1

Frequency Stability Issues for Islanded Power

Systems
Jonathan Horne, Damian Flynn and Tim Littler

Power system stability is the ability of an electric power

AbstractFrequency stability has not necessarily been a major system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a
problem for the majority of power systems in the past. However, state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
for economic and environmental reasons, power systems are now physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so
operated closer to stability limits to maximise the use of the
that practically the entire system remains intact.
existing networks. Therefore, introduction of new, more efficient
and renewable generation technologies, and their effect on the From this definition, it can be deduced that the system does
power system must be fully understood if a reliable and secure not have to be in a particularly desirable configuration
electricity supply is to be maintained. Using the Northern following an event, but provided it settles to a new
Ireland, and interconnected Republic of Ireland electricity equilibrium from which normal operation may eventually be
networks as a case study, this paper addresses some of the issues restored, it may be deemed stable.
regarding integration and modelling of Combined Cycle Gas
Turbines (CCGTs), and Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) B. Types of Instability
technology on a small islanded power system.
There are many different ways in which a power system
may become unstable initiated by, for example, a fault on a
Index TermsFrequency Stability, Wind, Gas Turbine,
Power System Modelling. line, or the tripping of a generator. It is, therefore, important
to be clear as to the nature of instability being investigated. A
I. INTRODUCTION suitable classification is again offered in [1], and is shown in
Fig. 1. Three main types of instability are defined, with the
I T has become increasingly apparent that privatisation and
deregulation of power utilities, coupled with environmental
concerns of reinforcing existing networks with new build, has
relevant sub-categories and time scales defined with short
term covering the first 20 seconds following an event, and
long term relating to effects examined over several minutes.
lead to current electricity infrastructures becoming more
Note the absence of the term dynamic stability, due to the
heavily loaded than was previously encountered. An ever
same term being applied to different types of instability in
increasing demand for power, together with a requirement for
different parts of the world.
cheaper and greener energy, has forced the now profit
The focus of this paper is on frequency stability in small
oriented utilities to obtain new ways of maximizing use of the
island power systems. Frequency instability results when a
existing system. New and more efficient generation
power system cannot settle to a new equilibrium following a
technologies play an important part in fulfilling these
large generation / load imbalance. It is generally caused by
requirements, but their effect on the power system needs to be
tripping of large capacity tie-lines or generators. However,
fully understood if a secure and reliable electricity supply is to
there is no set definition of what a small system actually is.
be maintained. Furthermore, if diversity of supply is not
From a frequency stability point of view, and for the purposes
preserved, i.e. portions of coal, oil, gas, nuclear etc. then this
of this paper, it can be described as one in which any
can only add to the problems discussed here.
individual generator in-feed represents a substantial portion of
A. Power System Stability the total demand. Furthermore, a small system will not be
It is informative to introduce a clear definition, not only of heavily interconnected with other larger systems.
power system stability, but the various forms of instability
that can potentially occur. One of the most clear and concise
definitions, provided by the IEE / CIGRE Joint Task Force on
Stability Terms and Definitions [1], is presented as follows;

This work is supported by Northern Ireland Electricity plc (NIE) and the
Department for Employment and Learning, Northern Ireland.
Jonathan Horne, Damian Flynn and Tim Littler are with the Electric Power
and Energy Systems Research Group, Ashby Building, Queens University of
Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AH, Northern Ireland, UK.
(e-mail addresses: Jonathan.Horne@ee.qub.ac.uk, D.Flynn@ee.qub.ac.uk,
Fig. 1. Classification of Power System Stability
and T.Littler@ee.qub.ac.uk)

II. STABILITY OF SMALLER POWER SYSTEMS
The majority of the literature on power system stability has
focused on rotor angle and voltage stability, with frequency
stability often being neglected. A simple reason for this is that
most of the worlds power systems are large interconnected
networks, where there is plenty of opportunity for power
wheeling and therefore sharing of spinning reserve and unit
inertial response. This tends to result in a stiff system, where a
large generation / load imbalance must occur before the
frequency will deviate to any significant level. Companies in
the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) in the
USA have reported a loss of 1,250 MW will cause a
frequency drop of 0.15 Hz (from a nominal of 60 Hz) [2].
This can occur with the loss of a large station or with tripping
of interconnecting tie lines. A comparatively smaller system
like England and Wales may only require loss of 1,320 MW
of generation, about the size of the UKs largest nuclear
station, for an excursion below 49.5 Hz (from a nominal of 50
Hz) [3]. The same excursion can occur on the Ireland system
with the loss of a large single unit of around 260 MW [4],
where there are now multiple 400 MW infeeds.
For smaller systems, frequency stability may be more of an
urgent problem than the different forms of rotor angle
stability. It is therefore imperative that adequate spinning
reserve (extra capacity to restore generation / load balance
following a generator trip) is available and provided by
machines with a sufficient governor response and a high
inertia. The plant must be able to maintain this increased
output, at least until other forms of generation can be
synchronised. Any new types of generation added to the
system that contribute a substantial portion of the total, should
first be thoroughly investigated to ensure they supply
adequate frequency control capability.
III. MODELLING ISSUES
Time domain computer simulation is the normal method for
assessing most types of stability, the exception being small
disturbance angle stability, where not all modes may be
excited sufficiently. Eigenanalysis is normally the preferred,
and most suitable, method here.
Nevertheless, for all forms of stability assessment suitable
models for the various components in a power system are
essential if the results obtained are to be credible. Even with
the most modern processors, the computational time required
to process detailed models for large interconnected power
systems can be substantial. It may, therefore, be desirable to
trim some aspects of these models to improve processing
speed. This can normally be achieved with very little effect on
the results, provided the models are applied within the
boundaries and intentions they were developed for.
For frequency stability studies the governor model (and
turbine model, if applicable) are the most important as they
are responsible for restoring the frequency following an event.
While other models such as exciters, loads, and transmission
lines do play a small part, standard values and generic models
2
can be used to maintain simplicity.
As frequency stability may not have been an issue in the
past, it is possible that the governor and turbine models
currently in use by many utilities are inappropriate for such
studies. The primary reason being that studies previously
undertaken have usually either concentrated on transient
stability, or steady state studies. Previously, observational
experience of units was sufficient to maintain stability, but
this approach could lead to unnecessary load shedding in the
future as systems are operated less conservatively due to the
market structures.
There are numerous generic built in models, including
IEEE standard versions, in most favoured software packages
that are suitable for representing the majority of plant. Power
Technologies PSS/E and DIgSILENT Power Factory both
present an extensive library containing the majority of the
most popular models. These will produce acceptable results
provided the various parameters have been tuned correctly.
Factors such as correct droop values, time lags, load
controllers, fuel type, boiler dynamics, operator intervention
and overall general response of the plant all need to be
accounted for if a correct representation is to be achieved.
However, since parameters are not always convenient to
obtain, standard values are often (inappropriately) chosen.
For certain plant these generic models may not be suitable.
To overcome this problem the majority of simulation
packages allow so called manufacturer user models to be
introduced. While this may slightly increase simulation time,
it may be the only method of obtaining suitably accurate
results.
In certain cases, the actual response of the various plant can
be reduced from possible to contractual levels to increase
plant life and reduce maintenance requirements. For this
reason it is important to validate the models with real event
data, rather than manufacturers recommendations.
Validated models may not always be available, particularly
for new and previously uncommon types of generation. It is
therefore advisable that models are developed so accurate
studies can be performed to assess any adverse effects. In
Europe, increase of renewable generation, and in particular
wind, has lead to the requirement for Wind Turbine Generator
(WTG) models. Previously, these WTGs were only
distribution connected and low capacity and were therefore
neglected in system simulations. Accurate models to represent
the full effects of the various types and manufacturers of
WTGs are still in the development and verification stage. For
frequency stability studies, a simpler model is often sufficient.
If the wind speed, and therefore output of the WTGs are
assumed to be constant over the period of interest, the main
factors that should be modelled are inertial response, primary
frequency response (if appropriate), and unit protection.
The development of adequate generator models is not
unique to small island systems. Tests in the Western
Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) in America
indicated that only approximately 40% of the simulated
governor response actually occurred [2]. As frequency

stability becomes more of an issue, it can only be of benefit to
have a system model that accurately represents power system
behaviour.
IV. CASE STUDY THE NIE / ESB ISLAND POWER SYSTEM
The Northern Ireland (NI) electricity network is owned by
Northern Ireland Electricity plc (NIE) with SONI ltd. (System
Operator Northern Ireland) managing the transmission system
and generation scheduling. A double circuit 275/220 kV
1,200MVA synchronous link connects the Northern Ireland
and the Republic of Ireland (RoI) networks so that the two
systems may benefit from energy trading, sharing of spinning
reserve, and the stability benefits of a larger network. The RoI
network is owned by Electricity Supply Board (ESB) and
operated by ESB National Grid (ESBNG). The NIE and ESB
systems currently have a maximum demand of around 1850
MW [4] and 4500 MW [5], respectively. Fig. 2 Shows a map
of the island, with main transmission system and power
stations. There is a mix of generation at present, dominated by
coal, oil, and gas but with notable contributions of peat and
hydro, and growing amounts of wind. The NI system is also
connected to the UK mainland system via the Moyle
interconnector, a 500 MW HVDC link to Scotland. While the
link allows trading and power wheeling to the RoI, it does not
contribute any inertial or primary frequency response to the
Ireland system due to current contractual and economic
reasons. Consequently, the link displaces conventional
generation resulting in the same reserve on fewer plant, and a
reduced system inertia. Plans have also recently been
announced for a 1000 MW (2 x 500 MW) link from RoI to
Wales which may accentuate the problem if it is operated in
the same fashion.
Fig. 2. The all Ireland main transmission network and major power stations.
The two systems developed according to their respective
3
needs before interconnection in 1995. This resulted in the
smaller NI system having comparatively responsive plant, due
to a large unit size to demand ratio. The larger RoI system had
less need for large amounts of primary reserve (within 5
seconds) and instead concentrated on secondary (30 seconds)
and tertiary reserve (5 minutes) [6]. This mix of response for
the combined system has worked well with the growing need
for primary frequency control, together with a sustained
response from secondary and tertiary reserve plant.
More recently, increasing numbers of Independent Power
Producers (IPPs) have been appearing on the NIE / ESB
network. Their choice of generation technology is influenced
by many factors including the current prices of fuel,
government renewable targets, efficiency of plant and
emission concerns. Currently, the favoured types of
generation are Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGTs) and
Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) technology.
Previously, the largest generation unit, and consequently
the biggest possible loss to the system, was 260 MW in NI, or
305 MW in RoI. The Moyle interconnector has increased this
possible loss to a theoretical 500 MW, although it is normally
only operated up to 450 MW (winter max). There are also
three new CCGT stations (one currently under construction)
representing possible losses in the region of 400 MW. Four
other CCGT plant are in operation with a total generating
capacity of approximately 1400 MW, each with a maximum
possible loss to the system of in and around 200 MW.
Hence, in general, there are a smaller number of larger
power stations appearing on the network, displacing
conventional thermal generation with CCGT technology. This
represents a greater possibility of a significant generation loss
to the system, with the added complication of the non-
standard CCGT behaviour. WTGs have not as yet reached
sufficient numbers to displace any conventional generation.
Ireland has some of the windiest sites in Europe, and with
plenty of hills and coastline there are many opportunities for
both onshore and offshore wind generation. As WTGs are the
most mature renewable technology (the exception being
hydro, but suitable sites are limited), they are expected to
meet the majority of the government targets in NI of 13.4%
installed capacity of renewable generation by 2010, 24% by
2015. The corresponding RoI target is 13.2% of gross
electricity production by 2010. If full advantage is taken of
the resource, these figures could result in WTGs providing up
to 50% of the total instantaneous NI generation at times of
low demand. At present this figure only reaches about 8% of
the total NI generation, with 1.6% installed capacity [7]. In
the future, this will pose a difficult scheduling problem, were
either conventional plant is de-committed or a percentage of
the WTGs are curtailed to maintain stability margins.
A. Simulation of the System
Northern Ireland Electricity (NIE) and the System Operator
for Northern Ireland (SONI) have developed a model of the
all Ireland system in PSS/E format. The model consists of the
275 kV and 110 kV transmission system in Northern Ireland,
 4

and the interconnected 400 kV, 220 kV and 110 kV RoI plant are added, the minimum value of frequency increases
transmission system, together with all associated generator slightly, although the system takes longer to recover. This
and load models. WTGs are not as yet included in the model suggests that the system inertia has been increased, at the
structure. initial rate of change of frequency is less severe. However,
Only the transmission systems are included in the model as even with this extra inertial effect, the frequency nadir still
the majority of generation is connected at these voltage levels. occurs at a slightly lower level and the frequency takes much
The effects of the distribution system can be accurately longer to recover. The main cause of this is due to the large
represented through suitable frequency and voltage dependent nature of the CCGTs replacing smaller conventional units.
load models. This reduces the total number of nodes and These smaller units would previously have provided some
therefore reduces computation and set-up times. Currently, reserve. Consequently, the reserve requirement is shifted to a
embedded generation is in sufficiently small numbers that it
fewer number of conventional units. Before drawing any
can be treated as a negative load. As the majority of stability
conclusions from these results, it is first necessary, to discuss
problems occur between generators and general loads, this
how CCGT plant typically behave to a frequency drop, and
method is satisfactory for now. If, in future, large amounts of
embedded generation are connected to the distribution secondly investigate how the model represents this behaviour.
system, the model may have to be extended to cover this
issue. Similarly, if the embedded generation will be required
to respond to an event, then suitable models will have to be
introduced. Conversely, if current practices remain, unit
protection will disconnect the plant, and they can be modelled
as a sudden increase in load.
For this study some minor modifications have been made,
primarily to governor models of the existing conventional
plant, for the reasons previously discussed. The new
parameters are based on, and validated against, examination
of unit responses following the loss of a large infeed. This has
yielded a more representative response, particularly in the
first fifteen to twenty seconds following an event.
There are many possible contingencies that could impact on
the all Ireland system and it is not unusual for the frequency
to reach values as low as 49.2 Hz on some occasions. The fast
response of conventional plant in the island has previously
been sufficient to restore frequency in all but the most severe
of cases, where load shedding has been initiated to maintain
Fig. 3. Frequency trace with (a) no CCGTs, (b) 3 CCGTs (c) 6 CCGTs
stability. There is, however, some concern that increasing
numbers of large CCGT plant may affect the overall dynamic
response of the system. Not only do gas turbines behave B. Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) Technology
differently to conventional plant, but the larger ratings While combined cycle generation has been in existence
represent a greater possible loss of generation. Also, the larger since the mid 1950s [8], the current low cost of gas, together
plant could displace more, smaller conventional units, with the high efficiency of modern combined cycle plant has
possibly lowering the system inertia, and hence resulting in a lead to a dramatic increase in the numbers of CCGT plant
greater initial rate of change of frequency following a loss of installed. This, together with the rapid, modular construction,
generation. low footprint and reduced emissions compared to
This study utilises a complete utility approved transmission conventional thermal plant has lead to penetrations as high as
system model and data corresponding to actual plant. NI and 10% in Japan [9], and 22% in certain US regions [10]. In the
RoI generation is maintained at a set level and is dispatched as all Ireland system the figure is approaching 36%, not
per normal, with the exception of the CCGT plant. including open cycle units [4],[5].
Interconnector flows are maintained for all simulations, with When a single type of technology is introduced for the first
an initial flow from NI to RoI. The event is initiated by time in such high numbers, it is important to understand how
tripping the Moyle interconnector from a value of 400 MW. it will respond to particular disturbances. When considering a
Three simulation frequency traces are shown in Fig. 2. In the small island power system where significant frequency
first simulation, only conventional plant (steam and hydro) are excursions can occur, the response to changes in frequency is
on-line. The second and third simulations show the effect of clearly of utmost importance.
displacing base loaded conventional plant with three CCGT The manner in which CCGT plant respond when subjected
units at a time. to a frequency deviation depends on four main factors; inertial
While the frequency does appear to reach a lower value response, operation of the steam turbine, control of Inlet
with the first three CCGT plant, when the subsequent three Guide Vanes (IGVs), and the loading level of the unit.

Ambient conditions can also affect the performance of gas
turbines by reducing the maximum power output. The two
main factors are air pressure and temperature. The former is
approximately proportional, and the latter being a non-linear
complex inverse function to the maximum power output [10].
This may result in the maximum operational limits being
reached earlier, depending on ambient conditions.
1) Inertial response of a CCGT
As with conventional thermal plant, there is a short delay
before the governor is able to act following a change in
frequency. During this time, the inertial response is of
paramount importance, particularly in a small system, as it
controls the initial rate of change of frequency. If the system
has less inertia, the initial rate of change is greater and a lower
value of frequency is reached in a shorter time, possibly
resulting in under-frequency load shedding.
In general, the inertia constants of CCGT plant are similar,
or slightly higher than existing thermal units [11]. However,
to benefit from the highest efficiencies and minimum
emissions, it can be desirable to run them as base loaded
plant. As a consequence, smaller, partly-loaded conventional
units are displaced. This results in a small number of large
units on the system, and potentially a reduced system inertia.
2) Operation of the steam turbine
Exhaust gasses from the gas turbine(s) are collected and
used to raise steam in a Heat Recovery Steam Generator
(HRSG) boiler, thus resulting in the high efficiency of the
overall plant.
The steam turbine section is normally operated in one of
two modes. The most common, sliding pressure mode is
where the steam governor valves are left fully open and the
unit output depends on the exhaust temperature of the gas
turbine. Maximum efficiency is achieved by keeping the gas
turbine exhaust temperature, and therefore steam turbine
output, maintained at the maximum permissible value.
Essentially, the steam turbine can be assumed to produce
constant power with an inertial response, for the purpose of
modelling during frequency drops or primary reserve
calculations. Even if the exhaust temperature does change, the
effect on the steam turbine incorporates a time lag of around
120 - 200 seconds [12],[13].
Alternatively, constant pressure mode involves throttling
back the steam turbine governor valve so that it may provide
primary reserve. It has been suggested that this can be
achieved with no appreciable reduction in efficiency or ageing
of the plant [14]. The extra reserve is of added benefit for
small island power systems, or power systems with poor
frequency control capability.
3)Inlet Guide Vanes
At less than base load output in a gas turbine there is less
fuel being burnt and therefore less heat in the exhaust. This is
not necessarily a problem for Open Cycle Gas Turbines
(OCGT), provided the fuel to air ratio is kept at a level to
maintain combustion and minimize emissions, but when
considering the steam section of a CCGT it is desirable to
maintain a high temperature in the Heat Recovery Steam
5
Generator (HRSG) for maximum efficiency. This can be
achieved through utilization of Inlet Guide Vanes (IGVs).
Their main purpose is to control the fuel to air ratio, and
therefore the exhaust temperature at a certain value. This
value is normally the maximum design temperature for the gas
turbine, and therefore the most efficient for the HRSG. At
load values less than base load, air flow is reduced,
maintaining exhaust temperature for the HRSG. If a load
increase is demanded, fuel flow can only be increased once
the IGVs have opened in order to maintain the fuel to air ratio
and therefore exhaust temperature under the maximum limit.
The rate of load pick-up is consequently limited by the
response of the IGVs.
For CCGTs operating in small islanded power systems
where primary frequency response is a priority, the rate of
load pick-up may not be sufficient. It is for this reason so
called fast acting IGVs are included in the majority, but not
all, of modern plant. As the entire unit is synchronized to the
grid, a frequency dip results in a decrease in compressor
speed and therefore airflow. The controls will try to increase
fuel flow, but this will be restricted by the exhaust
temperature limit. The IGVs must open before fuel flow can
increase. The faster the IGVs can act, the faster the exhaust
temperature is lowered, and fuel flow and power output
increased. If the compressor is slowed sufficiently, for a
certain period of time, the reduced air flow results in a
decrease of fuel. If the IGVs cannot open rapidly enough the
gas turbine may not be able to sustain combustion, or will
exceed temperature limits. Either way the unit will be tripped
from the system. This critical value of frequency depends on
the response of the IGVs, and the duration of the frequency
excursion.
IGVs do not have an appreciable effect on gas turbine
torque and therefore power output, but they do affect exhaust
temperature and as a result, the rate at which the gas turbine
can pick up load.
4) Gas Turbine Power Output;
Conventional thermal plant used for base load operation
will maintain power output when subjected to the majority of
frequency excursions. CCGTs operating at base load will have
their IGVs fully open. So when a frequency drop occurs the
grid synchronized compressor slows, reducing air flow and
increasing exhaust temperature. The temperature control takes
over and reduces fuel flow, reducing power output
approximately in proportion to the square of the system
frequency [12]. Again there is a critical frequency where the
compressor slows too much and the turbine is tripped.
In summary, the critical frequency depends on the loading
of the machine, IGV operation and duration of the
disturbance. However, if the turbine is running at base load
the critical frequency does not vary with IGV speed. If it is
running below base load the critical frequency depends on the
reserve available and more importantly the IGV speed [9].
C. CCGT Model Representation
Inspection of the individual CCGT model parameters, it

becomes apparent that the inertia of the new CCGT plant is
considerably higher than the plant that it is replacing. This is
particularly visible between trace (b) and (c), where the final
three CCGT plant are added to the simulation. The initial rate
of change of frequency is much less severe, resulting in it not
falling as far. In actual fact, the additional CCGT units
provide approximately 15% more stored energy than the
conventional plant they replaced. The reason for this is mainly
due to the large low pressure steam turbines employed in a
multi-shaft unit.
Examination of the gas turbine governor models used for
the simulation reveals that airflow from the compressor is
assumed to be constant, which is a reasonable assumption for
a large stiff interconnected systems. However, for a base
loaded machine in a small island power system, the reduced
output due to the compressor slowing following a large
frequency deviation, as previously discussed, can be
noticeable. In fact, as more CCGT units appear on the system,
the effect increases exponentially, as more base loaded plant
reduce output, resulting in a lower frequency, resulting in a
lower output and so on. As the maximum output of the plant
is dependent on system frequency, gas turbine output remains
below rated for as long as the frequency is below 50 Hz [15].
If these effects are not correctly represented for a system
with a high percentage of CCGT plant, particularly when
frequency deviations below 49.5 Hz are not unusual, then
optimistic frequency stability simulation results could occur.
D. Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) Technology
Although WTGs were not represented in this simulation,
they are beginning to appear in sufficient numbers in the all
Ireland system that their effects will need to be considered.
Electricity generation from fossil fuels is one of the main
contributors to greenhouse gas emissions around the world.
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement by
industrialised countries to reduce emissions. This has lead to
many governments setting targets and forming initiatives to
promote renewable generation. Generating electricity from
WTGs is by far the most advanced and economically viable
method of meeting these targets, with the exception of hydro
if the opportunities exist. The disadvantage of wind being that
at present, although it may provide an inertial response, they
are not expected to respond to changes in frequency. Also,
extra spinning reserve must be carried to cover forecast errors
and wind variability. For this reason installing WTGs does not
displace the same amount of conventional thermal generation.
The three main types of WTG are fixed-speed induction
generator, variable-speed Doubly Fed Induction Generator
(DFIG), and a variable-speed direct drive WTG.
The variable speed generators are all or partly decoupled
from the power system by ac-dc-ac converters. While the
variable speed WTGs offer an obvious advantage over the
fixed speed versions, being able to operate more efficiently at
a wider range of wind speeds, decoupling the generators from
the grid means that they do not inherently provide an inertial
response. As previously discussed, this can pose an added
6
problem to a small islanded power system. It is however
possible to add a supplementary control loop to a DFIG and
direct drive generator to simulate an inertial response by
extracting the energy from the rotor. It is thought that the
majority of new DFIG turbines will incorporate this feature in
the future [16].
Concerns had been raised about the possibility of all wind
based generation collapsing instantaneously due to the wind
effectively stopping. A separate study has shown that this
would be extremely unlikely in NI provided the locations of
the wind farms are well dispersed [17]. Nevertheless, it has
been suggested that for 10% wind power generation the
requirements for spinning-reserve margin and system ramping
rates would have to be increased by approximately 25% and
5%, respectively [18].
To help overcome the problems outlined, changes to grid
codes to specifically cover wind based generation are
expected, such as those outlined for the RoI system [19].
Firstly, large wind farms will be forced to remain connected to
the system during severe frequency excursions, where
previously they were disconnected by their protection.
Secondly, wind farms, particularly large offshore farms
connected to the transmission network may be requested to
provide primary frequency response by the TSO. The turbines
will therefore have to spill energy in order for there to be
energy to call on if the frequency drops.
These changes in operating procedure may help to reduce
the effects that high wind power penetration may have on
small isolated power systems. However, to avoid increasing
the likelihood of wind power playing a major part in causing
system instability, the full effects of high numbers of WTGs
must be extensively researched. It is for this reason that in late
2003, ESB National Grid (ESBNG), the TSO in the RoI, was
granted a temporary moratorium on new connections of wind
farms until security and reliability concerns have been
resolved [20].
E. Further Stability Concerns
Frequency stability is not an independent phenomenon.
When one type of stability is compromised, other forms of
stability are often affected. Once the combined effects of high
numbers of WTG and CCGT plant are combined, there is the
increased possibility of exciting sub-synchronous oscillations
between the interconnected systems. While the total wind
based generation output may remain relatively constant, the
power outputs of the geographically spaced individual wind
farms will vary to a greater extent, with the possibility of
oscillations occurring across the Island. Additional or re-
tuning of existing Power System Stabilisers (PSS) should help
to alleviate the problem.
In this simulation, the event, caused by tripping the Moyle
interconnector, introduced a disturbance without greatly
affecting the power system parameters such as inertial
response, frequency response, and voltage support (reactive
injection and filters are tripped along with the interconnector).
In simple terms, the interconnector is operated as a negative

load device. As the generating plant are the building blocks
for voltage control in a power system, an event initiated by
tripping of a large generator could also lead to a possible
voltage stability problem. A synchronous compensator in NI,
and two Static Var Compensators (SVCs) in the RoI help to
provide dynamic voltage control in the NIE / ESB system,
with the majority provided by the rotating generating plant.
Hence, if a large portion of this support is lost by the tripping
of a generator, local voltage collapse could become an issue.
F. Methods for Improving Stability in the NIE /ESB System
There are a number of methods already in place in the
Ireland system to help maintain stability. Turlough Hill, a 292
MW pumped storage facility in the RoI should always provide
a certain amount of primary reserve, and sufficient secondary
and tertiary reserve until other generation can be dispatched.
For this purpose, there are numerous fast-start gas turbines
that can be brought on-line in a matter of minutes. Some
conventional units have implemented fast wind down
procedures where instead of tripping a unit instantly, the unit
output is reduced to zero over 30 50 seconds, resulting in a
much less severe frequency transient. Switching in of shunt
reactors, to reduce voltage and therefore demand has also
been used.
In the future these techniques may not be sufficient to
maintain stability and so a number of possible options are
available, including steam turbine throttling, energy storage,
HVDC modulation, and interruptible customers.
Throttling back of the steam turbine sections of CCGT
plant is a viable option. This reserve can be used to mitigate
the effects of reduced compressor speed on the gas turbine.
As the exhaust temperature of the gas turbines should remain
at maximum, the steam turbine can provide primary,
secondary and continued tertiary reserve. In some cases, it is
also possible to allow over-firing where the gas turbine
temperature limit is temporarily raised enabling at least a
sustained output of power during a substantial frequency
deviation. This is at the expense of increased wear on the
turbine and HRSG [12],[15].
The Moyle HVDC link can, in theory be set to control the
frequency in the Ireland system, and it could maintain a 50 Hz
system during the majority of events, including periods of
high wind power penetration. This, however, is not
commercially viable at present. The Scottish and
interconnected England and Wales system is comparably
larger, and should be able to absorb a certain amount of
variation in the link. The amount allowed, possibly set blocks
of power import / export at certain frequencies, would have to
be decided after extensive simulation of the Scottish system.
Any variation from the link can only add to the stability of the
entire Ireland system.
Energy storage would be one of the most technologically
advanced and long term solutions. Extending the principle of
a pumped storage site like Turlough Hill, more modern
examples using rapid, easily controlled power electronics can
help to avoid most types of instability. Fuel cell technology,
where the energy is stored as hydrogen, may be a viable
option in the near future when the capital cost is reduced. A
7
high efficiency, fast response and the ability to transport
energy as hydrogen make fuel cells an attractive possibility.
Ni-Cd Battery storage may also be an option. A recent
installation in Alaska is capable of maintaining an output of
40 MW for 15 minutes until other forms of generation can be
started and synchronized [21]. As all of these forms of energy
storage include Voltage Source Converters, they are able to
operate as real and reactive power sources and sinks. The
controls permit rapid, and remote or fully automated
responses to various types of event, but the major drawback at
present being the initial cost.
There are a growing number of embedded generators within
the distribution system, primarily used as peaking plant at
times of high demand when electricity costs are highest. With
a suitable centralised control system this previously untapped
resource could be used the remainder of the time as secondary
or tertiary reserve to balance out wind or help restore
frequency following a large generator trip.
Currently, consumers have no limits, within reason, on the
amount of load they connect. This results in excessive
amounts of non-essential load on the system. If this demand
could be separated from essential loads and centrally
controlled, it would be a valuable source of cost effective
primary, secondary and tertiary reserve. The loads could be
divided into different categories, depending on the period of
time they can be interrupted for. Interruptible tariffs would
compensate the consumers for the inconvenience with a
reserve payment, probably in the form of cheaper electricity.
Heating loads and air conditioning units are examples of the
types of load that can be interrupted for considerable lengths
of time without obvious effects. The major cost in this
approach would be the separation of essential and non-
essential loads, although this would be considerably easier in
new buildings.
V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has highlighted some of the stability concerns
when introducing large numbers of new generation
technology in the form of CCGTs and WTGs. Using the
Northern Ireland and interconnected Southern Ireland system
as a case study, the issue of frequency stability has been
discussed. Frequency stability is dominated by governor
response, and it is clearly important that simulation represents
the true behaviour of the system. In some cases, there may
therefore be a need for tuning and modification of models for
various power system components. In particular the effect of
slowing of the compressor in a gas turbine during a frequency
drop should be included in the governor model, especially if
the system frequency is particularly variable.
As frequency stability becomes more of an issue,
particularly in small island power systems, new and
innovative control schemes can be introduced, maintaining the
reliability and security that is demanded by consumers, while
permitting new and greener forms of generation.
This paper is part of an ongoing study to determine the
effects of new generation trends on the Northern Ireland, and

hence, Southern Ireland electricity networks. As new wind
farms and CCGT plant are currently under construction,
solutions to the problems posed need to be implemented
within the next few years. Some of the most promising
possible solutions are CCGT steam turbine throttling for
reserve, and centrally controlled embedded generation and
interruptible non essential load. Cost implications,
positioning, footprint, environmental impact and the
comparative effectiveness of all these various solutions need
to be thoroughly explored before investing in one or more.
Time domain simulation, and eigenanalysis are the
proposed methods of assessing the stability problems and the
possible solutions.
This situation is not unique to the NIE / ESB system, but
applies to many small island systems around the world. The
cause of the 1996 blackout in Malaysia was attributed to the
effects of the gas turbine controllers. At the time
approximately 67% of the generation originated from gas
turbines or CCGTs [12]. Some 922 MW of generation was
initially lost due to a circuit breaker fault causing a frequency
excursion to 49.1 Hz (from a nominal of 50 Hz). A further
2143 MW of gas turbine / CCGT plant tripped out on exhaust
temperature limits, or were unable to sustain combustion due
to the decreased fuel flow. Load shedding of 1580 MW was
unsuccessful and a blackout occurred 16 seconds after the
initial event [12]. This event could be an early warning signal
for the US system. The Eastern and Western Interconnections
have reported that over the last ten years the generation / load
imbalance required to produce a 0.1 Hz frequency deviation
has decreased by approximately 70 MW per year. The major
cause has been put down to the rising numbers of CCGTs on
the system [11]. While a failure on the Malaysian scale may
be unlikely at the present time, testing and tuning of gas
turbine controls could avoid similar incidents.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
Michael Preston, Raymond Skillen, Leslie Bryans and Alan
Kennedy at SONI, and Julia Ritchie at QUB.
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VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
Jonathan Horne received a B.Eng (Hons) degree in Electrical and
Electronic Engineering from the Queens University of Belfast in 2002. He is
currently studying for a Ph.D. in the area of power system stability at the
Queen's University of Belfast.
Damian Flynn is a lecturer in Power Engineering at The Queens University
of Belfast. His research interests involve an investigation of the effects of
embedded generation sources, especially renewables, on the operation of power
systems. He is also interested in advanced modeling and control techniques
applied to power plant. He is a member of the IEEE.
Tim Littler is a lecturer in Power Systems, Software Engineering and
Mathematics at The Queens University of Belfast. His research interests include
power system monitoring, protection systems, instrumentation, signal algorithms
and analysis, DSP, mathematics and software engineering. He is a member of
the IEEE and PES.