Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

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Gondwana Research
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Tectonics and metallogeny of mainland Southeast Asia A review

and contribution
Khin Zaw a,, Sebastien Meffre a, Chun-Kit Lai a, Clive Burrett b, M. Santosh c, Ian Graham d, Takayuki Manaka a,
Abhisit Salam a, Teera Kamvong a,e, Paul Cromie f
a
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
b
Center for Paleontological Research and Education, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand
c
School of Earth Science & Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
d
School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
e
Indochine Mining (Cambodia) Ltd., 454 Street 2003, Sang Kat Kakab, Khan Dong Kor, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
f
Anglo American Exploration (Australia) Pty Ltd, PO Box 475, Como 6152, WA, Perth, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Southeast Asia region is endowed with a diversity of mineral resources, notably porphyry-related skarn,
Received 5 July 2013 epithermal and sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits. Formation of these deposits was associated with a
Received in revised form 23 October 2013 long and complex tectonic history of Gondwana supercontinent break-up, arc magmatism, backarc basin
Accepted 23 October 2013
development, together with arccontinent and continentcontinent collisions that created the present-day
Available online 11 November 2013
mainland SE Asia. This paper summarizes historical and current SE Asian geological research and ore deposit
Keywords:
studies. Here we present a new tectonic and metallogenic model for Phanerozoic mainland SE Asia. From this
Southeast (SE) Asia model, we conclude that incipient arc/backarc basin magmatism is the key to the formation of many important
Gondwana ore deposits in the Truong Son and Loei fold belts, the two major metallogenic belts in mainland SE Asia. In
Tectonics addition, Triassic to Cenozoic arccontinent and continentcontinent collisions have led to the formation of
Metallogeny many sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits in the Sukhothai and the Sibumasu terranes. Oblique Cretaceous
Phanerozoic to Recent subduction along the AndamanSunda trench was responsible for gold and coppergoldmolybdenum
porphyry and epithermal mineralization along the KawlinWuthoMt Popa arc in Myanmar in the north and the
Sumatran volcanic arc in the south. We anticipate that the present emphasis on exploring for shallower level
epithermal deposits will increasingly lead to exploration for deeper level porphyry- and porphyry-related
skarn systems in the coming decades.
2013 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2. Regional geological and tectonic setting

This introductory paper provides a summary of the geology and
tectonics, major ore deposits and the potential for mineral exploration
in mainland SE Asia, which includes Cambodia, Laos PDR, Myanmar,
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia), Thailand, Vietnam and
Yunnan (China). This special issue Tectonics and metallogeny of main-
land SE Asia aims at resolving some of the major outstanding tectonic
and metallogenic problems in SE Asia, particularly regarding the timing
and processes concerning the rifting of SE Asian crustal blocks derived
from Gondwana and their amalgamation into present-day SE Asia, as
well as how these processes and their temporal superimposition led
to ore deposit formation. We have tackled these problems from a
wide range of perspectives, notably geochronology (e.g., UPb zircon
and monazite dating), geochemistry (whole rock, mineral and isotope),
structural geology, sedimentology, paleontology, metallogeny, modern
tectonic analogs and regional geological correlation.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 62262787; fax: +61 3 62267662.
E-mail address: Khin.Zaw@utas.edu.au (Khin Zaw).
2.1. Background
Mainland SE Asia is endowed with a diversity of mineral resources
and consists of a collage of continental blocks or fragments, together
with accreted volcanic arcs/backarc basins. Major fragments,
e.g., Indochina, Sibumasu and West Myanmar terranes, rifted away
from the northwestern Gondwana margin at different periods in the
Phanerozoic, and led to the opening of the Palaeo-, Meso- and
Neotethyan (or Cenotethys) Oceans (Metcalfe, 2011, 2012, 2013). In
this introductory paper, we use the non-genetic term terrane to
describe tectonic units such as block, massif, orogenic belt or microplate,
with each terrane having a distinctive tectonostratigraphic and
magmatic history following Howell (1995) and Burrett et al. (2014).
Throughout the long history of the Gondwana supercontinent
break-up and subsequent mainland SE Asia amalgamation, various
subduction and arccontinent/continentcontinent collisions and
interactions have occurred among these SE Asian terranes and fold
belts (e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Metcalfe, 2011). The associated

1342-937X/$ see front matter 2013 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.10.010
6 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

magmatism, tectonism and metamorphism have generated many
mineralized fold belts at most of the terrane margins, with major ones
including the Truong Son and Loei fold belts (Fig. 1).
The northward-drift and subsequent accretion of these fold belts
and terranes onto the southern Eurasia margin and the amalgamation
of mainland SE Asia have produced multiple episodes of arc magmatism
(e.g., Panjasawatwong et al., 2003; Tran et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2012),
opening and closure of backarc basins (e.g., Phajuy et al., 2005; Fan
et al., 2010) and ophiolitic obduction (e.g., Singharajwarapan and
Berry, 2000; Yumul et al., 2008). These accreted island arcs, ophiolitic
slivers and broad deformation zones delineate the boundaries of the
major continental terranes. In part, these deformation zones or fold
belts represent the sites of former ocean basins or suture zones.
Throughout the journey from NW Gondwana to present-day SE Asia,
complex and multiple tectono-magmaticmetamorphichydrothermal
interactions in and between the SE Asia continental fragments were
fertile breeding grounds for a wide variety of mineral resources.
Major types of mineral resources in the region include sediment-
hosted/orogenic gold, porphyry-related copper (gold) skarn, epithermal
deposits, intrusion-related gold, volcanic-hosted massive sulde
(VHMS) deposits, tintungsten, rare earth element (REE) and gemstone
deposits. In addition, there is substantial potential for porphyry copper
goldmolybdenum and iron oxidecoppergold (IOCG) deposits (Khin
Zaw, 2008a,b, 2009, 2012).
2.2. Indochina Terrane
The Indochina Terrane is the largest tectonic unit in mainland SE
Asia (Fig. 1). The terrane borders the South China Terrane along the
AilaoshanSong Ma Suture to the north and northwest. The Truong
Son Fold Belt is located along the northeastern margin of the Indochina
Terrane, and contains mainly Palaeozoic marine volcanic rocks and Early
PermianTriassic granitoids and volcanics (Carter and Clift, 2008;
Lepvrier et al., 2008, 2011). The Tam KyPhuoc Son Suture marks
the boundary between the Truong Son Fold Belt and the highly-
metamorphosed Kontum Massif in central Vietnam (Tran et al.,
2014). Recent geochronological studies have yielded a Mesoproterozoic
inherited core (UPb zircon: ca. 1404 Ma; Nam et al., 2001) with Middle

Fig. 1. SE Asia regional tectonic map showing major component terranes and fold belts.
SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; geological map modied after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al.
(2014).
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
Ordovician (UPb zircon and monazite: 470465 Ma) and Early Triassic
(UPb zircon and monazite: 250245 Ma) metamorphism (Roger et al.,
2007). The inherited zircon cores are similar to those encountered
in many other Phanerozoic SE Asian rocks and may reect crustal con-
tamination by Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks containing Gondwana-
derived zircons.
The Loei Fold Belt occurs along the western edge of the Indochina
Terrane with the central part being covered by the thick Mesozoic
Khorat red beds on the Khorat Plateau (Morley, 2012). The Loei Fold
Belt contains mainly Late Permian to Triassic andesiticrhyolitic volcanic
rocks, but older DevonianCarboniferous and Silurian magmatic rocks
have also been recently reported (Panjasawatwong et al., 2006; Khin
Zaw et al., 2007a; Boonsoong et al., 2011). The southern continuations
of the Truong Son and Loei fold belts are intruded by Cretaceous granit-
oids. The East Malaya Fold Belt and the Sukhothai Terrane are located in
eastern Peninsular Malaysia, and are bordered to the west by the
Sibumasu Terrane along the BentongRaub Suture.
Indochina's original position within Gondwana, and its rift, drift and
collision history, have long been speculative, but it is now shown to
have been close to South China, western Cathaysia, Qiangtang and the
Tethyan Himalayas in the Early Palaeozoic (e.g., Burrett et al., 2014;
Usuki et al., 2013). New geochronological and geochemical studies in
the NWSE trending AilaoshanSong Ma Suture by Lai et al. (2014a,
2014b) suggest that the suture represents the remnants of a branch of
the once vast eastern Palaeotethys (or the AilaoshanSong Ma Ocean),
which may have opened during the Late DevonianEarly Carboniferous
(UPb zircon: ca. 380330 Ma) and closed (along the AilaoshanSong
Ma Suture) between the middle Permian (ca. 270 Ma) and the earliest
Middle-Triassic (UPb zircon: ca. 245 Ma). Continental-rifting of
the South China and Indochina terranes from Gondwana may have
commenced as early as the Early Silurian, as suggested by UPb zircon
dating on alkali rhyolite in Loei (ca. 434428 Ma; Maloney, 2008;
Khositanont, 2008; Khositanont et al., 2013) and turbidites in the
Ailaoshan Fold Belt (detrital zircon: ca. 432438 Ma; Lai, 2012).
2.2.1. Truong Son Fold Belt
The NWSE trending Truong Son Fold Belt is delineated by the
AilaoshanSong Ma Suture in the northeast, by the Late Triassic
Cenozoic Dien Bien Phu Fault in the northwest (Lin et al., 2009), by
the Loei Fold Belt in the southwest and by the Late Mesozoic Dalat
Kratie Fold Belt in the south (e.g., Phan, 1989; Lepvrier et al., 2004).
The Truong Son Fold Belt may have formed as a result of the closure of
the AilaoshanSong Ma branch of the Palaeotethys. The gradual closure
of the AilaoshanSong Ma Ocean (Lai et al., 2014b) produced at least
two phases of continental arc magmatism during the Early Permian in
northwestern Vietnam (UPb zircon: 280270 Ma; Liu et al., 2012)
and the Sepon gold mine in southern Laos (ca. 295288 Ma) (Cromie
et al., 2006a,b; Cromie, 2010), and Early Triassic (UPb zircon: 250
245 Ma; Liu et al., 2012). Recent 40Ar/39Ar muscovite and biotite dating
yields Early Triassic ages (ca. 253247 Ma) for the southwestern
Truong Son granitoids and Middle TriassicEarliest Jurassic ages (ca.
244199 Ma) for the northeastern Truong Son granitoids (Sanematsu
et al., 2011a,b,c). The Middle Permian Western Ailaoshan Volcanic Belt
was an intra-oceanic island arc/backarc basin (Lai et al., 2014b) which
suggests that this Truong Sonwestern Ailaoshan arc occurred as a
continental-based island arc in most of eastern Indochina but as an
intra-oceanic island arc to the north in Ailaoshan. This is analogous to
the modern southwestern Pacic, where subduction is continent-
based in New Zealand but oceanic in the Kermadec Islands further
north (e.g., Crawford et al., 2003; Smith and Price, 2006; Straub and
Zellmer, 2012). The accretion of the Indochina Terrane onto the south-
ern Eurasia margin along the Truong Son Fold Belt has been variably
argued to be Early Triassic (UPb zircon: 259245) (Tran et al., 2008)
or pre-Late Triassic (Liu et al., 2012) reecting a complex or possibly
oblique collision history.
7
2.2.2. Loei Fold Belt
The Loei Fold Belt lies along the western periphery of the Indochina
Terrane, and is bounded to the west by the Sukhothai Terrane along the
JinghongNanSra Kaeo Suture. The belt extends from northern Laos in
the northern part of the belt through Loei Province in Thailand through
Phetchabun in central Thailand to Sra Kaeo in southeastern Thailand
and into western Cambodia. Although geologically distinct and econom-
ically important, with signicant magmatism and epithermal gold and
porphyry-related coppergold mineralization, the Loei Fold Belt is
omitted or de-emphasized in some SE Asian terrane reconstructions
(e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008), with little discussion of the nature of
magmatism and mineral potential of the belt. For instance, it has been
stated that the Triassic Loei granitoids were mainly S-type (e.g., Sone
and Metcalfe, 2008; Morley et al., 2011), but our new geochemical studies
show that most of the granitoids are I-type, consistent with the abun-
dance of coppergold mineralization in the belt (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a;
Kamvong, 2013; Kamvong et al., 2013; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014).
The Loei Fold Belt contains multiple generations of successive
arc-related magmatic events separated by periods of exhumation and
erosion (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a). Magmatism may have commenced
in the Early Silurian and extended through to the Late Cenozoic
(Bunopas, 1982; Khin Zaw et al., 2007a). Intasopa and Dunn (1994)
was the rst to report multiple volcanic events during the Loei arc for-
mation. Based on RbSr isochron ages, she identied three main periods
of volcanism, namely during Devonian to Early Carboniferous, Middle
Triassic, and Cenozoic. The Devonian to Triassic volcanic rocks of the
Loei Fold Belt are conned to its northern part, whereas Cenozoic volca-
nics are to the south in Phetchabun (central part), south to Nakhon
Nayok, with predominant post-collisional Cenozoic volcanic rocks in
the Lopburi and Saraburi areas, south of Phetchabun.
Adding to these previous ndings, recent studies have better
constrained the ages for the Silurian rhyolites (UPb zircon: ca. 434
428 Ma; Khin Zaw et al., 2007a; Boonsoong et al., 2011) and Devonian
Carboniferous arc basalt/andesite (Rb/Sr age: 374361 Ma; Intasopa
and Dunn, 1994; Panjasawatwong et al., 2006), and have further
revealed that the Loei Fold Belt also contains Late Permian/earliest
Triassic and Middle Triassic-arc basalticrhyolitic rocks (UPb zircon:
ca. 254250 and 230 Ma; Khositanont, 2008; Khositanont et al., 2008;
Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014). The Carboniferous rocks of the Loei
Fold Belt are dominated by limestone and volcanogenic sedimentary
rocks in the Chatree District. The age of this mid-Carboniferous sedimen-
tary sequence was determined from rhyolitic siltstone near Wang Pong
that yielded a UPb zircon age of 327 7 Ma (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a;
Salam, 2013). In general, Carboniferous limestone occurs mostly as
small outcrops interbedded with siltstone and sandstone, except west
of Dong Khui where it occurs as thicker sequences of interbedded
siltstone and ne-grained sandstone. The Carboniferous limestone was
intruded and locally metamorphosed to marble by Late Carboniferous
(UPb zircon: 310 8 Ma) hornblende granite (Khin Zaw et al.,
2007a; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014). The Carboniferous sedimentary
sequence is overlain by thick Middle Permian limestone marked by
basal conglomerate, siltstone and shale (Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014).
The JinghongNanSra Kaeo Suture is generally regarded as a short-
lived Permian backarc basin (e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). Neverthe-
less, recent UPb zircon ages of Late Ordovician (ca. 452434 Ma) and
Late Devonian (ca. 377 Ma, Frasnian) arc/backarc basin generated
gabbros (Gibson, 2009), along with Late Devonian (ca. 377 Ma) gabbros
and Late Carboniferous (ca. 315 Ma, Bashkirian) basalts obtained by
Yang et al. (2007) may either argue for a much more ancient Jinghong
NanSra Kaeo Ocean or an earlier OrdovicianLate Carboniferous phase
of backarc basin opening.
2.2.3. DalatKratie Fold Belt
The DalatKratie Fold Belt consists of mainly Triassic to Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks and volcano-plutonic rocks, which are, in turn, over-
lain by Quaternary intraplate basalts. The belt extends across the region
8 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
from Cambodia to southern Vietnam and its granites intrude the
southern continuations of the Truong Son and Loei fold belts. Early
Jurassic and Cretaceous (12575 Ma) granitoids are widely distributed
in the area extending from southern Cambodia to southern Vietnam
through eastern Cambodia (Khin Zaw, unpub. data). The DalatKratie
granitoids are largely coeval with the Yanshanian magmatism along
the southeast China coast, and further petrological and geochemical
studies will reveal whether there is any tectonic link between these
two magmatic belts, i.e., whether the DalatKratie JurassicCretaceous
magmatism is also associated with the west-verging subduction of the
Palaeo-Pacic Plate beneath the South ChinaIndochina composite
terrane (e.g., Thuy et al., 2004). The DalatKratie and Southeast China
magmatic belts may have been closely associated during the Jurassic
Cretaceous, and were later separated by a Cenozoic SE Asia extrusion
as a result of the HimalayaIndia collision (e.g., Hall, 2002, 2011). The
ore deposits in the DalatKratie Belt are most likely intrusion-related
Au systems as auriferous quartzsulde veins are commonly hosted in
granitoids (e.g., Okvau and Snoul in eastern Cambodia and Tien Thuan
in southern Vietnam). Signicant gold mineralization has been discov-
ered at Okvau where a resource of 1.2 Moz Au is delineated (http://
www.renaissanceminerals.com.au/).
2.2.4. East Malaya Fold Belt
The East Malaya Fold Belt is located in eastern Peninsular Malaysia,
and is bordered to the west by the Sibumasu Terrane along the
BentongRaub Suture (Fig. 1). The nature and setting of this fold belt
is controversial. Sone and Metcalfe (2008) and Barber et al. (2011)
considered this belt to be an extension of the Inthanon or Sukhothai
Terranes into Peninsular Malaysia. However, as detailed lithostratigraphic
and magmaticvolcanic correlations are still inadequate, and the East
Malaya Fold Belt contains signicant orogenic gold mineralization, we
prefer to discuss it separately in this paper. The BentongRaub suture
contains Devonian to Upper Permian oceanic radiolarian cherts and
Triassic hemipelagic chert and pelagic sediments, as well as minor
ophiolitic ultramac rocks (e.g., Hutchison, 1975; Metcalfe, 2000,
2001). Apart from the anomalous syenitegabbro intrusions of the
Benom Complex in central Malaysia, the East Malaya Fold Belt is domi-
nated by I-type granitoids (and associated rhyolites) of the East Malaya
Province (e.g., Jaafar, 1979; Ghani, 2009; Searle et al., 2012). Our previ-
ous UPb zircon dating suggested that the East Malaya I-type granitoids
were emplaced during the Latest Permian to Triassic (ca. 253230 Ma),
when the main Palaeotethys (with remnants preserved as the Inthanon
Terrane) was subducted beneath the western margin (modern orienta-
tion) of the East Malaya Fold Belt (Hotson et al., 2011; Oliver et al.,
2011). This is in good agreement with a recent detrital zircon study
on river sands in the Malay Peninsula, which suggests the existence of
two magmatic suites in, respectively, Late Permian and EarlyMiddle
Triassic (Sevastjanova et al., 2011). Very recently, the Sibu rhyolites in
east Malaysia are dated as Early Permian by UPb zircon (ca. 276 Ma)
(Oliver et al., 2014). This signicantly pushes back the commencement
time of the Andean-type continental arc magmatism in the East Malaya
Fold Belt, and has important implications in terms of regional tectonic
and metallogenic reconstructions.
2.3. Sukhothai Terrane
The Sukhothai Terrane is bounded by the Loei Fold Belt to the east
(along the JinghongNanUttaraditSra Kaeo Suture) and by the
Inthanon Terrane to the west. Regionally, the Sukhothai Terrane
continues southward to the Chanthaburi Terrane in southeastern
Thailandsouthwestern Cambodia (Sone et al., 2012), and probably to
parts or all of the East Malaya Fold Belt (Metcalfe, 2013). To the north,
the Sukhothai Terrane may be linked to the Lincang Terrane in south-
western Yunnan. The Sukhothai Terrane is dominated by thick deep
water sequences of Triassic volcaniclastic rocks inter-bedded with rhy-
olite and basalt (Barr et al., 2006) and deformed shallow-marine
CarboniferousTriassic sedimentary rocks and I- or S-type granitoids.
Our UPb zircon data on the I-type Lincang rhyolite (ca. 232 Ma) (Lai,
unpub. data) closely match those obtained by Hennig et al. (2009) on
the Lincang rhyolite (ca. 231 Ma) and granite (ca. 229 Ma). These Late
Triassic ages of the Lincang rocks are broadly coeval with our UPb zir-
con dates for the Chiang Khong rhyolite (ca. 223220 Ma) (Srichan
et al., 2009) and on the Lampang Group peri-arc sedimentary rocks of
the Sukhothai Terrane in northern Thailand (Burrett et al., 2014). Our
new data are in accordance with the suggestion that the Sukhothai Ter-
rane represents a PermianTriassic magmatic arc, which was formed
during Palaeotethyan subduction beneath western Indochina. The
JinghongNanUttaraditSra Kaeo backarc basins may have been brief-
ly opened by subduction roll-back, and were subsequently closed when
the Sukhothai arc collided with western Indochina during the Late Tri-
assic (e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Metcalfe, in press).
2.4. Inthanon Terrane
The Inthanon Terrane corresponds to Inthanon Zone of Sone and
Metcalfe (2008), which is different from the Doi Inthanon Metamorphic
Complex (Dunning et al., 1995; Macdonald et al., 2010). The terrane is
thought to represent a subduction accretionary complex separating
the Sukhothai and the Sibumasu terranes, consisting of thrust slices of
chert and older rocks from the Sibumasu Terrane. The Chiang Mai Su-
ture in the Inthanon Terrane is now generally regarded to be the suture
zone between the Indochina and Sibumasu terranes (Metcalfe, 2002). It
consists mainly of Middle Devonian to Middle Triassic pelagic radiolar-
ian cherts (e.g., Hara et al., 2010; Ueno and Charoentitirat, 2011) and
Carboniferous to Triassic limestones with warm water tropical
Palaeotethyan faunas. Some of the CarboniferousPermian shallow-
marine limestones are found overlying Permian (or possibly older)
ocean island (OIB) basalts (Kamata et al., 2009; Ueno and
Charoentitirat, 2011) and have been interpreted as sea-mounts. The
Chiang Mai Suture is likely correlated with the ChangningMenglian
Suture in SW Yunnan (e.g., Cao, 2004; Wang et al., 2007). Our UPb zir-
con data on the ChangningMenglian metabasalt yield an earliest Mid-
dle Permian (ca. 270 Ma) age (Lai, unpub. data), largely coeval with the
published ChangningMenglian metagabbro (ca. 267 Ma) age (Jian
et al., 2009). The alkali composition of the ChangningMenglian
metabasalt and its association with pelagic limestone also points to an
oceanic island setting. This suggests that after its initial Early Permian
opening (Oliver et al., 2014), the main Palaeotethys, by the earliest Mid-
dle Permian, resembled modern-day large oceans such as the Indian or
Pacic oceans.
2.5. Sibumasu Terrane
The Sibumasu Terrane encompasses western Thailand, western
Peninsular Malaysia, eastern Myanmar and northeastern Sumatra
(Metcalfe, 1984, 1996; Barber and Crow, 2003; Ridd, 2009a, b) and is
bordered by the Sagaing Fault and Mogok Metamorphic Belt in the
west in Myanmar and the Inthanon Terrane to the east in Thailand. In
the last thirty or so years, researchers such as Bunopas (1982), Ferrari
et al. (2008), and most Thai geologists have used the term ShanThai
Terrane in the same sense as Sibumasu, although Bunopas (1982) did
not include Baoshan or Sumatra in his original usage. To the north,
Sibumasu is generally considered to include the Baoshan and/or
Tengchong terranes in western Yunnan (e.g., Ueno, 2003). Based on de-
trital zircon studies in the Malay Peninsula, the Sibumasu Terrane base-
ment has been suggested to be primarily Palaeoproterozoic (1.9
2.0 Ga) (Sevastjanova et al., 2011; Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012).
Recent studies have found that the detrital zircon population of the
Late CambrianEarly Ordovician Tarutao Sandstone in Sibumasu has a
strong statistical resemblance to that of the Ordovician Tumblagooda
Sandstone in Western Australia (Burrett et al., 2014). In addition, visual
comparisons of probability plots of detrital zircons from quartzite clasts
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
from the Tarutao Sandstone and from quartzite and granite clasts of the
Permian Kaeng Krachan glaciomarine mudstones in Sibumasu have
yielded similar age spectra with those of western- and northern
Australia. Our ndings suggest close geographic proximity between
the Sibumasu Terrane and Australia prior to the Middle Permian. This
is supported by Nd isotope (Dopieralska et al., 2012) and palaeomagnetic
(Ali et al., 2013) evidence, as well as the CambrianPermian Gondwana
faunas which have NW Australian afnities (Burrett et al., 1990;
Metcalfe, 1991, 1994, 2002; Wang et al., 2013), and the Late
CarboniferousEarly Permian glacialmarine diamictites found in
Sibumasu and NW Australia.
2.6. West Myanmar Terrane
The West Myanmar Terrane is located between the Mogok
Metamorphic Belt (e.g., Bertrand et al., 2001; Mitchell et al., 2007;
Searle et al., 2007; Lai et al., 2013) in the east and the Bay of Bengal
and AndamanSunda Trench (or the Sumatran subduction zone) in
the west (McCaffrey, 2009). The eastern boundary of the terrane is
dened by the NS trending Sagaing Fault that divides into splay faults
in northern Myanmar (Bertrand and Rangin, 2003; Kundu and
Gahalaut, 2012), whereas the western boundary is marked by the active
subduction zone west of the Indo-Myanmar Range (Hall, 2002; Steckler
et al., 2008; Bannert et al., 2011; Kyi Khin et al., 2014). The Indo-
Myanmar Range forms a forearc and mainly comprises ultramac
rocks, pillow basalts, cherts, Upper Triassic ysch and Cretaceous lime-
stone (Mitchell et al., 2010; Bannert et al., 2011). It has been suggested
that Western Myanmar amalgamated with Sibumasu either by collision
in the Late Mesozoic (Mitchell, 1979) or by strike-slip movement in the
Early Triassic (e.g., Barber et al., 2005; Metcalfe, 2009).
The AndamanSunda subduction zone is an east-dipping major,
curvilinear subduction complex that extends from Assam (India) in
continental Asia to the north through the Bay of Bengal to the west of
Myanmar to western Sumatra in the south. This complex subduction
was probably active as early as the Late Cretaceous, as demonstrated
by SHRIMP zircon dating for the Kanzachaung batholiths (94 Ma) in
the KawlinWutho area, west of the Sagaing Fault in northern
Myanmar (Barley et al., 2003). This subduction continued to be episod-
ically active throughout the Eocene to Recent as evidenced by recent
earthquakes associated with the AndamanSunda Trench (e.g., Sieh
and Natawidjaja, 2000; McCaffrey, 2009). This Neogene subduction
was responsible for the formation of the KawlinWuthoMt Popa arc,
or the Central Volcanic Belt, in Myanmar and the Sumatra volcanic arc
in the south, both of which host signicant gold and coppergold
molybdenum porphyry and epithermal mineralization. The two arcs
were probably continuous before the Miocene opening of the Andaman
Sea (e.g., Curray et al., 1979, 1982; Curray, 1989, 2005). The Cenozoic
tectonic history of the West Myanmar Terrane, together with other
contiguous SE Asian terranes, was strongly inuenced by the India
Asia collision (e.g., Tapponnier et al., 1982, 1986, 1990; Aitchison et al.,
2011; Zhang et al., 2012) and indentation/extrusion tectonics
(e.g., Tapponnier et al., 1982, 1986, 1990; Schrer et al., 1990; Otofuji
et al., 2012).
2.7. Sumatra
Sumatra is the largest island in Indonesia and the fth largest in the
world. The island is located at the southwestern margin of Sundaland
north of the Sunda Trench, and is mainly made-up of three parts, the
Sibumasu Terrane in the north, the Western Sumatra Terrane in the
central-west and the Woyla Terrane of Barber (2000) in the south-
southwest. The Sibumasu and West Sumatra terranes are generally
regarded as being separated by the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Line.
Generated in the Miocene by the oblique subduction of the Australian
Plate under the Eurasia Plate, the Sumatra Fault System extends through
9
the Barisan Mountains from the Sunda Strait in the southeast to Banda
Aceh in the northwest (McCaffrey, 2009).
CarboniferousPermian sedimentary rocks of the Sibumasu Terrane
are regarded as the oldest rocks in Sumatra, although Devonian
Carboniferous rocks have been documented from a borehole in the
Malacca Strait (Koning and Darmono, 1984). The JurassicCretaceous
Woyla Terrane is made-up of volcanic arc fragments and an imbricated
oceanic assemblage (Barber, 2000; Barber et al., 2005). These volcanic
arc rocks are believed to have been thrust over an Early Paleozoic
Mesozoic continental basement and intruded by granitoids. The Sunda
Arc volcanism may have been initiated in the Eocene to Early Miocene.
Dominated by calc-alkaline andesiticdacitic magmatic rocks, this
Eocene to Early Miocene magmatism ceased after the Early Miocene
and recommenced in the late Middle Miocene. Similar to the Eocene
to Early Miocene magmatic phase, the Middle MioceneRecent Sunda
Arc magmatism is also dominated by calc-alkaline andesiticdacitic
magmatic rocks (e.g., Garwin et al., 2005; McCarroll et al., 2014).
3. Deposit types and metallogeny
3.1. Background
The north-drifting journey of SE Asian component terranes was
accompanied by several episodes of continental rifting, arc/backarc
basin development, and collisional events. The associated magmatism,
metamorphism, tectonic deformation and uid ow have been the
major driving forces behind the formation of major mineralized belts
in the region and a diverse range of base and precious metal deposits
in these SE Asian mineralized fold belts, with some of the important
deposit types, shown in Table 1 and summarized below.
3.2. Skarn type
Major porphyry-related skarn type coppergold deposits are found
in the Truong Son and Loei fold belts in Laos and Thailand and along
the Tam KyPhouc Son suture zone in central Vietnam (Fig. 2). These
skarn deposits in mainland SE Asia are further divided into oxidized-
and reduced copper (gold) skarn.
3.2.1. Oxidized copper (gold) skarns
Phu Kham coppergold deposit (northern Laos): The Phu Kham
deposit (227 Mt at 0.48% Cu, 0.22 g/t Au, 2 g/t Ag) is one of the most
important and best documented porphyry-related oxidized skarn
deposits in the Truong Son Fold Belt (Fig. 2). The deposit is hosted in
Late Carboniferous to Early Permian volcaniclastic rocks (Backhouse,
2004; Tate, 2005; Kamvong, 2013). The ore-hosting volcaniclastic
sequence is intruded by porphyry units that are spatially associated
with the skarn mineralization. The deposit is divided into two zones,
namely the hangingwall/thrust zone sitting above the Jurassic to
Cretaceous Khorat red beds, and the downfaulted block zone (Tate,
2005). Whole rock geochemistry of the major Phu Kham andesitic
dacitic units indicates a continental arc setting (Backhouse, 2004;
Kamvong, 2013; Kamvong et al., 2014). At Phu Kham, the skarn alter-
ation zone is likely to have formed along/or adjacent to the margins of
the intruding porphyry dykes. The aggregate garnet skarn with later in-
tense quartz and hematite replacement contains the most enriched hy-
pogene coppergold mineralization. Therefore, there is a close
relationship between the prograde garnet skarn and the highest grade
coppergold mineralization (Kamvong, 2013).
Puthep (PUT1 & PUT2) porphyry-related ironcopper (gold)
deposits (northern Thailand): Mineralization of the Puthep (PUT1 and
PUT2) deposits (total indicated/inferred resource of 120 Mt at 0.4%
Cu) (Fig. 2) occurs in fractures and veins, typically centered on at least
two dioritic to granodioritic intrusions. The Puthep intrusions have
yielded Early- to Middle Triassic UPb zircon ages of 248 6 Ma
(PUT1), and ca. 235233 Ma (PUT2). These intrusions have been
 10
Table 1
Summary for major gold, coppergold and leadzincsilver deposits in mainland SE Asia.

No. in Deposit Location Deposit type Terrane/fold Host rocks/(ages) Intrusions/(ages) Alteration minerals and types Ore mineralogy Tonnage/grade References
map belt

Porphyry related-skarn CuAu deposits

1 Fig. 2 KTL (CuAu) Laos 19.434N Porphyry- Truong Son Limestone, volcanic Diorite, UPb zircon Silicication, propylitic (chlorite, Pyrite, chalcopyrite, 92 Mt at 0.45% Hotson (2009),
(Prospect) 103.287E related-skarn and volcaniclastic (290.0 2.9 Ma, epidote), phyllic (sericite, pyrite) pyrrhotite, galena, Cu, 0.19 g/t Au & www.panaust.com.au
(oxidized) rock, calcareous 286.9 4.3 Ma, bornite, sphalerite, 2.3 g/t Ag
sedimentary rock 284.8 2.4 Ma) ReOs molybdenite, electrum
289.4 1.0 Ma)
1 Fig. 2 Bohr Thong (Cu Laos 19.417N Porphyry- Truong Son Limestone and Diorite, UPb zircon Skarn prograde: garnet; skarn Pyrite, magnetite, No data Hotson (2009)
Au) (Prospect) 103.195E related-skarn calcareous (285.1 3.4 Ma), tonalite retrograde: epidote, chlorite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
(oxidized) sedimentary rock (281.7 2.4 Ma), granodiorite pyrrhotite, electrum
(282.4 2.8 Ma)
1 Fig. 2 Tharkhek (Cu Laos 19.409N Porphyry- Truong Son Limestone, Tonalite, UPb zircon Silicication, propylitic (chlorite, Pyrite, chalcopyrite, No data Hotson (2009)
Au) (Prospect) 103.238E related-skarn calcareous (279.6 4.4 Ma, epidote), phyllic (sericite, pyrite) molybdenite, bornite,
(oxidized) sedimentary rock 277.4 2.7 Ma) sphalerite, galena,
electrum
2 Fig. 2 Phu Kham (Cu Laos 18.883N Porphyry- Truong Son Volcaniclastics and Diorite intrusion, UPb zircon Porphyry: potassic (K-feldspar, Chalcopyrite, pyrite, 240 Mt at 0.55% Backhouse (2004), Tate
Au) (Mine) 102.908E related-skarn interbedded 304 1.5 Ma, 306.2 1.4 Ma, biotite, magnetite), phyllic (sericite, magnetite, bornite, Cu, 0.24 g/t Au & (2005), Kamvong (2013),
(oxidized) limestone, red bed 301 3 Ma, 299 3 Ma; age pyrite), propylitic (epidote, pyrite); hematite, tetrahedrite, 2.2 g/t Ag Kamvong et al. (2014),
Advanced siltstone of mineralization: ReOs skarn prograde: garnet; retrograde: galena, enargite, www.panaust.com.au

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

argillic (CarboniferousE. molybdenite 304.9 1.7 Ma, chlorite, epidote, carbonate, quartz, sphalerite,
overprint with Permian) Host 304.7 1.7 Ma; KAr resetting sericite, hematite; high-sulphidation molybdenite, gold
possible link to volcanics: UPb age of 25.3 1.6 Ma, with pyrophyllite at hangingwall
high S zircon 306 2 Ma 35.4 1.7 Ma zone
epithermal sys-
tem
3 Fig. 2 Phu Lon (Cu, Fe, Thailand Porphyry- Loei Limestone Diorite and quartz monzonite Prograde: garnet, pyroxene, Chalcopyrite, 5.4 Mt at 2.4% Kamvong (2004), Meinert
Au) (Prospect) 18.1997N related-skarn (Devonian) porphyry, UPb zircon wollastonite, K-feldspar Retrograde: magnetite, pyrite, Cu & 0.64 g/t Au et al. (2005), Kamvong and
102.143E (oxidized) Volcaniclastics UPb 244 3 Ma, thermal event: quartz, tremolite, epidote, chlorite, bornite, gold Khin Zaw (2009)
zircon 359 6 Ma ArAr feldspar 187108 Ma calcite, sericite
4 Fig. 2 Padan (CuMo) Laos 17.5N Porphyry- Truong Son Rhyodacite Rhyodacite porphyry (Early K-feldspar, chlorite, sericite, epidote, Pyrite, molybdenite, No data Cannell and Smith (2008),
(Sepon Mining 101.8167E related-skarn porphyry, mudstone Permian) carbonate chalcopyrite, hematite Cromie (2010)
District) (oxidized)
4 Fig. 2 Thengkham South Laos 17.5N Porphyry- Truong Son Bioclastic sandstone, Rhyodacite porphyry (Early Prograde: garnet, pyroxene, biotite; Hypogene: pyrite, 10.7 Mt at 1.8% Cannell and Smith (2008),
and North (Cu 101.8167E related-skarn limestone, Permian) Retrograde: chlorite, epidote, quartz, chalcopyrite, Cu (South) and Cromie (2010)
Mo) (Sepon (oxidized) carbonaceous and hematite, carbonate molybdenite; 10.4 Mt at 2.2%
Mining District) calcareous mudstone, Supergene: malachite, Cu (North)
siltstone and chalcocite, azurite,
sandstone cuprite, native copper

Porphyry related-skarn CuAu deposits

4 Fig. 2 Khanong (Cu) Laos 17.5N Skarn/ Truong Son Bioclastic sandstone, Rhyodacite porphyry (Early Prograde: garnet, pyroxene; Hypogene: pyrite, 25.5 Mt at 3.5% Cannell and Smith (2008),
(Sepon Mining 101.8167E supergene/ limestone, Permian) Retrograde: chlorite epidote, calcite, galena, sphalerite, Cu & 18.2 Mt at Cromie (2010)
District) exotic copper carbonaceous and hematite chalcopyrite, 0.76 g/t Au (Au
gold calcareous mudstone, molybdenite; cap.)
siltstone and Supergene:
sandstone chalcocite, native
copper, azurite, cuprite,
malachite
4 Fig. 2 Phabing (Cu) Laos 17.5N Exotic copper Truong Son Bioclastic sandstone, No known intrusion No known alteration Malachite, native 2.0 Mt at 3.4% Cu Cannell and Smith (2008)
(Sepon Mining 101.8167E after skarn limestone, copper
District) carbonaceous
mudstone, chert
5 Fig. 2 PUT1 (Puthep 1) Thailand Porphyry- Loei Siliciclastics and Diorite/monzodiorite Potassic (K-feldspar, biotite, Chalcopyrite, pyrite, 164 Mt at 0.53% Khin Zaw et al. (2009a,b),
(CuAu) (Phu Hin 17.4675N related-skarn Limestone (Wang porphyry; UPb zircon 242.4 magnetite), phyllic (sericite, pyrite), magnetite Cu & 0.09 g/t Au Kamvong (2013), Kamvong et
Lek Fia) 101.867E (oxidized) Saphung Formation) 1.3 Ma, laser ArAr biotite propylitic (epidote, pyrite) in al. (2014),
(Prospect) (Carboniferous) 248 2 Ma, 247 6 Ma, porphyry; skarn prograde: garnet; www.panaust.com.au
ReOs molybdenite retrograde: chlorite, epidote,
245 0.9 Ma, younger ArAr carbonate, quartz, sericite
feldspar 164 0.6 Ma
overprint
5 Fig. 2 PUT2 (Puthep 2) Thailand Porphyry- Loei Sandstone, siltstone, Granodiorite: UPb zircon Prograde: garnet, retrograde: Chalcopyrite, pyrite, 36 Mt at 0.43% Khositanont (2008), Khin Zaw
(Cu) (Phu Thong 17.432N related-skarn mudstone and 235 4 Ma and 233 3 Ma; chlorite, epidote, carbonate, quartz, magnetite, hematite Cu et al. (2009a,b),
Dieng and Phu 101.760E (oxidized) limestone (Wang whole rock KAr resetting ages sericite, illite; supergene: kaolinite www.panaust.com.au
Tham Phra) Saphung Formation) of 177, 198, 200 Ma
(Prospect) (Carboniferous)
6 Fig. 2 Phu Thap Fah Thailand Skarn type Loei Siliciclastics and Granodiorite: UPb zircon Prograde: garnet, pyroxene, quartz; Gold, pyrite, bismuth, 6.4 Mt at 2.19 g/ Rodmanee (2000), Khin Zaw
(Au) (Mine) 17.3544N (reduced) limestone (Permian) 245 3 Ma; Andesitic dyke, Retrograde: epidote, calcite, chlorite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, t Au, 0.14% Cu & et al. (2007b, 2008, 2009a,b,
101.653E UPb zircon 221 5 Ma, ArAr quartz chalcopyrite 3.9 g/t Ag 2011),
biotite and amphibole resetting www.tongkahharbouur.com
age of 111153 Ma
7 Fig. 2 Khao Phanom Pha Thailand 16.3 Skarn type Loei Felsic andesitic No known intrusion Prograde: wollastonite, biotite; Pyrrhotite, pyrite, No data Khin Zaw et al. (2007a),
(Au) (Mine) 100.551E (reduced) volcaniclastics retrograde: quartz, tremolite, chalcopyrite, electrum Khositanont (2008)
sericite; KAr age of sericite:
252 5 Ma
8 Fig. 2 Singto (FeCu) Thailand Porphyry- Loei Limestone, Diorite UPb zircon Prograde:garnet, retrograde: quartz, Magnetite, chalcopyrite, No data Khin Zaw et al. (2007a)
(Prospect) 16.261N related-skarn siliciclastics 209 9 Ma, 213 10 Ma epidote, chlorite, calcite pyrite
101.799E (oxidized) (Permian)

Porphyry related-skarn CuAu deposits

8 Fig. 2 Khao Lek (FeCu) Thailand Porphyry- Loei Limestone, Granitoid porphyry UPb zircon Prograde: garnet, retrograde: quartz, Chalcopyrite, No data Khin Zaw et al. (2007a)
(Prospect) 15.912N related-skarn siliciclastics 254 10 Ma, 249 5 Ma, epidote, chlorite, calcite magnetite, pyrite
100.787E (oxidized) (Permian) 241 5 Ma
9 Fig. 2 Ban Bothong (Cu Thailand Porphyry- Loei ArAr amphibole age Prograde:garnet, retrograde: quartz, Chalcopyrite, No data Khin Zaw et al. (2007a, 2009a)
Au) (Prospect) 15.912N related-skarn 187 2 Ma epidote, chlorite, calcite magnetite, pyrite

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

100.787E (oxidized)
9 Fig. 2 Khao Phra Ngam Thailand Porphyry- Loei Limestone, Granodiorite UPb zircon Prograde:garnet, retrograde: quartz, Chalcopyrite, No data Khin Zaw et al. (2007a)
(Cu) (Prospect) 14.897N related-skarn siliciclastics 208 10 Ma epidote, chlorite, calcite magnetite, pyrite
100.628E (oxidized) (Permian)
10 Fig. 2 Frenchman (Au, Thailand Porphyry- Loei Volcaniclastics and Granodiorite UPb zircon Prograde:garnet, pyroxene, Chalcopyrite, pyrite, No data Muller (1999)
Cu) (Prospect) 13.9568N related-skarn interbedded 203 8 Ma wollastonite, albite, biotite; sphalerite,
101.8337E (oxidized) limestone (Lower retrograde: quartz, epidote, chlorite, minor molybdenite
Permian) calcite, sericite. Illite, smectite
11 Fig. 2 Khe Rin (CuAu Vietnam15.500N Skarn type Truong Son/ Metabasite, marble Granite, syenite, granodiorite Prograde: garnet, retrograde: Pyrite, pyrrhotite, No data Banks et al. (2004), Khin Zaw
WMo) (Prospect 107.696E (reduced) Tam Ky actinolite, tremolite; quartz, chlorite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, (unpub. data)
in Phuoc Son Mine Phouc Son epidote, sericite, sphene molybdenite, scheelite
area) Suture
12 Fig. 2 Ho RayThac Vietnam 15.410N Skarn type Truong Son/ Schist, gneiss, Leucocratic dyke (237 5 Ma) Prograde: Pyroxene, garnet, Pyrite, pyrrhotite, 2.3 Mt at 1.8 g/t Quynh et al. (2004), Lee
Trang (AuW) 108.434E (reduced) Tam Ky granite, pegmatite, retrograde: epidote, chlorite, biotite, chalcopyrite, galena, Au (2010)
(Prospect in Bong Phouc Son quartzite, carbonate scheelite,
Mieu Mine) Suture amphibolite, bithmuthinite,
cassiterite,
arsenopyrite,
molybdenite, magnetite,
scheelite, electrum
12 Fig. 2 Nui Kem (AuZn Vietnam 15.390N Skarn type Truong Son/ Gneiss, schist No known intrusion Botite, chlorite, carbonate Pyrite, sphalerite, 1.4 Mt at 7.9 g/t Quynh et al. (2004), Lee
Pb) (Bong Mieu 108.432E (reduced) Tam Ky galena, pyrrhotite, Au (2010)
Mine) Phouc Son chalcopyrite, electrum
Suture
13 Fig. 2 Mengapur (Cu Malaysia 3.775N Skarn East Malaya Metasedimentary Granodiorite (L. Permian) Prograde: Garnet, diopside, Pyrite, pyrrhotite, 224 Mt at 0.25% Teh and Goh (2010),
Au) (Prospect) 102.808E (reduced) volcaniclastic rock wollastonite Retrograde: Quartz, chalcopyrite, galena, Cu, 0.16 g/t Au, www.monumentmining.com
carbonate molybdenite, stibnite, 8.86 g/t Ag &
bornite, telluride, 6.54% S with Fe
bismuthinite, gold & Mo credits

Epithermal deposits
1 Fig. 3 Monywa (Cu) Myanmar High-S Kawlin Rhyolite, dacite, Dacite porphyry Strong silicication, advanced argillic Chalcocite, Letpaduang: Mitchell et al. (2011), Khin
(Mine) 22.113N 95.042E epithermal Wuntho- andesite (L. alteration (pyrophyllite, alunite, digenite, enargite, 1478 Mt at Zaw, Unpub data
Popa belt Miocene) dickite, kaolinite, sericite, quartz) chalcopyrite, 0.37% Cu,
covellite, anhydrite, Sabetaung &
barite, jarosite, Sabetaung South
sphalerite, galena, 213Mt at 0.26%
chalcanthite Cu, Kyisintaung
391Mt at
0.31%Cu

11
(continued on next page)
 12
Table 1 (continued)
No. in Deposit Location Deposit type Terrane/fold Host rocks/(ages) Intrusions/(ages) Alteration minerals and types Ore mineralogy Tonnage/grade References
map belt

Epithermal deposits
2 Fig. 3 Phu He (AuAg) Laos 19.467N Low-S Truong Son Andesite, UPb Rhyolite dyke (post- Propylitic (epidote, chlorite), phyllic Pyrite, galena, sphalerite, No data Hotson (2009)
(Prospect) 103.256E epithermal Zircon 291.4 mineralization) (sericite, pyrite), argillic (clays) chalcopyrite, electrum
2.3 Ma), dacite
(289.8 3.2 Ma),
dacitic breccia
(289.7 2.5 Ma)
3 Fig. 3 LCT (AuAgCu) Laos 18.937N Low-S Truong Son Tuffaceous rock, Dacitic porphyry, UPb zircon Silica, adularia, sericite, chlorite, Pyrite, sphalerite, 32 Mt at 0.77 g/t Manaka et al. (2007), Manaka
(Prospect) 102.884E epithermal to volcanic breccia, (290.6 3.5 Ma) pyrite, kaolinite, halloysite galena, chalcopyrite, Au, 4.9 g/t Ag & (2008), www.panaust.com.au
mesothermal Carbonaceous shale electrum 0.12% Cu
(L. Carboniferous)
4 Fig. 3 Ban Houayxai Laos 18.927N Low-S Truong Son Andesite, UPb zircon No known intrusion Silica, adularia, sericite, chlorite, Pyrite, sphalerite, 76 Mt at 0.82 g/t Manaka (2008), Manaka et al.
(AuAg) (Mine) 102.687E epithermal 286 4 Ma) and pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, Au & 7.0 g/t Ag (2014), www.panaust.com.au
volcanic breccias, U electrum, stephanite,
Pb zircon (283 arsenopyrite
4 Ma)
5 Fig. 3 Wang Yai (Au Thailand Low-S Loei Volcaniclastics, Post-mineral diorite intrusion, Quartz, pyrite, calcite, adularia, Electrum, argentite, No data De Little (2005)
Ag) (Prospect) 16.366N epithermal rhyolite breccia Host Ar/Ar age of 188.5 0.3 Ma, sericite, chlorite pyrite, sphalerite,
100.766E rhyolite: Ar/Ar resetting KAr age 124 5, galena, minor
294 1 Ma, 111 5 Ma chalcopyrite

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

volcanic sandstone,
UPb zircon b247
4 Ar/Ar reheating
age at 206 Ma
6 Fig. 3 Chatree (AuAg) Thailand Low-S Loei Monomict to Hornblende diorite dyke, Silicic, argillic, propylitic and clay and Electrum, pyrite, 81.7 Mt at Kromkhun (2005), Salam
(Mine) 16.2938N epithermal polymict andesite Xenocrystic granodiorite- supergene alteration: Quartz, calcite, sphalerite, galena, 1.18 g/t Au & (2013),
100.647E breccias, bearing basaltic dyke, horn- adularia, sericite, chlorite, illite, minor chalcopyrite, 9 g/t Ag www.kingsgate.com.au
volcanogenic blende phyric dyke, UPb zircon smectite acantite containing
sedimentary rocks 244 7 Ma, 238 6 Ma, 3.10 Moz Au,
(U. PermianL. 221 8 Ma 24.14 Moz Ag
Triassic)
6 Fig. 3 LD Prospect (Au Thailand Low-S Loei Plagioclase No known intrusion Quartz, pyrite, calcite, adularia, Predominantly pyrite 2.9 Mt at 1.1 g/t Khin Zaw et al. (2007a),
Ag) (Prospect) 16.292N epithermal pyroxene phyric sericite, chlorite Au & 10 g/t Ag www.thaigoldelds.com
100.633E andesite, UPb
zircon 250 5 Ma

7 Fig. 3 Miwah (AuAg) Aceh Sumatra High S Sunda arc Andesitic to dacitic Pliocene biotitehornblende Propyllitic, Phyllic, Argillic and acid Native gold, pyrite, 103.9 Mt at Crow and Van Leeuwen
(Prospect) 4.7214N epithermal Au lavas, tuffs and rhyodacites sulfate alteration: quartz, alunite, tellurides, selenides, 0.94 g/t Au & (2005), Henry Wong (written
96.3616E Ag breccias of the barite, pyrite, kaolinite, illite minor cubanite, 2.68 g/t Ag comm., 2013)
Leuping Volcanics smectite, chlorite, epidote, rutile, tennantitetetrahedrite,
(Pio-Pleistocene) native sulfur arsenopyrite, enargite,
luzonite, covellite
8 Fig. 3 Martabe (AuAg) Sumatra 1.5225S High S Sunda arc Miocene basaltic to Intrusive diatremes with Silicication, argillic, acid-sulfate, Enargite, luzonite, 190.72 Mt at Sutopo et al. (2007), www.g-
(Mine) 99.0675E epithermal Au andesitic ows, tuffs associated dacite porphyries carbonate Vuggy quartz, alunite, native gold, covellite, 1.31 g/t Au & resources.com (2013), Garwin
Ag and breccias of the dickite, kaolinite, illite, pyrite, barite pyrite, bismuthinite, 12.5 g/t Ag et al. (2005)
Angkola Volcanics marcasite, proustite,
pyrargyrite
9 Fig. 3 Mangani (AuAg) Sumatra 0.2131N Low to Sunda arc Andesite (Miocene) Microdiorite, andesite dykes Acid-sulfate, propylitic Quartz, Electrum, sphalerite, 0.9 Mt at 6.5 g/t Van Leeuwin (1994), Crow
(Old Mine) 100.71E Intermediate S Shales and sandstone adularia, rhodochrosite, rhodonite, pyrrhotite, galena, Au and Van Leeuwen (2005),
epithermal Au (OligocenePiocene) calcite, pyrite chalcopyrite, Garwin et al. (2005)
Ag arsenopyrite, argentite,
sulfosalts
10 Fig. 3 TembangLebong Sumatra Low S Sunda Trachyandesite to Dacitic to andesitic intrusions Propyllitic, argillic, phyllic, acid- Electrum, AuAg 22.6 Mt at Van Leeuwin (1994), Crow
cluster (AuAg) 3.9958 S epithermal Au Banda arc andesite lavas and (Miocene) sulfate Adularia, illite, illitesmectite, tellurides, AuAg 1.35 g/t Au & and Van Leeuwen (2005),
Bukit Tembang 103.4472 E Ag tuffs, breccias and kaolinite, pyrite, chlorite, calcite, selenides, native gold, 17.6 g/t Ag www.sumatracoppergold.com
Lebong Donok carbonaceous shales chalcedony sulfosalts, galena,
Lebong Tandai (Oligocene to sphalerite, chalcopyrite
Lebong Simpong Miocene)
(Mine)

e-
11 Fig. 3 Ojolali (AuAg) Sumatra 2.3912S Low to Sunda Basaltic andesite, No known intrusion Argillic/sericitic to advanced argillic: Native gold, Pyrite, 6.5 Mt at 0.8 g/t McCarroll (2010), McCarroll
(Prospect) 102.7346E intermediate S Banda arc siltstone, crystal and alunitekaolinite, propylitic sphalerite, galena, Au & 4.8 g/t Ag et al. (2014)
epithermal Au lithic tuff (Miocene) alteration: chlorite, calcite chalcopyrite, tennantite/
Ag pyroxmangite, rhodochrosite, Tetrahedrite
actinolite, epidote
12 Fig. 3 Way Linggo Sumatra 5.135 S Low S Sunda arc Andesitic to dacitic Porphyritic dacite intrusive Silicication, quartz, adularia, illite, Pyrite 2.2 Mt at 6.9 g/t Crow and Van Leeuwen
(Mine) 104.5439 E epithermal Au pyroclastics kaolinite, calcite, chlorite, green Au & 45.3 g/t Ag (2005), Garwin et al. (2005),
Ag smectite Andrews (2013),
www.kingsrosemining.com.au

Sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits

1 Fig. 4 Kyaukpahto (Au Myanmar Sedimentary Mogok Sandstone, siltstone No known intrusion Silicication, sericitization, argillic Pyrite, galena, 3 Mt ore at 4 g/t Khin Zaw (2002, 2008, unpub
Ag) (Mine) 22.113N, 95.042E rock-hosted Metamorphic (Eocene) (UPb alteration sphalerite, electrum, Au data), Ye Myint Swe et al.
Belt detrital zircon chalcopyrite, (2004a,b)
48.7 0.7 Ma) arsenopyrite
2 Fig. 4 Kwinthonze (Au Myanmar 20.73N Orogenic Au Mogok Marble, calc silicates Granitoids (Mesozoic) Silicication, sericitization, argillic Pyrite, galena, No data Khin Zaw (unpub. Data)
Ag) (Mine) 96.03E Metamorphic alteration sphalerite, electrum,
Belt chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite
3 Fig. 4 Modi Taung (Au Myanmar Orogenic Au Mogok Mudstone, siltstone, Granite and diorite (Mesozoic) Silicication, chloritization Pyrite, galena, sphalerite, Up to 3000 g/t Mitchell et al. (2004)
Ag) (Mine) 20.352N 96.420E Metamorphic sandstone chalcopyrite, Au
Belt arsenopyrite, visible gold
4 Fig. 4 Meyon (AuAg) Myanmar17.26N, Orogenic Au Mogok Slate, phyllite, Granite and diorite (Mesozoic) Silicication, argillic to propylitic Pyrite, chalcopyrite, No data Zaw Naing Oo and Khin Zaw
(Prospect) 97.00E Metamorphic argillite, schist, minor alteration arsenopyrite, rare (2009), Zaw Naing Oo et al.

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

Belt greywake of Mergui pyrrhotite, electrum (2010)
Group
(Carboniferous)
5 Fig. 4 Huai Kham On Thailand 17.80N Orogenic Au Sukhothai Andesitic tuffaceous No known intrusion Silicication, chloritecalcite Pyrite, galena, No data Khositanont (2008),
(AuAg) 99.46E volcaniclastic rocks alteration chalcopyrite, galena, Khositanont et al. (2009)
(Prospect) intercalated with bournonite, large
rhyolitic volcanics: electrum grains
Andesite, UPb
zircon 242 Ma,
Rhyolite, UPb
zircon 224228 Ma
6 Fig. 4 Langu (Au) Thailand 6.90N Sediment- Sukhothai Carbonaceous No known intrusion Silicication, dolomitization, Pyrite, stibnite, No data Wilkinson (2009)
(Prospect) 99.80E hosted Au limestone, dolomite carbonate alteration arsenopyrite, sphalerite,
and minor siltstone galena, chalcopyrite
(Ordovician)
7 Fig. 4 Sepon (Au) Laos 17.5N Sedimentary Truong Son Sandstone, Rhyodacite Porphyry SHRIMP U Silicication (jasperoid), Pyrite, galena, 4.75 Moz Au for Loader (1999), Smith et al.
(Mine) Discovery 101.8167E rock-hosted Au mudstone, calcareous Pb zircon age 300 2 Ma, UPb decalcication, dolomitization sphalerite, chalcopyrite, 83 Mt at 1.8 g/t (2005), Cromie et al. (2006a,b,
Main, Discovery shale, limestone, zircon (PermianCarboniferous) tetrahedrite, malachite, Au: 2010), Cromie (2010)
Colluvial,Discovery dolomite azurite
West, Nalou, (Ordovician
Namkok E and W Carboniferous)
and Vang Ngang

8 Fig. 4 Bai Go (AuZn Vietnam 15.443N Sediment- Truong Son/ Micaceous schist, Dacitic porphyry, andesitic Silicication, pyritization Pyrite, pyrrhotite, 3.1 Mt at 6.69 g/ Banks et al. (2004), Manaka
Pb) (Phuoc Son 107.727E hosted Au Tam Ky gabbro, metabasite porphyry, granite dyke galena, sphalerite, t Au (combined et al. (2010)
Mine) Phouc Son chalcopyrite, electrum Bai Dat & Bai Go)
Suture
8Fig. 4 Bai Dat (AuZn Vietnam 15.434N Sediment- Truong Son/ Graphitic and Dacitic porphyry, andesitic Silicication, pyritization Pyrite, pyrrhotite, 3.1 Mt at 6.7 g/t Banks et al. (2004), Manaka
Pb) (Phuoc Son 107.725E hosted Au Tam Ky micaceous schist, porphyry, granite dyke galena, sphalerite, Au (combined et al. (2010)
Mine) Phouc Son marble, metabasite chalcopyrite, electrum Bai Dat & Bai Go)
Suture
9 Fig. 4 Ho Gan (Au) Vietnam 15.402N Orogenic Au Truong Son/ Schist, orthogneiss, Granite, pegmatite Muscovite (greissen) Pyrite, galena, 2.0 Mt at 1.9 g/t Quynh et al. (2004), Lee
(Bong Mieu Mine) 108.415E Tam Ky granite, pegmatite arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite Au (2010)
Phouc Son
Suture
10 Fig. 4 Selinsing (Au) Malaysia Sediment- East Malaya/ Siltstone, sandstone, Rhyolite dykes (Unknown age) Quartz, ankerite, chlorite, pyrite, Pyrite, pyrrhotite, 15.2 Mt at Makoundi (2012), Makoundi
(Mine) 4.2498N hosted Au Bentong phyllite sericite arsenopyrite, galena, 1.28 g/t et al. (2014),
101.786E Raub Suture (Carboniferous) sphalerite, chalcopyrite, www.monumentmining.com
electrum

(continued on next page)

13
 14
Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
Table 1 (continued)
No. in Deposit Location Deposit type Terrane/fold Host rocks/(ages) Intrusions/(ages) Alteration minerals and types Ore mineralogy Tonnage/grade References
map belt

Sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits

11 Fig. 4 Penjom (Au) Malaysia Sediment- East Malaya/ Tuffaceous siltstone Trachyte, trachyandesite, Quartz, chlorite, sericite, illite, albite, Pyrite, galena, 22 Mt at Makoundi (2012),
(Mine) 4.1369N hosted Au Bentong (259.8 4.9 Ma), tonalite (E. Jurassic) sphalerite, gold, 1.28 Moz Au www.avocet.co.uk
101.985E Raub Suture carbonaceous shale, arsenopyrite.
tuffaceous
conglomerate
(264.9 2.6 Ma)
12 Fig. 4 Tersang (Au) Malaysia Sediment- East Malaya/ Sandstone, breccia Alkali rhyolite (L. Triassic) Quartz, sericite, pyrite, illite, Pyrite, arsenopyrite, 5.2 Mt at 0.71 g/ Makoundi (2012),
(Prospect) 3.9828N; hosted Au Bentong (L. Carboniferous) montmorillonite, hematite galena, gold, geocronite, t Au www.peninsulargold.com
101.782E Raub Suture covellite
13 Fig. 4 Raub Australian Malaysia Sediment- East Malaya/ Gray to black shale, Granite (Triassic) Quartz, pyrite, sericite Pyrite, gold, Tailings: 10.2 Mt Makoundi (2012),
(Au) (Mine) 3.8036N hosted Au Bentong limestone, marble; arsenopyrite at 0.73 g/t Au; www.peninsulargold.com
101.857E Raub Suture tuffs (unknown) Oxides: 4.9 Mt
at 1.39 g/t Au
14 Fig. 4 Abong (AuAg) Sumatra 4.2769N Sediment- Sunda arc Black shales, Doson biotite granite complex Silicication, argillic, quartz, illite Pyrite, arsenical pyrite, 8.5 Mt at 1.49 g/t Taylor (2012), Crow and Van
(Prospect) 97.2189E hosted Au mudstone, breccias, (Miocene) smectite marcasite Au & 10.7 g/t Ag Leeuwen (2005)
volcaniclastics
(Rampong and
Bampo Formations)
(Upper Oligocene to
Miocene)
15 Fig. 4 Sihayo (AuAg) Sumatra 0.8053N Sediment- Sunda-arc Silicied breccias No known intrusion Silicication, quartz, calcite Pyrite, arsenopyrite, 17.0 Mt at 2.7 g/ Crow and Van Leeuwen
(Prospect) 99.4233E hosted Au and Permian stibnite t Au (2005), www.sihayogold.com
(karst, breccia limestones,
collapse); prox- sediments (Post
imal to porphy- Oligocene)
ry systems

Basin-related ore deposits

1 Fig. 5 Bawdwin (Pb Myanmar VHMS/ Sibumasu Tuffaceous rock Rhyolite porphyry; Nam la (red) Sericitization, chloritization, Galena, sphalerite, 10.8 Mt at 22.8% Khin Zaw (2003, 2004), Khin
ZnAgCuNi 23.116N 97.300E sediment- (Bawdwin Tuff), and Loei Mi (gray) units carbonate alteration pyrite, cerussite, Pb, 13.9% Zn, Zaw et al. (1999)
Co) (Mine) hosted Volcaniclastic and smithsonite, barite, 1.1% Cu, 670 g/t
turbiditic unit gersdofte,chalcopyrite, Ag with Co & Ni
(Pangyun pyrarhyrite, cubanite, credits
Formation) cobaltite, argentite,
(Cambro- sulfosalts
Ordovician)
2 Fig. 5 Theingon (Pb Myanmar MVT/Irish Type Sibumasu Wunbye Formation No known intrusion Silicication, dolomitization Galena, sphalerite, No Data Khin Zaw et al. (1999)
ZnAg) (Mine) 20.950N 96.833E (limestone, pyrite, cerussite
dolomitic limestone) tetrahedritetennentite
(Ordovician)
3 Fig. 5 Song ThoBoh Yai Thailand MVT/Irish Type Sibumasu Thung Song Group No known intrusion Silicication, dolomitization Galena, sphalerite, 4.9 Mt at 3.3% Diehl and Kern (1981),
(PbZnAg) 14.851N 98.798E (Limestone, pyrite, cerussite Pb, 3.0% Zn & Crow and Khin Zaw (2011),
(Mine) dolomite) tetrahedritetennentite 63 g/t Ag www.seasiamining.com
(Ordovocian)
4 Fig. 5 Duc Bo (CuZn Vietnam 15.443N VHMS Tam Ky Intermediate-felsic No known intrusion Epidote, sericite, chlorite Chalcopyrite, No data Tran et al. (2009)
Pb) (Prospect) 108.578E Phouc Son metavolcanic rocks, sphalerite, pyrite,
Suture UPb zircon pyrrhotite, galena,
459.5 9.7 Ma, bornite
417.3 7 Ma)
5 Fig. 5 Bukit Ketaya (Au Malaysia VHMS East Malaya Rhyolite to Microgranite: UPb zircon Distal: quartzchloritesericite Silver and tin bearing No data Basori et al. (2012a,b)
AgMnFeBa) 3.4058N, rhyodacite (E. 234.9 1.5 Ma, pyrite (quartz, chlorite, sericite, minerals, pyrite,
Tasik Chini (Old 102.921E Permian) 234.4 2.2 Ma pyrite, pyrophyllite, paragonite) sphalerite, galena,
mine) Proximal: quartzchloritepyrite hematite and barite
carbonate (quartz, Mg-chlorite,
pyrite, carbonate, sericite,
pyrophyllite, kaolinite)
5 Fig. 5 Bukit Botol (Au Malaysia 3.376N VHMS East Malaya Rhyolite to Microgranite: UPb zircon Distal: quartzsericite Electrum, silver and No data Basori et al. (2012a,b)
AgMnFeBa) 102.928E rhyodacite (E. 234.9 1.5 Ma, (quartz, sericite, paragonite) tin bearing
Tasik Chini (Old Permian) 234.4 2.2 Ma Proximal: quartzsericitepyrite minerals, pyrite,
mine) chlorite (quartz, sericite, chlorite, chalcopyrite,

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

phengite) sphalerite, galena,
hematite, barite
6 Fig. 5 Dairi (PbZn) Sumatra 2.3897N Sediment- Sunda arc Caronaceous No known intrusion Quartz, barite, calcite Pyrite, sphalerite, 25 Mt at 11.5% Crow and Van Leeuwen
(Prospect) 98.541E hosted SEDEX/ shales/dolomitic galena, tetrahedrite Zn, 6.8% Pb & (2005), Reynolds (2010),
MVT siltstones and tennantite 7.5 g/t Ag www.bumiresources.com
massive dolomites
of the Permo-
Carbonifeorus
Tapanuli Group

15
16 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

Fig. 2. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major porphyry-related skarn CuAu deposits. 1 Bohr ThongKTLTharkhek (Laos); 2 Phu Kham (Laos); 3 Phu Lon (Thailand);
4 PadanThengkham South and North-KhanongPhabing (Sepon Mining District) (Laos); 5 Phuthep (PUT1 & PUT2) (Thailand); 6 Phu Thap Fah (Thailand); 7 Khao Phanom Pha
(Thailand); 8 SingtoKhao Lek (Thailand); 9 Ban BothongKhao Phra Ngam (Thailand); 10 Frenchman Mine (Thailand); 11. Khe Rin (Phuoc Son) (Vietnam); 12. Ho RayThac
TrangNui Kem (Bong Mieu Mine) (Vietnam); 13 Mengapur (Malaysia).
SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modied after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).

mplaced into the Carboniferous Wang Saphung Formation which
includes siltstone, limestone and sandstone.
The Puthep 1 (PUT 1) deposit is related to the emplacement of
the multiphase, composite intrusions. The hypogene alteration at PUT
1 is characterized by porphyry-style alteration and mineralization asso-
ciated with PUT 1 stock, and skarn-style alteration and mineralization
outboard of the PUT 1 stock. Cross-cutting relationships indicate that
early garnetpyroxene skarn-style alteration was followed by retro-
grade epidotechlorite alteration. Mineralization includes both oxide
(magnetite) and sulde (pyritechalcopyrite chalcocite), with the
best copper grades being largely conned to the retrograde skarn
assemblages (Kamvong, 2013).
Similar to PUT1, the PUT2 deposit (inferred resource of 36.4 Mt
grading 0.43% Cu) is associated with Triassic granitoids but are more
granodioritic in composition than those of PUT1. Porphyry and skarn
mineralization at PUT2 is characterized by an earlier phyllic alteration
consisting of sericite replacing feldspar and chlorite after mac minerals
(e.g., biotite) in the host granitoids, followed by argillic alteration and
retrograde quartzcarbonate epidote assemblages (Khositanont,
2008). Chalcopyrite, pyrite, magnetite and hematite are the major ore
minerals, with the chalcopyrite mineralization closely related to phyllic
alteration.
The Phu Kham and PUT1 coppergold skarn deposits in the northern
Truong Son and Loei fold belts, are important, not only because they
represent the most important porphyry-related skarn coppergold
deposits in the region (e.g., Tate, 2005; Kamvong et al., 2014), but also
because they are the rst adakitic porphyries discovered in mainland
SE Asia. New geochemical and isotopic data suggest that the Phu Kham
and PUT1 adakites may have formed during short periods associated
with the local initiation of subduction during the Late Carboniferous
(ca. 306304 Ma) and Middle Triassic (ca. 244241 Ma) (Kamvong
et al., 2014).
The Phu Lon coppergold deposit (northern Thailand): The Phu Lon
deposit (resource: 5.4 Mt at 2.4% Cu and 0.64 g/t Au) is hosted in
Devonian volcaniclastics and limestone. UPb detrital zircon dating on
the volcaniclastics yielded a latest Devonian (359 6 Ma) maximum
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
depositional age (Fig. 2). These host sediments have been intruded by
subalkalic to calc-alkaline quartz monzonite and dioritemonzodiorite
(granodiorite) porphyry, which are responsible for the Phu Lon skarns
and ore formation. Occurrence of primary magnetite and titanite,
combined with the absence of ilmenite, suggest an oxidized magmatic
origin (Kamvong, 2004; Kamvong and Khin Zaw, 2009).
The Phu Lon skarn system is divided into endoskarn and exoskarn
zones. The endoskarn developed at the margins of the Phu Lon plutons
and formed in the immediate vicinity of the exoskarn. In contrast, the
exoskarn, hosted by tuffaceous sandstone and shale with minor
dolomitic to calcitic marble, consists of prograde and retrograde stages
and shows local zoning with a hydrous mineral assemblage close to
the marble front (distal skarns) and anhydrous mineral assemblage
close to the endoskarn (proximal skarns). Spatial distribution of zoning
relative to intrusive contacts (intrusion-endoskarn garnet N
pyroxene hydrous minerals marble) indicates that skarn-
forming uids may have originated from the magma. Although Phu
Lon's metal grades are lower than metal grades in other CuAu skarns,
the oxidized mineralogy (andraditediopside units) and geological
setting of Phu Lon mimics a number of the other oxidized coppergold-
rich end-members of this class of skarn deposit (e.g., Nambija, Ecuador,
McCoy, Nevada and ErtsbergBig Gossan, Indonesia) (Kamvong, 2004;
Kamvong and Khin Zaw, 2009 and references therein).
Other oxidized skarn ironcopper (gold) deposits: Other smaller
deposits in the Loei Fold Belt, such as the Frenchmen Mine, Khao Lek,
Khao Phra Ngam, Ban Bothong and Singto deposits, have similar early
prograde garnet pyroxene and late retrograde chlorite, carbonate,
quartz and epidote assemblages. Their most common ore minerals are
chalcopyrite and pyrite. Many of these smaller deposits appear to be
associated with the younger Late Triassic dioritic intrusions, in contrast
with major mineralized skarns (e.g., PUT1) that are associated with
Early- to Middle Triassic diorite to granodiorite intrusions.
Porphyry-related copper skarn mineralization is also developed
at/around the Sepon sediment-hosted gold deposit (Laos) along the
Truong Son Fold Belt associated with the two rhyodacite porphyry centers
(i.e., Thengkham and Padan, Cannell and Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010;
Cromie et al., 2010) (Fig. 2). A mineralized coppermolybdenum
system is hosted within the core of the intrusive units at Padan and
the system is characterized by porphyry style mineralization (Cromie,
2010). The primary skarn mineralization is hosted in the calcareous
units at Khanong and Thengkham, where the units are in contact with
the intrusive centers. Economic copper orebodies at Sepon predomi-
nantly consist of supergene enrichment zones (mainly chalcocite and
malachite) developed over the primary skarn systems (Cannell and
Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010).
Hotson (2009) also reported oxidized coppergold skarns in the
Phonsavan area (Laos) in the northern Truong Son Fold Belt, such as at
the Kham Thong Lai (KTL), Thakhek and Bohr Thong prospects
(Fig. 2). Ages of the dioritic/tonalitic intrusions were determined to be
Early Permian (ca. 290270 Ma; UPb zircon) (Hotson, 2009). The
Early Permian diorites/tonalites intruded into the Ordovician to Carbon-
iferous carbonate/volcaniclastic sedimentary sequence, similar to other
coppergold skarns in the Truong Son Fold Belt (e.g., Phu Kham). Skarn
mineralization in the Phonsavan area is likely to have followed the em-
placement of felsic intrusives, subsequent to a backarc opening resulting
from the subduction of South China beneath Indochina. Skarn mineral-
ization is dominated by retrograde, sulde-rich mineralisation (Hotson,
2009).
3.2.2. Reduced gold (copper) skarns
3.2.2.1. Phu Thap Fah gold deposit (northeastern Thailand). The Phu Thap
Fah deposit (6.4 Mt at 2.19 g/t Au, 0.14% Cu & 3.9 g/t Ag) (Fig. 2) is
hosted in a Permian sedimentary sequence consisting of shale, lime-
stone, muddy sandstone and carbonaceous siltstone intruded by Early
Triassic granodiorite (UPb zircon: 245 3 Ma) and Late Triassic
17
andesitic dikes (UPb zircon: 221 2 Ma) (Rodmanee, 2000; Khin
Zaw et al., 2007b, 2008, 2009a,b, 2011; Crow and Khin Zaw, 2011).
Late Triassic andesitic dykes crosscut the mineralized skarn zone,
suggesting skarn formation and gold mineralization probably occurred
during the Middle Triassic. Formation of this skarn is, in part, linked to
the emplacement of the earliest granodiorite intrusion. Gold occurs as
electrum, goldbismuth and goldbismuthtelluride associations and
the gold is conned mainly to the massive pyrrhotite and pyrite with
chalcopyrite in the retrograde zone (Rodmanee, 2000; Khin Zaw et al.,
2007b, 2008, 2009a,b, 2011; Crow and Khin Zaw, 2011). The skarn
zone can be up to 120 m thick and is cut by fracture/fault-lled calcite
and massive sulde (pyrrhotite with minor pyrite and chalcopyrite).
Late stage clay- and carbonate-rich fault and fracture lls also occur.
3.2.2.2. Khao Phanom Pha gold mineralization (central Thailand). At Khao
Phanom Pha in the Loei Fold Belt gold mineralization, thick (up to 5 m
thick) quartzchlorite ( sericitepyritearsenopyritepyrrhotite
chalcopyrite) veins occur (Fig. 2; Khin Zaw et al., 2007a). Visible gold
occurs in dark greenish to black chlorite bands. Pervasive biotite
(overprinted by chlorite) alteration assemblages affect the wall rocks
surrounding these thick quartz veins. This pervasive alteration occurs
up to 20 m from the vein. Stockworks of quartzactinoliteepidote
(sericitechloritepyritepyrrhotite) cross-cut the wall rocks and
occur up to 10 m from the central vein. KAr dating on the sericite
from Khao Phanom Pha yielded a Late Permian (252 5 Ma) age
(Khin Zaw et al., 2007a), and S-isotope data suggest close magmatic afn-
ity of the sulfur source. Further work remains to be done to fully under-
stand the nature and mineralization characteristics of the Khao Phanom
Pha deposit (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a).
3.2.2.3. Mengapur copperiron (gold) deposit (western Malay Peninsula).
The pyrrhotite-rich Mengapur deposit (Fig. 2) is hosted in Late Permian
rhyolitic volcanosedimentary rocks and intruded by Triassic granodio-
rite (Teh and Goh, 2010). The skarn zone is associated with prograde
assemblages of diopside, garnet, and wollastonite and retrograde quartz
and carbonates. Sulde minerals are chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, sphal-
erite, galena, molybdenite, bismuthinite, and nagyagite. Gold is found
to be normally associated with galena and tellurides (Teh and Goh,
2010).
3.2.2.4. Khe Rin, Nui Kem and Ho RayThac Trang deposits (central
Vietnam). The Khe Rin reduced skarn deposit occurs in the Phouc
Son area adjacent to other sediment-hosted gold deposits (Bai Dat and
Bai Go) (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al., 2010). The deposit is hosted
in metabasite and marble with metal association of goldcopper
tungstenmolybdenum in pyrrhotite-rich skarn. Further to the west,
the Nui Kem and Ho RayThac Trang deposits (Bong Mieu area) are
another two important reduced skarn systems (Lee, 2010). The Bong
Mieu area consists predominantly of high-grade Kham Duc metamor-
phic rocks (i.e., gneiss and schist) (e.g., Quynh et al., 2004) (Fig. 2),
with the Nui Kem deposits being located around an anticlinal structure
and is characterized by quartzsulde veins (e.g., Quynh et al., 2004;
Tran et al., 2009). This Nui Kem appears to be distal part of the Ho
RayThac Trang skarn system and is linked with other orogenic gold
deposits in the district, such as the Ho Gan deposit that occurs on the
axis of the anticlinal structure (Quynh et al., 2004). The Ho RayThac
Trang deposits are hosted by calc-silicate, and classied as a reduced
calcic gold skarn due to the presence of pyrrhotite, Fe2+-rich pyroxene
and a distinctive goldbismutharsenic geochemical association (Lee,
2010).
Gold mineralization at the Nui Kem deposit occurs within a quartz
sulde vein system and is commonly associated with lead and zinc. The
mineralization is hosted in gneissic rocks with ore veins parallel to the
metamorphic foliation (Quynh et al., 2004; Lee, 2010). UPb zircon,
sphene and monazite geochronological studies have indicated that the
host metamorphic rocks were formed during the Early- to Middle
18 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

Triassic, though the dated minerals commonly preserved Ordovician
Silurian inherited ages in the core of the grains (e.g., Lee, 2010). ReOs
molybdenite dating on the ore minerals has demonstrated that
precipitation or recrystallization of the ore occurred in the Triassic
(e.g., Lee, 2010; Tran et al., 2014).
3.3. Epithermal type
Epithermal type deposits in mainland SE Asia (Fig. 3) are mainly
represented by:
1. Epithermal low-suldation goldsilver deposits in the Loei Fold Belt
(e.g., the Chatree deposit; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014) in
Thailand and in the Truong Son Fold Belt (e.g., Ban Houayxai;
Manaka et al., 2014 and Long Chieng Track deposit, Manaka et al.,
2007; Manaka, 2008) in Laos and epithermal low-suldation de-
posits in Sumatra (e.g., Ojolali; McCarroll et al., 2014).
2. Epithermal high-suldation copper, coppergold and gold deposits
(e.g., Monywa deposit in Myanmar, Miwah and Matarbe in Sumatra;
e.g., Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005; Khin Zaw, 2008a).
3.3.1. Chatree goldsilver deposit (central Thailand)
The Chatree deposit (81.7 Mt at 1.18 g/t Au, 9 g/t Ag) is the largest
low-suldation epithermal gold deposit in SE Asia (Fig. 3). General
host stratigraphy consists of andesitic breccias and ows in the lower
part of the succession; rhyolite breccia interbedded with epiclastic sed-
imentary rocks in the middle part and quartz and lithic-rich amme
breccia in the upper part of the succession. Most of these volcanic
rocks demonstrate a signicant continental arc geochemical afnity.
Depositional environments for the host volcaniclastics may have been
mainly subaerial to shallow submarine (Dedenczuk, 1998; Kromkhun,
2005; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014). Recent studies have revealed
two magmatic episodes (i.e., Late Permian and Early Triassic) responsi-
ble for the formation of Chatree deposit's host volcanic sequence. The

Fig. 3. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major epithermal deposits. 1 Monywa high-S (Myanmar); 2 Phu He low-S (Laos); 3 LCT low-S (Laos); 4 Ban Houayxai low-S
(Laos); 5 Wang Yai low-S (Thailand); 6 Chatree and LD Prospect low-S (Thailand); 7 Miwah high-S (Indonesia); 8 Martabe high-S (Indonesia); 9 Mangani low-S (Indonesia);
10 TembangLebong cluster low-S (Indonesia); 11 Ojolali low to intermediate-S (Indonesia); 12 Way Linggo low-S (Indonesia).
SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modied after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
fertile Late Permian volcanic suite may have formed during the onset of
subduction, where magma was derived from the mantle (Salam, 2013;
Salam et al., 2014). The colloformcrustiform vein textures are also re-
corded at the LD Prospect just west of the D and H zone of the Chatree
deposit. The host plagioclasepyroxene phyric andesite of the LD Pros-
pect yielded LA-ICP-MS UPb zircon age of Late Permian
(250 6 Ma) (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a).
3.3.2. Wang Yai Prospect (central Thailand)
The Wang Yai Prospect is hosted by Early Permian to Late Triassic
volcanic/volcaniclastic units intruded by andesitic diorite (Fig. 3). De
Little (2005) and De Little et al. (2010) recorded eleven vein systems
and two vein types at Wang Yai based on vein textures, mineralogy,
uid inclusions and stable isotopes. Volcanological and geochemical
studies of the host rocks indicated that the Wang Yai deposit may
have formed in a shallow submarine below-wave-base setting and in
a transitional island arccontinental arc tectonic setting (De Little,
2005), similar to the tectonic and volcanic setting at the nearby low-
suldation Chatree deposit.
3.3.3. Ban Houayxai and Long Chieng Track (LCT) deposits (Laos)
The Ban Houayxai deposit (76 Mt at 0.82 g/t Au, 7.0 g/t Ag) is the
3rd largest gold resource in mainland SE Asia. The deposit is an unusual
low-suldation, deformed epithermal AuAg deposit associated with
silicaclay alteration and hosted by an Early Permian volcanosedimentary
sequence including crystal-rich volcanic breccia, siltstone, tuffaceous
sandstone, red bed siltstone and sedimentary breccia (Fig. 3). The
mineralized veins/breccia occurs in a volcanic sequence as well as sed-
imentary rocks (Manaka, 2008; Manaka et al., 2009, 2014). New UPb
zircon dating yields a consistent Early Permian (ca. 280 Ma) age for
the host andesite/volcanic breccia (Manaka, 2008; Manaka et al.,
2009, 2014), similar to (or slightly older than) the ages obtained from
the Truong Son gabbroid-granitoids (ca. 280250 Ma) in northern
Vietnam (Liu et al., 2012). This Early Permian age is suggested to be
the time of formation of the Ban Houayxai host volcanic sequence. On
the other hand, Eocene ages have been obtained from ArAr (K-feldspar:
ca. 55 Ma) and KAr (whole rock: ca. 42 Ma) dating. These ages are like-
ly to represent resetting due to the Himalayan Orogeny (e.g., Manaka,
2008; Guo et al., 2012; Manaka et al., 2009, 2014; Xu et al., 2013). The
LCT deposit (0.62 Mt at 0.96 g/t Au) is located 5 km to the NW of Phu
Kham. The deposit is hosted by a Carboniferous to Permian sedimentary
sequence including limestone, siltstone, sandstone, sedimentary breccia
and tuffaceous sedimentary rock. The LCT host rocks are intruded by
Early Permian feldspar-phyric porphyry and dacitic porphyry (UPb zir-
con age: 290 Ma). The feldspar-phyric porphyry intrusion occurs in the
center of the deposit and hosts gold-bearing vein stockwork with low
suldation afnity (Manaka et al., 2007; Manaka, 2008). In a regional
tectonic context, this deposit formed as a result of early Permian subduc-
tion leading to the closure of the AilaoshanSong Ma Palaeotethys
branch (Lai et al., 2014b). In the northwestern part of the Truong Son
Fold Belt, a low-suldation epithermal system is also recorded at the
Phu He deposit as evidenced by extensive colloform banding in Early
Permian volcanic host rocks (Hotson, 2009).
3.3.4. Monywa copper (gold) deposit (central Myanmar)
Low- and high-suldation systems are also found along the Kawlin
WuthoMt Popa arc in the West Myanmar Terrane which extends south
into the SundaBandaAceh arc in Sumatra. The Monywa deposit
(Fig. 3) is one of the largest copper resources (7 Mt of contained copper)
in mainland SE Asia (Mitchell et al., 2011), and is hosted in Miocene
dacitic to andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks and consists of
four ore lenses (Lepadaung, Kyisintaung, Sabetaung and Sabetaung
South). The deposits show advanced argillic hydrothermal alteration
assemblages associated with a typical high-suldation epithermal
system including vuggy quartz, alunite, pyrophyllite, kaolinite and
dickite. Ore minerals are predominantly chalcocite, digenite and pyrite
19
with minor covellite and enargite (Mitchell et al., 2011). The Monywa
mineralization is determined to be Early Miocene (ArAr alunite:
ca. 19.7 Ma; Khin Zaw and Vasconcelos, unpub. data).
3.3.5. Martabe gold deposit (northwestern Sumatra)
The Martabe deposit occurs on the island of Sumatra, which is
famous for the rich endowment of both low and high-suldation gold
silver deposits. Low-suldation gold deposits are located in southern
Sumatra, whereas high-suldation ones are conned to the northern
part (Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005). These deposits may be associated
with an arc-parallel major fault segment or fault splay of the dextral
Sumatran Fault System. Low-suldation deposits include the
TembangLebong cluster, together with other deposits such as Way
Linggo and Mangani (Fig. 3) but individual ore deposit characterization
of these deposits is lacking. These low-suldation deposits are associated
with Eocene to Early Miocene calc-alkaline andesitic and dacitic arc
magmatism extending from Sumatra to Java (Garwin et al., 2005).
Mineralization style of these Sumatran deposits is characterized by
moderate levels of base metals, including Fe-poor sphalerite, and high-
grade Ag associated with Mn-carbonates which sometimes show inter-
mediate suldation afnity.
The high-suldation Martabe deposit (resource: 8.05 Moz Au and
77 Moz of Ag), one of the largest known gold deposits in Sumatra, is
hosted in a Late Cenozoic porphyritic dacite and andesite diatreme
complex that was emplaced into a volcano-sedimentary sequence of
interbedded sandstone, siltstone, carbonaceous mudstone and andesite
lava ows (Sutopo et al., 2007) (Fig. 3). The goldsilver mineralization is
associated with a zoned alteration assemblage of a brecciated, vuggy
quartz ore zone with high gold grades that grade outwards from
advanced argillic (quartzalunite and quartzdickitekaolinite) to
argillic (illitesmectite) and a peripheral, pervasive propylitic (chlorite
smectite) zone. Gold occurs as micron-sized grains associated with
quartz, enargite, luzonite, tetrahedritetennantite and pyrite and FeTi
oxides (Sutopo et al., 2007).
3.3.6. Miwah gold deposit (Sumatra)
The Miwah deposit (103.9 Mt at 0.94 g/t Au, 2.68 g/t Ag) is hosted in
a Neogene andesitic to dacitic volcanic sequence located east of the
Sumatra Fault System (Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005; Henry Wong,
written comm., 2013) (Fig. 3). Vuggy residual silica, massive silica and
silica-sulde are the dominant alteration facies. Primary gold minerali-
zation is commonly associated with disseminated ne-grained pyrite
and minor arsenopyrite, mostly in vuggy silica and silicaalunite alter-
ation facies. Gold is not always associated with enargite/luzonite at
Miwah, and is locally inferred to have been deposited with earlier
pyrite. Hypogene copper mineralization consists mainly of ne-
grained crystalline enargite, luzonite, covellite and rare chalcocite and
is commonly associated with the vuggy silica and advanced argillic
alteration facies. Barite and native sulfur are minor associated minerals.
Late-stage chalcedonic and crustiform banded quartz veinlets are locally
present within the vuggy silica, suggesting a superimposed low-
suldation mineralizing event (Henry Wong, written comm., 2013).
3.4. Sediment-hosted/orogenic type
Sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits are widely distributed in
mainland SE Asia (Fig. 4). These deposits occur worldwide throughout
the entire history of the Earth, especially during the Phanerozoic in
Asia (e.g., Goldfarb et al., 2013). These gold deposits are hosted in rela-
tively undeformed/unmetamorphosed carbonaceous and calcareous
sedimentary rocks to highly deformed metamorphic rocks. In SE Asia,
these deposits are largely conned to fold belts (e.g., the Sepon deposit
in the Truong Son Fold Belt; Smith et al., 2005; Cromie et al., 2006a,b;
Cannell and Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010; Cromie et al., 2010; Boutathep,
2013) and in/near suture zones (e.g., the Selinsing, Tersang, and Penjom
deposits; Makoundi, 2012; Makoundi et al., 2014).
20 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

Fig. 4. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major sediment hosted/orogenic gold deposits. 1 Kyaukpahto (Myanmar); 2 Kwinthonze (Myanmar); 3 Modi Taung
(Myanmar); 4 Meyon (Myanmar); 5 Huai Kham On (Thailand); 6 Langu (Thailand); 7 Sepon (Laos); 8 Bai Dat & Bai Go (Phuoc Son) (Vietnam); 9 Ho Gan (Bong Mieu)
(Vietnam); 10 Selinsing (Malaysia); 11 Penjom (Malaysia); 12 Tersang (Malaysia); 13 Raub Australian (Malaysia); 14 Abong (Indonesia); 15 Sihayo (Indonesia).
SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modied after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).

3.4.1. Sepon gold deposit (Laos)
The Sepon deposit is one of the most important sediment-hosted
deposits in mainland SE Asia (Smith et al., 2005; Cromie et al., 2006a,b;
Cannell and Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010; Cromie et al., 2010; Boutathep,
2013) (Fig. 4), with the gold resources there hosted in many orebodies
such as Discovery Main, Discovery Colluvial and Discovery West
(Smith et al., 2005). All of these are associated with disseminated pyrite
in decalcied calcareous sedimentary units that occur together with a
jasperoid (silica replacement) zone at the contact with the rhyodacitic
porphyry stocks (Smith et al., 2005; Cromie, 2010; Boutathep, 2013).
Among the SE Asia sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits, the Sepon
Au deposit has most of the Carlin-like characteristics such as the
AsSb (Hg) geochemical association and disseminated micron-size
gold, calcareous host rocks and silica-rich jasperoidal alteration as
described by Cline et al. (2005) for Carlin-type deposits.
3.4.2. Ho Gan and Phuoc Son gold deposits (central Vietnam)
The Ho Gan deposit occurs in the Bong Mieu gold area which is
located in the south-east corner of Quang Nam Province, in central
Vietnam. The deposit is hosted in highly deformed schist, orthogneiss
and granitoids, forms as shear breccia quartz veins, and associated
with other reduced goldbismuthtungsten deposits such as Ho Ray
Thac Trang deposits in the area (Quynh et al., 2004; Lee, 2010). Further
to the west, the Phouc Son area consists predominantly of meta-
volcanosedimentary rocks of the Nui Vu Formation, which are in contact
with high-grade metamorphic rocks (mainly gneiss) of the Kham Duc
Formation by a high-angle fault to the eastern and southern sides of
the deposit (Fig. 4) (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al., 2010). A series
of younger, ultramac to felsic intrusions have intruded the meta-
volcanosedimentary units (Banks et al., 2004). Among these intrusions,
a large mac to ultramac body at the southern end of the deposit
has been dated as Ordovician (gabbro UPb zircon: ca. 483 Ma;
Sang Quang Dinh, per. Com.). The area is interpreted to be a part of
the Tam KyPhuoc Son Suture Zone which may represent an Early
Palaeozoic suture (OrdovicianSilurian; Tran et al., 2009, 2014). UPb
zircon geochronology has demonstrated that the major intermediate-
felsic intrusive units in the area are Triassic (e.g., Sang Quang Dinh,
per. com.).
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
The Phuoc Son deposit hosts two economic gold orebodies at Bai Dat
and Bai Go and a number of prospects (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al.,
2010). Several other gold-bearing mineralization styles are reported,
including intrusion-hosted (e.g., Round Hill), skarn (e.g., Khe Rin),
marble footwall (e.g., Khe Do) and low-angle shear-hosted (e.g., Bai
Dat and Bai Go) systems (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al., 2010).
Systematic investigations of the geological, geochemical and geophysical
data relating to the orebodies show a spatial relationship from the
intrusion-hosted system at the center to the low-angle shear-hosted
systems at the distal part. It is therefore possible that the deposits have
an afnity with intrusion-related gold deposits (Banks et al., 2004).
3.4.3. Selinsing gold deposit (Peninsular Malaysia)
Many important sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits,
e.g., Selinsing, Tersang, Penjom and Raub Australian, occur in the East
Malaya Fold Belt (Fig. 4). Geochemical and mineralogical studies on
the Selinsing deposit show that the ore formation process may have
been in two stages. Stage 1 consists of early enrichment of gold and
VAMSNAZ (V, As, Mo, Se, Ni, Ag and Zn) metals in the host Carboniferous
siltstone, whereas Stage 2 is characterized by multiple post-diagenetic
deformation phases that enhance the ore uid pathway development
and thus gold remobilization (Makoundi, 2012; Makoundi et al.,
2014). This two-stage metallogenic model in Selinsing is very similar
to many well-known sediment-hosted gold deposits around the world
(e.g., Sukhoi Log deposit in Russia; Large et al., 2007, 2011).
3.4.4. Langu and Huai Kham On gold deposits (Thailand)
The Langu deposit (Fig. 4) is hosted within Ordovician tidal carbon-
ates (Wilkinson, 2009). Pyrite is the main sulde present along with
lesser amounts of arsenopyrite, stibnite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and
galena. Detailed mineral paragenetic studies by Wilkinson (2009)
revealed ve morphological and textural pyrite types: framboidal pyrite
(py1), non-overgrowth pyrite (py2), overgrowth pyrite (py3), aggre-
gate pyrite (py4) and broken pyrite (py5). LA-ICP-MS results indicated
three sites of signicant gold residence belonging to two stages of
deposition: early syn-diagenetic enrichment of framboidal pyrite
(py1) and later stage gold deposition in arsenopyrite and overgrowth
pyrite (py3).
The Huai Kham On deposit (up to 20 g/t Au) is hosted by Middle- to
Late Triassic andesitic tuff (242 Ma) and intercalated rhyolitic welded
tuff (228224 Ma) in a structurally deformed zone (Khositanont, 2008;
Khositanont et al., 2009). The host sequence is overlain by sedimentary
sequences including Triassic calcareous sandstones. Visible gold and
electrum occur in quartz-rich veins (with associated pyrite, chalcopyrite,
galena and bournonite) crosscutting the andesitic tuff and underlying
rhyolitic tuff. Ore assemblages, isotope evidence and the relatively
high temperature and CO2-enriched ore uids suggest the deposit to
be an orogenic gold deposit that formed during the IndochinaSibumasu
collision (Khositanont, 2008; Khositanont et al., 2009).
3.4.5. Kyaukpahto gold deposit (central Myanmar)
The Kyaukpahto deposit is one of the many important sediment-
hosted/orogenic gold deposits in central Myanmar, which occur along
both sides of the NS trending dextral Sagaing Fault west of the
Mogok Metamorphic Belt (Fig. 4). Major gold deposits, from north to
south, include the Kyaukpahto, Thayetsu, Kwinthonze, Phayaung Taung,
Modi Taung, Thayetkon, Shwegyin and Meyon deposits (Khin Zaw
et al., 1999; Mitchell et al., 2004; Zaw Naing Oo and Khin Zaw, 2009;
Zaw Naing Oo et al., 2010).
The Kyaukpahto deposit (6Mt grading 3 g/t Au) is the rst open-pit
gold mine in Myanmar (Khin Zaw, 2002; Ye Myint Swe et al., 2004a,b;
Khin Zaw, 2008c). The deposit is hosted in the Eocene Male turbiditic
sandstone (UPb detrital zircon age: 48.7 0.7 Ma), with high-grade
gold localized in a breccia zone. Gold mineralization is associated with
intense silicication, sericitization and argillic alteration. It occurs as
free gold grains (electrum) in stringer quartz veins, as native gold and
21
electrum in the oxidized and supergene zones, and locked-up in the
pyrite structure, along with arsenic as a refractory ore. Sulde minerals
mainly include pyrite and arsenopyrite, together with minor galena,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite and rare tetrahedrite, chalcocite, marcasite
and cinnabar. The metallogenic model for the Kyaukpahto gold deposit
is not yet clear and is likely to be highly complex. Although the
Kyaukpahto deposit geology, alteration, ore mineralogy, uid inclusion
microthermometry and sulfur isotopic data are generally compatible
with an epithermal origin (Ye Myint Swe et al., 2004b), the presence
of CO2-liquid bearing uids and detectable CH4 in the gaseous phase
of the uid inclusions point to a probable sediment-hosted origin
(Khin Zaw, 2002, 2008c). Extensive carbonate occurrences in the
Kyaukpahto area imply very signicant exploration potential for
skarn-type or bulk leachable Carlin-type large tonnage gold deposits
(Khin Zaw, 2002, 2008c).
3.4.6. Kwinthonze and Modi Taung gold deposits (central Myanmar)
To the east of the Sagaing Fault, the Kwinthonze deposit shows
signicant skarn afnity by its association with calc-silicate, marble
and intrusive rocks and the presence of garnet and pyroxene. No radio-
metric dating, however, has been attempted to constrain either the age
of the host rocks or of the mineralization. Further south, the Modi Taung
deposit (max. assay values on channel samples up to 3000 ppm Au) is
one of the most important gold deposits in Myanmar. The deposit is
hosted in an Early Paleozoic metasedimentary sequence including
slate, mudstone and pebbly wackes (Mitchell et al., 2004). These
metasedimentary rocks have been intruded by Cretaceous two-mica
SnW-bearing S-type granites, as well as younger (probably Palaeogene)
calc-alkaline dykes. Gold in the Modi Taung deposit is hosted in NNW
trending quartz veins. Pyrite in quartz veins is the major ore mineral,
with high gold values commonly associated with high pyrite content.
The gold is free and nuggety but the nature of the refractory gold in
the system has not been assessed. Other sulde minerals include arse-
nopyrite, galena and rare sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Mineralization
ages, or ages of the quartz veins, are stratigraphically constrained to
be roughly Late Permian to Jurassic (Mitchell et al., 2004). More
research is needed to determine the precise mineralization age and
the metallogenic history of the Modi Taung gold deposit.
3.4.7. Meyon gold deposit (southern Myanmar)
The Meyon deposit is hosted by a CarboniferousLower Permian
schistose metasedimentary sequence. The deposit is structurally
controlled by the Papun Fault in its north and the Three Pagodas Fault
in its south, as well as other major NNWSSE trending structures in
close proximity. Distinct hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblages,
including those of silicication, argillic and propylitic alteration, are
recorded adjacent to mineralized veins (Zaw Naing Oo and Khin Zaw,
2009; Zaw Naing Oo et al., 2010). Two generations of pyrite, including
large idiomorphic crystals and disseminated grains, have been found,
although rare, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite occur locally. A pyrite S-
isotope study (2.80 to 4.43) indicated a magmatic source for sulfur
and thus the ore-forming uids, whereas a uid inclusion study
suggests the presence of carbonic uid inclusions and carbonic gas
(CO2 and CH4) phases. The mineralization age is suggested to be Late
CretaceousPalaeogene and is probably associated with deformation
and metamorphism along the Papun Fault Zone. A skarn system has
been found at the contact between the CarboniferousLower Permian
metasedimentary sequence and intruding granitoids, thus suggesting
probable deeper level exploration opportunities (Zaw Naing Oo and
Khin Zaw, 2009; Zaw Naing Oo et al., 2010).
3.5. Other deposit types
The SE Asian region has potential for other deposit types such as
intrusion-related Au deposits, volcanic-hosted massive sulde (VHMS),
Mississippi Valley-type (MVT), sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX),
22 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

granitoid-related tungstentin vein and REE deposits and both nickel
laterites and NiCuPGE suldes (Ban Phuc in northern Vietnam,
Glotov et al., 2001) and porphyry and iron-oxidecoppergold (IOCG)
deposits (McLean, 2001). Intrusion-related gold systems (Hart, 2007)
occur in SE Asia, especially around the Cretaceous granites and diorites
of eastern Cambodia (Steung NambraiElephant, AnchorOk Pok and
Big ToeO'Kthung, Okvau) and southern Vietnam (Tien Thuan, Khanh
Hoa, Krong Pha and Klang Bah) along with one location in the Silurian
granites of Laos (e.g., Ang Noi Au deposit, Maloney, 2008) but more
detailed timing and mineralization characteristics remain to be
documented.
3.5.1. Tungstentin deposits
Granitoid magmatism due to subduction and collision of microplates
during the Early Triassic to Oligocene has generated world-class
tungstentin deposits of vein, greisen and skarn types throughout
SE Asia making it the largest tintungsten province in the world
(e.g., Cobbing et al., 1992; Schwartz et al., 1995). This belt stretches
from Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia to Billiton Island of Indonesia
(Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005) and contains world-class SnW
deposits. For instance, the Mawchi in Kayah State in Myanmar was
one of the largest tungsten deposits in the world and produced 60%
of the total production of Myanmar, which then accounted for 17%
of the world output of tungsten in the 1980s (Khin Zaw and Khin
Myo Thet, 1983). There are several other alluvial and primary SnW
occurrences and prospects spread out in the region (e.g., Khin Zaw,
1984).
3.5.2. Basin-related base metal deposits
VHMS deposits are represented by the Cambro-Ordovician Bawdwin
deposit in Myanmar (Khin Zaw et al., 1999; Khin Zaw, 2003, 2004), the
Permian Tasik Chini deposit in central Malaysia (Basori et al., 2012a,b)
and the OrdovicianSilurian Duc Bo deposit in central Vietnam (Tran
et al., 2008) (Fig. 5). MVT-Irish types include the Song Tho and Li
deposits in Thailand (Crow and Khin Zaw, 2011), the Ordovician
Theingon deposit in Myanmar and the Carboniferous Pha Luang deposit
in Laos (Fig. 5). The Diari/Sopokomil zinclead deposit (19.9 Mt at 12.6%
Zn and 7.3% Pb) in Sumatra is hosted in Lower Carboniferous carbona-
ceous dolomitic shale (Reynolds, 2010) and is probably within the
spectrum of the SEDEX system. These basin-related base metal deposits

Fig. 5. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major basin-related ore deposits. 1 Bawdwin (Myanmar); 2 Theingon (Myanmar); 3 Song ThoBoh Yai (Thailand); 4 Duc Bo
(Vietnam); 5 Bukit Ketaya and Bukit Botol (Tasik Chini) Malaysia; 6 Dairi (Sumatra).
SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modied after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
are located in the Sibumasu Terrane and form a world-class Tethyan
leadzincsilver belt stretching from Sumatra, through Malaysia and
Shan States of Myanmar, northern Thailand, western Laos to western
part of southern China. Several of these deposits are found in Yunnan
and Sichuan (e.g., Khin Zaw et al., 2007c; Lehmann et al., 2013). Forma-
tion of these basin-related deposits is related to rifting and opening of
the Palaeotethys from northern Gondwana during the Early Palaeozoic
but their palaeogeoraphic and palaeotectonic environment and miner-
alization characteristics are poorly constrained.
3.5.3. Porphyry deposits
Continued subduction of the Sunda Trench to the west of Sumatra
has generated several porphyry coppergoldmolybdenum deposits
such as Tangse, Tengkereng and the newly-discovered and delineated
Beutong deposit. They are associated with the epithermal, skarn and
sediment-hosted Au systems. Among these porphyry-style deposits,
the Tangse coppermolybdenum deposit is fairly well documented
(Van Leeuwen et al., 1987; Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005) and the
coppermolybdenum mineralization is hosted in a multi-phase
Miocene porphyritic dioritic intrusion. Similar porphyry systems are
noted in Yunnan (Khin Zaw et al., 2007c) and Myanmar (e.g., Shangalon,
Hammarstrom et al., 2013). Much research is needed to understand the
age, timing and porphyryepithermal transition, mantle vs. crustal
contribution of magma and their magma composition as well as their
metallogenic relations to tectonic setting such as at slab subduction
or reorganization of the WunthoMt PopaSunda Trench.
3.5.4. Non-sulde deposits
SE Asia also has the potential for supergene non-sulde deposits and
weathered REE deposits (e.g., Sanematsu et al., 2011b,c, 2012). The
Padaeng deposit is one of the largest, high-grade supergene non-
sulde Zn deposits in western Thailand. The deposit is hosted in Jurassic
carbonates and the mineralization is derived from precursor MVT
mineralization (Reynolds et al., 2003). Similar non-sulde Zn deposits
occur in Myanmar (e.g., Long Keng).
300-290 Ma
Fig. 6. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 300290 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11a.
23
3.6. Metallogenic relations
It is evident that ore deposits in SE Asia are unevenly distributed,
with different styles of ore deposits occurring in different places and
terranes. Ore formation in SE Asia is closely related to the various
tectonic episodes that occurred in the SE Asian terranes. By using the
G-Plate Program developed by the EarthByte Project in the School of
Geosciences at the University of Sydney and collaborators, we present
an integrated model for SE Asian metallogenictectonic history. Our
SE Asia geological model is modied from Seton et al. (2012) and
Wright et al. (2012), and also based on a number of important recent
papers (Lai et al., 2014b; and references therein).
In our new SE Asia metallogenictectonic reconstruction, the Siluro-
Devonian rifting of the Indochina Terrane from the NW Gondwana
margin and the subsequent Palaeotethys ocean basin development led
to the deposition of Carboniferous pelagic sediments that host the
various sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits in the East Malaya
Fold Belt (e.g., Selinsing and Tersang gold deposits). The Ailaoshan
Song Ma branch of the Palaeotethys Ocean may have begun its closure
from Late Carboniferous/Early Permian by west-vergent (modern orien-
tation) subduction beneath Eastern Indochina (Figs. 6 and 11a). This led
to the arc magmatism along the Truong Son Fold Belt and its associated
porphyry-related skarn (e.g., Phu Kham) and epithermal (e.g., Ban
Houayxai) deposits. Later on, the NanSra Kaeo backarc basins may
have begun to close during the Late Permian/Early Triassic through
east-vergent (modern orientation) subduction beneath western Indo-
china (Figs. 7 and 11b). This created the Loei continental arc magmatism
and its associated porphyry-related skarn (e.g., Puthep and Phu Thap
Fah) and epithermal (e.g., Chatree and Wang Yai) deposits.
Continuous subduction along the Truong Son- and Loei fold belts
nally brought about the IndochinaSouth China collision during the
Late Permian to earliest-Middle Triassic and the IndochinaSibumasu col-
lision during the Late Triassic (Figs. 8 and 11c). These two continent
continent collisions represent the major SE Asia assembling episode, as
well as the signicant metallogenic epoch for many orogenic gold
deposits along the Tam KyPhuoc Son Suture, Sukhothai- (e.g., Huai
Kham On) and East Malaya- (e.g., Selinsing) terrane/fold belts. Hence
1 000 km
24 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

250-230 Ma

1 000 km

Fig. 7. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 250230 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11b.

the sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits in SE Asia are found along
or close to the major suture zones (e.g., BentongRaub and Phuoc Son
Tam Ky sutures). We suggest that early gold enrichment in continental
slope sediments such as in carbonaceous shale, muddy sandstone and
limestones at terrane margins may have been later incorporated and
released during metamorphism and deformation by the later Triassic
granitic magmatism (Makoundi, 2012; Makoundi et al., 2014).
The assembly of mainland SE Asia continued throughout the
Mesozoic (Figs. 9 and 11d), with the Woyla terrane accreted onto the
SW Sibumasu margin in the CretaceousEarly Cenozoic. Orogenesis
caused by this accretion and strike-slip movement of the Sagaing Fault
in Cenozoic may have generated the many WSn and the sediment-
hosted/orogenic gold deposits in central Myanmar, notably the
Kyaukpahto and possibly the ModiTaung deposits. The Neogene
Recent West MyanmarSunda arc magmatism associated with oblique
subduction of the Sunda Trench is suggested to have generated the
many epithermal deposits in western Myanmar (e.g., Monywa) and in
Sumatra (e.g., Miwah, Martabe and Ojolali) (Figs. 10 and 11e).

210-190 Ma

1 000 km

Fig. 8. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 210190 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11c.
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530 25

140-120 Ma

1 000 km

Fig. 9. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 140120 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11d.

In this special issue, we conclude that incipient arc magmatism in
the Truong Son and Loei fold belts was one of the intense driving forces
for the formation of the largest metal deposits in the region, notably the
Phu Kham porphyry-related skarn (Kamvong et al., 2014), Chatree low-
suldation epithermal (Salam, 2013) deposits and sediment-hosted
gold and porphyry-related copper deposits in the Sepon mineral district
(Smith et al., 2005; Cromie, 2010). In fact, several lines of evidence
suggest that the magmatism occurring during the initial stages of
these subduction zones has unusual geochemical characteristics.
Kamvong et al. (2014) on the PUT1 and Phu Kham deposits have point-
ed out that the magmatism that accompanied these deposits is unusual
in composition, being adakitic. The magmatism at Chatree is also unusu-
al, with very low Ti and Zr compared to both typical arc magmas and
the post-mineralization magmatism at Chatree (Salam, 2013; Salam et

25-5 Ma

1 000 km

Fig. 10. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 255 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11e.
26 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

Fig. 11. Schematic diagrams of tectonic and metallogenic evolution of mainland SE Asia. a. Late CarboniferousEarly Permian (300290 Ma) setting during formation of the Truong Son
Fold Belt and related porphyry-related skarn coppergold at Phu Kham and sediment-hosted Au mineralization at Sepon; b. Late PermianEarly to Middle Triassic (250230 Ma) setting
during formation of the Loei Fold Belt and related porphyry-related skarn coppergold and epithermal gold mineralization; c. Late TriassicJurassic (210190 Ma) setting during formation
of collisional and post-collisional related sediment-hosted/orogenic gold mineralization; d. Early Cretaceous (140120 Ma) setting during subduction of the Mesotethys beneath Sibumasu
and later the West MyanmarWest Sumatra terranes; e. Neogene to Recent (255 Ma) setting during formation of subduction-related porphyry, epithermal coppermolybdenumgold,
coppergold, copper and gold mineralization.

al., 2014). The following metallogenic processes may be formulated to
explain these observations:
(1) When the earliest magmas are emplaced they have a greater
geochemical contrast within the crust, which promotes wall
rock interaction and the trapping of metals through oxidation
reduction or other processes.
(2) The earliest magmas in these continental arcs may be derived
from areas in the sub-continental mantle which have undergone
long periods of enrichment in suldes or other metal-bearing
phases.
(3) The earliest magmas would be most likely to remobilize accumu-
lations of suldes in the crust.
4. Conclusions
The Phanerozoic tectonic history of the SE Asian terranes, i.e., their
Palaeozoic rifting from the Gondwanan margin and their accretion
onto the SE Eurasia margin, has generated numerous phases of conti-
nental rifting, seaoor spreading, arc/backarc basin development and
collision-related orogenesis. The associated magmatism, metamor-
phism, deformation and hydrothermal alteration have driven the
formation of a wide range of precious- and base metal deposits, notably
porphyry-related skarn, epithermal and sediment-hosted/orogenic gold
deposits. In particular, many of the Indochinese mineralization systems
are linked to one (or both) of the two subduction-related systems,
i.e., the Early Permian Truong Son and Late PermianMiddle Triassic
continental arcs, as well as the Late TriassicJurassic post-collisional
magmatism.
Recent political reforms (e.g., improved mining legislation and the
planned economic integration of ASEAN countries) and economic
(e.g., infrastructure) developments of previously less-developed coun-
tries such as Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia and most recently in
Myanmar, not only greatly facilitate future mineral exploration, but
also mean better accessibility to an increasingly large metal market.
The present emphasis on epithermal- and sediment-hosted ore
deposits in many SE Asian countries (notably Myanmar, Cambodia,
Malaysia and Indonesia) implies immense exploration potential for
deeper-level porphyry- and porphyry-related skarn deposits in these
countries. Exploration of these deeper-level ore deposits will be one of
the major SE Asian mineral exploration challenges in the coming
decades, and may remain so for the next generation for SE Asian explo-
ration geoscientists. Solving this challenge will require much better
understanding of the basic geology (particularly magmatic, tectonic
and hydrothermal alteration history) and of the metallogenesis of
each of the deposits and of each deposit type, as well as more research
contrasting and correlating these deposits and relating them to the
broader regional geotectonic and metallogenic context. This special
issue has only covered a part of the numerous outstanding geological/
metallogenic problems in SE Asia, and we hope that this paper and the
special issue will increase interest in SE Asian geology and ore deposit
research and exploration.
Acknowledgements
This study was undertaken at the ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore
Deposits (CODES), University of Tasmania, with nancial support from
the Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Grant Geochronology,
Metallogenesis and Deposit Styles of Loei Fold Belt in Thailand and
 Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
Laos PDR Project (20042007) and the Industry-CODES funded Ore
Deposits of SE Asia (20082010) Project. The authors are deeply in-
debted to many colleagues and collaborators from various Universities
and Institutions in SE Asia, especially Chiang Mai University, Hanoi Uni-
versity of Mining and Geology, University of Malaya, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaya (UKM), University of Padjadjaran, Bandung,
Indonesia, University of Yangon and Mandalay and Department of
Mineral Resources (DMR), Thailand for their generous and invaluable
input of local expertise and discussion. We would also like to thank
our colleagues at CODES for very constructive and fruitful discussions,
together with Anthony Barber, Mike Crow and Stephen Turner for
their detailed and insightful reviews.
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