2/12/2017 AtomicforcemicroscopyWikipedia

Atomicforcemicroscopy
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Atomicforcemicroscopy(AFM)orscanningforceMicroscopy(SFM)isaveryhighresolutiontypeof
scanningprobemicroscopy(SPM),withdemonstratedresolutionontheorderoffractionsofananometer,more
than1000timesbetterthantheopticaldiffractionlimit.

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Abilities
1.2 Othermicroscopytechnologies
1.3 Configuration
1.3.1 Detector
1.3.2 Imageformation
1.4 History
1.5 Applications Anatomicforcemicroscopeontheleft
2 Principles withcontrollingcomputerontheright.
2.1 Imagingmodes
2.1.1 Contactmode
2.1.2 Tappingmode
2.1.3 Noncontactmode
3 Topographicimage
3.1 Whatisthetopographicimageofatomicforce
microscope?
3.2 TopographicimageofFMAFM
4 Forcespectroscopy
4.1 Biologicalapplicationsandother
5 Identificationofindividualsurfaceatoms
6 Probe
7 AFMcantileverdeflectionmeasurement
AtomicForceMicroscope
7.1 Beamdeflectionmeasurement
7.2 Otherdeflectionmeasurementmethods
8 Piezoelectricscanners
9 Advantagesanddisadvantages
9.1 Advantages
9.2 Disadvantages
10 Otherapplicationsinvariousfieldsofstudy
11 Seealso
12 References
13 Furtherreading
14 Externallinks

Overview
Atomicforcemicroscopy(AFM)orscanningforcemicroscopy(SFM)isatypeofscanningprobe
microscopy(SPM),withdemonstratedresolutionontheorderoffractionsofananometer,morethan1000
timesbetterthantheopticaldiffractionlimit.Theinformationisgatheredby"feeling"or"touching"thesurface
withamechanicalprobe.Piezoelectricelementsthatfacilitatetinybutaccurateandprecisemovementson
(electronic)commandenableveryprecisescanning.

Abilities
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TheAFMhasthreemajorabilities:forcemeasurement,imaging,and
manipulation.

Inforcemeasurement,AFMscanbeusedtomeasuretheforces
betweentheprobeandthesampleasafunctionoftheirmutual
separation.Thiscanbeappliedtoperformforcespectroscopy.

Forimaging,thereactionoftheprobetotheforcesthatthesample
imposesonitcanbeusedtoformanimageofthethreedimensional
shape(topography)ofasamplesurfaceatahighresolution.Thisis
achievedbyrasterscanningthepositionofthesamplewithrespect
tothetipandrecordingtheheightoftheprobethatcorrespondstoa
constantprobesampleinteraction(seesectiontopographicimaging
inAFMformoredetails).Thesurfacetopographyiscommonly
Blockdiagramofatomicforce
displayedasapseudocolorplot. microscopeusingbeamdeflection
detection.Asthecantileverisdisplaced
Inmanipulation,theforcesbetweentipandsamplecanalsobeused
viaitsinteractionwiththesurface,sotoo
tochangethepropertiesofthesampleinacontrolledway.Examples
willthereflectionofthelaserbeambe
ofthisincludeatomicmanipulation,scanningprobelithographyand
displacedonthesurfaceofthe
localstimulationofcells.
photodiode.
Simultaneouswiththeacquisitionoftopographicalimages,other
propertiesofthesamplecanbemeasuredlocallyanddisplayedasanimage,oftenwithsimilarlyhigh
resolution.Examplesofsuchpropertiesaremechanicalpropertieslikestiffnessoradhesionstrengthand
electricalpropertiessuchasconductivityorsurfacepotential.Infact,themajorityofSPMtechniquesare
extensionsofAFMthatusethismodality.

Othermicroscopytechnologies

Comparedtocompetitivetechnologiessuchasopticalmicroscopyandelectronmicroscopy,themajor
differencebetweentheseandtheatomicforcemicroscopeisthatthelatterdoesnotuselensesorbeam
irradiation.Therefore,itdoesnotsufferfromalimitationofspaceresolutionduetodiffractionlimitand
aberration,anditisnotnecessarytoprepareaspaceforguidingthebeam(bycreatingavacuum)ortostainthe
sample.

Thereareseveraltypesofscanningmicroscopyincludingscanningprobemicroscopy(whichincludesAFM,
STMandnearfieldscanningopticalmicroscope(SNOM/NSOM),STEDmicroscopy(STED),andscanning
electronmicroscopy).AlthoughSNOMandSTEDusevisiblelighttoilluminatethesample,theirresolutionis
notconstrainedbythediffractionlimit.

Configuration

Fig.3showsanAFMtypicallyconsistingofthefollowingfeatures:[1]

Thesmallspringlikecantilever(1)iscarriedbythesupport(2).Optionally,apiezoelectricelement(3)
oscillatesthecantilever(1).Thesharptip(4)isfixedtothefreeendofthecantilever(1).Thedetector(5)
recordsthedeflectionandmotionofthecantilever(1).Thesample(6)ismountedonthesamplestage(8).An
xyzdrive(7)permitstodisplacethesample(6)andthesamplestage(8)inx,y,andzdirectionswithrespectto
thetipapex(4).AlthoughFig.3showsthedriveattachedtothesample,thedrivecanalsobeattachedtothe
tip,orindependentdrivescanbeattachedtoboth,sinceitistherelativedisplacementofthesampleandtipthat
needstobecontrolled.ControllersandplotterarenotshowninFig.3.Numbersinparenthesescorrespondto
numberedfeaturesinFig.3.Coordinatedirectionsaredefinedbythecoordinatesystem(0).

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Accordingtotheconfigurationdescribedabove,theinteractionbetween
tipandsample,whichcanbeanatomicscalephenomenon,is
transducedintochangesofthemotionofcantileverwhichisamacro
scalephenomenon.Severaldifferentaspectsofthecantilevermotion
canbeusedtoquantifytheinteractionbetweenthetipandsample,most
commonlythevalueofthedeflection,theamplitudeofanimposed
oscillationofthecantilever,ortheshiftinresonancefrequencyofthe
cantilever(seesectionImagingModes).

Detector
Fig.3:Typicalconfigurationofan
Thedetector(5)ofAFMmeasuresthedeflection(displacementwith AFM.
respecttotheequilibriumposition)ofthecantileverandconvertsitinto (1)::Cantilever,(2):Supportfor
anelectricalsignal.Theintensityofthissignalwillbeproportionalto cantilever,(3):Piezoelectric
thedisplacementofthecantilever. element(tooscillatecantileveratits
eigenfrequency.),(4):Tip(Fixedto
Variousmethodsofdetectioncanbeused,e.g.interferometry,optical openendofacantilever,actsasthe
levers,thepiezoresistivemethod,thepiezoelectricmethod,andSTM probe),(5):Detectorofdeflection
baseddetectors(seesection"AFMcantileverdeflection
andmotionofthecantilever,(6):
measurement".).
SampletobemeasuredbyAFM,(7):
xyzdrive,(movessample(6)and
Imageformation stage(8)inx,y,andzdirectionswith
respecttoatipapex(4)),and(8):
Note:Thisparagraphsassumesthe'contactmode'isused(seesection Stage.
ImagingModes).Forotherimagingmodes,theprocessissimilar,
exceptthat'deflection'shouldbereplacedbytheappropriatefeedback
variable.

WhenusingtheAFMtoimageasample,thetipisbroughtintocontactwiththesample,andthesampleis
rasterscannedalonganxygrid(fig4).Mostcommonly,anelectronicfeedbackloopisemployedtokeepthe
probesampleforceconstantduringscanning.Thisfeedbackloophasthecantileverdeflectionasinput,andits
outputcontrolsthedistancealongthezaxisbetweentheprobesupport(2infig.3)andthesamplesupport(8in
fig3).Aslongasthetipremainsincontactwiththesample,andthesampleisscannedinthexyplane,height
variationsinthesamplewillchangethedeflectionofthecantilever.Thefeedbackthenadjuststheheightofthe
probesupportsothatthedeflectionisrestoredtoauserdefinedvalue(thesetpoint).Aproperlyadjusted
feedbackloopadjuststhesupportsampleseparationcontinuouslyduringthescanningmotion,suchthatthe
deflectionremainsapproximatelyconstant.Inthissituation,thefeedbackoutputequalsthesamplesurface
topographytowithinasmallerror.

Historically,adifferentoperationmethodhasbeenused,inwhichthesampleprobesupportdistanceiskept
constantandnotcontrolledbyafeedback(servomechanism).Inthismode,usuallyreferredtoas'constant
heightmode',thedeflectionofthecantileverisrecordedasafunctionofthesamplexyposition.Aslongasthe
tipisincontactwiththesample,thedeflectionthencorrespondstosurfacetopography.Themainreasonthis
methodisnotverypopularanymore,isthattheforcesbetweentipandsamplearenotcontrolled,whichcan
leadtoforceshighenoughtodamagethetiporthesample.Itishowevercommonpracticetorecordthe
deflectionevenwhenscanningin'constantforcemode',withfeedback.Thisrevealsthesmalltrackingerrorof
thefeedback,andcansometimesrevealfeaturesthatthefeedbackwasnotabletoadjustfor.

TheAFMsignals,suchassampleheightorcantileverdeflection,arerecordedonacomputerduringthexy
scan.Theyareplottedinapseudocolorimage,inwhicheachpixelrepresentsanxypositiononthesample,
andthecolorrepresentstherecordedsignal.

History

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AFMwasinventedbyIBMScientistsin1982.Theprecursortothe
AFM,thescanningtunnelingmicroscope(STM),wasdevelopedby
GerdBinnigandHeinrichRohrerintheearly1980satIBMResearch
Zurich,adevelopmentthatearnedthemtheNobelPrizeforPhysicsin
1986.Binniginvented[1]theatomicforcemicroscopeandthefirst
experimentalimplementationwasmadebyBinnig,QuateandGerberin
1986.[2]

Thefirstcommerciallyavailableatomicforcemicroscopewas
introducedin1989.TheAFMisoneoftheforemosttoolsforimaging, Fig.5:Topographicimageforming
measuring,andmanipulatingmatteratthenanoscale. byAFM.
(1):Tipapex,(2):Samplesurface,
(3):ZorbitofTipapex,(4):
Applications
Cantilever.
TheAFMhasbeenappliedtoproblemsinawiderangeofdisciplinesof
thenaturalsciences,includingsolidstatephysics,semiconductorscienceandtechnology,molecular
engineering,polymerchemistryandphysics,surfacechemistry,molecularbiology,cellbiologyandmedicine.

Applicationsinthefieldofsolidstatephysicsinclude(a)theidentificationofatomsatasurface,(b)the
evaluationofinteractionsbetweenaspecificatomanditsneighboringatoms,and(c)thestudyofchangesin
physicalpropertiesarisingfromchangesinanatomicarrangementthroughatomicmanipulation.

Incellularbiology,AFMcanbeusedto(a)attempttodistinguishcancercellsandnormalcellsbasedona
hardnessofcells,and(b)toevaluateinteractionsbetweenaspecificcellanditsneighboringcellsina
competitiveculturesystem.

Insomevariations,electricpotentialscanalsobescannedusingconductingcantilevers.Inmoreadvanced
versions,currentscanbepassedthroughthetiptoprobetheelectricalconductivityortransportofthe
underlyingsurface,butthisisachallengingtaskwithfewresearchgroupsreportingconsistentdata(asof
2004).[3]

Principles
TheAFMconsistsofacantileverwithasharptip(probe)atitsendthatisusedtoscanthespecimensurface.
Thecantileveristypicallysiliconorsiliconnitridewithatipradiusofcurvatureontheorderofnanometers.
Whenthetipisbroughtintoproximityofasamplesurface,forcesbetweenthetipandthesampleleadtoa
deflectionofthecantileveraccordingtoHooke'slaw.[4]Dependingonthesituation,forcesthataremeasuredin
AFMincludemechanicalcontactforce,vanderWaalsforces,capillaryforces,chemicalbonding,electrostatic
forces,magneticforces(seemagneticforcemicroscope,MFM),Casimirforces,solvationforces,etc.Along
withforce,additionalquantitiesmaysimultaneouslybemeasuredthroughtheuseofspecializedtypesof
probes(seescanningthermalmicroscopy,scanningjouleexpansionmicroscopy,photothermal
microspectroscopy,etc.).

TheAFMcanbeoperatedinanumberofmodes,dependingontheapplication.Ingeneral,possibleimaging
modesaredividedintostatic(alsocalledcontact)modesandavarietyofdynamic(noncontactor"tapping")
modeswherethecantileverisvibratedoroscillatedatagivenfrequency.[5]

Imagingmodes

AFMoperationisusuallydescribedasoneofthreemodes,accordingtothenatureofthetipmotion:contact
mode,alsocalledstaticmode(asopposedtotheothertwomodes,whicharecalleddynamicmodes)tapping
mode,alsocalledintermittentcontact,ACmode,orvibratingmode,or,afterthedetectionmechanism,
amplitudemodulationAFMnoncontactmode,or,againafterthedetectionmechanism,frequencymodulation
AFM.
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Itshouldbenotedthatdespitethenomenclature,repulsivecontactcanoccur
orbeavoidedbothinamplitudemodulationAFMandfrequencymodulation
AFM,dependingonthesettings.

Contactmode

Incontactmode,thetipis"dragged"acrossthesurfaceofthesampleand
thecontoursofthesurfacearemeasuredeitherusingthedeflectionofthe
cantileverdirectlyor,morecommonly,usingthefeedbacksignalrequiredto
keepthecantileverataconstantposition.Becausethemeasurementofa Electronmicrographofaused
staticsignalispronetonoiseanddrift,lowstiffnesscantilevers(i.e. AFMcantilever.Imagewidth
cantileverswithalowspringconstant,k)areusedtoachievealargeenough ~100micrometers
deflectionsignalwhilekeepingtheinteractionforcelow.Closetothe
surfaceofthesample,attractiveforcescanbequitestrong,causingthetipto
"snapin"tothesurface.Thus,contactmodeAFMisalmostalwaysdoneat
adepthwheretheoverallforceisrepulsive,thatis,infirm"contact"with
thesolidsurface.

Tappingmode

Inambientconditions,mostsamplesdevelopaliquidmeniscuslayer. Electronmicrographofaused
Becauseofthis,keepingtheprobetipcloseenoughtothesampleforshort AFMcantilever.Imagewidth
rangeforcestobecomedetectablewhilepreventingthetipfromstickingto ~30micrometers
thesurfacepresentsamajorproblemforcontactmodeinambient
conditions.Dynamiccontactmode(alsocalledintermittentcontact,AC
modeortappingmode)wasdevelopedtobypassthisproblem.[7]
Nowadays,tappingmodeisthemostfrequentlyusedAFMmodewhen
operatinginambientconditionsorinliquids.

Intappingmode,thecantileverisdriventooscillateupanddownator
nearitsresonancefrequency.Thisoscillationiscommonlyachieved
withasmallpiezoelementinthecantileverholder,butother
possibilitiesincludeanACmagneticfield(withmagneticcantilevers),
piezoelectriccantilevers,orperiodicheatingwithamodulatedlaser
beam.Theamplitudeofthisoscillationusuallyvariesfromseveralnm Atomicforcemicroscope
to200nm.Intappingmode,thefrequencyandamplitudeofthedriving topographicalscanofaglasssurface.
signalarekeptconstant,leadingtoaconstantamplitudeofthe Themicroandnanoscalefeaturesof
cantileveroscillationaslongasthereisnodriftorinteractionwiththe theglasscanbeobserved,portraying
surface.Theinteractionofforcesactingonthecantileverwhenthetip theroughnessofthematerial.The
comesclosetothesurface,VanderWaalsforces,dipoledipole imagespaceis(x,y,z)=(20m
interactions,electrostaticforces,etc.causetheamplitudeofthe 20m420nm).
cantilever'soscillationtochange(usuallydecrease)asthetipgetscloser
tothesample.Thisamplitudeisusedastheparameterthatgoesintotheelectronicservothatcontrolsthe
heightofthecantileverabovethesample.Theservoadjuststheheighttomaintainasetcantileveroscillation
amplitudeasthecantileverisscannedoverthesample.AtappingAFMimageisthereforeproducedbyimaging
theforceoftheintermittentcontactsofthetipwiththesamplesurface.[8]

Althoughthepeakforcesappliedduringthecontactingpartoftheoscillationcanbemuchhigherthantypically
usedincontactmode,tappingmodegenerallylessensthedamagedonetothesurfaceandthetipcomparedto
theamountdoneincontactmode.Thiscanbeexplainedbytheshortdurationoftheappliedforce,andbecause
thelateralforcesbetweentipandsamplearesignificantlylowerintappingmodeovercontactmode.Tapping
modeimagingisgentleenoughevenforthevisualizationofsupportedlipidbilayersoradsorbedsingle

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polymermolecules(forinstance,0.4nmthickchainsofsynthetic
polyelectrolytes)underliquidmedium.Withproperscanningparameters,the
conformationofsinglemoleculescanremainunchangedforhours,[6]and
evensinglemolecularmotorscanbeimagedwhilemoving.

Whenoperatingintappingmode,thephaseofthecantilever'soscillation
withrespecttothedrivingsignalcanberecordedaswell.Thissignal
channelcontainsinformationabouttheenergydissipatedbythecantileverin
eachoscillationcycle.Samplesthatcontainregionsofvaryingstiffnessor
withdifferentadhesionpropertiescangiveacontrastinthischannelthatis
notvisibleinthetopographicimage.Extractingthesample'smaterial
propertiesinaquantitativemannerfromphaseimages,however,isoftennot
feasible. Singlepolymerchains(0.4nm
thick)recordedinatapping
Noncontactmode modeunderaqueousmediawith
differentpH. [6]
Innoncontactatomicforcemicroscopymode,thetipofthecantileverdoes
notcontactthesamplesurface.Thecantileveris
insteadoscillatedateitheritsresonantfrequency
(frequencymodulation)orjustabove(amplitude
modulation)wheretheamplitudeofoscillationis
typicallyafewnanometers(<10nm)downtoafew
picometers.[9]ThevanderWaalsforces,whichare
strongestfrom1nmto10nmabovethesurface,or
anyotherlongrangeforcethatextendsabovethe
surfaceactstodecreasetheresonancefrequencyof
thecantilever.Thisdecreaseinresonantfrequency
combinedwiththefeedbackloopsystemmaintains
aconstantoscillationamplitudeorfrequencyby
adjustingtheaveragetiptosampledistance.
Measuringthetiptosampledistanceateach(x,y)
datapointallowsthescanningsoftwaretoconstruct
atopographicimageofthesamplesurface.
AFMnoncontactmode
NoncontactmodeAFMdoesnotsufferfromtipor
sampledegradationeffectsthataresometimes
observedaftertakingnumerousscanswithcontactAFM.ThismakesnoncontactAFMpreferabletocontact
AFMformeasuringsoftsamples,e.g.biologicalsamplesandorganicthinfilm.Inthecaseofrigidsamples,
contactandnoncontactimagesmaylookthesame.However,ifafewmonolayersofadsorbedfluidarelying
onthesurfaceofarigidsample,theimagesmaylookquitedifferent.AnAFMoperatingincontactmodewill
penetratetheliquidlayertoimagetheunderlyingsurface,whereasinnoncontactmodeanAFMwilloscillate
abovetheadsorbedfluidlayertoimageboththeliquidandsurface.

Schemesfordynamicmodeoperationincludefrequencymodulationwhereaphaselockedloopisusedtotrack
thecantilever'sresonancefrequencyandthemorecommonamplitudemodulationwithaservoloopinplaceto
keepthecantileverexcitationtoadefinedamplitude.Infrequencymodulation,changesintheoscillation
frequencyprovideinformationabouttipsampleinteractions.Frequencycanbemeasuredwithveryhigh
sensitivityandthusthefrequencymodulationmodeallowsfortheuseofverystiffcantilevers.Stiffcantilevers
providestabilityveryclosetothesurfaceand,asaresult,thistechniquewasthefirstAFMtechniquetoprovide
trueatomicresolutioninultrahighvacuumconditions.[10]

Inamplitudemodulation,changesintheoscillationamplitudeorphaseprovidethefeedbacksignalfor
imaging.Inamplitudemodulation,changesinthephaseofoscillationcanbeusedtodiscriminatebetween
differenttypesofmaterialsonthesurface.Amplitudemodulationcanbeoperatedeitherinthenoncontactor

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intheintermittentcontactregime.Indynamiccontactmode,thecantileverisoscillatedsuchthattheseparation
distancebetweenthecantilevertipandthesamplesurfaceismodulated.

Amplitudemodulationhasalsobeenusedinthenoncontactregimetoimagewithatomicresolutionbyusing
verystiffcantileversandsmallamplitudesinanultrahighvacuumenvironment.

Topographicimage
Imageformationisaplottingmethodthatproducesacolormappingthroughchangingthexypositionofthe
tipwhilescanningandrecordingthemeasuredvariable,i.e.theintensityofcontrolsignal,toeachxy
coordinate.Thecolormappingshowsthemeasuredvaluecorrespondingtoeachcoordinate.Theimage
expressestheintensityofavalueasahue.Usually,thecorrespondencebetweentheintensityofavalueanda
hueisshownasacolorscaleintheexplanatorynotesaccompanyingtheimage.

Whatisthetopographicimageofatomicforcemicroscope?

OperationmodeofImageformingoftheAFMaregenerallyclassifiedintotwogroupsfromtheviewpoint
whetherituseszFeedbackloop(notshown)tomaintainthetipsampledistancetokeepsignalintensity
exportedbythedetector.Thefirstone(usingzFeedbackloop),saidtobe"constantXXmode"(XXis
somethingwhichkeptbyzFeedbackloop).

TopographicImageFormationModeisbasedonabovementioned"constantXXmode",zFeedbackloop
controlstherelativedistancebetweentheprobeandthesamplethroughoutputtingcontrolsignalstokeep
constantoneoffrequency,vibrationandphasewhichtypicallycorrespondstothemotionofcantilever(for
instance,voltageisappliedtotheZpiezoelectricelementanditmovesthesampleupanddowntowardstheZ
direction.

Detailswillbeexplainedinthecasethatespecially"constantdfmode"(FMAFM)amongAFMasaninstance
innextsection.

TopographicimageofFMAFM

Whenthedistancebetweentheprobeandthesampleisbroughttotherangewhereatomicforcemaybe
detected,whileacantileverisexcitedinitsnaturaleigenfrequency(f0),aphenomenonthattheresonance
frequency(f)ofthecantilevershiftsfromtheoriginalresonancefrequency(naturaleigenfrequency)ofthe
cantilever.Inotherwords,intherangewhereatomicforcemaybedetected,thefrequencyshift(df=ff0)will
beobserved.So,whenthedistancebetweentheprobeandthesampleisinthenoncontactregion,the
frequencyshiftincreasesinnegativedirectionasthedistancebetweentheprobeandthesamplegetssmaller.

Whenthesamplehasconcavityandconvexity,thedistancebetweenthetipapexandthesamplevariesin
accordancewiththeconcavityandconvexityaccompaniedwithascanofthesamplealongxydirection
(withoutheightregulationinzdirection).Asaresult,thefrequencyshiftarises.Theimageinwhichthevalues
ofthefrequencyobtainedbyarasterscanalongthexydirectionofthesamplesurfaceareplottedagainstthe
xycoordinationofeachmeasurementpointiscalledaconstantheightimage.

Ontheotherhand,thedfmaybekeptconstantbymovingtheprobeupwardanddownward(See(3)ofFIG.5)
inzdirectionusinganegativefeedback(byusingzfeedbackloop)whiletherasterscanofthesamplesurface
alongthexydirection.Theimageinwhichtheamountsofthenegativefeedback(themovingdistanceofthe
probeupwardanddownwardinzdirection)areplottedagainstthexycoordinationofeachmeasurementpoint
isatopographicimage.Inotherwords,thetopographicimageisatraceofthetipoftheproberegulatedsothat
thedfisconstantanditmayalsobeconsideredtobeaplotofaconstantheightsurfaceofthedf.

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Therefore,thetopographicimageoftheAFMisnottheexactsurfacemorphologyitself,butactuallytheimage
influencedbythebondorderbetweentheprobeandthesample,however,thetopographicimageoftheAFMis
consideredtoreflectthegeographicalshapeofthesurfacemorethanthetopographicimageofascanning
tunnelmicroscope.

Forcespectroscopy
AnothermajorapplicationofAFM(besidesimaging)isforcespectroscopy,thedirectmeasurementoftip
sampleinteractionforcesasafunctionofthegapbetweenthetipandsample(theresultofthismeasurementis
calledaforcedistancecurve).Forthismethod,theAFMtipisextendedtowardsandretractedfromthesurface
asthedeflectionofthecantileverismonitoredasafunctionofpiezoelectricdisplacement.Thesemeasurements
havebeenusedtomeasurenanoscalecontacts,atomicbonding,VanderWaalsforces,andCasimirforces,
dissolutionforcesinliquidsandsinglemoleculestretchingandruptureforces.[11]Furthermore,AFMwasused
tomeasure,inanaqueousenvironment,thedispersionforceduetopolymeradsorbedonthesubstrate.[12]
Forcesoftheorderofafewpiconewtonscannowberoutinelymeasuredwithaverticaldistanceresolutionof
betterthan0.1nanometers.Forcespectroscopycanbeperformedwitheitherstaticordynamicmodes.In
dynamicmodes,informationaboutthecantilevervibrationismonitoredinadditiontothestaticdeflection.[13]

Problemswiththetechniqueincludenodirectmeasurementofthetipsampleseparationandthecommonneed
forlowstiffnesscantilevers,whichtendto'snap'tothesurface.Theseproblemsarenotinsurmountable.An
AFMthatdirectlymeasuresthetipsampleseparationhasbeendeveloped.[14]Thesnapincanbereducedby
measuringinliquidsorbyusingstiffercantilevers,butinthelattercaseamoresensitivedeflectionsensoris
needed.Byapplyingasmalldithertothetip,thestiffness(forcegradient)ofthebondcanbemeasuredas
well.[15]

Biologicalapplicationsandother

Forcespectroscopyisusedinbiophysicstomeasurethemechanicalproperties.[16][17]oflivingmaterial(such
astissueorcells).[18][19][20]Anotherapplicationwastomeasuretheinteractionforcesbetweenfromonehanda
materialstuckonthetipofthecantilever,andfromanotherhandthesurfaceofparticleseitherfreeoroccupied
bythesamematerial.Fromtheadhesionforcedistributioncurve,ameanvalueoftheforceshasbeenderived.
Itallowedtomakeacartographyofthesurfaceoftheparticles,coveredornotbythematerial.[21]

Identificationofindividualsurfaceatoms
TheAFMcanbeusedtoimageandmanipulateatomsandstructuresonavarietyofsurfaces.Theatomatthe
apexofthetip"senses"individualatomsontheunderlyingsurfacewhenitformsincipientchemicalbonds
witheachatom.Becausethesechemicalinteractionssubtlyalterthetip'svibrationfrequency,theycanbe
detectedandmapped.Thisprinciplewasusedtodistinguishbetweenatomsofsilicon,tinandleadonanalloy
surface,bycomparingthese'atomicfingerprints'tovaluesobtainedfromlargescaledensityfunctionaltheory
(DFT)simulations.[22]

Thetrickistofirstmeasuretheseforcespreciselyforeachtypeofatomexpectedinthesample,andthento
comparewithforcesgivenbyDFTsimulations.Theteamfoundthatthetipinteractedmoststronglywith
siliconatoms,andinteracted24%and41%lessstronglywithtinandleadatoms,respectively.Thus,each
differenttypeofatomcanbeidentifiedinthematrixasthetipismovedacrossthesurface.

Probe

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AnAFMprobehasasharptiponthefreeswingingendofacantileverthatisprotrudingfromaholder.[23]The
dimensionsofthecantileverareinthescaleofmicrometers.Theradiusofthetipisusuallyonthescaleofa
fewnanometerstoafewtensofnanometers.(Specializedprobesexistwithmuchlargerendradii,forexample
probesforindentationofsoftmaterials.)Thecantileverholder,alsocalledholderchipoften1.6mmby
3.4mminsizeallowstheoperatortoholdtheAFMcantilever/probeassemblywithtweezersandfititinto
thecorrespondingholderclipsonthescanningheadoftheatomicforcemicroscope.

Thisdeviceismostcommonlycalledan"AFMprobe",butothernamesinclude"AFMtip"and"cantilever"
(employingthenameofasinglepartasthenameofthewholedevice).AnAFMprobeisaparticulartypeof
SPM(scanningprobemicroscopy)probe.

AFMprobesaremanufacturedwithMEMStechnology.MostAFMprobesusedaremadefromsilicon(Si),but
borosilicateglassandsiliconnitridearealsoinuse.AFMprobesareconsideredconsumablesastheyareoften
replacedwhenthetipapexbecomesdullorcontaminatedorwhenthecantileverisbroken.Theycancostfrom
acoupleoftensofdollarsuptohundredsofdollarspercantileverforthemostspecializedcantilever/probe
combinations.

Justthetipisbroughtveryclosetothesurfaceoftheobjectunderinvestigation,thecantileverisdeflectedby
theinteractionbetweenthetipandthesurface,whichiswhattheAFMisdesignedtomeasure.Aspatialmap
oftheinteractioncanbemadebymeasuringthedeflectionatmanypointsona2Dsurface.

Severaltypesofinteractioncanbedetected.Dependingontheinteractionunderinvestigation,thesurfaceof
thetipoftheAFMprobeneedstobemodifiedwithacoating.Amongthecoatingsusedaregoldforcovalent
bondingofbiologicalmoleculesandthedetectionoftheirinteractionwithasurface,[24]diamondforincreased
wearresistance[25]andmagneticcoatingsfordetectingthemagneticpropertiesoftheinvestigatedsurface.[26]
Anothersolutionexiststoachievehighresolutionmagneticimaging:havingtheprobeequipwitha
microSQUID.TheAFMtipsisfabricatedusingsiliconmicromachiningandtheprecisepositioningofthe
microSQUIDloopisdonebyelectronbeamlithography.[27]

Thesurfaceofthecantileverscanalsobemodified.Thesecoatingsaremostlyappliedinordertoincreasethe
reflectanceofthecantileverandtoimprovethedeflectionsignal.

AFMcantileverdeflectionmeasurement
Beamdeflectionmeasurement

r(PSD)consistingoftwocloselyspaced
photodiodeswhoseoutputsignaliscollectedbya
differentialamplifier.Angulardisplacementofthe
cantileverresultsinonephotodiodecollectingmore
lightthantheotherphotodiode,producinganoutput
signal(thedifferencebetweenthephotodiode
signalsnormalizedbytheirsum),whichis
proportionaltothedeflectionofthecantilever.The
sensitivityofthebeamdeflectionmethodisvery
1
high,anoisefloorontheorderof10fmHz 2can
beobtainedroutinelyinawelldesignedsystem.
Althoughthismethodissometimescalledthe
AFMbeamdeflectiondetection
'opticallever'method,thesignalisnotamplifiedif
thebeampathismadelonger.Alongerbeampath
increasesthemotionofthereflectedspotonthephotodiodes,butalsowidensthespotbythesameamountdue
todiffraction,sothatthesameamountofopticalpowerismovedfromonephotodiodetotheother.The'optical
leverage'(outputsignalofthedetectordividedbydeflectionofthecantilever)isinverselyproportionaltothe

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numericalapertureofthebeamfocusingoptics,aslongasthefocusedlaserspotissmallenoughtofall
completelyonthecantilever.Itisalsoinverselyproportionaltothelengthofthecantilever.Themostcommon
methodforcantileverdeflectionmeasurementsisthebeamdeflectionmethod.Inthismethod,laserlightfrom
asolidstatediodeisreflectedoffthebackofthecantileverandcollectedbyapositionsensitivedetector.

Therelativepopularityofthebeamdeflectionmethodcanbeexplainedbyitshighsensitivityandsimple
operation,andbythefactthatcantileversdonotrequireelectricalcontactsorotherspecialtreatments,andcan
thereforebefabricatedrelativelycheaplywithsharpintegratedtips.

Otherdeflectionmeasurementmethods

Manyothermethodsforbeamdeflectionmeasurementsexist.

PiezoelectricdetectionCantileversmadefromquartz[28](suchastheqPlusconfiguration),orother
piezoelectricmaterialscandirectlydetectdeflectionasanelectricalsignal.Cantileveroscillationsdown
to10pmhavebeendetectedwiththismethod.
LaserDopplervibrometryAlaserDopplervibrometercanbeusedtoproduceveryaccuratedeflection
measurementsforanoscillatingcantilever[29](thusisonlyusedinnoncontactmode).Thismethodis
expensiveandisonlyusedbyrelativelyfewgroups.
STMThefirstatomicmicroscopeusedanSTMcompletewithitsownfeedbackmechanismto
measuredeflection.[5]Thismethodisverydifficulttoimplement,andisslowtoreacttodeflection
changescomparedtomodernmethods.
OpticalinterferometryOpticalinterferometrycanbeusedtomeasurecantileverdeflection.[30]Dueto
thenanometrescaledeflectionsmeasuredinAFM,theinterferometerisrunninginthesubfringeregime,
thus,anydriftinlaserpowerorwavelengthhasstrongeffectsonthemeasurement.Forthesereasons
opticalinterferometermeasurementsmustbedonewithgreatcare(forexampleusingindexmatching
fluidsbetweenopticalfibrejunctions),withverystablelasers.Forthesereasonsopticalinterferometryis
rarelyused.
CapacitivedetectionMetalcoatedcantileverscanformacapacitorwithanothercontactlocatedbehind
thecantilever.[31]Deflectionchangesthedistancebetweenthecontactsandcanbemeasuredasachange
incapacitance.
PiezoresistivedetectionCantileverscanbefabricatedwithpiezoresistiveelementsthatactasastrain
gauge.UsingaWheatstonebridge,strainintheAFMcantileverduetodeflectioncanbemeasured.[32]
Thisisnotcommonlyusedinvacuumapplications,asthepiezoresistivedetectiondissipatesenergyfrom
thesystemaffectingQoftheresonance.

Piezoelectricscanners
AFMscannersaremadefrompiezoelectricmaterial,whichexpandsandcontractsproportionallytoanapplied
voltage.Whethertheyelongateorcontractdependsuponthepolarityofthevoltageapplied.Traditionallythe
tiporsampleismountedona'tripod'ofthreepiezocrystals,witheachresponsibleforscanninginthex,yandz
directions.[5]In1986,thesameyearastheAFMwasinvented,anewpiezoelectricscanner,thetubescanner,
wasdevelopedforuseinSTM.[33]LatertubescannerswereincorporatedintoAFMs.Thetubescannercan
movethesampleinthex,y,andzdirectionsusingasingletubepiezowithasingleinteriorcontactandfour
externalcontacts.Anadvantageofthetubescannercomparedtotheoriginaltripoddesign,isbettervibrational
isolation,resultingfromthehigherresonantfrequencyofthesingleelementconstruction,incombinationwith
alowresonantfrequencyisolationstage.Adisadvantageisthatthexymotioncancauseunwantedzmotion
resultingindistortion.AnotherpopulardesignforAFMscannersistheflexurestage,whichusesseparate
piezosforeachaxis,andcouplesthemthroughaflexuremechanism.

Scannersarecharacterizedbytheirsensitivity,whichistheratioofpiezomovementtopiezovoltage,i.e.,by
howmuchthepiezomaterialextendsorcontractsperappliedvolt.Becauseofdifferencesinmaterialorsize,
thesensitivityvariesfromscannertoscanner.Sensitivityvariesnonlinearlywithrespecttoscansize.Piezo
scannersexhibitmoresensitivityattheendthanatthebeginningofascan.Thiscausestheforwardandreverse
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scanstobehavedifferentlyanddisplayhysteresisbetweenthetwoscandirections.[34]Thiscanbecorrectedby
applyinganonlinearvoltagetothepiezoelectrodestocauselinearscannermovementandcalibratingthe
scanneraccordingly.[34]Onedisadvantageofthisapproachisthatitrequiresrecalibrationbecausetheprecise
nonlinearvoltageneededtocorrectnonlinearmovementwillchangeasthepiezoages(seebelow).This
problemcanbecircumventedbyaddingalinearsensortothesamplestageorpiezostagetodetectthetrue
movementofthepiezo.Deviationsfromidealmovementcanbedetectedbythesensorandcorrectionsapplied
tothepiezodrivesignaltocorrectfornonlinearpiezomovement.Thisdesignisknownasa'closedloop'
AFM.NonsensoredpiezoAFMsarereferredtoas'openloop'AFMs.

Thesensitivityofpiezoelectricmaterialsdecreasesexponentiallywithtime.Thiscausesmostofthechangein
sensitivitytooccurintheinitialstagesofthescanner'slife.Piezoelectricscannersarerunforapproximately48
hoursbeforetheyareshippedfromthefactorysothattheyarepastthepointwheretheymayhavelarge
changesinsensitivity.Asthescannerages,thesensitivitywillchangelesswithtimeandthescannerwould
seldomrequirerecalibration,[35][36]thoughvariousmanufacturermanualsrecommendmonthlytosemimonthly
calibrationofopenloopAFMs.

Advantagesanddisadvantages
Justlikeanyothertool,anAFM'susefulnesshaslimitations.When
determiningwhetherornotanalyzingasamplewithanAFMis
appropriate,therearevariousadvantagesanddisadvantagesthatmust
beconsidered.

Advantages

AFMhasseveraladvantagesoverthescanningelectronmicroscope
(SEM).Unliketheelectronmicroscope,whichprovidesatwo
dimensionalprojectionoratwodimensionalimageofasample,the
AFMprovidesathreedimensionalsurfaceprofile.Inaddition,samples Thefirstatomicforcemicroscope
viewedbyAFMdonotrequireanyspecialtreatments(suchas
metal/carboncoatings)thatwouldirreversiblychangeordamagethe
sample,anddoesnottypicallysufferfromchargingartifactsinthefinalimage.Whileanelectronmicroscope
needsanexpensivevacuumenvironmentforproperoperation,mostAFMmodescanworkperfectlywellin
ambientairorevenaliquidenvironment.Thismakesitpossibletostudybiologicalmacromoleculesandeven
livingorganisms.Inprinciple,AFMcanprovidehigherresolutionthanSEM.Ithasbeenshowntogivetrue
atomicresolutioninultrahighvacuum(UHV)and,morerecently,inliquidenvironments.Highresolution
AFMiscomparableinresolutiontoscanningtunnelingmicroscopyandtransmissionelectronmicroscopy.
AFMcanalsobecombinedwithavarietyofopticalmicroscopytechniquessuchasfluorescentmicroscopy,
furtherexpandingitsapplicability.CombinedAFMopticalinstrumentshavebeenappliedprimarilyinthe
biologicalsciencesbuthavealsofoundanicheinsomematerialsapplications,especiallythoseinvolving
photovoltaicsresearch.[8]

Disadvantages

AdisadvantageofAFMcomparedwiththescanningelectronmicroscope(SEM)isthesinglescanimagesize.
Inonepass,theSEMcanimageanareaontheorderofsquaremillimeterswithadepthoffieldontheorderof
millimeters,whereastheAFMcanonlyimageamaximumscanningareaofabout150150micrometersanda
maximumheightontheorderof1020micrometers.OnemethodofimprovingthescannedareasizeforAFM
isbyusingparallelprobesinafashionsimilartothatofmillipededatastorage.

ThescanningspeedofanAFMisalsoalimitation.Traditionally,anAFMcannotscanimagesasfastasan
SEM,requiringseveralminutesforatypicalscan,whileanSEMiscapableofscanningatnearrealtime,
althoughatrelativelylowquality.TherelativelyslowrateofscanningduringAFMimagingoftenleadsto

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thermaldriftintheimage[37][38][39]makingtheAFMlesssuitedformeasuringaccuratedistancesbetween
topographicalfeaturesontheimage.However,severalfastactingdesigns[40][41]weresuggestedtoincrease
microscopescanningproductivityincludingwhatisbeingtermedvideoAFM(reasonablequalityimagesare
beingobtainedwithvideoAFMatvideorate:fasterthantheaverageSEM).Toeliminateimagedistortions
inducedbythermaldrift,severalmethodshavebeenintroduced.[37][38][39]

AFMimagescanalsobeaffectedbynonlinearity,hysteresis,[34]andcreepofthepiezoelectricmaterialand
crosstalkbetweenthex,y,zaxesthatmayrequiresoftwareenhancementandfiltering.Suchfilteringcould
"flatten"outrealtopographicalfeatures.However,newerAFMsutilizerealtimecorrectionsoftware(for
example,featureorientedscanning[35][37])orclosedloopscanners,whichpracticallyeliminatetheseproblems.
SomeAFMsalsouseseparatedorthogonalscanners(asopposedtoasingletube),whichalsoservetoeliminate
partofthecrosstalkproblems.

Aswithanyotherimagingtechnique,thereisthepossibilityofimage
artifacts,whichcouldbeinducedbyanunsuitabletip,apooroperating
environment,orevenbythesampleitself,asdepictedontheright.
Theseimageartifactsareunavoidablehowever,theiroccurrenceand
effectonresultscanbereducedthroughvariousmethods.Artifacts
resultingfromatoocoarsetipcanbecausedforexampleby ShowinganAFMartifactarising
inappropriatehandlingordefactocollisionswiththesamplebyeither fromatipwithahighradiusof
scanningtoofastorhavinganunreasonablyroughsurface,causing curvaturewithrespecttothefeature
actualwearingofthetip. thatistobevisualized.

DuetothenatureofAFMprobes,theycannotnormallymeasuresteep
wallsoroverhangs.SpeciallymadecantileversandAFMscanbeused
tomodulatetheprobesidewaysaswellasupanddown(aswith
dynamiccontactandnoncontactmodes)tomeasuresidewalls,atthe
costofmoreexpensivecantilevers,lowerlateralresolutionand
additionalartifacts.

Otherapplicationsinvariousfieldsofstudy AFMartifact,steepsample
topography

Thelatesteffortsinintegratingnanotechnologyandbiologicalresearch
havebeensuccessfulandshowmuchpromiseforthefuture.Sincenanoparticlesareapotentialvehicleofdrug
delivery,thebiologicalresponsesofcellstothesenanoparticlesarecontinuouslybeingexploredtooptimize
theirefficacyandhowtheirdesigncouldbeimproved.[42]Pyrgiotakisetal.wereabletostudytheinteraction
betweenCeO2andFe2O3engineerednanoparticlesandcellsbyattachingtheengineerednanoparticlestothe
AFMtip.[43]Beyondtheinteractionswithexternalsyntheticmaterials,cellshavebeenimagedwithXray
crystallographyandtherehasbeenmuchcuriosityabouttheirbehaviorinvivo.Studieshavetakenadvantageof
AFMtoobtainfurtherinformationonthebehavioroflivecellsinbiologicalmedia.Realtimeatomicforce
spectroscopy(ornanoscopy)anddynamicatomicforcespectroscopyhavebeenusedtostudylivecellsand
membraneproteinsandtheirdynamicbehaviorathighresolution,onthenanoscale.Imagingandobtaining
informationonthetopographyandthepropertiesofthecellshasalsogiveninsightintochemicalprocessesand
mechanismsthatoccurthroughcellcellinteractionandinteractionswithothersignalingmolecules(ex.
ligands).EvansandCalderwoodusedsinglecellforcemicroscopytostudycelladhesionforces,bond
kinetics/dynamicbondstrengthanditsroleinchemicalprocessessuchascellsignaling.[44]Scheuring,Lvy,
andRigaudreviewedstudiesinwhichAFMtoexplorethecrystalstructureofmembraneproteinsof
photosyntheticbacteria.[45]Alsteenetal.haveusedAFMbasednanoscopytoperformarealtimeanalysisof
theinteractionbetweenlivemycobacteriaandantimycobacterialdrugs(specificallyisoniazid,ethionamide,
ethambutol,andstreptomycine),[46]whichservesasanexampleofthemoreindepthanalysisofpathogendrug
interactionsthatcanbedonethroughAFM.

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Seealso
AFMbasedinfraredspectroscopy(AFMIR) Scanningvoltagemicroscopy
Frictionalforcemapping Surfaceforceapparatus
Photoconductiveatomicforcemicroscopy
Scanningvoltagemicroscopy
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Furtherreading
Carpick,RobertW.Salmeron,Miquel(1997)."ScratchingtheSurface:FundamentalInvestigationsof
TribologywithAtomicForceMicroscopy".ChemicalReviews.97(4):11631194.
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