 7D/B,>B+&IB7B%;&>(S<@00?I
A B->(*>%=B KC

K C
H O F
3

HFH 2 O

HF 2A0>B*C,>>0 ,(A 000

A B<B7B,-
A,>>%,
H 3O F

KC
HF
.
NO2
2 2
PNO
2) K C ; KP 2
NO O2
2 2
PNO PO2
.
3) K C
CH3COOC2 H5
CH3COOH C2 H5OH
*/$ )(I *>%=B'B' I(/D ,G0,( KC &>(2@-C%:
C C+B:G7
0D8
H 2300C.

2NO(g) + O2 (g)

2NO2 (g)
,+7D';B7&A7
&G0
&>(-:@/B,8H5
B;@,G0,(,(A 0D:
55
[NO]=0,052M , [O2]= 0,127M, [NO2] = 15,5M
'B' I(/D *>%,)B% K C

NO 2 2
NO2 O 2
/0'B-B7=I;1 I,%B0
I,=)@, K C
15,52 6,44 10 5
0,0542 2 0,127
KC /D *>%,S1 7D=;
I ;+S'B/D ,7'
D B <H(S<>,'>(% A1%B0/D ';B7&A7
&G0

&>( NO2 7D'B <H(7F >/1% A1';B7&A7
&G0
&>( NO :@ O2
*/$ 'B' I(/D Kp &>(%B0<@=JB+- I;&>(6I<62(-B%J9
I; ( PCl5) ,+
7D3@:C,-@5A0'FS6I<6-JD%9
J I;m'3nS:@S%J (Cl2) 7D'B SS8HS 0C .B';B7, A0
+>+&>( PCl5 :@ PCl3 /I B% A1 0,875atm :@ 0,463 atm -B7: B, A1, )(I ' B0;0
=B';B7, A0+>+&>( Cl2 8H5
B;@,G0,(.
'B' I(/D Kp *>%=B,)B%
PPCl3 PCl2
KC
PPCl5
/0'B';B7, A0+>+?IB,
0,463 PCl2 1,05 0,875
1,05 PCl2 1,98atm
0,875 0,463
*/$ %B03@:C,7-B0:0>G,<B=@%BS<@,(,
(A 2@-C%:
C C+B:G7
0D
CO(g) 2H 2

CH3OH K C 10,5
8H>
0
G =@5H7 2200C )(I *>%=B'B KP
->1
K P K C R T K C 0,0821 T
n n
T = 220 + 273 = 493K

n = 1 - 3 = -2
K P 10,5 (0,082 493) -2 6,41 10 3
KC :@ Kp -B(%2A0'B' I(/D 1 7D=;
I ;+S=A 0;B'B/A(<>(1 /I B% A0 &E0
% A1
;B)@' B0;07B)B%';B7&A7
&G0
S=JFS';B7, A0
56
*/$ 5 0 B>I B4G0
=JA%S :@S 0B<
05B*@0@&@B,S S :C,S > A,4B=
0:;S0 B23I B68H>
0
G =@5H7 10000 %D,2@-C%:
C C+B,(A 0D
3Fe(s) 4H 2O(l)

Fe3O4 (s) 4H 2 (g)
7F >2@-C%:
C C+B&IB<H5
B;@,G0,( )B%%B0;C'B@5I1;B5B+05B*@0@2@%>1
,;+%B<?D,9*0 1,10# :@S >B+0B
$# )(I ' B0;0=B'B' I(/D ,G0,(&>(
2@-C%:
C C+B0D
(H = 1, O = 16)
7;0<B07:%G:&>( x 2 = 2
7;0<B07:%G:&>( x 2 ( =

m 1,10
n 0,55 mol
)B0;07:&>(%B<?D
,9*0 M 2
m 42,50
n 2,36 mol
)B0;07:&>(0
B M 18
H (g)
0,55
0,11 mol/L

8H5
B;@,G0,(S1:C7B,SS:C,S';B7&A7 &G0
&>( 2 5
2,36
H 2 O(g) 0,47 mol/L
';B7&A7 &G0
&>( 5

H2
4
(0,11)4
K 0, 003
H 2O
4
(0,47)4

'B' I(/D ,G0,(&>(2@-C%:

C C+B0D8
H 10000 = 3,0x10-3
*/$ 6 7F >-F 7 H2(g) :@ I2(g) 8B(:@ 2mol : I(05B*@0@&@B, 20

:C,8H>
0G =@5H7 5200C 7F >:@1 I1&IB<H5
B;@,G0,()B%%B0;C'B@5I1;B5B+05B
.
*@0@2@%>1,;+ HI(g) 0,24 mol )(I ' B0;0=B'B' I(/D ,G0,(&>(2@-C%:

C C+B
.
H 2 (g) I2 (g)
2HI(g)

: )B%< I73I0 H 2 (g) I 2 (g)

2HI(g)
=A 0;B HI(g) 2mol ,)B% H2(g) 1mol ?;7% A1 I2(g) 1mol
0,24
<@00
A HI(g) 0,24mol ,)B% H2(g) 0,12 mol ?;7% A1
2
0,24
I2(g) 0,12 mol
2
57
<@008H B;@,G0,(7D H2(g) :@ I2(g) =JF>8H*
A 5 @0C,:@ mol
';B7&A7
&G0
&>( HI(g), H2(g) :@ I2(g) 8H5
B;@,G0,('F
0,24
[HI] = 0,012 mol/L
20
1,88
H 2 I 2 0,094 mol/L
20
HI
2
(0,012 mol/L)2
K 0,0163 1,63 102
H2 I2 0,094mol/L 0,094 mol/L
*/$ 7 %B<>B70D> A% &)' 05B*@0@ :C,S8H>
0
G =@5H7 6500
7F >:@1 I1&IB<H5
B;@,G0,(5I1;B7D%B<>B70D> A%8H5
( 71% &>(;:B:D 7-0S)
I (I
' B0;0=B'B' I(/D ,G0,(&>(2@-C%:

C C+B- 20D

3H2(g) +N2(g)

2NH3(g)
71 2
5B;@,G0,(5I1;B7D%B<>B70D> A%8H5 ( 71% 1, 42mol/L
100
%B<>B70D> A%/D <@=J B+- I;2 *
$&)'

3H2(g) +N2(g)

2NH3(g)
)B%< I73I0 NH3(g)2 mol <@=J B+- I;, N2(g)1 mol :@ H2(g) &)'
0,58
NH3(g) 0,58 mol <@=J B+- I;, N2(g) 0,29 mol :@
2
3 0,58
H2(g) 0,87 mol
2
,(A 00S8H
A 5
B;@,G0,( [NH3] = 1,42 mol/L
[N2]= 0,29 mol/L [H2]= 0,87 mol/L
K
N2 H2 0,29 mol/L 0,87mol/L 0,191mol4 /L4
NH3
2
(1,42 mol/L)2 2,02 mol2 /L2
= 9,46x10-2mol2/L2

$(/, .1/ -#-'0 ,
#
2@-C%:
C C+B11% A12D 0'F0,/D7D/B,-(-
A 0S
I :@S /B,3@:C,-@5A01 2A05B;@
,;% A000>D
A 0 ;B%D,%B0,G0,(/D 1 2A00F>
,;% A0 (heterogeneous equilibrium)
58
*A 0%:@0D%B03I B%B0*D%B%10 A,05B*@0@2C ,S %D,%B0,G0,(/B('7D,(A < I73I0
:G7
0D
CaCO3(s)

CaO(s) + CO2(g)
)@=A 0,;B 5B;@&>(/B,-(-
A 0S
I :@S /B,3@:C,-@5A01 'F% A0,+/B,-(A
-02A
I 0/B,&(S /B,3@:C,-@5A02A0/B,&(S :@S %B<S <B7B,*>%=B'B' I(/D
,G0,(,,(A 0D
K C
CaOCO2 (9.6)
CaCO3

K C 7D';B7-%-B(% A1

K C ,(A )@<@,(;C/D%B0' B0;0&B(:G7
0D
1 A0=B/D %D,&E0
% A1/B,/D 8H 05B;@&(&>(2@-C%:
C C+B00'F
A )@*>%=B';B7
&A7
&G0
,'
F 0;,S *C (';B7&A7
&G0
0D 2A0: A%<@0@<@5B@- I;&>(/B,'F% A0% A1
';B7B0S - I;8B(

';B7&A7
&G0
0=I;;+7:- :C,&>(/>(/D 7D';B7B
0 8,96g/cm3 8H 200C 7D'B /I B% A1';B7&A7
&G0&>(/>( # =JFS S -0S 00'F
A

8,96g 1 mol
Cu 3
0,141mol/cm3 141mol/L
1cm 63,55g

)B%=,3I0&B(-0S
I ?A,=?IB?H;
B !# " :@ !#" 7D'B ' I(/D <B7B,&0< I7
3I0S S,,(A 0CD

CaCO3
KC CO2 K C (9.7)
CaO

KC 2A0'B' I(/D ,G0,(S :@S *>%,)B%';B7&A7

&G0
5(- I;,;&>(
.
[CO2] B+;B1 &E0

% A12@:C7B0&>( [CaCO3] :@[CaO] /D 7D02@-C%:
C C+B0
5B;@,G0,(
.
%B0*>%=B'B' I(/D ,G0,(&>(/B,/D 7D5B;@-%-B(% A0S *>%,( B+&E0

,+
%B0*';B7=B;=A0/0';B7&A7
&G0
*C (0/B(/D7,0B7C%S ';B7=B;=A0&>(
/B,&(S :@S /B,=J;7D'B /I B% A1S S ,(A 00
A ';B7&A7
&G0
&>( !# " :@
!#" 7D'B /I BS S ,(A 00
A .B/B,-(-
A 0S
I =JF /B,3@:C,-@5A02A0/B,=J ;-1
<B7B,'C,:';B7&A7
&G0
, <@00
A )E (<B(%B05I;
I 5A0,
59
KP PCO2 (9.8)
""5
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%* 8@ :"+ 8'%8"+/<@1 8!3@ 6"@: KC <)/ KP -$/2)
2 21
0@ )6'
@ "3A

a) (NH 4 )2S( s) 2NH3 ( g ) H 2S(g)

b) AgCl(s)
Ag (aq) Cl (aq)

c) P4 (s) 6Cl2 (g)

4PCl3 (aq)
#B@ A- B1"4; 2 *1';0'
A 6"
A -!1>"&1*/<S <)/S <,9*'12?)@@
;"5@ -1*1',A1*,0";!8@ 1 0# 0@ ""
0A
n (NH4)2S ;$0"!1>"&1*/<S0@ ""S@
0A 1 8!3@ -?A1
K C NH3 H 2S
2
;.81+1'1:"@1 8!3@ >".7#-*1' 0"@-0@ "3A

K P PNH
2
3
PH 2S
n AgCl ;$0"!1>"&1*/<S0@ ""@
0A 1 8!3@ -?A1
K C Ag Cl -

;.81+1'1:"@1 8!3@ S>".7#-*1' 0"@-0@ "3A
K C PNH
2
3
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>"+ 8'%8"#B@ '31+@:*-" B1S0@ "";.8
0A 14@ #B@ '31@
n P4 ;$0"!1< PCl3 ;$0"!1<,9*S0@ ""@
0A 1 8!3@ -?A1
1
KC
Cl 2 6
;.81+1'1:"@1 8!3@ Kp >".7#-*1' 0"@-0@ "3A
1
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PCl2
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"3A
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CaO(s) + CO2(g)

60
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@ "
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2 21
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K P K C R T K C 0,0821 T
n n
n 1+ 8'%8" K P PCO2 0,236

n 1+ 8'%8" K P K C R T K C 0,0821 T
n n

n 1

0, 236 K C (0.0821 1073)
K C 2,68 103
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K C
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2 215
.

+

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+

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@1 8!3@ 6"@: KC
KC
EF
AB
61
K C K C K C
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0A
KC
CD
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EF
AB AB AB
1"";.8
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6 ,/&7' 250+
H HCO3

H (aq) HCO3 (aq)
H 2 CO3 (aq)

K C 4,2 107
2 3
H CO
H CO32

H (aq)
HCO3- (aq)

CO32 (aq) K C - 4,8 10-11
HCO3
+ 8'%8")*'-$/2)
2 215
H 2 CO3 (aq)

2H (aq) CO32 ( aq)
2
H CO32
KC 4,2 107
H 2CO3
K C K C K C
1
= (4,2 x 10-7) x (4,8 x 10-11) = 2,0 x 10-17
$)
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"
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/;!8@ 1 0#- 01+@*"$3A "-@1 8!3@ 6"@:;3'S;0@ "B)/"3- NO2-N2O4

N2O4(g)

2NO2(g) (72@ 50C
KC
NO 2
2
4,63 10 3
N 2 O 4
;'5@ -;3$/2)
2 21$3A " 0#
62

2NO2(g)
N2O4(g)

K C
N 2 O 4 1
1
216
NO2 2 KC 4,63 103
;.81/;,0 "?A*1@
1
KC K C K C 1
K C
@1 8!3@ 6"@:!0+-'31@

<)/ ""'
0A 0"#B@ ?A'
3 *1'D1
, 0;)3 1A #B@ +/<+ 8'%8";'3(&
@7 1*/6"@:""
0A
n @1 8!3@ K 4"
A 0#*2!31"0@ 1;2@ '31"-/!2 #10@ "3A

1
N2O4(g)
NO2(g) K C
NO2

N O 2
1
2
2 4
NO 2 2
N2O4(g)

2NO2(g) KC
N 2 O 4

/;,0 "*@1 K C K c <)/S11/)1 m# 8!3 n @1- KC =
4,63[10 0@ ""0A K C 0,068

%* 11 1"0@ 1+ 8'%8"S<)/S.@1 8!3@ 6"@:

a) N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

1 NH3(g)
b) N2(g) + 3/2H2(g)

2
1 2
c) N2(g) + H2(g)
NH3(g)

3 3
8@ +/<1" B1"*",1@1 8!3@ 6"@: m*1';0'
A 6"
A !3@ >A;$0" mol/Ln @1 8
.
!3@ a-c '31"&8*&0" 0"<"*>

.
;.81A-+/<1" B1"*",1@1 8!3@ 6"@:-<@)/$/2)

2 21
;2@ 4"
A 0# 8*$@:"-1"0@ 1+ 8'%8"

Ka
NH 3 2
n N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)
N 2 H 2 3
1

NH 3
n N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g) K b 1 3
2 N 2 2 H 2 2
63
2
n
1
2
KC
NH3 3
N2(g) + H2(g)

NH3(g) 1
3 3
N 2 3 H 2
3
;,0 "*@1 Ka K ; Ka K
2 3
K 2
K 3
,95
Kb K C2
b C b C
&#

*
%"* # *'
n *1';0'
A 6"
A -!1>"&1*/!1)/)1>A,*
8 C@*;$0" mol/L &1*/
1+>A mol/L <)/ @1 8!3@ >A+ 0"1)
0 ;$0" KC <)/ KP ;2@ KC <)/ KP '3
1"&8*&0";2@ 0"S<)/S 0"
n *1';0'
A 6"
A -!1!3@ ;$0"!1<S,95S!1<,9 *#B)2+
6 m1"6"@:
<###B@ ;$0";"5-
A :* 0"n /#B@ " B1'1:"+ 8'%8"+/<@1 8!3@ 6"@:

n @1 8!3@ KC <)/ KP #B@ '3,*
8 C@*
n + 8'%8"$/2)
2 21!3@ /-,1@1 8!3@ 6"@:SA-;$0"+ 8'%8"!3@ 0@ 1
5 A-
<)A*&A-'!0)/#6-"
6 ,/&7';&5@ ->A>"1")/#61@ 8!3@ 6"@:
n 1A $/2)
2 21'3,91"-"S@
0A 1 8!3@ 6"@:-$/2)
2 21)*'/;!8@ 1 0#
%8"7"-@1 8!3@ 6"@:-$/2)
2 21@-
+ ) % (!
+ 0"1)
0 KP <)/ KC >A<!"- 0">
KP >A<!"@1 8!3@ 2?)@1'*1';0'
A 6"
A S<)/ KC>A<!"@1 8!3@ 2?)@
1'*1' 0"
KP >A<!"@1 8!3@ 2?)@1'*1' 0"S <)/ KC >A<!"@1 8!3@ 2?)@
1'*1';0'
A 6"
A
KP >A<!"@1 8!3@ 2?)@1';++@*"=')S <)/ KC >A<!"@1 8!3@
2?)@1'*1';0'
A 6"
A
KP >A<!"@1 8!3@ 2?)@1'*1' 0"S <)/ KC >A<!"@1 8!3@ 2?)@
1'#B)2'1
2 8@ :"+ 8'%8"+/<@1 8!3@ 6"@: KC <)/ K -$/2)
2 210@ )6'
@ "3A
64
Ni(s) + 4CO(g)

Ni(CO)4(g)

KC
Ni(CO3 ) KP
PNi(CO3 )4
NiCO4 PCO4
KC
Ni(CO3 ) 4 KP
PNi(CO3 )4
NiCO4 4
PNi PCO
KC
Ni(CO3 ) 4 KP
PNi(CO3 )4
CO4 4
PCO
KC
Ni(CO3 ) KP
PNi
NiCO4 4
PNi (CO )4 PCO

3 )(I <@,(%B0*>%=B'B' I(/D ,G0,( :@ &>(2@-C%:
C C+B

2N 2 O5 (g)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

NO 2 4 O 2 K (PNO2 ) 2 (PO2 )
% K C

N 2 O 5 2 P
(PN 2O5 ) 2

& KC
NO 2 4 O 2 KP
(PN 2O5 ) 2 (PO2 )
N 2 O 5 2 (PNO2 ) 2

' KC
N 2 O 5 2 KP
(PNO2 ) 2 (PO2 )
NO 2 4 O 2 (PN 2O5 ) 2

( KC
N 2 O 5 2 KP
(PN 2O5 ) 2 (PO2 )
NO 2 4 O 2 (PNO2 ) 2
4. %B%10D:%J9
I;Sm'n 2A0%B<5C,/D 0 B7B*0< I('B7:%'(/D
A SS';B7&A7

&G0
&>(/B,8H5
B;@,G0,(S7F >>G0=@5H7 740 7D'B ,(A 0D [CO] = 1.2x10-2M, [Cl] =
.
0,054 M, [COCl2] = 0,0014M )(I *>%=B'B&>( K.

.

CO2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
COCl2 (g)

2NO(g) + O2 (g)
J
J NO2 (g)

7D'B ' I(/D , )(I *>%=B';B7, A0+>+&>(>%
I *D*0 .B';B7, A0+>+
&>( NO2(g) = 0,400 atm :@ 2NO(g) = 0,270atm.
J
J N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g)
2NH3 (g)

'B' I(/D KP &>(< I73I0/I B% A1 4,3x10-4 8H 3750 )(I *>%=B'B' I(/D KC
65
7. )(I 5C)B:@0B'B' I(/D ,G0,(&>(2@-C%:
NH3(g) + H2S(g)
C C+BNH4HS(s)

2@-C%:
C C+B%D,&E0
8H> G =@5H7 395 K 'B' I(/D ,G0,( KC :@ KP &>(2@-C%:
0 C C+B
7 0
% KC
NH 3 H 2 S KP
(PNH3 )(PH 2 S )
NH 4 HS (PNH4HS ) 2
& KC
NH 3 H 2 S K P ( PNH 3 )( PH 2 S )
NH 4 HS
(PNH3 )(PH 2 S )
' K C NH 3 H 2 S KP
(PNH4HS ) 2
( K C NH 3 H 2 S K P ( PNH 3 )( PH 2 S )
8. )(I &0< I73I0<@,('B' I(/D %B0,G0,(&>(2@-C%:
C C+B- 20D5
>
7/A(<@,(%B0
5I;5A0&>('B/D ,
n 3O2(g)

2O3(g)

n O2(g)
2 O3(g)

3
9. )(I &0< I73I0<@,('B' I(/D ,G0,(Sm &>(2@-C%:
C C+B%B0<@=JB+- I;,;+
';B7?>+,(A - 20D

a) 2NaHCO3(s)
Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

b) CaSO4(s)
CaO(s) + SO2(g) + O2(g)
10. )(I &0< I73I0<@,('B' I(/D ,G0,( :@ &>(2@-C%:
C C+B/D <B7B,&0,
,(A - 20D
mn 2NO2(g) + 7H2(g)

2NH3(g) + 4H2O(l)

mn 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g)
2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)

mn C(s) + CO2(g)

2CO(g)
mn C6H5COOH(aq)
C6H5COO- + H+(aq)

S)(I 5C)B:@0B&@1;0%B08H5
B;@,G0,(:G7
0D8
H 7000

2H2(g) + S2(g)

2H2S(g)
)B%%B0;C'B@5I1;B7D H2 2,50mol, S2 1,35mol :@ H2S 0,70mol 0%;,
%;/D 7D1:C7B, 12,0 :C,S)(I ' B0;0=B'B' I(/D ,G0,( KC &>(2@-C%:
C C+B0D
66
S2@-C%:
C C+B8H> G =@5H7 3500
0
2CO(g) + O2(g)
2CO2(g)

)(I *>%=B'B' I(/D &>(2@-C%:
C C+B,(A %B;S?H KP /I B% A1 1,8x105

S5B*@0@> A0E (1 A0)G%B< NH3, N2 :@ H2 8H>
0
G 1=@5H7E (';B7&A7
&G0
8H5
B;@
,G0,('F 0,25M, 0,11 M :@ M -B7: B, A1)(I ' B0;0=B'B' I(/D &>(%B0
< A('B@>B70D > A%-B7< I73I0
(a) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)

1 3
NH3
(b) N 2 (g) H 2 (g)

2 2
14 )B%< I73I02@-C%:
C C+B,(A 0D

N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)

.B';B7, A0+>+8H5
B;@,G0,(&>( S :@
/I B% A1 0,15atm,

0,33atm :@ 0,050atm -B7: B, A18H> G =@5H7S )(I ' B0;0=B'B' I(/D
0

KP &>(&@1;0%B00D

S :@1 I1/D 8H 05B;@,G0,(7D';B7, A0 0,105 atm 8HS
0C )(I ' B0;0=B'B

KC :@ KP &>(2@-C%:
C C+B CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) + CO2(g)

16. >B70D>>7>B7D0%B%10 A,SmNH4CO2NH2n <@=J B+- I;-B7< I73I0

NH4CO2NH2(s)
2NH(g) + CO2(g)

.B:D 7-0,
I ;+/B,/D 2A0/B,&(5(*@0C,,;5I1;BS 8H 40oC ';B7, A0

:;7&>( NH :@ CO2 /I B 0,363atm )(I *>%=B'B' I(/D KP

.
S8H>
0
G =@5H7E (%B0
I,'B' I(/D ,G0,(&>(2@-C%:
C C+B,(A 0D
S(s)
SO2 (g)
O 2 (g)

K C 4, 2 1052
.
2S(s)
3O2 (g)
2SO3 (g)
K"C 9,8 10128
)(I ' B0;0=B'B' I(/D ,G0,( KC &>(2@-C%:
C C+B:G7
0D8
>
H 0
G =@5H71 202(
67
&" . +-
,
&", $,(
. +-
,
&", $,()#, . &! !
!
!
=- 4/= 2=6)+.%
. .--7/-';*9$7)/) 4 4&S --'*/9$

2HI(g)
8S8%+S)/) 4 H2(g) + I2(g)
"/-= KC = 54,3 #3= 4300C ' 4""2&=-:> H2 0,243mol, I2 0,146mol 8%+ ;> HI
:!-++ 7*4->)-#-*3&
> -= +.%
. .-+;>-@>-S(51 /> ,(5,
7*4-8&-"7,"
> 2
> :' 4"
4 )-)(-=- 4/= 2=6
HI 2
(0,198) 2
111
H 2 0 I 2 0 0,243 0,146
4&(>) 0 A-7.&-"7,"
> 2
> 7%/= "=
4> )74>-'3!
= -&+2=6S=-)
4 (-
/= ?-&;>(5-&=- KC 71= )-%+ 4 ,?= ,74>-'3!
= -&+2=6 '+
,> HI
-'=&) HI +-7, H2 8%+ I2 m
4 (-/= ;>"
/ -= (52% 4n A-&=-
+.%
. .-7//> ,-&-;>-S8%>&0= 74>-'3!
= -&+2=6
' ?-% ,+.%
. .-/= ?= ,74>-'3!
= -&+2=67,= ?%+/ HI /= 8=-&-"7,"
>
2
> #3!
= -&+7%/= "S
4> 8%+ ?-&(-
4 (-)+.%
. .- (reaction quotient:>
' ,-% , QC) ;> 8%+ ?-=-,= =-&"--@4
? .-)-7/+.%
. .-9
-66=- KC , QC 7.= "/ 3 ?%+/,= />
KC>QC ) ,-'=&)&-"7,"
> 2
> !-&+7%/= ")-
4> +%.+!,?= ,
-
,> "/
4> -= >)(5-S 7!1= )74>-'3!
= -&+2=6S -
,> >
4> )=67,-
+%.+!,S+.%
. .-0= 7/0
> ->-(-&- (51 7/;>-@>-
KC = QC %+ 4#3!
= -&+2=67!-+&-"7,"
> 2
> :!-&+7%/= "/
4> >
2 =68%>&
KC<QC ) ,-'=&)&-"7,"
> 2
> !-&+7%/= ")-
4> +%.+!,?= ,-

,> "/
4> -= (5 -S7!1= )74>-'3!
= -&+2=6S-- +%.+!,>)=6 ,"-7,-

,> +.
4> %
. .- 0= 7/0
> -&-(->- (51 +.%
. .-/> ,
&, #3!
= -&+7%/= ")+.
4> %
. .-"/ N2 0,249mol H2 3,12x10-2 mol NH3
6,42x10-4 mol :!-++ 3,5L #3= 3750C =- 4/= 2=674 - 1,2 -"&=-+.%
. .-/>
7/0
> #3!
= -&+2=6 (51 ?= ? (51 +.%
. .-7/0
> ;-".-:
68

2NH3 (g)
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g)

)(-&-"7,"
> 2
> )-'8=%++.,= />
n 0,249mol
C N 2 0 0,0711M
V 3,5L
3,21 10 2 mol
H 2 0 9,17 10 3 M
3,5L
6,42 10 4 mol
NH 3 0 1,83 10 4 M
3,5L

NH 3 02 (1,83 10 4 ) 2
)(- Q C ,= /> Q C
N 2 0 H 2 0 (0,0711)(9 ,17 10 3 ) 3
=- ,= ,> +.%
. .- ,?= ,74>-'3!
= -&+2=6S'+8&=-+.%
. .-
7/0

.
)
- $
> :.-;>-@>-S(51S-
- %
,> =
4> 67,- +%.+!,
, $,(

7*4-'-"- ?-&(-&-"7,"
> 2
> )-=-<S #3!
= -&+2=6;>:7"1= )*3
> -=
4/= 2=6S -"4+.8%>&>)*3
> &-"7,"
> 2
> )-:!-&+7%/= "
4> !.-%+

-%+ 4)-+' 4") 4+-S S +.1S .'/

. mcis-stibene) 8%+ $ ,

'+.
. (trans-stibene) :-!-%+%-/= ?= "/&)*/
4> 9$-)
.'/
$ ,'+..
.
+.%
. .-#3)
=
2 (+!3" 2000C "/-= 4/= 2=674= - 24' 4""2&=-&-"7,"
>

2
> ).'/. = 0,850mol/L +)(-&-"7,"
> 2
> )S.'/
. S8%+ $ ,'+.
.
.S:!-&+2=6;>8&:S--!4&!,*3&
> -= 1 mol )$ ,'+.
. 7/
- 1 mol ).'/
. S>-:(> x 8&-"7,"
> 2
> )$ ,'+.
. #3!
= -&+2
.
=6S,=
,> &-"7,"
> 2
> ).'/
. = 0,850- x mol/L 7.= '-"-'+(52;>,= />
.'/
$ ,'+..
.
!-&+7%/= "
4> (M) 0,085 0,00
=68 (M) -x +x
!-&+2=6 (M) ( 0,085 - x ) +x
69
71= )A-&A-7.-7!/= "0
> S 8%+S 71= )A-% 4S A-7.-(52 % 4
)&-"7,"
> 2
> #3!
= -&+2=6S 97*4-'-"-6' 4"
4 '+8=- 4/= 2=6;>
,= />
Ka
trans - stilbene 24,00
x
cis - stilbene 0,850 x
x 0,816 M
7"1= )*3
> -= ) x '-"-)(-&-"7,"
> 2
> ) cis-stilbane 8%+ trans-stibene
#3!
= -&+2=6;>
[cis-stilbene] = (0,850-0,816) = 0,034M
[trans-stibene] = 0,816M
-
4 - ?-&>-7. '-"-8=-74>-:' 4"
4 '+8- ?-&
(-=- 4/= 2=67!1= )&-1&=-1>)-"/= (4& 4-
? 4 (51 ?
'$
-
. * . +-
,
&", $,(
n '+8&-"7,"
> 2
> )-:!-&+2=6:*3)&-"7,"
> 2
> 7%/= "
4>
8%+ =-' 4""2Sm n /= :>88=-=68&-"7,"
> 2
>
n 6' 4"
4 '+8=- 4/= 2=6S9-8&-"7,"
> 2
> #3!
= -&+2=6
8%>&8>' 4"
4 7!/= ))(-=-)

n 7"1= ))(-=-) ;>'
? -"- ?-&(-&-"7,"
> 2
> )-)1= #3!
= -&+
2=6;>
&, -'+' 4"%+(&=- H2 0,500 mol 8%+ I2 0,500 mol ,2#:=3 !-++
7*,>&7(5, >-?= "/A6> S+@- 1L #3= 4300C

2 HI(g) KC = 54,3
H 2 (g) + I2 (g)
4= ?-&(-&-"7,"
> 2
> ) 8%+ #3!
= -&+2=6
&-"7,"
> 2
> ))-
,> #3
4> !
= -&+7%/= "S
4> 8= ,?= ,"/ HI #3=
7%/A-&=-+.%
. .- ,?= ,74>-'3!
= -&+2=6S ,= ,> H2 +.%
. .- , I2
7!1= ):(>;> HI 4+,74
> >-'2!
= -&+2=6
7*4- ?-&-")
,> ,= />
70
3> -= 1 mol ) H2 +.%
nS -+%."-' ?-!,:(>*& . .-!?
/ , 1 mol
) I2 ;>- +%.+!,S mol #3!
= -&+2=6-
? 4:(> x 7,&-"7,"
> 2
> /=
(52 % 4) H2 8%+ I2 8%+ 2x 7,&-"7,"
> 2
> ) HI 6' 4"
4 -=68
&-"7,"
> 2
> ;>,= />
H 2 (g) + I2 (g)

2HI(g)
7%/= "
4> 0,500mol 0,500mol 0,000mol
=68 -x -x +2x
2=6 (0,500-x) (0,500-x) 2x

nS=- 4/= 2=61
KC
HI2
H 2 I 2

8=-&-"7,"
> 2
> +;>
(2x)2
54,3
(0,500 x) (0,500 x)

2x
7,37 x 0,393M
0,500 x

n #3!
= -&+2=6&-"7,"> 2
> )-1
[H2] = 0,500-0,393 = 0,107M
[I2] = 0,500-0,393 = 0,107M

[HI] = 2x0,393 = 0,786M

7*4-'-"-&-7.= ?-)/= ;>"-1
,> >) (51 ?S 9-8=-
.
&-"7,"
> 2
> )-!-&+2=67!1= ))(-=- KC 8=)
> 0&=- KC 0
> ,)2
.
+(+!3"
&, !.-%+-+.%
2 HI(g) ' 4""2&-"

. .- H 2 (g) + I2 (g)
7,"
> 2
> 7%/= ")
4> H2, I2 8%+ HI 74= - , 0,00623 M, 0,00414M 8%+ 0,0224M
-"% ?- ,S 4= -
? 4.-)+.%
. .-S 8%+S )(-&-"7,"
> 2
> )-8=
%+ 4&:!-&+2=6
7*4->) ?-&(-=- Q =),= />
71
Q
HI2
(0,0224) 2
19,5
H 2 I 2 (0,00623)(0,00414)
=- Q 19,5 >)&=-=- KC KC = 54,3) '+(52 ;>&-= +.%
. .-7/;
>-@>- 4+,7.
> !-&+2=6SA-&=-+.%
. .-7/7, HI
nS:(> x 7,&-"7,"
> 2
> /= (52% 4) H2 8%+ I2 8%+ 2x 7,&-"7,"
> 2
> /=
7!/= "0
> ) HI
H 2 (g) + I2 (g)

2HI(g)
7%/= "
4> 0,00623 M 0,00414M 0,0224M
=68 x x 2x
2=6 (0,00623- x) (0,00414- x) 0,0224+2x
HI
2
(0,0224 2x)2
)(-=- ;> KC
H2 I2 (0,00623 x)(0,00414 x)
7*4- ,' 4"
4 1:A=;>,= />
54,3 (2,5810-5 - 0,0104x + x 2 ) = 5,0210-4 + 0,0896x + 4x 2
8%+ 50, 2x 2 0, 654x 8,98 104 0
,' 4"
4 :A=:(>#:=3 *3 ax 2 bx c 0 8%>&8>' 4"
4 -"8
b b 2 4ac
x
2a
8=- a = 50,3 ; b = -0,654 c = 8,98x10-4
0,654 (0,654) 2 4(50,3)(8,98 104 )
x
2 50,3
x1 0,0114 M ; x 2 0,00156 M
?-)/= ;>"S/ S =-S =-/S S 7,;?= ;>7!-+"/-= (5 -&=-&-"7,"
> 2
> )
-
,> S
4> ,= ,> =-/= S S0= 7,=-/= 1>)

nS&-"7,"
> 2
> #3!
= -&+2=6"/,=
[H2] = (0,006230,00156)M = 0,00476M
[I2] = (0,004140,00156)M = 0,00258M
[HI] = (0,0224x0,00156)M = 0,0255M
72
'-"-&-7.= &-"1>)) ?-)9-8=-&-"7,"
> 2
> #3=
!-&+2=67!1= ))=- KC 8=)
> ?-07.&=-=- KC 0
> ,)2(+!3"
- 4&#=-,S '+8:(>7(, &=-'-"- ?-&(-&-"7,"
> 2
> )-2
+.;>:!-&+2=6S 8=)
> *3
> -= 4/= 2=6S 8%+S &-"7,"
> 2
> 7%/= "?
4> ">
3
,= =-&1&-= "/&-"' ?- ,=(5-?= -)(-+%."-) +%.+!,S 7,= -
4&#=--7/ HI -+.%
. .- H2 , I2 9: 4&#=-S *3&
> -= >-+.%
. .-
7/' 4"3+"/ HI 2 x 0,500M= 1M 8=+%."-/= 7/ 4&.8" =
2 x 0,393M = 0,786M (51S7, 78,6%
. * &)!
S -' 4" 4 +.%
. .- 2A + B
C + 2D #3)

=
2 (+!3" 250C "/-= 4/= 2
1
=6 !4&=-#3!
= -&+2=6"/&-"7,"
> 2
> ) A, B 8%+ C 74= - , 0,1; 0,05
50

8%+S,2 mol L-1 -"% ?- ,S4= )(-&-"7," > 2
> ) D

S-+.%
>- ?-7)4 - 8%+ #=-%+S

. .-
9"%74>-:!-++/= "/?%."-S S %.S #3)

=
2 (+!3"@0= 8%>&=):(>7.!-&+2=6

+"/-= 4/= 2=6S 4= )(--&9"%)

? 8%+ :
!-&+2=6
,>

S+.%
PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)

. .- PCl5 (g)
#3)
=
2 (+!3" 250C "/-= 4/= 2=6 0,25, >-:(> PCl5 :!-++ %.4= )(-

S&-"7,"
> 2
> ) PCl5, PCl3 8%+ Cl2 #3!
= -&+2
= 6=
.
S>-7%/= ""/
4> Cl2 2 9"% +"/ PCl3 74= -:
S-?S> SS+"/ PCl5 8 4& ,'=&*>)
.
S"&'-) PCl5 /= 7(51):?S> S"/= 74= -:

S=- 4/= 2=6)+.%
. .-7//9$/5$
? 4&m!n -/$.) 4
.S ,5
? -"' 4"
2NOCl(g)
4 2NO(g) + Cl2 (g)
"/-= 4/= 2=6 6,5x104 #3= 350 >-' 4"

4 "/ NO 2,0x10-2mol, Cl28,3x10-3mol
8%+ NOCl 6,8 mol :!-++ 2L 4= -
? 4.--7/+.%
. .-,= =-&
73
%!*
!, !
% ., #,' (!
-2=67#/'+87.-2=6).--7/+.%
. .-;>-
@>-S (51 /> ,S 7,7%1= )/= %+)6)=)?= ,(5 -<+.%
. .-S -=68-,
;)-4%))-#/
4 % 4&.-)-2=6 7.= '4= 4?= +.%
. .-
&=-+;* ,-+%.+!,7!/= #0
> S (51 (52 % 4S 7#1= )7*4-7(, &=-+.%
. .-#/.-
;-&-A-7.&=-+.%
. .-7/->-(-&-S ,-,;/= #/
4 ?= -2
=6;>8=S&-# ,S)2(+!3#S&-#7,#
> 2
> S-7%,= S8%+ ?%.#-S:/
> +;>
'0'-&=-,;7(5= 4 -/#
>
/
4 ?= .--2=68&:
&
( (!( !!(
:>(5
, 7)7%/-7/%/7$S 7!1= )!.-%+-.-)+.%
. .-&=-+=6
88&:7#1= )#/&-# ,S)2(+!3#S&-#7,#
> 2
> S(51S?%.#-#/-=689
(5
, 7)7%/-7/%/7$=-&&=-S 7#1= )-2=6)%+ 41% 4&S %+ 4+
>), 4&1:A=-#.-/= 7*,:(>74>-'3!
= -&+2=6:A=S 7!1= ):(>-% 4&
,>
(52 % 4
,') (
- #
-
7(5, III /9)/- , Fe(SCN)3 %+%-:-;>
?> -%+%-#/'/87.= ;>-
'/))/) 4 FeSCN -2=6)+.%
. .-%+(&=-)/) 4 FeSCN
2
FeSCN(aq)

Fe3aq
SCN(aq)
'/8 '/7(51))=) ?= #/'/
7#1= )1= # NaSCN !67%, >)% 4:-%+%-7.= ?%+/'
/> -#-);>&-=
-2=61% 4&-&-#7,# > ) SCN /= 7!/= #0
> 2 > 71= )- NaSCN
/= 8 4&:(> Na8%+ SCN 7!1= )7*,:(>%+ 474>-'3!
= -&+2=671= ):A= Fe -
. .- , SCN 7*,:(>+.%
'=&+.% . .-7/-&-(->-S8%+ -%+%-#/
&-#7,#
> 2
> 7!/= #0
> m'/87,#
> 0
> n
: ?-)6& ,S>-1= #)/) 4 Fe 7,= 1= # Fe(NO3)3 % 4:-%+%-+7(,
;>&-= S -%+%-#/'/87,#
> 0
> S 7!-+ Fe (5 -0
> 7.= ;>- Fe(NO3)3 7*,
:(>.-)+.%
. .-, 4&-&-(->-
74
2
FeSCN(aq)
Fe3aq
SCN(aq)
>-4%)1= #)-.) 4-%. mH2C2O4n !67%,>)% 4:-%+%- 7.=
)-./
> +8 4&:(>))
/ 4) 4-% , C2O42- /= '-#-+.%
. .- , Fe3+ -7,
Fe2(C2O4)3 7*,:(> Fe3+ :-%+%-(52% 4S '+S
,> 7!1= ):(>%+ 474>-'3!
= -&+2
=6:A= FeSCN 0= >)8 4&:(> Fe3+ 7/+.%
. .- 7.= #/.-->-
;&-
%, =- 4/= KC)+.%
. .- N 2 (g) 3H 2 (g)

2NH3 (g)
#/-= 2,37x10-3 9&-#7,#
> 2
> )8=%+-:!-&+2=6#/-= ,= /> [N2]

=0,683M, [H2] = 8,80M, [NH3] = 1,05M ' 4##2&=-7*4-1= # [NH3] % 4:-
%+%- 4&=-&=-#/&-#7,#
> 2
> 74= - , 3,65 M
mn +:>(5
, 7)7%/-7/%/7$S :--
? 4&=-+.%
. .-+#/.-;
-:7!1= ):(>+.%

. .-74>-'3!
= -&+2=6)/:A=

mn 4= ?-&(- QC 7!1= )66 , KC :-$1$, ?-):?> mn
) .

mn7*4->)!.-%+-&=-S ) ,:/= !-:(>7/#/-=68)%+ 4S 8%+

%+ 4+, 4&8&:S7!1= ):(> ,74>-'3!
= -&+2=6:A=

mn 7#1= )#/-1= # [NH3] % 4;7*,:(>-2=6)%+ 4=68+ ?-&

(- QC )%+ 4;>8&:S 8%+-66=- QC , KC +:(>* 3>

8&:7..--, 4&74>-'3!
= -&+2=6:A=
.
7#1= )1= # NH3 % 4;A-7.-7!/= #+%.#-) NH3:(>(5-0

> S 7*,
:(>%+ 4?= '-#-* ,'-!-&+2=6S %+ 4+74>-'3!
= -&+2=6:A=&
> -(52
.
&-#7,#
> 2
> ) NH3 % 4>&-7/+.%
. .-:.-8=&-(->-7.= 7*,
:(>+%.#- N 8%+ H 7!/= #0
> -#' 4#4
N 2 (g)

2NH3 (g)

3H 2 (g)
7#1= )1= # NH3 7*4-)(-=- QC ;>
Q
NH3 2
(3,65) 2
2,83 10 2
N 2 0 H 2 30 (0,683)(8,80) 2
75
0 1 QC>KC +.1"

" " !+#+,0!!1!
2

- ("!0*,
! 20 #
( (
20 !#0 ,31
(condense phase) +0 !! #0 .1!+
21 !!! +%0
!0!!.
!,
S , ,)20 !!# (/1 +"0
(
1!2#
!S +%0
!+1 &
1 0*,
/1+%0 # !0*,
+"0
"!!! ((
PV nRT
n
P RT
V
! ((+0! P , V +!0#1 S , !0 n/V #
(30 mol/L +"0
+!0 (
!
(& (
"
" " !&
0 #
1
0' !&0*
. 1
'#0 ''!!+ %0 #0 /1

2NO2 (g)
N 2O4 (g)

+%0 &' (
#0 S 1!)& '' (
+"0
+!)& 2"!S , +#0 !
1 % n/V

! 1
S,
(1 !" # !0 +#0 $
1 $0
+.1!&
0*

(#!0*,
+%0
! !+
1 &
1
NO2 $
1 2!

$0
+.1
# !0 +#0 $
1 )! 0! N2O4
NO2 02
QC
N 2O4 0

0 1+%0 +#0 ! QC>KC +.1"

" " !+#$
1 !!!1!
( 1
+(1!'
0 !&0*
.40 .!
(
1!1!)& ! QC<KC +.1
"
" " !+#!1! !!+%0 +(1!'
0 !&0*
.40
- (0 /. (#0 #!+#0 ! )% )&2"! "
" " !/!
"!
#0 )&!-
!
2 .2#
#1 "
" " !+#,#1 m!
+%
1
!-)
2 ! !31 n ,0 (
1!.2##0)& ! )%S +#0 2"
!"
" " !+#/."!
#0 +#0 !-
!
2 m!+%
1
!2
76
&9#%@>)(-(5-n 8=-> -&9#%)-
?
,> 74=
4> - , -&9#%)
?
-+%.+!,S-=68&-# ,+?= #/
4 ?= !-&+-2=6
:?%+//==68&-# ,9?= =68?%.#- ' 4##2:%+ 4 NO2N2O4
:!-++7*,>&7(5, >-?= 7/A>6S#/?%.#- 4/= 7#1= )7*4-7!/= #&-# ,%&#9
-1= #)-%>-74>-;:%+ 4/= $3:= !-&+2=6 !4&=--7*,7,= /
> ?= ;>% 4&
?= !-&+-2=6S71= )-&-# ,=))-'8=%++. ,74= -7/#
%, 2 --2=6)%+ 4?= ;/>
n 2PbS(s) + 3O2

2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)

n PCl5(g)

PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
n H2(g) + CO2(g)

H2O(l) + CO2(g)
4= -
? 4.-)-7/+.%
. .-)8=%+?S> 7#1= )#/-7!/= #&-# ,

m(52 ?%.#-nS)%+ 4$3
= /= )2(+!3# 4/=

-=68&-# ,7*,:(>?%.#-)-'=68S8=?= #/
4 ?= ?%.#-

)-8(5 &S8%+S-8
'+
,> !.-%+-'+7!-+9#7%2%)-',= />

n -' 4#4:-
,> #/
4> -' 3 mol 8%+ +%.+!,#/-' 2 mol
,= ,> 7#1= )&-# ,7!/= #0
> .-)+.%
. .-+7/8=-> (-&-m>--?
&9#%(5 -(--&9#%@>
? )n

n -' 4#4:-
,> #/
4> -' 1 mol 8%++%.+!,#/-' 2 mol ,= ,>
.
7#1= )&-# ,7!/= #0

> .-)+.%
. .-+7/8=&-(->-m>--&9#%
?
.
(5 -(--&9#%@>
? )n
n -' 4#4:-
,> #/
4> -&9#%)-'S
? 74= - ,-&9#%)-'
?
:-+%.+!,S ,= 7#1=
,> )&-# ,7!/= #0
> 0= ?= #/-(5
4 &?= -2=6)
+.%
. .-
77
3 ,') #$
-=68&-#7,#
> 2
> S &-# ,S (51 ?%.#-S 7*,:(>!-&+2=6#/-
=68;> 8=?= ;>7*,:(>-= 4/= 2=6=68#/!68=)
2 (+!3#74= -/=
,> !-:(>
=- 4/= 2=6#/-=68;> !.-%+-+.%
. .-,= ?= ;/>

N 2O4 (g)
2NO2 (g)

+.%
. .-;>-@>-7,83!+% ,-
heat N 2 H 4

2NO2
H 0 58,0kJ/mol (H 0)
+.%
. .-/> ,7,8-!+% ,-
N2H4

2NO2 heat H 0 58,0kJ/mol ( H 0)
$3!
= -&+2=6&-#*>)/= 374>-S 8%+ -))+% 4%>- ,;A 4S 7*,:(>
=-&-#*>)74= -'3S :++/= #/-=68&-#*>)S (51S )2(+!3#?
1 -
=68 4&8)1= <S %+ 4>),=67!1= )74>-'3!
= -&+2=6:A=S ,=
,> -7!/= #
)2(+!3#!-:(>7,+&-3&-#*>)7/;>1
,> +.%
. .-7/0
> ->-
(-&-S 8%+ 4 ,>-#>-(52 )2(+!3#7*,:(>+&--&-#*>)+.
.%.-7/-&-(->-m/> ,n
NO2 02
KC
N 2O4 0
9=- 4/= 2=6#/-= 7!/= #0
> 7#1= )&-#7,#
> 2
> ) NO2 7!/= #0
> 7.= 7,4
#---7!/= #)2(+!3#S)/ 4&$=-@0= 7,-2=6%+(&=-)/) 4
CoCl24 6H 2O

Co(H 2 O)62 4 Cl-
'/">-8= '/ 4&
2
-7/)/) 4 CoCl 4 7,+&-3&-#*>)S ,=
,> >-:(>&-#*>)
8=+.%
. .-,= =-&+;>-%+%-'/">-8= m.-+.%
. .-;>->-nS 8=
>-(52 )2(+!3#% 47*4-+;>-%+%-'/ 4&7.= A-7.+.%
. .-;-&-
&# *-, -7!/= #)2(+!3#7*,:(>+.%
. .-83&-#*>)7/0
> ;
/S8%+--(52 )2(+!3#7*,:(>+.%
. .--&-#*>)7/0
> ;>/
78
% (,
-7%,= +.%
. .-7, 4&!-:(>+.%
. .-7/0
> ;&S 9-(52 !+% ,-
+2
> (Ea) 8=?= =6&>) ,=- 4/= 2=6S 8%+ ?= +4 ,.-)-2
=6S 8=-1= #-7%,= % 4:+.%
. .-/= ,?= ,74>-'3!
= -&+2=6+=&:(>
) ,--74>-'3!
= -&+2=6;>;&0
>
&# % *
, +!, ! ., .)/, #,'
'.= % 4&?= !-&+2=6 #/!6,;)2(+!3#74= -/=
,> 7*,:(>-= 4/= 2=6
=68 -=68&-#7,#
> 2
> S &-# ,S 8%+ ?%.#-?!-:(>&-#7,#
> 2
>

)-$3!
= -&+2=6=68 8=?= ;>7*,:(>-= 4/= =68 '=&-7%,= +.
.%.-?!68=7*,:(>+.%
. .-74>-'3!
= -&+2=6;&0
> 8=?= ;>% 4&7.=- 4/=
2=6S8%+ &-#7,#
> 2
> )-/= 7)4 -#-7, 4&$=-
.) %(

!.-%+--2=6S)+.%
. .-
2NO2

N2O4

CH2=CH2 + Cl2

CH2Cl-CH2Cl
4= -
? 4.-)- ?-7/;)+.%
. .-7#1= )#/-(52 &-# ,S m7!/= #

?%.#-nS7#1= ))2(+!3# 4/

S=- 4/= 2=6 KP $3)
=
2 (+!3# 430oC ' ?-% ,+.%
. .-

2NO(g) + O2 (g)
2 NO2 (g)

.
#/-= 1,5x105 &-# ,!-&+7%/= #)

4> NO(g) O2(g) 8%+ NO2(g) 74= - ,
2,1x10-3,1,1x10-2 8%+ 0,4 atm -#% ?- ,S 4= ?-&(- QP 7!1= )66 ,
.
KC 8%+S7!1= ):(>74>-'3!
= -&+2=64= -
? 4&=-S+.%
. .-+#/.-8&:
-+.%
. .- 2SO 2 (g)+ O2 (g)

2SO3 (g) + 11,16kJ
>-% 4&!-&+2=6>&&./?= ;/
> +#/
4 ?= &-#7,#
> 2
> ) SO3 8&:
S(52 &-# ,)%+ 4
S7!/= #&-#7,#
> 2
> )S) 4/8:%+ 4
S(52 &-#7,#
> 2
> )S ,7"/ )
/ 4.:%+ 4
79
S7#1= )) ,-' CO2 >&&-# ,'374>-:&71= )1= #S8%>&) , -:(>8@>+#/
!-&+2=67/0
> ,= />
CO2 (g) + H 2 O(l)

H 2 CO3 (aq)

4= )+. -&=-7!-+7(:S7#1= )7/ -&.= #/-'7/0
>
S :--
? ,-' CO :)-7')% 4 49-:(>-' CO +.%
. .-
, O2 7./&)9%(+-+.$3)
=
2 (+!3#'3S+.%
. .-7/0
> ,= />
2CO(g) + O2 (l)
2CO2 (aq) (H<0)

S >-7!/= #&-# ,)%+ 4S 8=)
2 (+!3# 4/= %+ 4+7/-=68
8&:S7!-+7(:
S?%.#- 4/= >-7!/= #)2(+!3#S%+ 4+7/-=688&:
S !-&+2=6?= ;/S> >-1= #-/= %+2;&>% 4:%+ 4+7*,:(>&-#7,#
> 2
> )
-7/-=688&:
C2H6(g)

H2(g) + C2H4(g) -'/= 1= #1 H

NO2(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) -'/= 1= #1 NO2
PbSO4(s) + H+

Pb2+(aq) + HSO4-(aq) -/= 1= #1 PbNO3

H2O
PbCl2(s) + H+
Pb2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) -/= 1= #1 AgNO3

Fe2+(aq) + 3OH-(aq)
Fe(OH)3(s)
-/= 1= #1 HCl(aq)
S$3!
= -&+2=6+.%

NO2 + SO2
. .- NO + SO3

#/ NO 0,2 9#% SO3 0,01 9#% NO2 0,5 9#% 8%+ SO2 0,4 9#%S>-1= #
NO2 0,1 9#% 8%>&+;&>:(>7.!-&+2=6:A=
,> S -#&=-+#/-8=%+
+.,S S/$
> -= %+ ,9#%?= %.
80
"$ IV # $")&
"#( " *,"
&$ "#( " *,") -+#( " *,"
" " #( " *,") -

+ (# " *,"
# -" &"+'$

(, #!) "!-"*,"
%#%HCl, CH3COOH, NaCl, KNO3, NaOH, KOH, NH3, C2H5OH,

CH3COONa, NH4Cl, (NH2)2CO C12H22O11'3' %.$4*41mol/dm34 cm313 ,!
+!#6%4! ,!##&1#&%
+!%3-'!.4&$$'//#'4%$.$(+

+!%$5%24%!%#%/3##&0%*3. )3!$

/24%+13%#%/3##&1 4.&.+3%$/#$. %"*3! +
-
" "
!%&"&

" "

%3-/'3$.. $
%#%

+!4.4&$ +!4%$5%24%

HCl
CH3COOH

NaCl
.
KNO3
NaOH
.
KOH
NH3
C2H5OH
CH3COONa
NH4Cl
(NH2)2CO
C12H22O11

4%$. *$##%3-'!.4&$.$.1%$%%5%
/%#%24$#. )#.1/3
4%$. *$##%$5%24%!%#%.$.1%$%

%5%/%#%24$#. )#.1/3
%#%'3$5%24%24."$1 4 +-"*33%$ ,)5
%%+!%#%1$.$%#%&. %#24%/"%#
%&. %#24%!3!/#53/3%#%&. %#24%
.)3!5%%#%%+!4.4&$%%5%/24 *3 ) %
#%'33-'.4&$%'4%.$'/#/3%' *$##.$!%&24/3
%#% HCl, CH3COOH /#NH4Cl ), %#%'33-'.4&$%'
/.$'4%#/3%' *$##.$%.'24/3%#% NaOH, KOH, NH3
/#CH3COONa, 3%#%'353'%3-'.4&$$'4%/#'/#
/3%' *$##.$%24/3 NaCl, KNO3, C2H5OH, (NH2)2CO/#
C12H22O11).
.)3!+!%$5%24%!%#%/3##&. $3%24+/
3%$%$5%24%' %5%$$5%!'!+!%#%.&336(3%
%%/+!%%#% %#%$5%24%24'#/3%%(
#%/+.$!'!+24 ,% ,!25"*3/4 ,%4%3%#%/+.$!'!+
244! ,)'!'!+64! ,!25"*3/464!4%3%+#%/+.$!'!+2464!
,% ,)53'!'!+ ,!25#53"*3
" " #( " *,")
%'3/+.$!'!+24' ,% ,)247+."$1 4'5%!'!+ ,%%$5%2

4%24'.!'43%%#%&. %#24%/" ) HClO4, HI , HBr, HCl, HNO3,
H2SO4, CsOH, RbOH, KOH, NaOH, LiOH, Ra(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 .
'++. '$3'4
HClO4 (l)
H2O
H + (aq) + ClO-4 (aq)
" " #( " *,"+

%'3/+.$!'!+24%3 ,)/+244!."$1 4%$5%24%24
4!.!'43%%#%&. %#24%!3! ) CH3COOH, H2CO3, HNO2, H2SO3, H2S,
HClO, H2C2O4, H3BO3,HF, NH4OH'++. '$3'4

HF(g)
2
+ H O -
H (aq) + F (aq)

CH 3COOH(l)
2
+ H O -
H (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
" " -+(# " *,"
%#%'353$5%24%#/3%%)#%53%%/+.$!'!+
,)/+.$!'!+244! ,%.!'43% %#%53&. %#24%

-"" ) &(#!
.)3!5%.!+%%#% A, B, C,D /#E '3' %.$4*4.+3%$2+!%
3-'!.4&$/# %%%1%$5%24%24$3'4
%#%
%3-'.4&$ %"*3! +-

A 533-' "*3 ,%

B '/%.$'4% "*3.$64!
C '4%%.$'/ "*3 ,%

D 533-' 53"*3
E '4%%.$'/ "*3.$64!

%#%1$.$%#%&. %#24%/"/#%#%1$
.
.$%#%&. %#24%!3!
%#%1$.$%#%&. %#24%/"'
3 ' *$##.$!%
& ,) %.'
%#%1$.$%#%&. %#24%'3' *$##.$%
+3-++#/%/+.$!'!+154%!%532'4

%#%&. %#24%/"KNO3 /#HBr.
%#%&. %#24%!3!HCN/#H2S.

$$'$
)#"" $"$ $ %/"$"$$. &.#4$
$"$# ".$$ #6$25$25"/4$$"$#5&$/
+.# & +4$4-& .5%#4$##5".#++ .%$"
$ $ %/"$"$$. && & + "%1&4.!#15

)#"" $"$
/4$#

1$"$ $ %) "%.#$"$%.
$"25$ /" 4-&.5%
#$&5$.#&/"/4$1$"$ $ %& & +$ "%

(# 15'$
+4$$4-/ $!&0/ ,6+ UHClV 165$ #4++
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
$$+ 1%"6$ +& !*5/54$$"$ $. % $ %
.#$%.
$"25$ 4 .(4 $$/+.# & +2575 /" & +&4.& '5
$$/+.&"%%%$%5#25++1$")4-#4&5
CH3COOH(aq) + H2 O(l) H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
.(4 %$"$$4-/ $!&0/ ,6+/" $. % $ %.#4$
1$"$ $ %# "%& & +!&0& UH3O+V

(# /" & ++&4
/4$#. %4 '5# "% $ %.(4 $ & +!&0& 6425*4.# & +-
/4#&0.) 65$ &,$30.) 5 ! *4. #4H5O2+(H3O+.H2O)
H7O3+(H3O+.2H2O) /" H9O4+(H3O+.3H2O)

%#%%/'* #&/$%#%&/%#36%0#5.'/ 6&$
% '0/$'6%#05%2%#%%/'6!'!'!,#&28(5) $ 2 6(
%,5% %5.0
!%'"', & UNaOHV 0# %'!!"', & UKOHV
/)5!#%276% #0 ,/$!'!,$5,,*5'6
NaOH(s)
H2O
Na + (aq) + OH- (aq)
KOH(s)
H2O
K + (aq) + OH- (aq)
/)5!& %#%06/ $5%%/'5%#& $#%276%060 ,2 6!'!,

"', & UOH-V ) $05'!'!, 0 5% $/&5
(6 $#&
!%/'
# -* %#%!%&* #&'!'!,'5) $)'!'!,"'1'!! UH3O+V /&5
/$!'!,'
5 #0/&*$ ##/$!%&5%#%%/'* #&'!'!,"'

, & UOH-V ) $'5#0/&*$ ##/$%/'

$

,5
.,,#0 %0 ,
!%753'6/)5!#%276%
HNO3, Ba(OH)2 /$%&/%#36%0"

HClO/$%&/%#36%!5!
% %,!%/$!%&0#%/'
!%5%42'&# 7%$6
/ 6&$36
76+$5'6

" #
.
76%9% % '6% %/$'0

.
76%
'6/,5% '0 %/$'6%
76%%6%0 '0 %/$'6%
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#$5 5%

&$ # $"# ( "'$
# $"#( "'$

"'$
%
/)1.0*0+80f0gh*3*0f9)/ ,01 i(. 0j2 ghk071*.2,0
1 0j23h+801*.2j/f l!2* *.)/j,0j'2,6*(Svante Arrhenier
/j%20)6i,gh*3*05(/*..,,01i(. 0j2/f*7%"70i7)
(5f%2h
HA H2O
H+ + A-
HCl(g)
H2O
H + (aq)+ Cl- (aq)
HClO(l)
H2O
H + (aq)+ ClO-4 (aq)
h)j+2h,0j'2,6*3fl+h10%,,01)f0 ,01i%f02f(.(0lkh0
i(h)i7)j!/,2,7-2m'i H+ ,01%25(/*..h04//hj4f,%00%2
,2,7-2m'il0(.(0
,02h ,0j'2,6*/l+h10%, 0j2)f0 0j2i%f02(

f .(0lkh0
i(h)i7)j!/,2,7-2'71 OH-), 0j2%25(/*..h04//hi%fj4f,%0
0%2,2,7-2'71l0(.(0/f*7%"7(5f%2h
BOH H2O

B+ + OH -
NaOH(s)
H2O
KOH(s)
H2O
K + (aq)+ OH- (aq)
1*.2,,0j'2,6*f9)/ ,01i(. 0j2/%2khk0/+80&f02f*k0/4
02fj!/,01i(. 0j2h,(.(0lkh0j7f0/hh0 kf(.(0lkh0+84(.(0l
0#0(.(0,4f. kf/j!/,01i(. 0j2,02h/ kf*0%0,.1 00
2f%2m%j(5 kf%2,2,7-2m'i (H+ i(. ,2,7-2'71 (OH-)gh

# $#( "'$
'$'"$(Bronsted-Lowry)
l!2*
m-/j*1mj(70*j '2*j/j%20)i%0 i(.
k%/*%0'n1(0)(2/j%20),/1gh*.jo21*.2,01i(. 0j2j '2*j
(0)(2ml+h10%)f0,01402lf +hm!'7i(. 0j2402f-/ m!'7
10%,01i(. 0j2,j'2*j(0)(2*0%0lh,.1 00!f9i!
,NH4Cl)i(.(CH3COONaj1flm%(5 kf%2,2,7-2m'i H+ i(. ,2,7-2
'71 (OH- ifj%4f,(.(0kh0i(h)gh0(.(02f%25(/*..j!/,01i(. 0

j2/f2h
NH 4 Cl(s)
H2O
NH 4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
NH 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O+ (aq)+ NH3 (aq)

NH4+ l+h,2,7-2m'i H+ / kh0 H2O NH4+ 3fj-/oh02fj!/,01*f) H2O

-/ ,2,7-2m'i H+ 0 NH4+ H2O 3fj-/oh02fj!/ 0j2l0(.(0%2,2,7-2
m'2,,%H3O+ j23h*./h0(.(0 NH4Cl %2(/*..j!/,01

*k0(/ CH3COONaj%4f,(.(0lkh0.i7)gh/f2h
CH3COONa(s)
H2O
CH3COO- (aq) + Na + (aq)
CH3COO- (aq) + H 2O(l) CH3COOH(aq)+ OH- (aq)

.
H2O l+h,2,7-2m'i H+ / CHCOO- j2j!/ OH- *)f CHCOO- -/ ,2,7

.
-2m'i H+ 0 H2O j2j!/ CHCOOH *./h H2O 3fj-/oh02fj!/,01*f)
(CHCOO-3fj-/oh02fj!/ 0j2l0(.(0%2,2,7-2'71 OH- j23h*./h

0(.(0 CHCOONa %2(/*..j!/ 0j2
*./h1*.2,01 i(. 0j2j '2*j(0)(2lh,.1 002fj!/,01
i(. 0j2ghh)0)0f)01*.2*.)/j,0j'2,6*j4f,0)0%j!/,01

i(. 0j2,000f0m,m!'7i(.()%/ kfk0j!/h,&6fl0(.
(02f%2kh0j!/7)#0(.(0
# $"#( "'$

#
# (Lewis)
!2*
2(j 21)/(1)1*/j%20),0j%(10gh*3*0!.11(10j%27*0
%0,.1 0)0%j!/,01i(. 0j2,0gh/0!f9i!2f%2kh0i(. kf%2kh0
+84 %2 H+ i( . kf%2 H+ ghm*.j#0.!.11(1 kf%2kh0f9)h,if%20lh6fj,j(/'7
-f)%/3fj!/1*.2,01i(. 0j2,(1)1* i(. ghl+h10%)f0,01402f
*0%0-/ 6fj,j(/'7 i(. 0j2402*

f 0%0l+h6fj,j(/'7j/f !.11(10(.
+)f0m!'7/ ,2,7-2'71j2j!/kh0/f*7%"7(5f%2h
H+ + OH- H2O
!.11(102h,.1 0gh)f0 OH- l+h6fj,j(/'7/ H+ 3fj!/ 0j2*f) H+

j!/,01j#0.-/ j,j(/'70 OH- i(h)j2#/. O-H.
# -" # #
# " "*,( !)&
$&$) " &
l*f0(.(0NaHCO3j/h%5h1mol/dm3(7l+8,7(,.o0h,
+8,p(.1 cm37*, )0%j!/,01i(. 0j2,0(.(0h)jh(1%/*

&,0(.(0 HCl) j/h%5h1mol/dm3k0) &,(7l+8,7(,2f
i(h)*/*/j0!f9i! /3"7
&,0(.(0 Ca(OH)2) k0) &,(7l+8,7(,2f

i(h)*/
l+hj7h0/*/j0!f9i! /3"7
0(.(00'2-m
2 'i0m /%2(/*..j!/,01 +84 0j2

,2,7-2m'i0m /j-/oh02fj!/,01+84 0j2j%4f,j2!.11(10/ 0
(.(0,018k-
2'1i(.0(.(002,,%-2'71
007(,#7 )f00(.(00'2-2m'i0m /h)jh(1%/*
j+/)f0%2(/*..j!/ 0j20!f9/ff0)*0%0,.1 0)f00'2-m

2 'i0
m /j!/j,j(/m'(1ifj%4f,(.(0lkh0.ij!/,2,7/f2h
NaHCO3 (s)

H2O
Na + (aq) + HCO3- (aq)

(HCO3-) 2fj23h.j2!.11(10/ kh0ghOH- /f*7%"72h
HCO3- (aq) + H 2O(l) H 2CO3 (aq) + OH- (aq).....1

!.11(102h HCO3- j!/ 0j2j#0.-/ H+ 0 H2O, *f) H2O j!/,01j#0.

)f0l+h H+ i(h)j2j!/ OH-
j%4f,4f%0(.(0,018k-2'1(7l0(.(00'2-2m'i0m /

j+/)f0%20*j23hj1fh07*, kfg!.-6h)f0j!/0* CO2 *0%0,.1 0gh

j4f,0)f0,2,7-2m'2,,%0,01j2!.11(10/ ,2,7-2m'i0m /
/f*7%"7

HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq) 2H2 O(l) + CO2 (g).....2

.
*.i)f0,2,7-2m'0'20m /j-/oh02jf !/ 0j2
j%4f,4f%0(.(002-2'71(7l0(.(00'2-m
2 'i0m
.
/j+/)f0gh#3*20)j23h/hi%f#3,020m /*.i)f0l0(.
(0h,%2,2,70m /j%4f,-f)%7)/ ,2,702,,%j-/l+hj2020m /
gh/f*7%"7
Ca 2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCO3 (s)

"//'ZZ(!*c"(($&)(!Z(Y( & ((*%*`(`'*$*$/
%*`(`'],Z$]*&)) )('$*$/%*/)(( & ((*%*/)
&6c$*$/(`''Z"//
HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq) H2 O(l) + CO32- (aq).....3
"&^!Z($*$/%*`^(`']%':c(*Z]'$()
((]*&)) )( $ HCO3- '$()#0,(]*Y"// ^ & %'
`/(bc(^ &($()"Z!"// HCO3- Y#c`%/^Z OH- "&^!Z(
HCO3- "((Y#c^ &%'`/6c''c+Z"&#0-6c!Z( HCO3- ]%':c(*Z]''$(

)^ &(]*])Z +c'(*]Z /c((]*&)) )($*

Y(/ $ ]#'!Z(( & ($(`*$'Ybc(*- '"&&]'(]*
"//(Z1^'Z*c
NH3 (g)
H2O
NH3 (aq)
NH3 (aq) + H 2 O(l) NH 4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
(]*$()$()(]*
("//],Z$$&)(()"&*$()^ &(]* $]*"] (! *&
6c!Z(&)) )(6(:c( $ H2O ]'$()](&!Z(Y#c`/]*]' OH- "Z!
&)) )(c$' $ OH- ]'(]*](&%'`/]*]' H2O "&'c+Z]$*c!Z(
H2O^ & OH-!Z(]'.Z$()(]*'`]$*c!Z(OH-!Z(]'.Z(]* $ H2O ^ &
H2O !Z(]'.Z$() $ OH- "b( ' NH3 Y&)) )(6(:c( NH3 ]'(]*](&
%'`/( H2O ]*]' NH4+ "Z!&)) )()c' NH4+ ]'$()](&!Z(Y#c
`/^Z OH- ^ c!]*]' NH3 ]*]$*c NH4+ ^ & NH3 !Z(]'.Z$(

)(]*'`]$*c NH4+ ]'.Z$() $ NH3 ^ & ]$*c NH3 ]'.Z(]* $
NH4+
$*/!Z(:+Zc("/-Y#c HA ]'".`] - $$() ^ & B ]'".`]
- $(]*],Z$'"$&)) )('&*(Y#c^ &%'`/'Z"// -Z*c
HA(aq) + B(aq) HB+ (aq) + A - (aq)

$() (]* $() (]*

(&)) )(]#'!Z( HA ^ & A- ]'.Z$()(]*'"Z! B ^ & HB+
]'.Z$()(]*'](&!Z(*(Y#c^ &%'`/'

('c/cY"//bZ6*c (Y]'$()^ &(Y]'(]*()"&*$(

) ^ & (]* $$(]*$." ^ & )"&* $]*"] (! *
HF(aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O+ (aq)+F- (aq)

CN - (aq) + H 2 O(l) HCN(aq)+OH - (aq)

HSO-4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O + (aq)+SO 42- (aq)

H 2S(aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O + (aq)+HS- (aq)

H 2 O(l) + CH 3COO- (aq) CH 3COOH(aq)+OH - (aq)

CH 3COOH(aq)+OH - (aq) CH 3COO- (aq)+H 2 O(l)

.
/Z 1"//"&^Y#c]#'!Z( HPO42- ^ & H2O ]''$()^ &(]*
/Z 1"//"&^.Z$()(]* $(bZ6*c],Z$ & (Ybc(

.
$()(`) $()..]*
$()b) $()0b%*)
/Z$.Z(]* $(bZ6*c
HIO4 H2PO4--
HSO3- NH4+

7f ,6f,01,0kfg!2h
HPO42- CO32-
HS- OH-
7f9*7%"7*.i!.11(102jf 23h(.+)f00kfg!2hi(h) ,)f00l
j!/,01+84 0j20%1*.2,j '2*j(0)(2
HNO3 + HCO3-
HSO4- + OH-
NH4+ + HCO3-
0(.(0NH4Clj!/,01*f)0(.(0NaHSi(.0(.(0Na3PO4j!/
0j27f9*7%"7*.i!.11(10(.+)f0,2,7kfg!2h/ kh0
NH4+ HS- PO43-
!.11(10kfg!2h
(CH 3 ) 2 HN+AlCl3 (CH 3 ) 2 HNAlCl3

0lj!/,01i(.0lj!/ 0j20%1*.2,01 0j2(1)1*
7f ,6f 0j2khl2

f 4h,kfg!2h
HIO4IO4 H2PO4-- PO42--
HSO3-SO3- NH4+/ NH3
7f ,6f,01kh
HPO42-HPO42- CO32-HCO32-
HS-H2S OH-/H3O+

(% #+ (
# $ +! #* %
#+ (
# $+ +! #* %+
0(.(0,01i(. 0j22fj!/0)1j0.g$$h0i- j,2h)f0,01i-i(.
0j2i-*./h ,01i-i(. 0j2i-i7)j!/,2,7gh+80+83gh&f0*7% 63f
j2!.11(10g!0Ch0&f09)h0j-70-6h)0%j/h%5h,,01i-+84 0j2i-*0
%0 ,)0%j/h%5h,,2,7-2m'2,,%+84,2,7-2'71l0(.(0ghj/f

0(.(0,01 HNO3 j/h%5h1mol/dm3.il+h H3O+ i(. NO3- .1
(.1mol/dm3/f2h
HNO3 (aq) + H2 O(l) H3O+ + NO3- (aq)

1mol/dm3 1mol/dm3 1mol/dm3

*f)0(.(0 0j2 NaOH j/h%5h 1mol/dm3 B.i7)l+h Na+ i(. OH-

.1(.1mol/dm3/f2h
NaOH(s)
H2 O


h0 0j2i- Ba(OH j/h%5h 1mol/dm3 .i7)l+h Ba+ mol/dm3 i(. OH-
2mol/dm3 /f2h

Ba(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ba + (aq) + 2OH- (aq)
.

.
0Bh%60i7),,01i-i(. 0j2i-*0%0,+0 B(1%0,,2
,7i(.)0%j/h%5h,,2,7l0(.(0ghj%4f,-6h)0%j/h%5h,0(.(0
,01i(. 0j2/hj#2fgh/(B0/ )0%i-,,01i(. 0j2/f2h
,01i- HCl HBr>HI>HCIO3> HNO3> H2SO4,...
0j2i- LiOH>NaOH> KOH> Ca(OH)2> Sr(OH)2>Ba(OH)2,...
D0j+ ,01 H2SO4 *0%0i7)gh /hl+h4j,700i7)/h2f
j7f0/h/j!/,01i-
7)&f0 0(.(0HBr %2 B(1%05 dm3%2HBr (.(0&6f1,5 mol.%2,2,7l
ifi(.%2)0%j/h%5hj7f0l
,+0)0%j/h%5h,0(.(0HBr/f2h
1,5mol HBr
HBr =
5 dm3
HBr= 0,3mol/dm3
0(.(0%2)0%j/h%5h0,3 mol/dm3 , HBrj!/,01i-3f*0%0i7)
j!/,2,7ghD7/f*7%"7
HBr(aq) + H2 O(l) H3O+ (aq) + Br - (aq)
0*7%"7HBr 1 m%(i7)l+h H3O+ i(. Br- &f0(. m%(/f/h0(.
(0 HBr 2%2)0%j/h%5h0,3 mol/dm3 .%2 H3O+ i(. Br- &f0(. 0,3 mol/dm3 .
7)&f0 0(.(0 Ba(OH)2 j/h%5h 0,1 mol/dm3 , B(1%0 100 cm3 , .%2
OH- /m%(h04f%Bh0l+h B(1%0j!/ 400 cm3 i(.)0%j/h%5h, OH- .%2j7f0l

,+0B0)m%(,0(.(0 Ba(OH)2 l B(1%0100 cm3 /f2h
0,1mol Ba(OH) 2 100cm3 1dm3
Ba(OH) 2 =
1dm3 1000cm3
Ba(OH)2 =0,01mol
j4f,00(.(0 Ba(OH)2 j!/ 0j2i-3fi7)j!/,2,7ghD7/f*7%
"7
Ba(OH)2 (aq) Ba 2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)
0,01 mol 2x0,01 mol

!! Ba(OH)2 +1&10,01 mol/dm3,2"! 100 cm3 , # OH-2 x
0,01 mol = 0,02 mol1!%021!.12"!+400 cm3 !! Ba(OH)2

#
2 "
! OH- ! '0= 0,02 mol
!+1&1
OH-.!! 2! 400 cm3 /10
#1
0,02mol(OH - ) 1000cm 3
OH - =
1dm3 400cm3
OH - = 0,05mol/dm 3

!! B(OH)2 400 cm3 # !+1&1
OH-0,5mol/dm3

!"0+!"+ !/1!0+%0
!!"0,(+#(
/10!
0 , !,(
!"0+!0*,
#
0 #1/1 , #!

&0*
+#$10
#1
HA(aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O+ +A- (aq)

+%0
!0!!"0,(/1!
01.!! $0
#-+&

HA, H3O+, A- ('0 2"!!,(
!"0" (+0

1 +0 !! HA +1&11mol/dm3 ,(/15% 3! !0!!"

.
HA1mol .!! #0#2"! 1dm3 +%0+"

!&0*
#!" HA *
,0
.
0,05 -+(0!1#0,(+#(
0
11!'
1 2!-
!"0#0,()%
2!-
#(
#+0 #$12 "!2"!!,(+01
!"
/1
(0!
!! !" HB +1&10,2 mol/dm3 ,(/1*
0,05
mol/dm3 (0
!"!!,(+01

!,(
!"0HB 0
#1
HB(aq) + H2 O(l) H3O+ +B- (aq)

01 !,(
0,05mol/dm3
HB= 100
0,2mol/dm3
HB=25
!! !"0HB ,(/1 T5%
!"!!,(
!"0+01 !!**
/10!!"0".,/1#0!+%0 !+1&1+(0! ! !'1
+%0
!&0*
,!! "+ !/1!!!0 .1
'1 0!!! !"
0,(+#(
20/13(#!&0*
,! 0! (
#0!&0*
/10
#1
HA(aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O+ +A- (aq)

H 3O + A -
k=
HA H 2O
+%0
!0!!! #2"!
21!'0)! +%0**2"!
!#0%! $0
%0! !+1&1
21!# 0! (
#0+%0+(! !+1&1
21!
/ ' 0! (
#0!&0*
2/1 0! (
#0!&0*

!",.1
(ka.)
H 3O + A -
K a =k H 2 O =
HA
H 3O + A -
Ka =
HA

f072
f 05f9,!.11(10. ,l+h-6h)f0!.11(10j2g!0Ch0+80
Ch,#9l f072
f 2f#0).5f9,,01,f,Bj/f9)/. ,l+h)f0,01
/hi7)j!/,2,7gh+80Ch,#9l,012f%2 ka *6.i7)j!/,2,7gh+80f
)0,012%
f 2f0 ka Bf0
0.(0f072
f 05f9,,01m%mm!'1 ,012i
f 7)#9/h

9)&6fl 25 C
# $ ' !$ $
$ #-0,(
# $-10# /# ka

%( %, &" HSO4- HSO +H 2O H3O + SO
-
4
+ 2-
4 1,2x10-2
# $'$ HF HF+H 2O H3O + F + -
6,8x10-4
# $%*% HNO2 HNO 2 +H 2O H3O+ + NO-2 4,5x10-4
HCNO+H2O H3O + CNO
# $ %#$
# $ $
HCNO
HCOOH+H 2O H3O+ + HCOO-
+ -
3,5x10-4
1,7x10-4

HCOOH
# $+", $ C6H5COOH C6 H5COOH+H 2 O H3O+ + C6 H5COO- 6,6x10-5

# $#* $ CH3COOH CH3COOH+H2 O H3O+ + CH3COO- 1,8x10-5

# $ %, )*1 % HClO HClO+H2 O H3O+ + ClO- 3,5x10-5
%(#,% HN4+ HN +4 +H 2O H3O+ + HN3 6,0x10-10

# $ %#%$ HCN HCN+H 2O H3O+ + CN- 4,9x10-10

f 2*6H2A j%4f,(.(0lBh0.i7) /h/f2h

*B0(/ ,01,f,2%
.
/h2f m%j(5(,H2A i7)j!/ H3O+ i(. HA-

.
H 2 A(aq)+H 2O H3O+ (aq) + HA- (aq)

H 3O + HA -
k a1 =
H2A
/h2f j!/0i7), HA- ,,j!/,2,7gh H3O+ i(. A2- /f2h
HA- (aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O+ (aq) + A2- (aq)

H 3O + A 2-
k a2 =
HA -
l#0).5f9l(. 7 %2 H2A , H3O+ HA- i(. A2- &6fl0(.(0,.5
#0.%2+80+84Ch,i%f3h/ f0, kaif(./h
7)&f0 0i7), H2CO3

"0%/
H 2 CO3 (aq) + H 2 O(l) H 3O + (aq) + HCO 3- (aq)
H 3O + HCO3-
k a1 =
H 2CO3
4, 4 107

"0%/
HCO 3- (aq) + H 2 O(l) H 3O + (aq) + CO 32- (aq)
H 3O + CO32-
k a2 =
HCO3-
5, 0 1011
j%4f,#10(.00f0 ka1 i(. ka2 ,,01 H2CO3 j+/)f0 ka1 %2f0*6)f0 ka2
*.il/h2f , H2CO3 i7)gh2)f0l/h2f D0)0%)f00(.(0
%2 H3O+ i(. HCO3- +80)f0 CO32- *./h,012i

f 7)gh+80/hf072f0
i7)/hB0,1.%2f0*6)f00i7)/hBfg!h,)f004 H+ 0m%j(5(2f
Bf%2g$$h0 /5f0)f004 H+ ,,0,2,7(7 ,m%j(5(9)//h4 ka1 .%2
f0+80)f0 ka2 i(. ka2 .%2f0+80)f0 ka3 *.jD2

(/#/#(%/ #+ (
# $# !$ + (.0)#
"0 -10#'/ C
# $ ' !$ $$#-0,(
# $-10# /#ka
(1*% HPO H3PO3 +H 2 O H 3O + H 2 PO
+ -
ka1 = 1,6 x 10-2
H 2 PO3- +H 2 O H 3O + + HPO32- ka2 = 6,3 x 10-7
HC2O4
( #$ H 2 C2 O 4 +H 2 O H 3O + + HC2 O-4 ka1 = 6,5 x 10-2
HC2 O-4 +H 2 O H3O + + C2 O 42- ka2 = 5,1 x 10-5
&1*% H2SO3
H 2SO 3 +H 2 O H3O + + HSO3- ka1= 1,3 x 10-2
ka2 = 6,8 x 10-8
HSO3- + H 2 O H3O+ SO32-
H2CO3 H 2 CO 3 +H 2 O H3O + + HCO3- ka1= 4,4 x 10-7

# ,$ ka2 = 5,0x 10-11
HCO3- +H 2 O H3O + + CO32-
%, &%$ H 2S H 2S+H 2 O H 3O + + HS- ka1 = 1,1x 10-7
HS- +H 2 O H 3O + + S2- ka2 = 1,3x 10-13
# $(1$ H3PO4

H3PO 4 +H 2 O H 3O + + H 2 PO-4
ka1 = 7,9x 10-3

H 2 PO-4 +H 2 O H 3O + + HPO 42- ka2 = 6,2x 10-8
ka3 = 4,0x 10-13
HPO 2-4 +H 2 O H 3O + +PO3-4

lB(.2,,012i
f 7)gh+80/h i(. %2f0 ka1 *6)f0 ka2 +80 0

!9 9 !.(1%00i7),,01m7f)g!.lh#9f0 ka1 j#0.)f0l0
(.(0%2 H3O+ 2fj200i7)l/h2f +80)f0/h2f ifh0,01l%2f0

ka2 lh9/ f0 ka1 .h,#10(.0,2,72fj200i7)l/h2f B0h)

.
7)&f0 7f,)0%j/h%5h, H3O+ l0(.(0,01,0j12f%2
)0%j/h%5h 0,5 mol/dm3 B07l+hf0 ka ,,01,0j1 = 1,8 x 10-5

.
$+
% 0
*7%%5l+h,01,0j1i7)j!/,2,7gha mol/dm3
CH3COOH(aq) + H2 O H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
)0%j/h%5hj(2f%7h mol/dm3
)0%j/h%5hl#0).5f9 mol/dm3

H3O+ CH3COO-
ka=
CH3COOH
1,810-5
a a
0,5-a
j4f,0)f0f0 ka%2f0h,+80j%4f,9 / 0,5mol/dm3 *./h a3f%2f0h,

+80i(.(0,5-a)3f%2f0lh9/ 0,52f*5/f/h*0%01g(fgh/f2h
a 2 =0,51,810-5
a 2 =910-6
a= 9-10-6
a=310-3 mol/dm3
)0%j/h%5h,,01,0j10,5mol/dm3%2 H3O+= 3x10-3mol/dm3
#+ (
#* %/
0i7)j!/,2,7, 0j2,f,l0(.(0j!/0!f9i!!2h/ gh4

/ ,01,f,j/f 0(.(0,0m%2,/j!/0)1j0.g$$h0,f,i(.j%4f,(.(0
lBh0.%2#0).5f9/f2h
NH3 (aq) + H 2O(l) NH 4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
0i7), 0j2,f,*0%0,+0f072f0i7), 0j2lh*/

.(/kb
NH +4 OH -
ka =
NH 3

7)&f0f072f0i7), 0j2,f, 0.1lBh0&6f C
0j2 *6 !.11(10l+hm!'7,,01lBh0 f0ka
,2,7$7*$/ PO4- PO +H 2O HPO OH
3-
4
-
4
-
Kb= 2,2 x 10-2
,2,70m / CO32- +H 2O HCO3- OH- Kb= 2,1 x 10-4
CO32-
,2,7g07)
CN- CN- +H 2O HCN OH- Kb = 2,0 x 10-5
,0m%2,/ Kb = 1,8 x 10-5
NH3 NH3 +H 2O NH 4+ OH-
,2,7-2m' Kb= 1,1 x 10-7
HS- HS- +H 2O H 2S OH-
i5$7)
,2,7-2m' Kb = 2,6 x 10-8
HCO3- HCO3- +H 2O H 2CO3 OH-

i0m /

,2,7,0j1
CH3COO- CH3COO- +H 2O CH3COOH OH-
Kb= 5,7 x 10-10
,2,7$6',B'7)
F- F +H 2O HF OH
- -
Kb = 1,5x 10-11
,2,72'1 NO2- NO +H 2O HNO2 OH
- -
2 Kb = 1,4x 10-11
,2,75$/ SO3 2-
SO +H 2O HSO OH
2-
4
-
4
-
Kb = 9,8x 10-13

f072
f 0i7), 0j2. ,l+h-j6h 1)0%*0%0l0i7)j!/

,2,7l0(.(0gh4// f072f0i7),,01,f,

(/# 0(.(0 XOH j/h%5h 0,2mol/dm3 i7)gh 5% 7f,+0

)0%j/h%5h, OH- l0(.(0
$+
% 0

,+00i7), 0j2 0,2mol/dm3 j!/,2,7gh/f2h

.
5
XOH 0,2mol/dm 3 = 0,2mol/dm 3
100
.
XOH 0,2mol/dm 3 =0,01mol/dm 3
0i7),0(.(0 XOH 9*7%"7/f2h

XOH(aq) X+ (aq)+OH- (aq)
0,2-0,01 0,01 0,01
/f/h0(.(0 XOH j/h%5h 0,2mol/dm %2 OH- 0,01 mol/dm3
3

(/# 0(.(0 NH3 %2)0%j/h%5h 0,02 mol/dm3%2)0%j/h%5h,
OH- j7f0l-6h)f0f0 k , NH3 =1,8x10-5

$+
% 0
*7%%5l+h NH3 i7)j!/,2,7gh a mol/dm3
*7%"7 NH3 (aq)+H 2O(l) + NH4+ (aq)+OH- (aq)

)0%j/h%5hj(2f%7h (mol/dm3
)0%j/h%5hl#0).5f9 ( mol/dm3

NH +4 OH -
kb =
NH 3
1,810-5
a a
0,02-a
j4f,0f0 kb %2f0h,+80j%4f,9 / 0,02 mol/dm3 3f%2f0h,+80/f

/h(0,02-a) 3f%2f0lh9/ 0,02*./h*0%01g(f/f2h
a 2 =0,021,810-5
a 2 =3610-8
a= 36 10-8
a=610-4 mol/dm3
)0%j/h%5h,OH-l0(.(0 NH3 =6x10-4mol/dm3
1## +! (*$ "

0Bfg!2h0lj!/,01i- i(. j!/,01,f,HNO2, H2CO3, HF,
CH3COOH, HCl, HCIO4, H2S, HCN i(. HI

HX j!/,01i-%2!.(1%0 1 mol (.(0&6f 5dm3 .%2)0%j/h%5h,,2,7-2
m'j7f0l

0,1mol/dm3 0,01mol/dm3
0(.(0,012'1 HNO3 %2)0%j/h%5h 0,5mol/dm3l B(1%0
100cm3 .%2,2,7-2m'2,,%/m%(i(.h04f%Bh0(7g!l+h B(1%0j!/ 500 cm3.%2

)0%j/h%5h,,2,7-2m'2,,%j!/j7f0l
0,005moli(.0,1mol/dm3 0,05moli(. 0,01mol/dm3
0,5moli(.0,02mol/dm3 0,05moli(.0,2mol/dm3

0(.(0%2 B(1%0500cm3%2NaOH(.(01mol7f,+0)0%
j/h%5h, OH .j!/j7f0l
0,01mol/dm3 1mol/dm3

2 mol/dm3 0,2mol/dm3

M(OH)2j!/ 0j2i-%2)0%j/h%5h 0,2 mol/dm3%2 B(1%0 500 cm3.

%2 OH- /m%(i(.h04f%Bh0(7g!l+h%2 B(1%0j!/ 750 cm3 )0%j/h%5h, OH-
.j!/j7f0l

.
0(.(0,01HAj/h%5h2mol/dm3i7)j!/,2,71,5 %7f,
.
+0)0%j/h%5h,,2,7-2m'2,,%
0(.(0,01H2S%2f072f0i7),,01 f04
ka1 = 1,1x10-7 i(. ka2 = 1,3x10-13 7f!9 9 )0%j/h%5h,,2,7f0pl0(.
(0
[H3O+]>[HS-]>[S2-] [H3O+]>[S2-]>[HS-]
[HS-]>[H3O+]>[S2-] [S2-]> [H3O+]>[HS-]
0(.(0,01 CH3COOH i(. HCN %2f0 ka=1,8x10-5 i(. 4,8x10-10
0%(B0/ h00(.(0/*,%2)0%j/h%5h1mol/dm3j7f0/0(.(0,
,01l.%2)0%j/h%5h,(H3O+ +80)f0/,.1 0
0(.(0,01 HCOOH j/h%5h 0,2mol/dm3 .%2)0%j/h%5h, H3O+
j7f0li(.,012hi7)j!/,2,7gh/*f)-h,B07f0 ka ,HCOOHj7f0
/ 1,8X10-4
0,006mol/dm3i(. 2% 0,005mol/dm3 i(. 4%
0,006mol/dm3 i(. 3% 0,006mol/dm3i(. 1%

#! &#%!#,+
&#,+,"
=<,6+8!6$1$8%,$+!.3<%7$*6+3%,$*$,:<. =<,=$-&16+,%-
6,*: <,'40=;*!.%-
. ,3&(:<7%9
,
,)+,+,"
9&;=<,+; 10cm3 $39'4(3$(*>,,
=;60;(%+7*7&: <, 60;(%+(=,7 *-.%
; +7*7&: <,:<

6+!.8#(=,763<,+60;(%&(,+=,: <,7$<%1;!$%3%+=,(
60;(%+7,+=,: <,$39=<,+; 7$<%(;,*7&: <,+/3
(1;=<,+;9'<)<(*!, 60-70C 7$<%3&(,+=,: <,75%+;
+=<

=<,=$-&1&,!,+=,: <,:<7%9
,+=,: <,(=<,=$-&1"2;(1;'*2!&2+(1;'*2!=;,;,+7%9

,3,3$()2<%;,=<,=$-&16+,%-6,*: <,(;('4,60;(,%;,
,73%(=<,=$-&1:<><('4,3=;&,!,%&(<%60;(%&(+

=,: <,7=,!*,6!0;(9<%+7(=,7%&(6'+%;,6+!(60;(%+7(=,
7;56$+<(&*7%;,=<,=$-&173%9'<(.(3).8#.((!7$*(.(3).#3-

><('4,+;&3!3$1;!.<
.
H 2 O(l) + H 2 O(l) H3O+ (aq) + OH-

H 3O + OH -
.
k=
H 2 O
2
k H 2 O = H3O + OH -
2
60;(,%;,=<,73%:<><('4,30%;,%,!6+<!1<(=<,=;;576!0;(
+%,!&=,+"2;9)279?;/;:<;,3.;9?;7$*6(.<;,3.;%;,;,3.;,
1;5(=<,7$*9<&+*$+ kw +;.<

k w = H3O+ OH-
,,3$(3%;,=<,"2;9(1'*2!&2+=,: <,:<.%;,"2;(1'*2!=;,
&*7%;,=<,"2;(1'*2!&273%6+(.(3:<.%;,"2;(1'*2!=;,&*+<,(;,
3.
; (=<,<(((1'*2!=,<%6+;
;, kw "2;(1'*2! 25C !.;,63;,+ 1,0x10-14 mol2/dm6
;, kw "2;(1'*2! 60C !.;,63;,+ 9,5x10-14 mol2/dm6
,73%(=<,=$-&1"2;(1'*2! 25C !.%,!6+<!1<((.(3).8#.
((!7$* (.(3).#3-6./<9=,%8!$.6; 3;,++;.<

H 3O + = OH -
2 2
k w = H 3O + = OH -
H 3O + = OH - = k w
H 3O + = OH - = 1,0x10-14 mol 2 dm -6

H 3O + = OH - =1,0x10-7 mol/dm3
&*7%;,=<,=$-&1"2;(1'*2! 25C !.%,!6+<!1<((.(3).8#.((!63;,
+%,!6+<!1<((.(3).#3- =1,0x10-7mol/dm3
*$&%+"+!#!'! & !#!#

(,+
=<,=$-&1"2;(1'*2! 25C !.(.(3).8#.((!7$*(.(3).#3-63;,+
1,0x10-7mol/dm3 <,0;!(,-'40,6.$39=<,%,!6+<!1<((.(3+&(9,$*
$,9,%*1;5(=<,*;57+;.<
,0;!(,-$39=<,*6)+9'<*$-!, H3O+ 9,$*$,6.;!/<7$*
%,!1;5(=<,0$3%8 H3O+ *$%!3%+=<,6+8!6$1$(=<, 7$*
63<,&2;,%*1;59?;(.60;(>/;6-;%,!6+<!1<( OH- 9,$*$,*'41$3

%;,63;, ,;57%,!6+<!1<(,9$*3=;6)+9'<;,3.;5:+;+<
,0;!(,-$39=<,6-7!;%;,%,!6+<!1<( H3O+ 7$* OH- ;5:7;;,3
.;1;5+63;,63;, /;-:$;',%,!6+<!1<( OH- :<,,3%++;.<
k w = H 3O + OH -
kw
OH - =
H 3O +
6'+%;,6!0;(%,!6+<!1<( H3O+ 6.;!/< %,!6+<!1<( OH- =<('41

$3
#* !.%,!6+<!1<( H3O+=1,0x10-7mol/dm3 <,0;!(,-$3:=,%
>/;7$*&3!!1%;,"2;,%*1;5!.%,!6+<!1<((.(3 H3O+=

1,0x10-4mol/dm3 %,!6+<!1<( OH- !.63;,9

!&+
(',%,!6+<!1<((NaOH +;.<

1mol 1000cm3
NaOH = x
500 cm3 1dm3

NaOH= 2mol/dm3
,$*$,!.%,!6+<!1<2 mol/dm3 , NaOH 6+,6.7)6!0;($*$,9=<,

73%6+(.(3:<?3+;&3!3
.
NaOH(aq)
H2O
Na + (aq) + OH - (aq)
.
,&3!3NaOH 1 8!$73%9'< Na+ 7$* H- ";,$* 8!$+;+<,$*

$, NaOH !.%,!6+<!1< 2 mol/dm3*!. Na+ 7$* OH- ";,$* 2 mol/dm3 .
,0;!(,-$39=<,*:<,$*$,.;!.%,!6+<!1<( H3O+ '4,%;,

1,0x10-7mol/dm3 ,$*$,.<+6+,$*$,(,- 9,$*$,(,-=+!.
OH- "2;7;%,!%,!6+<!1<<(%;,1,0x10-7 mol/dm3

<,0;!,#.((!).#3-$39=<,%,!6+<!1<((.(3).8#.((! 7$* (.
(3).#3-*;57 ,0;!,6.$39=<,*6)+9'<,%*1;5(=<,;57
7$*9.;&1$*3/;+3%60;(63<,,%*1;59?; 9,%*1;59?;%,!6+<!
1<( OH- *'4,%;, 1,0x10-7mol/dm3 7$* %,!6+<!1<( H3O+ *<(
%;, 1,0x10-7mol/dm3 9,$*$,.!
; .=<,6+3%,$*$,*!.+(.(3).8#.
((!7$*(.(3).#3-7;,$*$,(,-!.%,!6+<!1<( H3O+ '4,%;,
%,!6+<!1<( OH- 7$* '4,%;, 1,0x10-7mol/dm3 &;%,$*$,.!.$+&**
6+,6.!.%,!6+<!1<( H3O+ <(%;,%,!6+<!1<( OH- 7$*!.;,<(
%;,1,0x10-7mol/dm36!0;((.(3>/;6.;!/<(.(.(3>/;*<('41$3&*+<"2;(1'*2!
25C=;%;,(.(39(.(3>/;*6.;! 7$* '417;;,kw+!.;,63;,+ 1,0x10-14 &*6?..
, & #%
,,*$,&*7%,!6+<!1<( H3O+ 7$* OH- (,$*$, A, B, C,
D7$* E 3;0;!;,%,!6+<!1<( H3O+ 7$* OH- $39;('%;,<(!(%,!

6+(,-7$*,6.(,$*$,
%,!6+<!1< %,!6+(,-7$*,6.(,
,$*$,
$*$,
H 3O + OH-
A 2,0X10-5 .
B . 1,0X10-2
C 5,0XX10-7 .
D 1,0X10-9 .
E . 1,0X10-4
,$*$,!.=$-!,500cm3.!
; .,&HCl!.=$-!,1,2 dm3960;(!,,*!.
%,!6+<!1<(H3O+7$*OH-63;,9
1x10-2M 7$*1,3x10-12M 1x10-2M 7$*1,0x10-13M
0,1mol/dm37$*1,0x10-13mol/dm3 0,1M 7$*1,0x10-3M

6!0;(0;!,$*$,,#.((!).#3-0,01 mol9=<,7$*6)+9'<,$*$,!.=
$-!,500cm33;(',%,!6+<!1<(H3O+9,$*$,
5,0x10-12mol/dm3 1,0x10-13mol/dm3
5,0x10-13mol/dm3 0,1x10-13mol/dm3
6!0;(=,,$*$,(,- HCl 0,1 mol/dm3!,10cm3 6.;!$39,$*$,(,-
HCl 0,01mol/dm3=,% 100cm3 3;(',!.%,!6+<!1< H3O+ 7$* OH- 63;,9

1,8x10-2mol/L 7$* 4,3x10-12mol/L 1,8x10-2mol/L 7$*5,5x10-13mol/L

0,1mol/L 7$* 5,5x10-13mol/L 0,1mol/L 7$* 5,5x10-3mol/L
,$*$,>/;!.%,!6+<!1<( H3O+1,0x10-4mol/dm39(1'*2!'<(3;
(',%,!6+<!1<( OH-

1,0x10-12mol/dm3 1,0x10-10mol/dm3

1,0x10-13mol/dm3 1,1x10-10mol/dm3
,$*$,!.%,!6+<!1<( OH-1,0x10-3mol/dm3 3;(',%,!6+<!1<(

H3O+
1,0x10-12mol/dm3 1,0x10-10mol/dm3

1,0x10-11mol/dm3 1,1x10-10

.
.

! pH
%&& pH
? 2*0*2.23=*0!2<4'41 (H3O+ =*0OH- =B+2'<1C'7C ..4
.91,.!DB<9B21 1B 1C 5B?C+2'<1C'7C . H3O+ =*0OH- ? 2*0*2
<"1 "1@4C!.+2'<"1 .23=*0!2<4.2*0*2@C=B<%6B.+2',0+
5BD2 9?-C?C+2'<1C'7C . H3O+ <"1 -:1
2*0*2.23'4+2'<1C'7C . (H3O+ -:2+B2 1,0x10-7mol/dm3 ,B+
2*0*2!2<4'4 H3O+ C.+B21,0x10-7mol/dm3 < 6B.2+2'<1C'7C .
(H3O+ '4B2 C.-:2!DB,0+? 2 D2?C,0 1C '2/. , 1868-1939 1<'4
,22+8=.6BD<) 9 @C,0<q4"B; B2+2'<1C'7C . (H3O+ <"1 B2 pH <%6B.
?-C,0+? 2 !.+2'<"1 .23=*0!2<4.2*0*2>D2 9?-C
pH log (H3O+) '4+3

4 3@*B1B 4C
H 3O + =1,0x10-7 mol/dm 3
log H 3O + =log(1,0x10-7 mol/dm 3 )

-log H 3O + = 7log10-log1,0
=7-0
pH=7
2*0*24'4B2 pH = 7<"1 2
2*0*24B'4+2'<1C'7C -:2+B2-:6 C.+B21,0x10-7mol/dm3@C1B9+(B2
DB@" 4C
!& 2*0*2.23<1C'7C ..4.9/4>) 4..' ,0x10-7mol/dm3 0'4
B2 pH <9B2?

#'
H 3O + =2,0x10-7 mol/dm 3
pH= -log H 3O +
pH= -log 2,0x10-7
pH = -log2+7log10
=7,0 - 0,3010
pH = 6,70
2*0*24'4B2pH < 7<"1 .23

!& 2*0*2!2<4'4+2'<1C'7C ..4.9/4)931,0x10-6mol/dm3
0'4 pH <9B2?
#'

.-2B2 H3O+
H 3O + OH - =1,0x10-14 mol2 /dm 6

1,0x10-14 mol2 /dm 6

H 3O +
OH -

1,0x10-14 mol2 /dm6

H 3O +
1,0x10-6 mol/dm3
H 3O + =1,0x10-8 mol/dm3

.-2B2 pH 1B 4C

.
pH= -log H3O +

.
pH= -log 1,0x10-8

pH = -log1,0 + 8log10
=0 + 8
pH = 8
2*0*24'4B2 pH > 7 <"1 !2<4

,0-:7!@C+B22*0*24BB2 pH = 7 -:6+2'<1C'7C . H3O+1,0x10-7mol/dm3'4
7 *1,0 0<"1 2 2*0*24'

B 4B2 pH < 7 -:6 +2'<1C'7C . H3O+ -:2+B2
1,0x10-7mol/dm3'47 *1,0 0<"1 .23=*02*0*24B'4B2pH > 7-:6 +2'<1C'

7C . H3O+ C.+B21,0x10-7mol/dm3 '47 *1,0 0<"1 !2<4
20*2+2',D2%1 *0-+B2 pHH3O+ =*0 OH- .2*0*2

pH [H3O+] (mol/dm3) [OH-] (mol/dm3)
0 1,0x100 1,0x10-14
1 1,0x10-1 1,0x10-13
2 1,0x10-2 1,0x10-12
3 1,0x10-3 1,0x10-11
4 1,0x10-4 1,0x10-10
5 1,0x10-5 1,0x10-9
6 1,0x10-6 1,0x10-8
7 1,0x10-7 1,0x10-7
" 8 1,0x10-8 1,0x10-6
9 1,0x10-9 1,0x10-5
10 1,0x10-10 1,0x10-4
11 1,0x10-11 1,0x10-3
12 1,0x10-12 1,0x10-2
13 1,0x10-13 1,0x10-1
14 1,0x10-14 1,0x10-0
,D2*1!2*0*2.23=/=*0!2<4=/'4+2'<1C'7C .(H3O+ -:6 (OH-
-:2+B2 1mol/dm3 0'4B2 pH <4 .! 0-14 <1B 2*0*2 HCl 2 mol/dm30'4
B2pH=-0,30 =*0 2*0*2 KOH 2 mol/dm3 0'4B2 pH=14,30
($'& pH # "
( #"

2 +,.!7 *1,0 0+2'<"1 .23=*0!2<4.2*0*2>?C
<C*3'1,='B !.?-C/8C+B22*0*2<"1 .23-:6!2<4<9B2 1C =B!DB,2'2!.
+2'<"1 .23!2<4qC.-:2%;?,0 1C 1'420 3.6B .44B,2'29,.!
+2'<"1 .23=*0!2<4.2*0*2@C<1B 2(2',4(Indicator)
2(2',42*0*2,B+ -:2<"1 2.902'47 *1,0 0<"1 .23
.B. '4,8>,C21!C. 5B?CHIn= ,8.2(2',4<'6B.2(2',4(8B? 2*0
*20<4%2+07 B;1B,9'#9

HIn(aq) + H 2 O(l) H3O+ (aq) + In - (aq)
.23 !2<4

,4.2(2',44B"295C (8B1!+2'<1C'7C .HIn=*0In-? 2*0

*22 "B; ="+2'<1C'7C . H3O+ ? 2*0*20</1?-C%2+07 B;6
*9!+ *+'1+2'<1C'7C . HIn =*0 In- "B; ="@" D2 ,9''7?-C HIn <"1 ,4

= =*0 In- <"1 ,4<-:6. ? D*0 42(2',4(8B? +2'<1C'7C . H3O+ -:2
H3O+ 0<4"033*321! In- <4"033*32C. 1!@C =*0 HIn <45C -:2,0 1C

C2? 2*0*2'4 HIn <1C'7C ,8+B2 In- <9B22*0*20<"1 ,4==BC2
+2'<1C'7C . OH- -:2 OH- 0<4"033*321! H3O+ </1?-C H3O+ -:7*9

HIn 0<4"033*321! H2O <4"033*32@"2qC2@C </1?-C In- <45C -:2

.
C2 In- <1C'7C ,8+B2 HIn <9B22*0*2<"1 ,4<-:6.,0=+B22 "B; ,4.

.
2(2',4='B 5C 1!+2'<1C'7C .H3O+? 2*0*2
2(2',4?4B C? -C."03!12 ,B+ -:2(8B? /8!2*0*24B'4 DC2-:6<-:9C2
<"1 2*0*2>"903?C+2'<1C'7C "0'2 0,1%=*0?C%;2-3(. D,2

'2,1<@C1< 2(2',4=B*00 3"B; ,4@C? B+pH4'
B 4B2,0<%20=*0
=B21
9+(B2 <'4*.D<) (C14H14N3NaO3S) "B; ,4(8BpH 3,2-4,4 ,4=,4<-:6. <3B

'4+2'r2+B2(8BpH 3,2-:6DB2+B23,20<"1 ,4= (8BpH 4,4-:6,8+B24,40<"1 ,4<-:6.
pH? *0-+B23,2-4,40<"1 ,4,9C'<"1 ,4"0,9'*0-+B2,4=1!,4<-:6.
9+(B2!22(2',4=*0B+pH 2 "B; ,4
9+(2',4 B+pH.2 "B; ,4 ,44B"B; ="
4'.*!)8 1,2-2,8 =<-:6.

>!>'<&> *!)8 3,0-4,6 <-:6.,4&C2
<'4*=<) 4,2-6,3 =<-:6.
<&> *&2<*.3 6,8-8,4 <-:6.=
9+(B2!22(2',4=*0B+ pH 2 "B; ,42%64,

B 01C+ DC2
0 3.%6 B+pH.2 "B; ,4 ,44B"B; ="
.1*1
='B+
,9C'%D4 =;+
4C<'1C <-:6.,9C'
,9C' DC22
2+</6B.<-:6. !DB'4,4<-:6.
C+@'C<-:6. !DB'4,4<-:6.
"$

(#$& &
? 4+3"0D2+1 </92?C24'
B 47 *1,0 0<"1 .23-:6!2<4-:6<"1 2-:20
3 !20 3(8B? .2-2 -:6<6B.6B'<1B DC2,9C',28 DC2r2 2+ DC2.1*9'!2

0 3?C<"1 21*C2 </1+2',0.2 <6B.,D2.221BB2+ 4C*C+ =B'4pH
=B2A1
.2 4C2=-:+? ,3B4B'44+3'4 pH =B21 ,0 1C C22=-:+? ,3B4'

B 4
4+3'4 pH "B; @"2 </1+;.*0!9!D0#3"903<1B "903<*6.'4
pH=7,35-7,45 C2"B; ="<*1 C.6(0,10)/B229,0%2!"93=B"B; ="-:2
+B2 4C<1B D*0 4#8C"B+<"1 <!92-+2 /7 =/B2 pH .<*6.-:7DB2+B2 7,35 D?-C
<4'9,03-:6<,4+3@C
.2+2'<"1 .23=*0!2<4? /B22=*C+24B?C? 4+3"0D2+1 D

'4+2'<"1 .23=*0!2<4=B21 <1B DC2$9 '4 pH = 5,5-6,0 DC2"0"2'4
PH=6,5-8,0, DC20<*'4 pH=7,8-8,2 >9B+@" DC2$9 '4+2'<"1 .23%;<*1 C.6
pH = 5,5-6,0 =BC2? <4B'4>/2 .7,2-0D2 DC2$9 .2'4 pH DB2< 6B.2? .2

2'42, CO2, SO2, NO, NO2 <'6B.$9 9*9'22,<-:9B2 4<4"033*321! DC2$9 1B

4C
CO 2 (g)+H 2 O(l) H 2 CO3 (aq)

SO 2 (g)+H 2 O(l) H 2SO3 (aq)

2SO 2 (g)+O 2 (g) 2SO3 (g)

SO3 (g)+H 2 O(l) H 2SO 4 (aq)

2NO(g)+O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)
2NO 2 (g)+H 2O(l) HNO 2 (aq)+HNO3 (aq)

.
CD2$9 5B'4,0%2!<"1 .23 =*0 '4 pH DB2 +B2 =*C+</1,3B"8,C2-:6.22

!C2 </6. <,-2< 6B.2.23"033*321!>*-0 DB?-C<42 1-C; =*0<4
.
4CrC;>,0<%20,3B"8,C24B<"1 -4 "8 DB?-C<41-C;
.2 4C+2'<"1 .23!2<41'4+2',D21 ? 2C2 0,4D2< 6B.2

'4#9 DB2 *0*2.<6.=/B? 3 </1?-C'47 *1,0 0<"1 .23!2<4<45C ?
3 .1 </1?-C%6-:20 30<*4 <4!>@C4<1B <9C2 .@'C!20 30'4,4"B;

="@"2' pH .3 4B?C"81B 1C 2 "8%6<%6B.?-C@C#9 4D2<"1 C."1!,0%2!
+2'<"1 .23!2<4?-C<r20,9'1!%64B"8
( # ! "

2*0*2 KOH <1C'7C 0,05mol/dm3 0'4 pH <9B2? (log2=0,3010)
pH= 11,5 pH=
pH= 1,27 pH=
2*0*2.23 HX <1C'7C 0,1mol/dm3 =9+<"1 .4.9 3%0'4 pH
<9B2?(log3=0,4771)
pH= 0,
pH=

pH= 1,5 pH=
2*0*2 NaOH '4 pH = 9 '4+2'<1C'7C <9B2?

1,0x10-5mol/dm3 1,5x10-5mol/dm3
1,0x10-3mol/dm3 0,1x10-5mol/dm3
C2 D22*0*2 NaOH <1C'7C 0,1mol/dm3 D2 + 10 cm3=*C+6B' DC29 '4!D*3
'2 500cm3 2*0*2 4C'4+2'<1C'7C . (OH- =*0 B2 pH <9B2?
(log5=0,6990)
0,002 mol/L =*0 pH= 11,30 0,002 mol/L =*0 pH= 12,30
0,2 mol/L =*0 pH= 10,30 0,02 mol/L =*0 pH= 11,30

-) %(
(('# #'( 0% '/)
%(

(
( '%" 1' #'(0%'/)
7"1=)?--%+%-)-. 8%+ -%+%--7/"-+'4",+7/-=6
8,=.+?-%2="/>

(%
3' %(
(
( '%" 1' #'(+,(
&$)-
(')##
:'=-%+%- H2SO4 2 mol/dm3 +"- 10cm3 %4:(5)4%)+@-

-8%>&4')-,?-;!!>-)-%+%-
:'=-%+%- Ba(OH)2 0,1mol/dm3 +"- 20cm3 %4:).7/+
@- 50cm3 8%>&4')-,?-;!!>-)-%+%-9.,>71=)4');!
!>-;&>,=)

:>(5)#)3-%+%- H2SO4 2 mol/dm3 8%>&#)%4:-%+%-

Ba(OH)2 :?> 71=)%+#)4:(>4=& >)",,?-&#)',7-=68

)-%+%-8%+&-"*2=));!:++/=#)-%+%-)-.%4;

7%1>)<4+,>&-"*2=));!4/
-+%-,04

?-&#))-%+%-
-=68
.
H2SO4
&-"*2=));! -=68)1=
.
-%+%-)-.2!3$.8%+-%+%--*/))"*/$4.,?-;!!>-
;> >)&=-

7"1=))-.2!3$.%+%-:?>-+7/-=68,=/>
H 2SO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) H 3O + (aq) + HSO-4 (aq)
HSO-4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) H 3O + (aq) + SO 42- (aq)
7"1=)-$/))"*/$4.%+%-:?>-+7/-=68,=/>
Ba(OH)2 (aq) + H 2 O(l) Ba 2+ (aq) + 2OH - (aq)
7(,&=-:-%+%-,')=-?"/)/)4#3= ?
/= +7*,:(>-%+%-,?-;!
!>-;>
7"1=)#)-%+%-)-.2!3$.%4:-%+%--$/))"*/$4.+"/
0'/-&7/0>'+8&=--/=7/0>?=%+%-:?>--/=7/0>8"=2!,-$/
))",='4"4
Ba 2+ (aq) + SO 2-4 (aq) BaSO 4 (s)

:++6&,)/)4*/9$/))"+%&"4&,)/)4*/$4/%+)7,9"7%
2%)?>-,='4"4
H 3O + (aq) + OH - (aq) 2H 2 O(l)
71=)-&=-)/)42+.:-%+%-"/+%."-(52%4-%+%-0=,?-
;!!>-;>@>)%4 :++-%+%-)-.2!3$.8%+-%+%--$/))"*/
$4.7/+..%.-?-, ?/,>2/>7,2/=);!!>-?=*2=
7"1=)1="-%+%-)-.2!3$.%4;)/-4&=-);!!>-*2=1)/,>'+
8&=--%+%-"/)/)47 /="0>7.8"=)/)4"---84&))-.2!3$.
/=1="%4;,>7) +..%.-%+(&=-)/)4*/9$/))"-)-.8%+ )/)4*/$4.
--7/+)7,?>-7)/>&=-+..%.--&

%(

(
( '%" 1' #'(".*'/)
&'' %(
# +..%.-%+(&=- HCl , CaCO3
?- CaCO3 +"- 5g :'=%4(5)4%)+@--
7/="-%+%-)-. HCl 1,0mol/dm3 5cm3 />&)#-/"

= /(5)'4=
-''6#3=%4:'=?>-3:'',7-=68
7"1=)'/>'2+..%.-?--%+%--(5)4%):?> :'=%4:>&

+71>)%+7(/:(>8(>,04
#) +..%.-%+(&=- NaOH , FeCl3

:'=-%+%- NaOH 1,0 mol/dm3 3cm3 %4:(5)4%)+@--

1="-%+%-)-.FeCl3 1,0mol/dm3 3cm3 %4:-%+%-?> ',8%>&
',7=688%+,04

)-:?> 8%>&?--8(5&/
= =);>;%+7(/:>&+71>),0

4
4=6'4"4+..%.-/=7/0>,'),>)

--4%),'))"/+%.+ ,7/0>+7 71)(51?=;>8=-

.
:8%+%+%-:?>-;>(51?=
.
-4%))/ 7"1=)+'4"-%+%-)-. HCl , CaCO3 ;>!)-'
7/0>7.=4');>&=-7,-' CO2 7"1=)?-'=&/=7,)8(5&:(5)4%)%+
7(/8(>+;>-8'/-&,>8"= CaCl2 ,='4"4
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + CO2 (g)

t
CaCl2 (aq) CaCl2 (s)

-4%)/= 7"1=)+'4"-%+%- NaOH , FeCl3 +;> 0'/?>--"/%,'+
+>-&2>,>8"= Fe(OH)3 7"1=)?-'=&/7= ,)8(5&:(5)4%)%+7(/8(>+
;>-8'/-&,>8"= NaCl ,='4"4
FeCl3 (aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)3 (s) + NaCl(aq)

t
NaCl(aq) NaCl(s)
'+(52;>&=--4%),'));>+%.+ ,/7= ,71)%+%-:?>-

-+'4")71)7*,:(>*3>&=-71)/=%+%-:?>-+;>-%+%-"/2%,'+
+7,)-. -7/(517,-7(:0=7,8&,> >)'0'--4%)?=;/>

(%
3' -&, pH )-%+%-71)9:>-#-"'/3.7&/)%
(Universal Indicator)
:'=-%+%- NaCl, NH4 Cl 8%+ CH3COONa 0,1mol/dm3 +.%+ 3 cm3
%4:(5)4%)+@->)(5)%++.
#)-#-"'/3/7&/)%%4;(5)%+ #)',',7'/)-%+%-
8%>&66,'/)-#-"'/3.7&/)%:-%+%-/"
= / pH =-<7 1=)&&=-
-%+%-/=4')"/ pH +"-74=-:
-%+%-)71)+.:"/2%,'++7,)-. 7,-7/8%+7,
-7 -+7(:
7"1=)?-7)4-71),'-"+."-%+%-:?>-8%>&&,8pH)-%+%-
>&-#-"'/3.7&/)%7(,&=--%+%-71)NaCl"/ pH +"- 71) NH4Cl
"/ pH ?=-&=- 8%+ 71) CH3COONa "/ pH '3&=-
71),'-"+."/=- pH /=8=-,'-"-)+.-,=/> NaCl %+%-:
?>-84&7, (Na+ 8%+ (Cl- 8= Na+ 8%+ (Cl- 7,)/)4/="--)-.8*8%+

-7/8*)/)4,')?=7/+..%.-,?>- H2O '+,>-%+%-0=,"/+%."-
(H3O+ 8%+ OH- /"

= ---84&)?>-74=-,>-%+%- NaCl 0=7,-
NH4Cl %+%-:?>-84&7, (NH4+ 8%+ (Cl- 9/= (Cl- 7,)/)4/="--)-

.8*8%+?=7/+..%.-,?>-8= (NH4+ 7,)/)4"---7/)=)8%+7/+
..%.-,?>-;> (H3O+ '+,>:-%+%-0="/ H3O+ (5-&=- (OH- 7.7,
4:(>"/ pH ?=-&=- -%+%-0="/2%,'++7,)-. ,='4"4

NH 4 Cl(aq)
H2O
NH +4 (aq) + Cl- (aq)

NH +4 (aq)+H 2 O(l) NH 3 (aq)+H 3O + (aq)
Cl- (aq)+H 2 O(l)

CH3COONa %+%-?>-+84&7, Na+ 8%+ CH3COO- 71=)- Na+

7,)/)4"---7/8*8%+?=7/+..%.-,?>-8= (CH3COO- 7,)/)4"--
)-.)=)8%+7/+..%.-,?>-;> (OH- -%+%-0="/%,'++7,-7/ ,=

'4"4

CH 3COONa(s)
H2O
Na + (aq) + CH 3COO - (aq)
CH 3COO - (aq) + H 2 O(l) CH 3COOH(aq) + OH - (aq)
Na + (aq) + H 2 O(l)

.
+..%.-/=7/-)/)4&8%+)/)4%4)71),?>-;>+%.+ ,7,
.
(H3O+ (50 (OH- :-%+%-7)/>&=-+..%.-*/9$%/7/)71)'+,>--

4%)'-"-'+(53;>&=- NH4Cl 7/+..%.-*/9$%/7/'=& NaCl ?=7/+..%.
-*/9$%/7/

-/$-)-.-7/8"=+&-&.7-+(-+%."-))-. 8%+ -
7/9:(>-+..%.- ?/,-%+%-"--))-.(51-7//=*3>&-"7,>"
2>8=) '=&-%+%-)-. 8%+ -7/)/+./=?=*

3> &-"7,>"2> 8%+ &,?
%."-)-%+%-,')/=7/+..%.- ?/ -)(-+%."-)-
9&.//>7)/>&=--/$-8%+2/
= /$-)-.-7/,4-#-"'/=6'/(51)
;!?=*2=7)/>&=-2#2.)-/$-
-)(-2#2.)-/$-"/#3= &./1 :>-=6'/)-#-"'/
(Indicator) 8%+ :>-,?-;!!>-)-%+%-

-)(-2#2.)-/$-)-.-7/9:>-,?-;!!>-)-
%+%-7,=#)-%+%-)-. H2SO4 %4:-%+%- Ba(OH)2 7(,&=--,
?-;!!>-)-%+%-=)<(52%4 &-"*2=));!(52%4 7 -+&=- H3O+
- H2SO4(aq) 7/+..%.-, OH- : Ba(OH)2;>?>- 8%+ SO42- -
H2SO4(aq) 7/+..%.-, B2+ : Ba(OH)2(aq) 7/ 0'/-&,>8"= BaSO4

7,47*,:(>)/)4:-%+%-(52%447.2/=-%+%-,?-;!!>->)/'
= 2
);!!>-?=*2=7.=7,-%+%- H2SO4 7/+..%.- ?/,-%+%-
Ba(OH)2 ?/8=>-1="-%+%- H2SO4(aq) ?=;-,?-;!!>-+=)<7 /="0>
);!*2=8>
-)(-2#2.)-/$-)-.-7/9:>-#-"'/)-%+
%-)-.-7/8"=.4":'=-%+%-"--/=*3>&-"7,>"2>8=);&>:/&
7$'=&-%+%-/=+)(-&-"7,>"2>:'=:8>&4 6&*34" 3 9
&,8?%."-:(>8=)=)#)-#-"'/%4:-%+%-:8>&4 6-
,>??-;/$-,-%+%-"--:/&7$47.2#2.?12/
= -#-"'/
=6'/8%>&)=-=-?%."-)-%+%-"--/=:>7 1=)?-) (-&-"&-"

7,>"2>)-%+%-/=>)- 8='.='?-,:-7%1)-#-"'/>)7%1)
-#-"'/"
/= /=& pH )-=6'/:>6, pH )-%+%-+%.+ ,
4&#=- -4&7%1)-#-"'/:(>7A-+'4",=&)pH)+%.+ ,
/$-)-.- pH)-%+%- =&pH7%1) -#-"'//=7%1):-
7/ )+%.+ , -#-"'/ /$-
)-.8*,- pH=7 pH =3-11 7"/%)?7$
7/8* =&pH =3,1-4,4)
9$"9"/")%$3=&

pH=6,0-7,6)
7!9%!-7%).=&
pH=8,3-10,0)
)-.)=),- pH>7 pH=7-11 7!9%!-7%).
7/8*
=&pH=8,3-10,0)

)-.8*,- pH<7 pH=3-7 "//%)?7$
7/)=) =&pH =3,1-4,4)

)-.)=),- ?='-"-) >) :?%+/)-.)=),-7/)=)+"/-

7/)=) 0>,)-.,-7/ =6=-pH@>)(5-71=)-&=-)-.)=)
8%+-7/)=)7/+..%.-"/>)'+,>

-:>-#-"'/"
/= /-=6'//=2#2.
)-',72#2.. -(51)-?='-"-',

7#2.;>>):>&-"%+",%+&,7, .
.
7'
.
')'%" 1' #'(0%'/)

,2-%+%- NaOH /=*3>&-"7,>2>8=)8%>&:'=:.&7$:(>7.
%+,/8
= =) ,0.%&'3)-%+%- NaOH
?--%+%- HCl /=?=*3>&-"7,>"2> :'=&*3&+A- 200 cm3

8%>&#)7!9%!-7%).%4 #)
=)<#)-%+%- NaOH -.&7$%4:'=-%+%- HCl /#

= 3=:&
*3&71)%+#) >)",',&:(>%+%-+'4",4&=--%+%-
:&*3&=67,'/4" 3 '+8&=-7.22.8%>&,0?%."-)
NaOH

4%)?>-)/ ,>,04
)(-+%."-'+7%=)-%+%- NaOH /=:>;:-+..%.-,
-%+%- HCl 8%>&?-&(-&-"7,>2>) HCl -'3 Ca Va =Cb Vb
2#2.)-/$--%+%- HCl ,-%+%- NaOH &+7,
+..%.-%+(&=-)-.8=,-7/8=+;>71)-& 7.=+"/ pH 7

)(-9-?-:>9"%))-.-7/'
/ ?- ,
,'4"4+..%.-
)(-9-?-:>'3 aCa Va =bCb Vb
Ca Cb 8&-"7,>"2>)-%+%-)-. 8%+ -7/-"%?-,
(mol/dm3)
V Vb 8&-"?%."-)-%+%-)-. 8%+ -7/-"%?-, :>(4&
@=& mL
8?-& H+ /=84&-)-.7,= HCl a=1, CH3COOH a=1, H2SO4 a= 2.
8?-& OH- /=84&--7/7,= NaOH b=1, Ca(OH)2 b=2.
- 1' -%+%- HNO3 0,1mol/dm3?-& 20cm3 /$- ?/,,-
%+%- NaOH ?-& 30cm3 4=)(-&-"7,>"2>)-%+%- NaOH
(0
)
2 #
"''
!--/)
HNO3 (aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3 (aq)+H2 O(l)
0,1mol/dm3 x mol/dm3
20cm3 30cm3
0,1x20 -3 Xx30 -2

=2x10 mol
=3Xx10 mol
1000 1000

-'4"4 NaOH mol 1
=
HNO3 mol 1
3Xx10-2
=1
2x10-3
2 10-3
X= x -2 =6,67x10-2 mol/dm 3
3 10
&-"7,>"2>)NaOH 6,67x10-2mol/dm3
(0
)
2
#
"''
!,aC1V1=bC2V2

8=-
1x0,1mol/dm 3 x 20 cm 3 =1xC 2 x30cm 3
2
C2 =x10-1 6,67x10-2 mol/dm 3
3

&-"7,>"2>)NaOH 6,67x10-2mol/dm3

')'#'('/)313)4' ' 1'".&
')')#'( ".* '/)/".*#
&.
/ -)(-8"=6'4"4)+..%.-7"/ >)",=-8%>&)(-?-

&9"%))-. 8%+ -7/-,> .-%+-&=-)-. (51 -7/:1?-:>A4?

:(>-,>7,(5,:-)(-'.=</=>)-

- 1' -%+%- HCl 0,4 mol/dm3 ?-& 100cm3 +..%.-, NaOH

0,2mol/dm3 ?-& 50cm3 4=)(- pH )-%+%-+'4"8%+) >)"&=-
-%+%-/>"/%,'++7,8&:

(0
)
2
.
)(-?-&9"%)-%+%-,')7 1=)*3>&=--:7(51)
'4"4
.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H 2 O(l)

0,4mol/dm 3 0,2mol/dm 3
100cm3 50cm 3
0,4x100 0,2x50

1000 1000
=4x10-2 mol =1x10-2 mol

--&.7-+7(,&=- NaOH :>A4 8%+ HCl 7(51) 4x10-2 mol-1x10-2mol=3x10-2
mol8%+-%+%-+'4""/+%."- 100cm3 + 50cm3=150 cm3 "/ HCl 7(51)
3x10-2 mol '+,> -+'4""/&-"7,>"2>,=/>
HCl=
3x10 mol x1000cm /dm
-2 3 3
150cm3
HCl = 0,2mol/dm3
'+,> HCl 7,)-.8*84&;> 100% 0=:(> [H3O+] = 0,2 mol/dm3
'3 pH = -log[H3O+]
8=-;> pH= -log (0,2)
pH = -log2x10-1 = 0,699
'+8&=--%+%-"/2%,'++7,)-.
3'' 0% -/(

"&
4=6'4"4+..%.-%+(&=-)-.8%+-7/
HCl , Ca(OH)2 H2CO3 , KOH
HCl , Ba(OH)2 HNO3 , NaOH
-+'4")71)?=;/>7/-)-.8%+-7/+.:
KBr NaNO3
MgSO4 K2CO3
NaHSO4 ' CH3COONa
CH3COONH4 CaCO3
7"1=)71)?=;/>%+%-:?>--%+%-/=;>+"/2%,'++7,)-.
7,-7/ (51 7,-

NaHCO3 K2S
Al2(SO4)3 K2CO3
NaI ' Na3PO4

)/)4::-+'4")71)?=;/>'-"-7/+..%.-*/9$%.7/;>
KCN CH3COOLi
NaCIO4 (NH4)3PO4
Na2CO3 ' KNO3

-%+%- CH3COOH 0,1mol/dm3 ?-& 25cm3 7/+..%.- ?/,
-%+%- NaOH ?-& 18 cm3 4=)(-&-"7,>"2>)-%+%- NaOH
-/$-)-%+%- HCl 0,1mol/dm3 ?-& 50cm3 ,-%+%-

NaOH 0,1mol/dm3 7"1=)/=" NaOH %4;;> 45cm3 4=)(- pH )-%+%-+

7,74=-: (log5,3=0,7243)

.
.

$ !
# " pH

"
;?)6*5&*,A..
)6*9&?';(>.)6*0> 9&, ;(>@?.->
)6*&, 4 cm3 (>')6*0> 9&,

;(>.&,&.,(5# CH3COOH 0,3mol/dm3
@.'2cm3 9&, CH3COONa @.' 2 cm3 &5-(*)6*
$*.&,&..$.#(0408'0*&&53)6*)6*&, $*(-8(0
*.&,&.;9>&,)6*
$*.&,&. NaOH 0,1mol/dm3 $*&5;)6*0>

$*.&,&. HCl 0,1mol/dm3 $*&5;)6*0>
$*.&,&. NaOH 0,1 mol/dm3 $*&5;)6*0> (-877
(0-.&,&.;@? -1 59&,$*@><5,-(0*.&,&.>7<-
1 5
$*.&,&. HCl 0,1mol/dm3$* &5;)6*0>

(-8(077(0
-.&,&.;@?
-1 59&,$*@><5<?@.'$*85>.-@? -1
5
@.@?.B.!?.'(5 8cm3 2#.$.#(0408'0*& $*9&?'9>**
(>' (>'0> 2>#.&,&. NaOH 0,1mol/dm3 $*(-8(0*.&,&.
7-.&,&.;@? -1 59&?'$*@><5,-(0*.&,&.>7<
-1 5 (>'0> 2>#.&,&. HCl 0,1mol/dm3 $*(-8(0*.&,
&.7-.&,&.;@?
-1 59&?'$*@><5,-?(0*.&,&.
>7<-1 5

"
;?.$.#(08#0&B.?79.$.#(0408'0*& '/
0 .5&*2--
*0>
8#2>*2>#.&,&. NaOH )62 HC l&5;.5'$>.- ,/ pH *.
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3A(,E(3G .D+R-AE.3E5C0F(F=F.E/.(+(D4(E?:0E3
2CH4(g) + H2O (g)
CO(g) + 3H2(
:IA.((E? H2 AA(,E((E? CO 55C0F(F=F.E0(D4AE.3E/AG(
CO(g) + H2O (g)
CO(g) + H2(g)

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=C=E.3E,C6E3AA(2E+?>32F+)A+1D+-F+(D4>R-05 ?>3(E? CO2 ,C
=C=E.3E(G/5D3AE-F/ H2CO3 =C@AA(58A:(D43E -F+?E:E/3E5.(
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=C@>E+ 4D3.E(E/AJ3@C8K::G5C:E3 300 - 500 C /.R- FeO 5D30>
=+ N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
:IA3E(E? NH3 2G6C=F//:E5C0F(F=F.E(D4(E? CO2 2G(:>=>,C/5J.;K

=.(G/)H3 ?>3(E3(: H2SO4 ,CR-:E/5D32E/0D+03/.BD/R@@A:@>
=>(G/5C0F(F=F.E(D4(E? O2 2G(:/,E(AE(E/,C(G/(E? SO2 /D+?:63
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8EC@/R/,H+4(: H2SO4 /.>F2GR@(E? SO3 :E5C0F(F=F.E(D43E/.

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