40 1

EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN THE SCREW THREAD

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION ON THE CLAMPING FORCE
OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
By T. H. Lambert*
When load is applied to a bolted connection in the direction of the bolt axes, the residual
clamping force on the joint is dependent upon the pretension of the bolt. Where bending
action is also present, the fluctuating stress in the bolts may also be dependent upon the
pretension. In most cases where an accurate pretension is required, the bolts are tightened
by means of a torque spanner, and the pretension is then dependent upon the coefficient
of friction between the screw threads of the nut and bolt. The effect of normally distributed
variations in the coefficient of friction on the pretension is considered.

INTRODUCTION In cases where the line of action of the load is offset from
BOLTED CONNECTIONS of various types are widely used in the bolt axis, additional bending effects will occur in the
mechanical engineering. The type here considered is that in bolt and these will influence the choice of pretension.
which the load is applied to the connection along an axis The use of a torque spanner is by far the most common
parallel to the axis of the bolts. The behaviour of such a method for obtaining a specified bolt pretension, although it
joint has been previously studied (I)t (2) and where the suffers from the disadvantage that its accuracy depends
axis of the load coincides with the centre line of the bolt upon the coefficient of friction between the sliding surfaces
and no bending action is present, the general behaviour is remaining constant and equal to the assumed value.
shown in Fig. 1. Provided that the applied load is not
sufficient to cause separation between the two halves of the
joint, the relation between bolt load A and applied load W Notation
is given by A Load in the bolt.
A=A,+kW . .
. * (1) A0 Pretension load in the bolt.
where A , is the initial pretension in the bolt and k is a d Mean diameter of screw thread.
constant dependent upon the relative stiffness of the bolt r Mean radius of screw thread.
and the abutments. rm Mean radius of nut seating.
The two quantities which will be of principal interest to T Total torque applied to the nut.
the designer of such a joint will be the clamping force on t Number of threads per unit length.
the joint under the action of applied load, which is given by W Applied load.
A-W=A,-(l-k)W . . .
(2) a: Semi-angle of thread form.
and the ability of the bolt to sustain the maximum load A
B Helix angle of thread.
P Coefficient of friction between screw threads.
under either static or repeated load conditions. Coefficient of friction between nut and washer.
P
Subject to the overriding condition that A/W is greater
than 1, both the clamping force and the maximum bolt load
will increase linearly with A,, the value of the pretension, RELATION BETWEEN APPLIED TORQUE
and thus the two requirements for the joint are to some ANDBOLTLOAD
extent conflicting. Normally, however, a suitable value of By considering the nut as a block on an inclined rough
A , can be chosen which will satisfy both conditions. plane, the relation between the applied torque and bolt
The M S . of this article was first received a t the Institution on 29th load can be expressed as
November 1961 and in its revised form, as accepted by the Council
for publication, on 13th September 1962. T = Ao(hr+prm) . . - (3)
* Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College,London. tan p+p sec CI
Associate Member of the Institution. where A=
t A numerical list of references is giwen in the Appendix. 1-p sec a tanp
JOURNAL MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R I N G SCIENCE Vo14 No 4 1962
402
Fig. 1. Relation between load bolt and applied load
1 distribution about the mean value of 0.14 with a standard
Noting that tan /3 = >- A may be rewritten
44
1+r(dt)p sec cc
A= m(dt)-p sec a . . . * (4)
Provided that dt is greater than 4, the variation of h with
p sec cc is virtually linear over the range p sec cc < 0.2, and
this indicates that in the expression for A the second term
in the denominator is small compared with the first and
may be neglected. Thus an approximate expression for h is
Substituting this value of h into equation (3) gives
c p 1 found under large quantity production conditions:
This shows that T/A, is approximately linear with p or p',
a result which is of use when estimating the effects of
variations in p or p' upon the bolt tension.
VALUE OF THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
The published work on screw thread friction shows that the
coefficient of friction will depend upon a number of factors,
amongst which are:
(1) The method of manufacture and surface finish of
the threads.
(2) The degree of lubrication and nature of the
lubricant.
(3) The number of times the bolt has been previously
tightened.
The closer the degree of control of these factors the
lower will be the variations in the coefficient of friction,
but even with the most stringent control it is practically
impossible to eliminate variations entirely. In tests carried
out by the writer on machine-cut B.S.F. threads, variations
in the coefficient of friction between a nut and the washer
from 0-13 to 0.21 were obtained, and for the coefficient of
friction between the screw threads values from 0.12 to 0.16
were found. Bowden and Tabor (3) quote values for steel
on steel (unlubricated) of about 0.32 to 0.37 and for steel
lubricated with mineral oil of 0.14. Morrison (4) (5) gives
values for steel screw threads (unlubricated) of 0.36 to
JOURNAL MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R I N G SCIENCE
T. H. LAMBERT
0.38 and lubricated with mineral oil of 0.11 to 0.16.
Sopwith (6) suggests that the probable range in practice is
0.1 to 0.3 and quotes a value of 0.16 obtained from experi-
ment. Lenzen (7) gives an average value of p = 0.15 with
a variation of up to f 3 0 per cent, from the results of over
350 tests on U.S. standard bolts for sizes ranging from
$-in. to 1-in. diameter.
VARIATIONS IN THE COEFFICIENT OF
FRICTION
In an attempt to ascertain the magnitude of variations in the
coefficient of friction that could be expected under normal
production methods, t h i s quantity was measured for a
number of $-in. diameter B.S.F. bolts which had all been
cut on the same machine. A statistical examination of the
results showed that these followed a normal or gaussian
deviation of 5 per cent about the mean value. A similar
analysis of the results quoted by Lenzen again showed the
variations to be normally distributed, but in this case the
standard deviation was in the region of 10 per cent about a
mean value of 0.15. Lenzen's specimens were all of rolled
threads but were samples taken from the products of 10
different manufacturers and this would probably account
for the increased deviation.
From the published work on screw thread friction the
following values would seem a good estimate for threads
lubricated with mineral oil but with no special control over
lubrication or surface finish other than would normally be
Mean value of coefficient of friction = 0.15
Practical range 0.1 to 0.2 i.e. &33 per cent.
Assuming the distribution to be normal this corresponds to
a standard deviation of 11 per cent of the mean value.
Using these values and normal probability tables the
probability of any one sample falling outside a given range
(or the proportion of the total number of samples which
will fall outside that range) is shown in Fig. 2. By substi-
tuting the values from this curve into the approximate
PERCENTAGE DEVIATION
Fig. 2. Proportion of bolts that will fall outside a given
range of deviation owing to normally distributed variations
in the coej5cient of screw thread friction
V o l 4 No 4 1962
 SCREW THREAD COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION ON THE CLAMPING FORCE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Fig. 3. Relation between (AAo/Ao) and (dp/p)for $-in.
B.S.F. bolts
expression for T/Ao&en by equation (6), the percentage
deviation of bolt pretension A . can be calculated for a given
percentage deviation of p, provided that the dimensions of
the bolt are known and that T is assumed to be constant.
Thus a curve similar to that shown in Fig. 2 can be computed
to show the probability of any bolt having a pretension
outside a given range. To illustrate this, the case of a
$-in. diameter B.S.F. bolt is considered, and the relation
between the proportional deviation of pretension (AAo/Ao)
and proportional deviation of coefficient of friction (dp/p)is
shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 4 shows the probability of any bolt
deviating from the mean pretension by more than a given
amount. It may be noted that since (AAo/Ao)is not directly
proportional to f ( d p / p ) the deviation in A . will not be
normally distributed, but will have a positive skew
distribution.
Where an optimum degree of pretension can be calculated
for which some performance criterion of the joint will either
be a maximum or a minimum, then by using the relation
between bolt pretension and the optimized quantity, a
curve can be constructed showing the probability of any
sample deviating from the optimum value by a given amount.
Since both positive and negative variations of the pretension
about its optimum value will cause changes of the same sign
in the optimized quantity, the probability curve can be
drawn as a single-sided figure.
In some cases, the optimized quantity will be dependent
upon a second variable also subject to random variations
(e.g. fatigue life). Here the probability of the optimized
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE
403
Proportion of bolts that will fall outside a given range of deviation
owing to normally distributed variations in the coefficient of
screw thread friction.
Fig. 4. Initial pretension for $-in. B.S.F. bolts
quantity falling below a specified value owing to simul-
taneous variations of two distributed quantities will be given
by a volume integral of a three-dimensional figure. Except
in rare cases where this figure is a solid of revolution, the
probability curve will involve a lengthy computation; some
idea of the relative importance of the two variables can,
however, be obtained by considering each separately
assuming the other to remain constant at its mean value.
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
W. A.
(I) FISHER, P., CROSS,R. H. and NORRIS,
G. M. 1952
Aircraft Engng, June, p. 160, Pretensioningfor prevent-
ing fatigue failure in bolts.
( 2 ) LAMBERT, T. H. 1959 J. Mech. Engng Sn., vol. 1, no. 3,
p. 223, Study of the clamping conditions in a connecting-
rod big end.
(3) BOWDEN, F. P. and TABOR, D. 1949 Proc. Znsm mech. Engrs,
Lon& vol. 160, p. 380, Seizure of metals.
(4) MORRISON, J. L. M. 1946 Engineering, Lond., vol. 161,
p. 409.
(5) MORRISON, J. L. M. Contributionto discussion on (3), p. 399.
(6) SOPWITH, D. G. 1948 Proc. Znstn mech. Engrs, Lond., vol.
159, p. 373, Distribution of loads in screw threads.
(7) LENZEN, K. H. 1947 Product. Eng., December, vol. 18, p. 130,
Strength and clamping force of bolts.
Vo14 No 4 1962
404

COMMUNICATIONS
The following Communication relates to the paper Matrix
techniques for determination of fundamental mode shape and
frequency parameter of torsional oscillations in engines,
by K. N . GUPTA, which was published in 1962, vol. 4,
No. 2, p . 156.
Professor W.A. Tuplin (Member) wrote that this paper
was of great interest in demonstrating a possible application
of matrix techniques but, for the benefit of newcomers to
the study of torsional oscillation it should be made clear
that practical necessities in calculation were covered by
simple routine in arithmetic.
Determination of the frequency equation of any straight-
line system was straightforward and quick as had been
demonstratedin Enginem-ng of 18th May 1934. An improve-
ment on this technique was that given by Crossley and
Germen in the Journal of Applied Mechanics of 27th June
1960, No. 2350. Ten-inch slide-rule working was more than
adequate in determining the frequency equation and in
solving it.
The simple case considered by Mr Gupta was important
because of its frequent occurrence, and it had been covered
in Engineering of 19th February 1937 in an article that gave
a formula for the lowest natural frequency for any system
with four to ten cylinders, values of a from 0 to 0.04 and
values of from 0.8 to 1.2.
Again for the benefit of those whose prime interest in
torsional oscillation was practical, a note should be made
of the degree of arithmetical precision that was necessary.
For frequencies, three significant figures were ample; for
relative amplitudes of oscillation, two were more than ample.
For an engine with n cylinders (n having any value from
4 to 10 inclusive) the s u m of the relative amplitudes at the
cylinder-lines for the one-node vibration form was given
with adequate accuracy by
2 (I/Jc/I/Jl) = 0-59n+0.47
The individual relative amplitudes might be derived
from a normal elastic curve whose end-points were first
fixed by means of the relation
#F/I/JI = -(0*59n+0*47)a
The curve itself might be drawn freehand as a circular
arc of height
(0-27- 0.6/n)9hl
but modified near cylinder No. 1 so as to be parallel to the
axis of the crankshaft at cylinder No. 1.
AUTHORS R EP LY
Mr K. N. Gupta wrote that he was grateful to Professor
Tuplin for his suggestions, but he wished to make it clear
that though the determination of frequency equation for a
straight torsional system was straightforward and quick, yet

Engine system Z(*C/*l> SFIS1

Obtained from Correct value for Obtained from Correct value for
2(Sc/S1) = -59n+.47 $&ti = -(59n+*47)a
p = .5 p=2 p = $5 j = 2
a = 0.001 2.61 3-20 -0.0028 -00031 -0.0037
Four cylinder 283
a = 0-1 2.24 2-93 -0.283 -0.224 -0.294
a = 0.001 3.23 3.88 -0.0034 -0.0033 -00041
Five cylinder 3.42
a = 0.1 2.68 3.43 -0.342 -0.268 -0.344
a = 0.001 3.86 4.55 -0.0040 -0.0040 -0.0047
Six cylinder 401
a = 0.1 3.08 388 -0.401 -0.308 -0.388
a = 0.001 4.48 4.86 -0.0046 -0QO45 -0.0054
Seven cylinder 4.60
a = 0.1 3.46 4.28 -0.460 -0.346 -0.429
a = 0.001 5.11 5.86 -0.0052 -0.0051 -04061
Eight cylinder 5.19
a = 0.1 3.81 4.64 -0.519 -0.381 -0466

J O U R N A L MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Vo14 No 4 1962

 COMMUNICATIONS 405

the solution of a polynomial equation was time-consuming. be the point of contact of the (badly named) pitch circles
Further, it did not yield directly the relative amplitudes of and so could not move backwards and forwards along the
different masses. Both frequency and mode shape were of common tangent to the pitch circles or radially. T h e
great interest to those engaged in the study of torsional natural way to define the transmission error of a pair of
oscillation. Because of that fact tabular methods had come gears was to speci@ the departures frpm equality of their
to much prominence. Matrix techniques not only fulfilled circumferential displacements at the co-axial contacting
the above requirements but also displayed a distinct circles that divided the line of centres in the ratio of the
advantage in that they reduced repeated approximations numbers of teeth. (These departures could be estimated
involved in the tabular methods to straightforward from pitch errors and profile errors measured in ordinary
computation. ways.)
Further, the author wished to add a word to the degree If t h i s failure had in fact been due to resonant rotational
of precision for frequency and relative amplitudes laid vibration, it justified critical investigation, as a resisting
down in the communication. In s m a ll engines where the torque that varied with speed so markedly as did that of a
ratio Kcyl/lcylwas generally quite high, at least four signi- rotary compressor was usually regarded as a strong vibra-
ficant figures were required for frequency parameter (6) tion-damping influence in addition to the unidentified ones
to have better estimation of frequency. For relative ampli- that sufficed to hold magnification factors down to finite
tudes two significant figures were no doubt sufficient for values.
estimating the amplitude of oscillation at mass No. 1, but
for calculating the vibratory stress at nodal point or at any
section of the shaft a still higher degree of accuracy was
needed.
Finally, the empiricalformulae set out inthe communica-
tion for the estimation of the individual relative amplitudes
were of interest to newcomers to the study of torsional
oscillation, but they involved the laborious process of
drawing the elastic m e . Some results for extreme cases
were compared with the correct values in Table C1 to
give an idea of the dgree of accuracy involved in them. The
author was of the opinion that individual relative amplitudes
could easily and with greater accuracy be obtained from the
graph shown in Fig. 9 of the paper under discussion.

Thefollowing Communicationrelates to the article Note on a

torsional fairure caused by gear i m c u r q , by R. E. D.
BISHOP, whkh was published in 1962, vol. 4, No. 2,p. 188.

Professor W. A. Tuplin (Member) wrote that the article

was of great interest, but every gear engineer would want to
know what was the order of magnitude of the tooth-errors
that were blamed for t h i s failure and would be inclined to
suggest that if a pinion-shaft failed under a torque that had
not damaged the teeth, the shaft had been inadequate in
size or in quality of material.
It was not made clear what amount of backlash had been
provided between the gear teeth. If it were a generous
amount (as it might be without detriment in a drive with
uni-directional torque) development at resonance of
vibrating torque of amplitude much exceeding the mean
torque would cause cyclic tooth-separation and immediate
de-tuning by periodic division of the system into two
unconnected parts. But even if that did not prevent the
development of big vibrating torques, the noise produced
by periodic re-engagement of the teeth would be expected
to be a useful danger signal.
Remark (4) on the subject of gearing error was very
&cult to follow inasmuch as it seemed to depend on some
special definition of pitch point. That was usually taken to Fig. C1. Rotating system
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Val 4 No 4 1962
406 COMMUNICATIONS
Resonance was a recognized scapegoat for strange mech-
anical failures, but in this case it still remained to consider
why the shaft should fail while the gears did not; in any
ordinary geared transmission, overload showed itself first
at the gear teeth.
AUTHORS REPLY
Professor R. E. D. Bishop wrote in reply that he was
particularly interested in Professor Tuplins communica-
tion as he was aware that there is a serious gap between the
work of vibration analysts and those who specialize in
gears. Each type of engineer had his own technical language.
The problem in question was easier to discuss in the
language of the former, though Professor Tuplin wanted
to use that of the gearing specialist.
Suppose a perfect gear was mounted eccentrically. The
gear was then no longer perfect but had a sinusoidally
distributed spacing error of the teeth. If it mated with a
second gear which was both perfect and perfectly mounted
then there would be fluctuating velocity ratio. When he had
used the words pitch point in the paper, he had done so
loosely. To be more precise, he should have referred to the
point of intersection of the common normal to the mating
teeth with the line of centres. It was this which wandered
backwards and forwards along the line of centres, thereby
causing variation in the velocity ratio. He assumed that
Professor Tuplin would not deny that a fluctuating velocity
ratio could cause a torsional vibration.
The argument could be put another way. Suppose the
perfectly-mounted gear was held fixed while that with
the eccentric mounting was held in mesh with it. Suppose
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE
the centre of the latter were moved from its actual position to
the position which it would have were it perfectly mounted;
during this process it would suffer a slight rotation if
contact were maintained at the teeth.
Whether or not failure occurred at a gear depended upon
the amplitude of the fluctuating torque at that gear. This in
turn depended, not only on the violence of the oscillation
(as Professor Tuplin evidently believed), but also upon the
position of the gear in the resonant mode. If it was placed
near an anti-node it might support only a small oscillatory
torque (in fact the actual gear teeth did not entirely escape
damage in the system concerned). It would be noted that
the difference between the torques sustained by the shaft
and pinion was equal to the inertia torque of the pinion at
the frequency in question. That differencehad an amplitude
of about 220 1bf.ft.
In introducing the question of back-lash, Professor
Tuplin might have forgotten that there was a rigid body
mode which, in this case, accounted for a power transfer
of about 2500 hp. In any event, detuning by back-lash was
by no means a well-documented phenomenon.
There seemed to be no difficulty in demonstrating that
violent torsional vibration could be set up in the manner
explained. Fig. C1 showed a torsion pendulum A whose
upper end was driven by a gear B which meshed with a
pinion C driven by a variable speed motor. B and C were
class A gears and C was mounted on an adjustable eccen-
tric, the amount of the eccentricity being shown by adial
gauge. An annular container of oil D could be offered up to
the skirt of A so as to increase the damping of the system.
When the speed of C equalled the first non-zero frequency
of the rotating system, the oscillation of A became violent.
Vo14 No 4 1962