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basics

basics

Index Introduction and Historical Perspective 03

03 Introduction and Historical The description of bitumen as mankind's oldest engineering the lakes of asphalt in Trinidad useful for re-caulking their
material can be supported by a considerable amount of ships for the return voyage. Apart from maritime usage,
Perspective evidence from scholars. Nearly 3000 years BC the Sumerians bitumen was used mainly for medicinal, cosmetic and crop
in Mesopotamia used bitumen to fasten into the eye sockets protection purposes.
04 Bitumen Sources and Types of statues the materials such as ivory or mother-of-pearl
pieces that represented the eyes. They also sculptured The extent of knowledge about bitumen in these times was
votive offerings out of a mixture of bitumen and clay. quite variable. On the one hand, the German metallurgist
07 Applications Georg Agricola was writing in the early part of the sixteenth
Some thousand years later, bitumen was being used by century that "Bitumen is produced from mineral waters
12 Manufacturing Process the early Babylonians as a building material because of its containing oil, also from liquid bitumen and from rocks
properties as an adhesive and water-proofing agent. With the containing bitumen. Liquid bitumen sometimes floats in large
passing of centuries, it became the standard material used quantities on the surface of wells, brooks and rivers and is
14 Test Procedures in civil engineering and architectural projects to hold bricks collected with buckets or other pots. Small quantities are
and stones together and line drains, watercourses and grain collected by means of feathers, linen towels and the like.
18 Optimising Bitumen silos. It was also used to create damp courses and seal the The bitumen easily adheres to these objects and is collected
flat roofs of the houses in the same way as it is used today. in big copper or iron vessels and the lighter fractions
Performance Its importance in paving was also appreciated. evaporated by heating. The residual oil is used for different
purposes and some people mix it with pitch, others with
19 Glossary About 600 BC King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon had the city used axle oil to make it thicker."
wall, intended to restrain the waters of the Euphrates, rebuilt
with burnt bricks and bitumen because the wall of dried clay On the other hand, the entry for bitumen in Blount's Glossary
26 BP Bitumen Australia bricks had failed to keep the waters at bay. The Babylonians published in 1656 defined it as "a kind of clay or slime
developed a technique for building houses from layers of naturally clammy, like pitch, growing in some countries of Asia."
bricks, bitumen and clay, reinforced with reeds. The system
was so successful that they were able to build towers up By the middle of the nineteenth century, serious attention
to twelve storeys high. Nearly two thousand years later, was being given to the problem of the dust raised by the
archeologists excavating the site of the ancient city found horse-drawn traffic in towns. The availability of a regular
traces of the bitumen that had been used for building. supply of tar from local coal-gas works led to their use in
treating streets and pavements. The realisation that the
Apart from its properties, the reason why bitumen was horseless carriage was here to stay and would need streets
widely used in this area was its availability in various forms. and roads constructed to a hitherto unimagined standard of
It oozed out of the ground in certain places and was even smoothness and durability resulted in serious attention being
found floating in lumps on waterways that were so useful given to the elements needed for their creation. Rock asphalt
for moving it to where it was wanted. It was also available as and the Trinidad lake were the sources of bitumen first used
a solid material in the form of bituminous limestone, which to bind mixtures of aggregates in road building in the modern
was used as the basis for small carvings. style. By the turn of the century the potential of petroleum
as a readily available source of low-cost, high quality bitumen
Given its general availability, it is not surprising that bitumen was being exploited on a small scale.
has a part to play in many of the great legends of Biblical and
pre-Biblical times. It is said to have been used in the building As bitumen production grew with the rise of the motorcar
of the Tower of Babel and for the waterproofing of Noah's and the universal demand for paved highways, so too did
Ark and Moses' wicker basket. the proportion of bitumen derived from petroleum refining
to the extent that today most bitumen is sourced from the
The Romans were enthusiastic about the medicinal qualities distillation of crude petroleum oil.
of bitumen for preventing and curing a number of ailments
including boils, toothache and ringworm. It was also in favour In the USA, bitumen is referred to as asphalt or asphalt
amongst Roman ladies as a means of beautifying their eyebrows. cement. In the term rock asphalt, it defines a mineral
substance that may be impregnated with bitumen or pitch.
As civilisation developed in Europe, it did so without Oustide the USA, the word asphalt means a mixture of
significant use of bitumen as it was not a widely available bitumen and mineral aggregates laid as a road surface.
material. Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh found
basics

04 Bitumen Sources and Types 05

What is Bitumen? debris. It will have been moved over many thousands of Properties A cutback varies in behaviour according to the type of cutter
years through porous rocks such as limestone or sandstone, or flux used as the diluent with white spirit commonly used
Bitumen is a non-crystalline, black or dark brown viscous Bitumen is a strong and durable adhesive that binds together
often by volcanic action. In some areas notable for their for RC grades, kerosene for MC and diesel for SC.
material, which is substantially soluble in organic solvents, a very wide variety of other materials without affecting their
petroleum resources, for example the Middle East, semi-fluid
such as toluene and carbon disulphide, and which possesses properties. Its durability is essential to major engineering Bitumen emulsions are dispersions of bitumen in water.
bitumen can be found oozing out of fissures near hot springs
adhesive and water-proofing qualities. projects such as roads and waterways where it must perform Hot bitumen, water and emulsifier are processed in a high-
or seeping out of the ground.
for up to 20 years or more. speed colloid mill that disperses the bitumen in the water
It consists essentially of hydrocarbons and typically comprises in the form of small droplets. These droplets or particles
at least 80% carbon and 15% hydrogen. The remainder is Bitumen is insoluble in water and can act as an effective
of bitumen are normally in the 5-10 micrometre size range
oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and traces of various metals. waterproofing sealant. It also resists action by most acids,
but may be even smaller. The emulsifier assists in forming
alkalis and salts and does not contaminate water, so it can be
and maintaining the dispersion of fine droplets of bitumen.
Sources of Bitumen used to line watercourses.
Bitumen emulsions normally comprise between 30% and
Bitumen can be obtained from various sources. As mentioned 80% bitumen by volume. If the bitumen starts to separate
Bitumen is a thermoplastic material: it softens and becomes
earlier, it occurs naturally, but for most purposes it is petroleum from the water solution in storage, the emulsion can usually
liquid with the application of heat and hardens as it cools.
on which the world relies for its supplies of bitumen. The be easily restored by gentle agitation to redisperse the droplets.
It can be spread relatively easily in the areas where it is
bitumen content of crude petroleum oil can vary between
required because it can readily be liquefied by one of three
15% and 80%, but the more normal range is 25% to 40%. Bitumen emulsions have a low viscosity compared to
methods:
The three broad classifications for crude oils are: the bitumen from which they are produced and can be
workable at ambient temperatures. Their application requires
applying heat
bitumen based controlled breaking and setting. The emulsion must not
dissolving it in petroleum solvents break before it is laid on the road surface but, once in place,
paraffin based
dispersing it in water (emulsification). it should break quickly so that the road can be in service
bitumen and paraffin based.
again without delay.
Bitumen gives controlled flexibility to mixtures of mineral
Depending on the type of crude petroleum oil, bitumen is
aggregates, which is why so much of the total annual
present either in the form of a colloidal dispersion, or in a
production is used in road building. It is available at an
true solution. During the refining process, as petroleum oils 40 micrometres 100 micrometres
economic cost virtually all over the world. Limit of visibility Grain of salt
are taken away by distillation, the proportion of oil to bitumen to the naked eye
particles changes. Instead of these particles being dispersed
Figure 1: The decomposition of marine debris over millions of Types of Bitumen
and relatively few in number, they become closer to one 70 micrometres
years produces natural bitumen in a petroleum residue, which is There are six major classifications of petroleum bitumen Diameter of human hair
another and their size increases. At the point when the extracted through the refining process. 25 micrometres
distillation process is usually stopped, the petroleum bitumen produced by the refining and manufacturing process: White blood cells

is a colloidal dispersion of black solids (hydrocarbons). These Rock asphalt, with its variable and relatively low content of
are known as asphaltenes, which are dispersed in an oily Paving grade bitumen (or asphalt cement in the USA) is 8 micrometres
bitumen, tends to be found away from the places where Red blood cells
brown-yellow liquid, known as the maltenes fraction. Also the most widely used bitumen and is refined and blended
bitumen is needed. It is costly to move around and to process. 2 micrometres
present to act as a stabilising agent to keep the asphaltenes to meet road engineering and industrial specifications that Bacteria

in suspension are another group of hydrocarbons known as take into account different climatic conditions. Paving grade
It is important to draw the distinction between bitumen and
resins. bitumen may also be considered as the parent bitumen from
coal tar. Although coal tar is black and viscous like bitumen, it
which the other forms are produced. Figure 2: Particles of bitumen dispersed in water to make
is obtained from the carbonisation of coal and therefore has
bitumen emulsions are usually between 5 and 10 micrometres
Bitumen is found in nature in several forms, from the hard, very different chemical properties.
Cutback bitumens consist of bitumen that has been diluted in size. This diagram gives an indication of relative size.
easily crumbled bitumen in rock asphalt to the softer, more
viscous material found in tar sands and so-called asphalt in solvent (cutter or flux) to make it more fluid for application.
Engineering projects in every part of the world, from the
lakes. It is commonly mixed with varying proportions of The fluidity of cutback bitumens (or cutbacks as they are
construction of transcontinental highways to the water-
mineral or vegetable impurities that need to be extracted known) depends on the degree of hardness of the bitumen
proofing of flat roof surfaces, rely on the particular properties
before it can be used effectively as an engineering material. and the proportion of diluent. Cutbacks are classified
of bitumen. Crude petroleum oil processed by the petroleum
according to the time it takes for them to cure, or become
industry provides all but a small percentage of this vital material.
Bitumen may also be found as asphaltite, natural bitumen solid due to the evaporation of the diluent. Classifications are
without impurities that varies in the extent to which it is rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC) or slow curing (SC).
soluble in carbon disulphide. Natural bitumen, like petroleum,
occurs as the result of the special decomposition of marine
basics

06 Applications 07

Fine
The mechanical performance of provide improved resistance to deformation and reduce the Road Construction and The base course is a mixture of aggregates and bitumen
bitumen emulsions can be tailored like detrimental effects of high service temperatures, whilst Maintenance used as a structural layer. It adds to the strength of the road
that of other construction materials. providing reduced stiffness at low service temperatures than and is an even surface foundation for the top layer.
Over 80% of the 100 million tonnes of worldwide annual
exhibited by a similar normal paving grade bitumen.
bitumen consumption is used for paving applications in the The wearing course is the top layer normally consisting of a
Bitumen emulsions are divided into
construction and maintenance of roads. The remainder is used more finely textured mixture of aggregates and bitumen. Its
three categories: Industrial bitumens (or oxidised bitumens) are made by
for various purposes. The use of bitumen in road maintenance role is to act as a smooth running surface for traffic. It must
blowing air through hot paving grade bitumen. The so-called
Anionic with negatively charged droplets can be up to four times its use in road construction. also be as weather-proof as possible and resist the continual
blowing process results in harder bitumen that softens at a
Cationic with positively charged droplets higher temperature than that at which paving grade bitumen action of the abrasive forces imposed by the vehicles as
An understanding of how roads are built is necessary for an
softens. Industrial bitumens also have more rubber-like they pass along it. The wearing course should also disperse
Non-ionic with neutral droplets. appreciation of the importance of the role played by bitumen.
properties and their viscosities are much less affected by surface water effectively to minimise the danger of skidding.
Modern road design and construction techniques are aimed
The main grades for bitumen emulsions changes in temperature than is the case with paving grade
at building flexible road layers or courses so that the tensile Where appropriate, a tack coat of bitumen may be applied
are classified as follows: bitumen.
and compressive stresses imposed by passing traffic are between courses to ensure adhesion of the layers.
distributed evenly through these layers, according to their
Bitumen Handling
Coarse Anionic Cationic relative strengths. This ensures that neither the ground The layers of asphalt in a road pavement can vary widely in
The four major factors involved in handling bitumen are: supporting the road nor the individual layers are permanently
ARS CRS Rapid setting maximum stone size used and thickness laid, from as low
Figure 3: the high handling temperatures and the need for purpose- deformed by these concentrated stresses. as 15mm thickness using 5mm maximum stone size up to
Microscopic AMS CMS Medium setting designed storage and transport tanks and equipment 250mm layers using up to 40mm maximum stone size.
representation of The courses must also be made weather resistant and
emulsion structures. ASS CSS Slow setting the flammable nature of certain grades, particularly
cutbacks
durable. Bitumen plays a major part in meeting this Variable Design Factors
requirement because it strongly binds the aggregate particles
the need to safeguard the health and safety of personnel The exact make-up of a road will depend on several variable
and seals and fills the voids between them. Its effectiveness
The development of bitumen emulsions is an area where factors such as the weight and volume of traffic it has been
the training of personnel. depends on the aggregate specification, the size and number
technological progress is still being made to meet current and designed to carry, local climatic conditions and the availability
of voids and the type of bitumen. By sealing the gaps,
emerging engineering demands. The first emulsions were Owing to their high viscosity, almost all bitumen and of mineral aggregates. In most cases, bitumen will be needed
bitumen makes it difficult for water to penetrate the road
the anionic types. They are currently less favoured than the bituminous products must be heated to make them sufficiently for its properties of waterproofing and durability and as the
courses and damage the natural foundation of the road.
cationic types because the positively charged globules of fluid for bulk distribution and application. Contact with cheapest adhesive generally available. A minor secondary
bitumen in cationic emulsions better coat the majority of bitumen or the equipment involved in transporting, storing or In the context of road building, the entire road structure is road may use bitumen only for its top two courses, at the
aggregate types and result in greater adhesion. Use of cationic applying it can cause severe skin burns at the recommended called the pavement. rate of 7 tonnes per kilometre. A highway engineer may
emulsions is therefore preferred in most applications. handling temperatures. For example, even a fleeting touch at call for three asphalt courses, with tack coats in between,
80C can be expected to burn unprotected skin. The lowest layer of a road is the natural soil of the subgrade. because of asphalt's superior load bearing properties. In this
Modified bitumens are formulated with additives to For a new road the subgrade is carefully prepared by modern case, bitumen consumption can amount to 1,000 tonnes
improve their service performance by changing such It is essential that anyone working with bitumen or machinery, but for an old road this layer consists of whatever per kilometre. The bitumen percentage in asphalt is usually
properties as their durability, resistance to ageing, elasticity bituminous products make themselves familiar with the has been left by generations of traffic. between 4-8%.
and/or plasticity. The most important modifiers are polymers. necessary health, safety and environmental considerations.
GENERAL ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE APPLICATIONS
Users are advised to always refer to product Material The rest of the road is made up of layers of aggregates and
Polymer modified binders (PMB) are a major advancement Paving grades Cutback grades Emulsions Modified
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for a full description of hazards bitumen, each designed to do a specific job (see Figure 4 bitumens
in bituminous binder technology as these materials better associated with the use of bitumen products. on page 9). Aggregate is the term used to describe hard Examples of use C50 C170 C320 C600 Low High
viscosity viscosity
satisfy the demands of increasing traffic volumes and loads non-metallic minerals such as crushed rock, gravel, sand and Cutback
manufacture
on our road networks. As well as natural rubbers, polymers slag. Aggregates must meet engineering specifications that
Emulsion
such as styrene butadiene styrene (SBS), polybutadiene include shape, strength, surface characteristics and size. manufacture
(PBD) and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) are commonly used Hotmix
asphalt
to modify bitumen. The subbase is the first layer put down by the road builder
and consists of compacted granular material stone, gravel Sprayed seals
Multigrade bitumen is a chemically modified bitumen or sand. Its function is to contribute towards the strength of
Tack coat
that has the properties of a hard paving grade bitumen at the road and give the road building machinery an operating
high service temperatures coupled with the properties of a platform.
soft paving grade bitumen at low temperatures (i.e. it has Table A: This table defines some typical road construction and
maintenance applications for different types of bitumen.
properties that span multiple grades). Multigrade bitumens
basics

08 09

Hot Mix The mixing time should be no longer than is necessary for
the uniform distribution of the bitumen as a coating for the
The mixing of aggregates and bitumen to produce asphalt
aggregate particles, otherwise the bitumen film will harden
may take place at a purpose-built plant located away from
due to oxidation as it is exposed to air. The durability of the
the road construction site, or it may be done at the site itself.
mixture will be impaired if the mixing process takes too
long. Continuous operation of the plant is required to provide
Controlled amounts of various size aggregates, which have
consistent high quality mixtures. This, in turn, means that Direction of load
been carefully blended and graded to meet the required
all parts of the operation must be integrated so there are no
specification, are dried and heated before being mixed with
hold-ups as the drying, screening, mixing, transporting and
a measured quantity of hot bitumen. All this takes place
laying processes are carried out.
in a purpose-built plant. The hot mixture, or hot mix, at a
temperature of up to 160C, is carried to the construction
Bitumen supplies are ordered daily to meet the production
site and laid while still hot.
schedules on the road gangs' programs for the following
day. As bitumen storage capacity is usually limited, delivery Wearing course
The above describes, in simple terms, a process in which
has to be made on a 'when required' basis, often within
skill and experience are combined with computerised control Tack coat
thirty minutes of the target time based on the moment when
systems to carry out a complex series of operations. Various
the aggregates have been heated to the right temperature
sizes of aggregate dry out, gain and retain heat at different Base course
for mixing with bitumen. Any delay means that expensive
rates. Their temperature must be controlled so that the
fuel is wasted in keeping the aggregate at the right
bitumen does not cool when it is mixed with the aggregates.
temperature. This precision in delivery calls for a high degree
The supply of aggregates is continuously weighed by scales
of commitment on the part of the supplier in terms of capital
linked to the pump metering the bitumen to ensure that Tack coat
equipment, logistics and technical expertise.
a constant ratio of aggregate to bitumen is maintained.

Sub-base

Formation level

Subgrade
(natural soil)

Figure 4: Distribution of load through a bituminous road


basics

10 11

COMPOSITION OF ROAD SURFACE Road Recycling


The techniques of road recycling reclaim the materials used
to build roads. They offer benefits in terms of reduced
demands for aggregates and energy. The layers of road
Dense-graded Hot Rolled Stone Mastic Open-graded surface are ripped up, crushed and reprocessed with varying
Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt
proportions of fresh aggregate, new bitumen or bitumen
Bitumen
content %
4-7% 6-9% 8-12% 5-7% emulsion and, if necessary, a recycling agent. The process
may be carried out on site (in situ), or the reclaimed material
Air voids
content % 3-5% 3-5% 3-5% 18-20% can be transported to and from the site to be mixed in a
dedicated static plant. Such reclaimed material is known as
Table B: Asphalt mixture compositions RAP or reclaimed asphalt pavement.

Open-graded Asphalt: a mixture of graded aggregates and Industrial Usage


Figures 5 and 6: This
bitumen produced to provide an open texture and high air The use of bitumen in industrial applications accounts
purpose-built asphalt mixing
plant grades and dries the voids content to allow ready drainage of water through the for less than 20% of world bitumen consumption. It
aggregates and then mixes finished asphalt layer also known as Porous Asphalt and is nevertheless important to those manufacturers and
them with bitumen. All Drainage Asphalt. engineers who rely on its particular properties as an
aspects of the mixing plant
are carefully controlled from economical binder and protector. In many parts of the world
s the computer console.
Tack Coat: a thin layer of emulsified or cutback bitumen that it is used extensively to waterproof the roofs of houses,
(Pictures courtesy of Boral bonds a layer of road to the layer beneath. Current practice is often in the form of shingles, which are strips of felt first
Asphalt). to favour the use of bitumen emulsions in place of cutbacks impregnated with bitumen and then covered on both sides
in this application. with harder bitumen and a coating of mineral granules. A
similar construction technique involves sheets of bitumen-
Sprayed Seal: also known as surface dressings and chip
Asphalt and Other Treatment Types seals, these involve spraying a coating of bitumen onto the
saturated felt laid onto a flat roof with layers of bitumen
below, between and above them. By contrast, bitumen is
Asphalt mixtures have been classified into a number of surface of a wearing course or granular pavement. Sprayed
also used in damp-proofing and floor tiles.
different types, which may be simply stated as: seals can be sprayed as an emulsion, a cutback or as neat
paving grade bitumen. Either a single or double coating of Other materials, particularly felts and papers, are
Dense-graded Asphalt or Asphaltic Concrete: a dense, aggregates or stone chippings is applied. These treatments impregnated with bitumen to improve their performance as
continuously graded mixture of coarse and fine aggregates, are applied to renovate and waterproof old roads that require insulators. Packaging papers, printing inks, linoleum, sound
mineral filler and bitumen, having a carefully controlled air maintenance or to protect unbound granular pavements in deadening felts hidden inside car bodies and undersealing
void content. new constructions. An example of a remedial treatment is a compounds beneath them, electrical insulating compounds
fog seal, which is a coat of bitumen emulsion applied to an and battery boxes are some of the hundreds of industrial and
Hot Rolled Asphalt: a sand-based material, bound with high existing surface to seal cracks as a maintenance treatment. domestic products likely to contain industrial grade bitumen.
viscosity grade bitumen, and having approximately 30%
selected stone content, with larger stones rolled into the Bituminous Slurry Surfacing: an important maintenance
surface. treatment for the surface in which a mixture of fine
aggregates, filler and emulsified bitumen is applied to a
Stone Mastic Asphalt: a high stone content mixture where structurally sound road surface for minor shape correction
the large stones form a load-bearing matrix within the and to improve skid resistance. It has the advantage that it
mixture to provide high resistance to deformation with the can be applied rapidly and at a relatively low cost by a truck-
interstices substantially filled with bitumen/filler mastic. mounted mixing plant.
basics

12 Manufacturing Process 13

Refinery Processes or oxidised bitumen. Typically the blower feedstock has a


lower initial boiling point than for paving grade bitumens. It
In an oil refinery, the crude oil being processed is separated
is this, combined with severe blowing, that gives industrial Light Distillate: Naphtha, Kerosene, Gas-oil
into different cuts on the basis of their boiling range. In Main
bitumens their special physical properties.
atmospheric distillation, which is the first stage of this Refinery
continuous process, the crude oil is heated to 300C-350C The production of high quality bitumen relies on a combination Processing
and the more volatile components, e.g. petrol and kerosene, of skills, experience and modern refinery technology. These
are distilled off. This leaves a residue called atmospheric are used extensively to ensure the suitability of feedstocks
residue, which is then further distilled under vacuum. and to monitor and control all stages of the process. Crude Oil 300 350C
The actual processing temperature of the residue is 350C-
Atmospheric
390C, but because of the applied vacuum, the further Storage Distillation Industrial
effective distillation cut point is 500C-560C. This vacuum Bitumen
Bitumen is stored at refineries and large depots in large
distillation process yields further volatile products known as
permanent tanks made of mild-steel plate, with capacities of Wax Distillate
vacuum distillates and leaves a non-volatile residue of high
between 100 and 10,000 tonnes. Steam or hot oil is pumped
viscosity, which is called vacuum residue.
through heating coils in the heavily insulated tanks so that Severe Air
the bitumen remains fluid. Smaller depots and big users Blowing
Depending on the crude origin, the vacuum residue may 350 390C

be used directly as bitumen without further processing. For store bitumen in small permanent or semi-mobile tanks of up
Water and
some crude oils though, or to meet particular specifications, to 60 tonnes capacity, typically heated by electricity or flame Emulsification
additional processing may be required, such as air blowing heater tubes. Agent
of the residue. The air blowing process demands careful Vacuum Vacuum
selection and control of process temperature, air rate and
Distribution Distillation Residue
Bitumen
residence time to ensure consistent product. Sometimes As bitumen cools, it gradually becomes unworkable. Emulsion
bitumens are produced by blending vacuum residue with Therefore the delivery of paving grade bitumen not only calls Polymer Bitumen
asphaltenes derived from the manufacture of lubricating oils. for the supply of bitumen to be provided at the right quality Emulsion
For example, propane-precipitated asphalt (PPA) is commonly and quantity at the right time, but the product must also be Emulsification
used in the manufacture of bitumens when lubricating oils kept between 150C-190C throughout the supply chain.
are produced at the same refinery. When it is loaded into a road tanker, the temperature can 220 260C
drop by about 7C-10C and continue to fall by a further one Polymer
The selection of crude is an important aspect of bitumen or two degrees per hour while in transit.
manufacture, requiring expertise and experience to yield Air
Blowing
a satisfactory product not all crude can be used to make Road tankers with capacities of between 10 and 40 tonnes Polymer
bitumen. Few of the nearly 1500 available crude petroleum are normally used to take most of the bitumen from the Modified
oils are suitable for the manufacture of good quality bitumen. refineries. They have insulated single-compartment tanks, Binder
Within the Australian context, a very small number of crude usually with some kind of heating such as heating tubes.
Atmospheric Distillation
oils are able to be used to manufacture bitumen compliant To transport bitumen to intermediary depots with reheating The crude oil is split into Mixing
different boiling-point fractions.
with the current Australian Standard. facilities, insulated rail cars are sometimes used. Their
Vacuum Distillation
capacity ranges from 10 tonnes to 50 tonnes and they are Atmospheric residue is split into different
boiling-point fractions.
Cutback bitumens are produced by diluting the paving grade also fitted with electric heaters or direct oil-fired flame tube Air Blowing
bitumen with a cutter or flux. Bitumen emulsions are made heaters. When bitumen is moved by sea, it can be shipped By blowing air through bitumen at high
temperature under controlled conditions,
Cutback
in a colloid mill by dispersing paving grade bitumen in water in a variety of vessels from 300 tonne barges to ocean-going the heavy molecules are enlarged.
Emulsification Bitumen
with the aid of an emulsifying agent. tankers of up to 30,000 tonnes capacity. The temperature of In an emulsion mill bitumen is dispersed
in water; chemicals are also added to Cutter Oil
the hot-loaded bitumen is maintained by high pressure steam stabilise the emulsions. Flux Oil Fluxed
For industrial bitumens, in order to produce a material or hot oil passing through coils in the bitumen tanks. Mixing
Bitumen
High energy mixing process to
that will soften at a higher temperature than paving grade disperse polymer into bitumen. Blending
Blending
bitumen of equivalent penetration, severe air blowing is The viscosity of bitumen is reduced by Paving Grade
blending in various amounts of flux oil (solvents).
required. The product is therefore also known as air-blown Bitumen

Figure 8: A refinery process diagram illustrating a


typical off-take for bitumen products.
basics

14 Test Procedures 15

Characteristics SA Standards Australia Viscosity: is a more scientific measure of consistency


Vacuum viscometer Gravity viscometer
than Penetration. Various tests are used to measure To vacuum
The main bitumen characteristics of interest are its viscosity Austroads The association of Australian and New
the resistance to flow of bitumen and to thereby define
and its ability to be handled safely. Zealand road transport and traffic authorities Vent to atmosphere
its consistency. Results are given in units of Poise (P),
Upper
AusSpec Joint Venture between Standards Australia centistokes (cSt) or Pascal seconds (Pa s) as standard filling mark
Viscosity: the degree of fluidity of the bitumen at a
and the Institute of Public Works Engineering units of measurement, the relationship between these
standard test temperature. The viscosity of bitumen varies Water bath Sample
Australia (IPWEA) units depending on the specific gravity of the bitumen. heated to 60C
according to its temperature; therefore when comparing
Different types of viscometers are used according to the Water bath
grades of bitumen, it is essential to carry out tests at ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials (USA) heated
type of bitumen being tested and the preferences of local to 135C
standard temperature. AASHTO American Association of State Highway and specifying authorities. Timing marks
Timing marks
Transportation Officials (USA)
Safety: to ensure that bitumen may be used safely, it Lower
The capillary tube viscometer with a means of applying a filling mark
is critical that its flash point occurs at a much greater DIN Deutsche Industrie Norm (Germany) Sample
partial vacuum is most commonly used for testing paving
temperature than that at which road construction work is IP Institute of Petroleum (UK) grade and cutback bitumens at 60C. The time taken for the
carried out. The flash point is the temperature at which the
bitumen to flow between two points is taken and multiplied
heated bitumen will release fumes that will ignite (flash) in LCPC Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses Figure 10 a) b): The recognised methods used to measure
by a calibration factor to give a value in Pascal seconds. viscosity.
the presence of a naked flame or a spark. (France)

A vacuum is sometimes not required when testing paving


Test Development Paving Grade Bitumens Flash Point: used to measure the temperature to which a
grade bitumen at 135C as the bitumen is fluid enough to sample of bitumen may be safely heated by establishing the
Experience in using bitumen in engineering projects has led The test procedures used for paving grades of bitumen are pass through the tube within a reasonable time under gravity temperature at which a small flame causes the vapour above
to the adoption of certain test procedures that are indicative as follows: alone. The time taken for its passage is also multiplied by a the sample to ignite or flash. Various methods may be used
of the characteristics that identify adequate performance. calibration factor and the result is expressed in Pascal seconds. but the most common is the Cleveland Open Cup (COC)
However, there are two important points to be taken into Penetration Test: used to determine the consistency of
test in which a brass cup filled with a specified amount of
account when considering these test procedures. bitumen by measuring the distance that a standard needle Another type of viscometer used for cutbacks and bitumen bitumen is heated and a flame is passed over the top at
will penetrate vertically into a sample under specified emulsions is the efflux viscometer. This measures in
1. Strict adherance to the specified test procedures. specified intervals of time. The flash point is the temperature
conditions of loading, temperature and time, i.e. load of 100g seconds the time a specified quantity of bitumen takes reached when the vapour causes an instantaneous flash.
2. Different specifying authorities use different standard test at a temperature of 25C for 5 seconds, reported in tenths of to flow through an orifice of specified dimensions under A modified Pensky-Martens closed tester is used in the
procedures. a millimetre. standard temperature conditions. Australian Standard test.
Some of the tests have evolved with the development of Before test After test
Dial set at zero Dial reading A fourth viscometer is the Brookfield Viscometer. A spindle
the industry and are empirical methods. Consequently it is Thermometer Temperature is noted
is suspended in a sample of bitumen. When the spindle when flash occurs
essential that they are carried out in strict compliance with Vapour rising from sample
is twisted, the resistance to rotation is recorded through a Cleveland brass cup
the recommended procedures if they are to be accurate
Time = 0 seconds Time = 5 seconds calibrated spring connected to a dial where the reading is Naked flame to be
measurements of the bitumens properties. Modern passed over sample
taken. Modern Brookfield Viscometers utilise digital displays at specified intervals
technology is continually being employed by major bitumen
which directly show the viscosity of the material being tested.
manufacturers at their research centres and in industry- 100g

sponsored university research projects to find new ways of


measuring the physical properties of bitumen, and translating
Water bath
these into specifications relating to road performance. heated
to 25C
Sample
Specifying Authorities Needle position after test =
Needle set just touching surface dial reading in tenths of a millimetre
Various organisations representing bitumen manufacturers
Heat source
and users have laid down standard test procedures. Major
test methods specifiers are: Figure 9: The penetration test as applied to bitumen.
Figure 11: This test establishes the temperature at which a
sample of bitumen will ignite, i.e. flash point.
basics

16 17

Ductility: gives an indication of the extent to which a sample Bitumen Emulsions Sieve Residue test: shows the presence of coarse binder
of the material can be stretched before breaking. A standard Thermometer Temperature is particles in the emulsion. These particles may be in the
noted at end of test Bitumen emulsions are subject to their own test procedures.
briquette of bitumen, placed in a mould in a water bath heated form of relatively large globules or strings and may indicate
Balls
Some of the tests used for determining their properties are
to 15C, is pulled apart, usually at a speed of 5 cm per minute. instability or result in poor coating performance or clogging
Ring When ball as follows:
The length of the thread of bitumen at the moment when it has dropped of equipment. The sample is strained through a 150m sieve
a previously set
breaks, expressed in centimetres, is the ductility of the sample. Sample and the percentage mass of emulsion retained on the sieve
specified distance
test has ended
Consistency: Also known as the Engler Viscosity test, this
is calculated and reported as sieve residue.
Water
measures the rate of flow of the bitumen emulsion at 25C.
Water bath heated to 15C Three samples set up for test
The emulsion is heated to 25C and poured into a standard
Residue from Evaporation test: indicates the percentage
container. The time taken by 200mL of emulsion to pass
mass of binder present in an emulsion. An emulsion sample
through a standard orifice at the bottom of the container is
is heated so that water and other volatile components are
measured.
evaporated. Residue from evaporation is calculated from the
mass of the sample and residue after evaporation.
Heat source Water Content test: determines the weight percent of
Mark indicates start of test water in an emulsion. This can be performed by Dean and
Stark distillation or Karl Fischer titration. In the Dean and
Figure 13: The Softening Point test (Ring and Ball Test)
Samples are drawn through bath at a speed of 5cm per minute
measures the temperature at which bitumen has a particular Stark distillation, a sample is heated with a solvent that is
viscosity. immiscible with water. During the distillation process, the
solvent and the water are separated in a trap so that the
amount of water can be measured. In the Karl Fischer water Water
Cutback Bitumens content method, the emulsion is dissolved in a solvent and coolant
titrated with a Karl Fischer reagent, which reacts with the supply
For cutback bitumens, in addition to the viscosity and flash
point tests, the following test is included in specifications: water in the emulsion. The amount of Karl Fischer reagent
Each failure is
indicated here consumed is used to determine the water content of the
Distillation test: a measured quantity of cutback is heated emulsion.
Figure 12: Ductility testing of bitumen samples:
Above: illustrates the position at the start of the test, and to 360C in a distillation flask. The volatile constituents
Below: the points of failure. vaporise and pass into a water-cooled condenser flask where Sedimentation test: indicates the extent to which the
they are measured to show the percentage of the volume components of an emulsion sample will separate during
Solubility and the Presence of Insolubles: indicates the of the cutback that has been driven off. This indicates the storage. Samples are taken from the top and bottom of a
degree of contamination of the bitumen by other matter volatility of the cutback. The material that remains in the 500mL sample that has stood undisturbed for three days. Solvent
.
and therefore the presence of pure bitumen. The Australian distillation flask is treated as paving grade bitumen for further The samples are tested for water content. The difference
Water
test measures the percentage of matter that is insoluble in testing for viscosity and solubility. between the water content of each sample is an indication content Figure 15: The Dean
of the degree to which sedimentation has taken place. collected and Stark test
toluene. here (Water Content
Sample with Test) records the
Effect of Heat and Air: is determined to simulate the Thermometer Stone Coating Ability and Water Resistance test: it is percentage volume
solvent mix
conditions obtained when the bitumen is used to Water coolant supply
essential that a bitumen emulsion stands up to the action of of water in a bitumen
manufacture hot-mix. In the Rolling Thin Film Oven Test a Draught shield being mixed with aggregates, coat them as completely as Heat source emulsion
moving film of bitumen is heated in an oven at 163C for possible and not be washed off by any water that may fall on
60 minutes. The viscosity is measured before and after it once the mixing is completed. This test shows the extent
treatment.
Sample
heated to 360C
to which a sample meets these requirements. It involves
Wire gauze coating a sample of aggregate with emulsion, spraying
Softening Point: a measurement of the temperature at Chimney
it with water until the water coming from it is clear. The
which a sample of bitumen held in a ring in a water bath coating on the sample is assessed.
allows a steel ball of specified weight to fall to a point at a
specified distance below it. It is used as an indication of the Particle Charge test: identifies the charge on the bitumen
temperature at which bitumen has a particular viscosity or particles in an emulsion. A positive and a negative electrode
Heat source
more simply, the temperature at which it softens. are left in a sample of emulsion for half an hour. If there is
bitumen deposited on the negative electrode at the end of
Figure 14: The Distillation test indicates the volatility of a the test the emulsion is cationic; if bitumen is deposited on
sample of cutback bitumen. the positive electrode, the emulsion is anionic.
basics

18 Optimising Bitumen Performance Glossary 19

Background increase due to oxidation if it is overheated. Keep asphalt at AAPA Australian Asphalt Pavement Association asphalt, dense-graded (DGA) An asphalt comprised of
the lowest temperature that will permit it to be thoroughly coarse and fine aggregates, filler and a bituminous binder,
Petroleum based bitumen is a product of consistently adhesion agent A substance added to a bituminous binder
mixed, transported and compacted to the specified density. which is placed hot and then compacted to a dense state
high quality. Its production involves a heavy investment to improve adhesion between the binder and aggregate. The
The maximum bitumen storage temperature relating to the as a road pavement layer. The aggregate gradation of dense
in high-technology equipment and a commitment to term is usually applied to adhesion in the presence of water.
grade should not be exceeded during the mixing process. graded asphalt is considered to be continuous and the
quality management at all stages of crude oil selection, Also commonly known as an anti-stripping agent. intimate interlocking of the aggregate particles is a major
manufacture, blending, storage and distribution. By retaining Temperature control is a major factor in the quality control of factor in the strength of the compacted asphalt. Also known
and checking samples of consignments of bitumen, the asphalt mixes. age hardening Hardening of a bituminous binder due to as asphaltic concrete.
composition and quality of the bitumen at the time it was loss of volatiles and oxidation of the binder resulting from
delivered to the contractor can be confirmed. Avoid contaminating the bitumen, particularly with petroleum exposure to weather over a period of time. asphalt, hot rolled (HRA) An asphalt material used as a
based solvents that reduce the flashpoint and the viscosity, dense wearing course, basecourse or roadbase material and
The actual performance of the bitumen when it is doing its and increase the penetration. Just 0.1% diesel in an asphalt aggregate A material usually produced by crushing rock, which consists of a mixture of gap-graded coarse aggregate,
job is just one part of the total performance of an asphalt mixture can lower the flash point and viscosity, and increase slag, gravel, sand or similar material and screened to provide fine aggregates, filler and bituminous binder. Common in the
mixture or sprayed seal. Asphalt performance depends on a the penetration significantly. a specific size distribution. UK.
number of factors, including the design of the mixture, the
way it was mixed, the quality of mineral aggregate used and Stability is an essential quality in the performance of asphalt. air voids The spaces within the bulk of a material, such as asphalt, lake A highly viscous natural bitumen found in
how it was laid and compacted. Sprayed seal performance It depends on friction and cohesion within the mixture. an asphalt mix, which is not occupied by solid matter or filled well-defined surface deposits e.g. Trinidad Lake Asphalt.
depends on similar factors and can be significantly affected Too much bitumen will act as a lubricant for the aggregate with bituminous binder.
by weather conditions at the time of spraying and the particles, reducing friction and therefore the stability of the asphalt, open-graded (OGA) An asphalt comprised
cleanliness of the aggregate. As bitumen is an integral part mix. The cohesion, or internal binding force in the mixture, ALGA Australian Local Government Association of a large proportion of a single size aggregate, filler and
of both asphalt mixtures and sprayed seals, advice on how increases as the proportion of bitumen in the mixture is bituminous binder, which has an interconnecting voids
to avoid and correct errors would need to cover many factors increased, until it reaches the optimum. If the amount of anionic bitumen emulsion A bituminous emulsion in which content of about 20% to 25%. Also known as porous asphalt
and types of applications. This subject is outside the scope bitumen increases further, stability decreases. It is therefore the suspended bitumen droplets are negatively charged. and drainage asphalt.
of this booklet. essential to ensure that the optimum proportion of bitumen
anti-foaming agent A substance (e.g. silicone oil) added asphalt, stone mastic (SMA) An asphalt with a high
is used in any mixture.
However, it is possible to put forward the following essential to bitumen to reduce the surface tension and hence the coarse aggregate content and a high volume of both filler and
guidelines to optimising the performance of bitumen, mainly To quote the Asphalt Institute of America directly: Finished frothing tendency of hot bitumen in the presence of water. bituminous binder, the strength of which is predominantly
in hot mix asphalt, on the basis of what is known about mix should be frequently observed. No testing method or provided by stone-on-stone contact of the coarse aggregate
bitumen itself. Some of the points are mentioned elsewhere application rate (aggregate) The amount of aggregate
device is as quick and convenient as the human eye. The particles. Also known as Splitt Mastic Asphalt.
but they have been repeated in this section for convenient spread in a sprayed seal expressed as square metres per
following are useful examples of what can be seen by simple
reference. cubic metre (m2/m3). Commonly known as the aggregate asphaltenes High molecular weight compounds in bitumen
observation. They can be treated as early warning signs that
spread rate or coverage. which are soluble in carbon disulphide, but insoluble in
further checks should be made:
General Advice aromatic-free low-boiling petroleum solvents, such as n-heptane.
application rate (binder) The amount of bituminous
Minimise the time during which hot bitumen is exposed blue smoke coming from the mixture can indicate
binder applied in a sprayed seal expressed as litres per asphaltic cement North American term for bitumen.
to air. Bitumen hardens and loses some of its adhesive overheating
square metre (L/m2), usually expressed at 15C. Commonly
property when it is exposed to a combination of air and steam coming from the mixture indicates the presence of
known as the spray rate. asphaltic concrete See asphalt, dense-graded (DGA).
excessive heat. Careless mixing of bitumen and aggregate too much moisture
is an example of a practice that exposes bitumen to the air if the distribution of bitumen on the aggregate is not uniform, ARF Australian Road Federation atmospheric residue (atres) The residue obtained in the
and heat for longer than the minimum time required to coat the temperature in the mixing operation may be too low atmospheric distillation of crude petroleum oil.
the aggregate. It is therefore likely to reduce the bitumens ARRB Australian Road Research Board, now known as
if the mixture looks stiff and dull rather than black and
performance as an adhesive. ARRB Group Limited
shiny there may be too little bitumen in the mixture, or Austroads The association of Australian and New Zealand
overheating has excessively oxidised the binder road transport and traffic authorities.
Keep bitumen dry and away from contamination by water at asphalt A mixture of bituminous binder and aggregate,
all times. When hot bitumen comes into contact with water it if the mixture lies slumped on the floor of the truck the
with or without mineral filler. Usually produced hot in a AustStab Australian Stabilisation Industry Association
will foam. In extreme cases it will violently boil over from storage mixture may contain too much bitumen
mixing plant and delivered, spread and compacted while hot.
vessels due to the presence of small quantities of water. Also known as hot mix or hot mix asphalt (HMA). base course One or more layers of material immediately
below the wearing course of a pavement. Also known as
Keep bitumen within the range of temperatures Asphalt Institute (AI) An association of international base or binder course.
recommended for the type and grade. Bitumen solidifies petroleum bitumen producers, manufacturers, and affiliated
as it cools and becomes unworkable and the viscosity may businesses, based in the USA.
basics

20 21

binder A material that is used to hold aggregate particles slurry which can be spread evenly on a road surface (as in creep The slow deformation of a material, such as asphalt, DPI NT Department of Planning and Infrastructure
together or to a substrate, such as bitumen in asphalt and bituminous slurry surfacing). generally measured under constant stress. Northern Territory
sprayed seals, or cement in concrete.
blowing A refinery process involving the blowing of air crumb rubber Either natural or styrene butadiene rubber drainage asphalt See asphalt, open graded.
bitumen A viscous liquid or solid, consisting essentially through bitumen, usually at high temperature, to alter its recovered by comminuting used vehicle tyres into small
of hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is substantially viscosity characteristics. Also known as air blowing. crumbs which are then graded to conform to a specified size DTEI SA Department for Transport, Energy and
soluble in organic solvents, such as toluene and carbon range for use as a bitumen modifier. Infrastructure: the South Australian State Road Authority.
disulphide, and is substantially non-volatile and softens blown bitumen See bitumen, blown.
gradually when heated. It is black or brown in colour and crumb rubber modified seal (CRM seal) A sprayed seal DTMS ACT Department of Territory and Municipal Services
possesses waterproofing and adhesive properties. It is either boil over The sudden overflow of a tank contents caused in which the binder consists of bitumen modified by the Australian Capital Territory.
obtained by refinery processes from petroleum or is found by the rapid evaporation of water within hot bitumen. incorporation of crumb rubber.
as a natural deposit or as a component of naturally occurring ductility The characteristic of a bituminous binder that
asphalt, in which it is associated with mineral matter. Also break (of a bitumen emulsion) The separation of a cure (of an emulsion) The increase in cohesive strength allows it to be elongated without rupture when stretched.
known as asphalt in North America. bitumen emulsion into free bitumen and water, which occurs of a bituminous binder following application in emulsified Ductility values are defined as the distance to which a
as a result of coagulation of the dispersed bitumen droplets form, usually due to the progressive loss of water and other standard-sized sample of bituminous binder can be elongated
bitumen emulsion A liquid mixture in which bitumen to form a continuous phase. volatile materials following emulsion break. before the thread so formed breaks under standard specified
is suspended as small droplets in water by means of test conditions.
emulsifying and stabilising agents. cape seal A surfacing treatment incorporating the cutback bitumen Bitumen to which a suitable volatile
placement of a bituminous slurry over a sprayed seal to diluent, known as a cutter oil, has been added for the ductility recovery A modification of the ductility test
bitumen, blown Bitumen through which air has been provide an asphalt-like appearance. purpose of temporarily reducing its viscosity. whereby the sample is stretched to a thread of fixed length
passed (blown) at high temperature for the purpose of and then cut in the middle. The distance between the ends
altering its viscosity characteristics. cationic bitumen emulsion A bituminous emulsion in cutter oil A light petroleum distillate, such as kerosine, of the half threads, which develops after a standard period
which the suspended bitumen droplets are positively charged. which is added to bitumen to temporarily reduce its viscosity of time, is used to calculate the elastic recovery. It is usually
bitumen, cutback See cutback bitumen (cutback bitumen). expressed as a percentage of the elongation length.
chip seal See sprayed seal.
bitumen, fluxed A bitumen to which a flux oil has been dense-graded asphalt See asphalt, dense graded. durability The maintenance of performance properties of
added to provide a long-term reduction in its viscosity. cohesion The magnitude of internal forces that resist the bitumen and bituminous materials to traffic, weather and
separation of a material into its constituent particles. DIER Tas Department of Infrastructure, Energy and other external factors. For bitumen, the measurement under
bitumen, industrial grade See bitumen, oxidised. Resources Tasmania standard specified test conditions of the long term effect of
cold mix A mixture of bituminous binder and aggregate, heat and air is known as the Durability and is based on the
bitumen, oxidised Bitumen, to which other refinery with or without added filler, which is produced warm or distillation, atmospheric A refinery process that accelerated aging of bitumen to determine the time required
products such as paraffinic oils may have been added, that cold in a mixing plant and can be delivered in a workable separates components in a crude petroleum oil by virtue for it to reach a specified viscosity level that has been
has been subjected to a prolonged blowing process to condition suitable for stockpiling, spreading and compaction. of their different boiling points. Atmospheric distillation is associated with distress in pavement surfacings.
substantially change its viscosity characteristics. Also known It is typically used in areas where it is impractical to do repair carried out at normal atmospheric pressure.
as industrial grade bitumen. work using hot mix. dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) An instrument that
distillation, vacuum A refinery process that separates measures the rheological properties, such as deformation
bitumen, paving grade Bitumen manufactured specifically compaction The process of producing a closer packing components in a crude petroleum oil by virtue of their and flow characteristics, of bituminous binders.
for use in road pavement applications. of aggregate and filler particles in asphalt by rolling or other different boiling points. Vacuum distillation is carried out at
mechanical means. Usually aimed at achieving a desired reduced pressure to separate higher boiling components dynamic viscosity The ratio of shear stress to shear
bitumen, petroleum Bitumen obtained from crude voids content. that would otherwise decompose if higher distillation (strain) rate of a fluid.
petroleum oil by a refinery processes. temperatures and normal atmospheric pressures were used.
consistency A general term describing the relative Vacuum distillation is usually carried out on the residue elastomer A polymeric material that exhibits
bitumen, straight run Bitumen produced from crude resistance to deformation or flow of a semi-fluid or plastic obtained from atmospheric distillation. predominantly elastic properties.
petroleum oil solely by a process of distillation (atmospheric material.
& vacuum). Also known as residual bitumen. DOTARS Australian Department of Transport and Regional emulsifier A chemical that stabilises an emulsion by
continuous grading An aggregate grading or particle size Services reducing the coalescence of dispersed droplets.
bituminous A material that resembles or contains bitumen. distribution where all sizes or fractions from the maximum
particle size down are represented. The grading curve has a double seal A sprayed seal constructed by applying two emulsion A colloidal suspension of a liquid (the dispersed
bituminous slurry A mixture of bitumen emulsion (with smooth concave shape without abrupt changes in slope. successive sprayed seals. Usually, the first sprayed seal uses phase) in another liquid (the continuous phase) in which it is
or without added polymer modifier), mineral aggregate, a larger aggregate size than the second sprayed seal. not soluble.
filler, additives and water properly proportioned to form a
basics

22 23

emulsion, bitumen See bitumen emulsion mineral filler See filler. polymer modified binder (PMB) A pre-formed blend of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) Material reclaimed
bitumen, polymer and other additives made under carefully from an asphalt pavement, usually by cold milling, and which
ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA) A plastomeric polymer modulus The ratio of a component of stress to a controlled conditions and which has enhanced binder may be reutilised in new asphalt pavement layers.
used in the modification of bitumen. component of strain. Also called stiffness. performance for particular applications.
reseal A sprayed seal applied to a surface which has an
ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) A plastomeric polymer used multigrade bitumen A bitumen produced in a special Portland cement Hydraulic cement made by heating to existing seal.
in the modification of bitumen. refinery process to modify the temperature susceptibility a high temperature a mixture of clay and limestone and
otherwise characteristic of normal bitumen. A multigrade grinding the resulting clinker to a fine powder. residual bitumen See bitumen, straight run.
Eurobitume European Bitumen Association. bitumen will exhibit a higher viscosity at a high service
temperature and a lower viscosity at a low service temperature precoat A precoat, or more accurately, an aggregate rheology The study of flow and deformation of materials.
filler A finely divided mineral powder, which is normally than an equivalent normal paving grade bitumen. precoating fluid, is a liquid that, when applied to the surface
less than 0.075mm in size. Typically derived from crushed of aggregate particles, serves to enhance the adhesion rheometer An instrument for measuring the rheological
aggregate, although cement and lime are also used as filler. open-graded asphalt See asphalt, open-graded (OGA). of those particles to bituminous binders in sprayed seal properties (deformation and flow characteristics) of
applications. Precoats can be water-based, neat diesel, materials. May be used for creep tests, dynamic tests,
flash point The lowest temperature at which the vapour of particle size distribution The percentages of the various or more often a blend of bitumen with flux or cutter oils. viscosity measurement, etc.
a material momentarily catches fire when a flame is applied, sizes of aggregate or filler as determined by sieving. Also Adhesion agents may also sometime be added.
but does not continue to burn. known as grading. rolling thin film oven test (RTFOT) A laboratory test to
prime An application of a bituminous material (primer) simulate the ageing a bituminous binder will undergo in an
flux oil A substantially non-volatile petroleum diluent, such pavement The road structure placed above the subgrade. to a prepared base as a preliminary treatment to a more asphalt mixing plant.
as automotive diesel fuel, which is used to produce a long- permanent surfacing. The role of a prime is to penetrate and
term reduction in the viscosity of bitumen. paving grade bitumen See bitumen, paving grade. bind the substrate surface and provide a waterproof bonding RTA NSW Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales.
layer between the existing pavement and the subsequent
fluxed bitumen See bitumen, fluxed. penetration An indication of the softness of a bituminous rubber See crumb rubber.
sprayed seal or asphalt layer.
binder and measured as the vertical distance penetrated by a
foamed bitumen Hot bitumen to which steam or water standard needle entering a bituminous binder sample under SA Standards Australia.
primer A bituminous material of low viscosity and low
has been added to temporarily greatly expand its volume by specified conditions of load, time and temperature. surface tension used in priming. Often a cutback bitumen.
creating a foamed state. sand A non-cohesive granular material, usually under
penetration index (PI) The penetration index represents a 2.36 mm in size, which results from the natural disintegration
primer binder A material which is more viscous than a
fog seal See surface enrichment. quantitative measure of the temperature susceptibility of of rock and consists mainly of mixtures of irregular or sub-
primer that is used to act both as a primer and binder and
bitumen and is determined by calculation from two penetration angular and rounded particles.
used in primer sealing.
high stress seal (HSS) A sprayed seal which is applied values determined at different temperatures. Alternative
specifically to withstand heavier than normal traffic loading equations exist that calculate PI from a combination of scrap rubber See crumb rubber.
primer seal A preliminary sprayed seal treatment intended
due to braking, accelerating and turning vehicles. penetration, softening point and viscosity measurements. to carry traffic for an interim period, which is constructed
seal coat See sprayed seal.
by applying a primer binder with a fine cover aggregate.
hot mix (HMA) See asphalt. plastomer A polymeric material that exhibits Typically applied to new granular pavements prior to the
predominantly plastic flow properties. sedimentation The process whereby the more dense
placement of an asphalt overlay.
IPWEA Institute of Public Works Engineering Australia. bitumen droplets settle out of the less dense continuous
polybutadiene (PBD) An elastomeric polymer used in the aqueous phase of a bitumen emulsion to form a sediment.
propane-precipitated asphaltenes (PPA) Asphaltene
IRF International Road Federation. modification of bitumen. material obtained as a precipitate from a mixture of vacuum
segregation The separation of polymer from bitumen,
kinematic viscosity The ratio of dynamic viscosity to residue in propane. Normally derived as a by-product of
polyethylene (PE) A plastomeric polymer used in the usually during hot storage, which sometimes results in
density of a material. lubricant base oil manufacture.
modification of bitumen. polymer concentrations increasing in the top layers and
decreasing in the bottom layers of PMBs held in storage.
maltenes Lower molecular weight compounds in bitumen pyrophoric deposit A deposit often found on the inside
polymer Long thread-like molecule made up from small,
which are soluble in normal heptane. surfaces of bitumen storage tanks and normally formed
repeating units or monomers. Molecular Weight may range set up To harden or cure, either by evaporation of volatiles
in an oxygen depleted environment, which can be self-
from a few thousand to millions. Polymers typically used or natural oxidation by air.
microsurfacing A bituminous slurry, which usually contains heating when its temperature or the surrounding oxygen
in bitumen have molecular weights of several hundred
polymer, that is capable of being applied in variably thick concentration is increased. single/double seal A sprayed seal constructed by applying
thousand.
layers for rut-filling, correction courses and wearing courses. a single application of bituminous binder followed by a
QDMR Queensland Department of Main Roads.
double application of aggregate.
mineral aggregate See aggregate.
basics

24 25

single/single seal A sprayed seal constructed by applying subbase The material laid on the subgrade to either make
a single application of bituminous binder followed by a single up additional pavement thickness, to prevent intrusion of the
application of aggregate. subgrade into the base, or to provide a working platform for
placement of the base course.
slurry seal A surface treatment consisting of a thin layer of
bituminous slurry, usually without added polymer. subgrade The soil foundation below a pavement.

slurry surfacing See bituminous slurry. surface enrichment A light application of bituminous
binder to an existing sprayed seal for the purpose of
softening point The temperature at which a bituminous increasing its binder volume and extending its service life.
binder softens under standard specified conditions. Usually
determined by the ring and ball softening point test, tack coat A light application of a bituminous binder to a
which measures the temperature at which a disc of the prepared base as a preliminary treatment to promote surface
binder softens sufficiently to allow a standard steel ball, adhesion of the subsequent asphalt layer.
initially placed on the surface, to fall through the disc for a
prescribed distance. tar A viscous solid, semi-solid, or liquid material, black in
colour and having adhesive properties, which is typically
sprayed seal A thin layer of bituminous binder sprayed obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, wood or shale.
onto a pavement surface followed by the application of
a layer of single-sized aggregate. Also known as surface temperature susceptibility The change in viscosity of
dressing (UK) and chip seal (NZ). a bituminous binder with change in temperature. A high
temperature susceptibility indicates a large change in
stabilisation The treatment of a road pavement or viscosity with temperature.
subgrade material by the introduction of a bituminous binder
to improve its engineering strength. vacuum residue (vacres) The residue obtained in the
vacuum distillation of atmospheric residue.
stiffness See modulus.
VicRoads The Victorian road authority.
stone mastic asphalt (SMA) See asphalt, stone mastic (SMA).
viscoelasticity The rheological characteristic of a
straight-run bitumen See bitumen, straight run. bituminous binder represented by both viscous and elastic
behaviour, i.e. behaviour which is like that of both a solid and
strain alleviating membrane (SAM) A sprayed seal a liquid, in response to an applied stress.
in which the bituminous binder is formulated to reduce
reflective cracking, usually by the incorporation of polymer. viscometer An instrument for measuring the viscosity of a
Used to waterproof an underlying cracked pavement surface. material.

strain alleviating membrane interlayer (SAMI) Similar viscosity The property of a fluid whereby, through internal
to a SAM, but provided as an interlayer between pavement friction, it resists movement and expressed as the stress
layers to reduce the likelihood of cracks reflecting through divided by the strain rate.
the top asphalt layer from the underlying pavement.
voids See air voids.
styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) An elastomeric polymer
used in the modification of bitumen, the polymer backbone wearing course The surface layer of a pavement that is in
of which is made up of randomly distributed styrene and direct contact with traffic.
butadiene monomers. Also known as synthetic rubber.

styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) An elastomeric polymer


used in the modification of bitumen, the polymer backbone of
which is made up by joining polystyrene, polybutadiene and
polystyrene polymer blocks in either a linear or radial formation.
basics

BP Bitumen Australia For advice on which product BP Bitumen Offices 27


to use to meet your specific
job requirements,
please contact us: Head Office
BP Bitumen Australia
On the web: 55 Toll Drive, Altona North, Victoria
PO Box 495, Altona North VIC 3025
www.BPBitumen.com.au Telephone: (03) 8368 8700
Facsimile: (03) 8368 8701
By e-mail:
BPBitumenAustralia@bp.com Queensland / New South Wales /
Northern Territory
Technical Helpline: BP Whinstanes
Building B, 701 Kingsford Smith Drive
1800 24 88 66 Hamilton, Queensland 4007
PO Box 718, Hamilton QLD 4007
Or contact the BP Bitumen Telephone: (07) 3364 7093
sales manager in your region. Facsimile: (07) 3364 7102

Tasmania
BP Bitumen Selfs Point
Selfs Point Road, Newtown, Tasmania
PO Box 282, Moonah TAS 7009
Telephone: (03) 6278 1310
Facsimile: (03) 6278 2205

Victoria / South Australia


BP Bitumen Altona
55 Toll Drive, Altona North, Victoria
PO Box 495, Altona North VIC 3025
Telephone: (03) 8368 8700
Facsimile: (03) 8368 8702

Western Australia
BP Bitumen Kwinana
Mason Road, Kwinana, Western Australia
PO Box 2131, Rockingham WA 6167
Telephone: (08) 9419 9712
Facsimile: (08) 9419 9820

The information provided in this Guide is of a general nature and should only be used as a guide. Please contact BP Bitumen staff to ensure you have access to the most current information
and for advice relating to any particular circumstances. BP Australia Pty Ltd (BP) makes no warranty as to the completeness or accuracy of the information provided and, to the fullest extent
permitted by applicable law, BP and its subsidiaries are not liable for any costs, loss or damage incurred in connection with use of the information provided in this Guide. The material contained
in this Guide is protected by copyright. BP, Olexobit, Multibit, Aquabit and the Helios Design are registered trade marks of BP p.l.c. and licensed to BP Australia Pty Ltd for use in Australia.

BP Australia Pty Ltd ABN 53 004 085 616, Melbourne Central, 360 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne 3000, Australia. Printed October 2007. wam9774.
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