Dr. Ogboi. F.

L
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell The first germanium bipolar transistor.
Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented Roughly 50 years later, electronics
the bipolar transistor in 1947. account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of
the world GDP.
1874 Braun invents the solid-state rectifier. 1958 Integrated circuit developed by Kilby
and Noyce
1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum tube.
1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild
1907-1927 Semiconductor
First radio circuits developed from 1963 IEEE formed from merger or IRE and
diodes and triodes. AIEE
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent 1968 First commercial IC opamp
filed.
1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented by
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Dennard at IBM.
Laboratories invent bipolar transistors.
1971 4004 Intel microprocessor introduced.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor
production at Texas Instruments. 1978 First commercial 1-kilobit memory.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley receive 1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
Nobel prize.
1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share Nobel
prize
 Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors

SSI and MSI VLSI

Integrated Surface-Mount
Circuits Circuits
 The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
World transistor production has more than doubled every year
for the past twenty years.
Every year, more transistors are produced than in all previous
years combined.
Approximately 109 transistors were produced in a recent year.
Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the world .

*Source: Gordon Moores Plenary address at the 2003 International

Solid State Circuits Conference.
 Moores Law : The number of transistors on a
chip doubles annually
Rocks Law : The cost of semiconductor tools
doubles every four years
Machrones Law: The PC you want to buy will
always be $5000
Metcalfes Law : A networks value grows
proportionately to the number of its users
squared
 Wirths Law : Software is slowing faster than hardware is
accelerating
Further Reading: 5 Commandments, IEEE Spectrum
December 2003, pp. 31-35.
 Moore predicted that the number of
transistors that can be integrated on a die
would grow exponentially with time.
Amazingly visionary million transistor/chip
barrier was crossed in the 1980s.
16 M transistors (Ultra Sparc III)
140 M transistor (HP PA-8500)
1.7B transistor (Intel Montecito)
16-bit minicomputers - Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) - 1970
Precision architecture reduced
instruction set PA-RISC processor - 1986
32 bit microprocessor from Motorola - 1984
32 bit microprocessor from Motorola - 1990
Toshiba and MIPS 2002
Microprocessor without Interlocked
Pipeline Stages (MIPS)
8/16 bits Microprocessor
32 bits embedded Microprocessor - 1985
32 bits embedded Microprocessor - 1989
64 bits data bus - 1993
 Penryn : 45nm Core 2
Architecture : Core 2
Extreme QX9650
Nehalem : Core i7
 Feature size
reductions enabled by
process innovations.
Smaller features lead
to more transistors
per unit area and
therefore higher
density.
Memory chip density Microprocessor complexity
versus time. versus time.
 Hardware Description Language (Verilog, VHDL) are widely
used in todays IC design.
C programs need to obey rules set by OS.
HDL programs need to obey physical rules in the real world.
 Most observables are analog
But the most convenient way to represent and transmit
information electronically is digital
Analog/digital and digital/analog conversion is essential
 By using binary numbers we can represent any quantity. For
example a binary two (10) could represent a 2 volt signal. But
we generally have to agree on some sort of code and the
dynamic range of the signal in order to know the form and
the minimum number of bits.
Possible digital representation for a pure sine wave of known
frequency. We must choose maximum value and resolution
or error, then we can encode the numbers. Suppose we
want 1V accuracy of amplitude with maximum amplitude of
50V, we could use a simple pure binary code with 6 bits of
information.
 Digital signals also offer an effective way to
execute logic. The formalism for performing
logic with binary variables is called
switching algebra or boolean algebra.
Digital electronics combines two important
properties:
The ability to represent real functions by coding
the information in digital form.
The ability to control a system by a process of
manipulation and evaluation of digital variables
using switching algebra.
 Digital signals can be transmitted, received,
amplified, and retransmitted with no degradation.
Binary numbers are a natural method of expressing
logic variables.
Complex logic functions are easily expressed as
binary function.
With digital representation, we can achieve arbitrary
levels of dynamic range, that is, the ratio of the
largest possible signal to the smallest than can be
distinguished above the background noise.
Digital information is easily and inexpensively stored
 Analog signals take on
continuous values - typically
current or voltage.
Digital signals appear at
discrete levels. Usually we use
binary signals which utilize
only two levels.
One level is referred to as
logical 1 and logical 0 is
assigned to the other level.
 Analog signals are continuous
in time and voltage or current.
(Charge can also be used as a
signal conveyor.)
After digitization, the
continuous analog signal
becomes a set of discrete
values, typically separated by
fixed time intervals.
 For an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is
expressed as:
VO (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2n )VFS
The smallest possible voltage change is known as the
least significant bit or LSB.
VLSB 2n VFS

TIs 20-bit sigma delta DAC
 Analog input voltage vx is converted to the nearest n-bit number.
For a four bit converter, 0 -> vx input yields a 0000 -> 1111 digital
output.
Output is approximation of input due to the limited resolution of the
n-bit output. Error is expressed as:
1 2 n
V v x (b1 2 b2 2 ... bn 2 )VFS
 Rockwell Scientific 4Gsps ADC
V v x (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2n )VFS
 Circuit theory is based on the concept of
modeling. To analyze any complex physical
system, we must be able to describe the
system in terms of an idealized model that is
an interconnection of idealized elements.
By analyzing the circuit model, we can
predict the behavior of the physical circuit
and design better circuits.
 Lumped circuits are obtained by connecting lumped elements.
Typical lumped elements are resistors, capacitors, inductors,
and transformers.
The size of lumped circuit is small compared to the wavelength
of their normal frequency of operation.
 Audio Circuit operate @ 25Khz, the wavelength ~=12Km,
which is much larger than the size of any elements
Computer Circuit @ 500 Mhz, =0.6m, the lumped approx. is
not so good.
Microwave circuit, where is between 10cm to 1mm, Kirchhoffs
laws do not apply for the cavity resonators.
 A lumped circuit is by definition an interconnecting lumped
element.
The two terminal elements are called branches, the terminals of
the elements are called nodes.
The branch voltage and branch current are the basic variables
of interest in circuit theory.
 A two terminal lumped
A

elements (branch) with i

nodes A and B. +

The reference directions for v

the branch voltage v and -

branch current i are shown in
the graph. B

The reference direction is

chosen arbitrarily.
 Total quantities will be represented by lowercase letters with
capital subscripts, such as vT anf iT.
The dc components are represented by capital letters with
capital subscripts as VDC and IDC; changes or variations from the
dc value are represented by vac and iac.
vT = VDC + vac
iT = IDC + iac
+

v1 g mv1 i 1 i 1

(a) VCCS (b) CCCS

v1 A v1 i1 i 1

(c) VCVS (d) CCVS

F igu r e 1 . 1 0 - C o n t r o lled S o u r ces
(a ) Vo lt a ge- co n t r o lled cu r r en t s o u r ce - (VC C S )
(b )C u r r en t - co n t r o lled cu r r en t s o u r ce - (C C C S )
(c) Vo lt a ge- co n t r o lled vo lt a ge s o u r ce - (VC VS )
(d ) C u r r en t - co n t r o lled vo lt a ge s o u r ce - (C C VS ).
 For any lumped electric circuit, for any of its nodes, and at any
time, the algebraic sum of all branch currents leaving the node
is zero.
 When applying KCL to circuit, first assign reference
direction for each branch.
For node 2, i4-i3-i6=0
For node 1, -i1+i2+i3=0
 For any lumped electric circuit, for any of its loops, and at any
time, the algebraic sum of the branch voltages around the loop
is zero.
 For loop I, v4+v5-v6=0
Loop II, v4+v5-v2-v1=0
 KCL imposes a linear constraint on the branch currents.
KCL applies to any lumped electric circuit; it is independent of
the nature of the elements.
KCL expresses the conservation of charge at any time.
 An example where KCL doesnt apply is the whip antenna. The
antenna is about wavelength so it is not a lumped circuit.
KVL imposes a linear constraint between branch voltages of a
loop.
KVL is independent of the natural of the elements.
 Resistors
Independent sources
Capacitors
Inductors
 v(t) = Ri(t) or i(t)=Gv(t)
R is the resistance
G is called the conductance
For linear time-invariant resistors,
R and G are constants.
 Independent sources
maintains a prescribed
voltage or current across
the terminals of the
arbitrary circuit to which
it is connected.
 Capacitors store electrical charges.
i(t) = dq/dt
q(t) = Cv(t)
i(t) = Cdv(t)/dt
 K = relative permittivity of the dielectric material in between two
plates.
K= 1 for free space, K=3.9 for SiO2
High K (K > 3.9)dielectric (e.g. (BaSr)TiO3, barium strontium
titanate for K=160-600 for storage capacitance; zirconium silicate,
ZrSiO4 with K=15 for next generation gate oxide)
Low K (K < 3.9)dielectric for ILD (interlayer dielectrics ) to insulate
between metal lines (e.g. Porous SiO2 for K=1.3)
 Inductors store energy in their magnetic
fields.
V(t) = d/dt
(t)=Li(t)
V(t) = L di/dt
 Power (Thermal)
Time Delay
 Range of Operation
Temperature Effect
Parasitic effect
Typical Element Size
Resistor : 1ohm to Mohms
Capacitor : femto Farad to micro Farad
v1 i s R1 and v 2 i s R2

Applying KVL to the loop,

v s v1 v 2 i s (R1 R2 )

vs
and is
R1 R2
Combining these yields the basic voltage division formula:
R1 R2
v1 v s v2 vs
R1 R2 R1 R2
Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
8 k
v1 10 V 8.00 V
8 k 2 k
2 k
v 2 10 V 2.00 V
8 k 2 k

Design Note: Voltage division only applies when both

resistors are carrying the same current.
 vs vs
i s i1 i 2 where i1 i
and 2
R1 R2
Combining and solving for vs,
1 RR
v s i s i s 1 2 i sR1 || R2
1 1 R1 R2

R1 R2
Combining these yields the basic current division formula:
R2 R1
i1 i s i2 is
R1 R2 R1 R2

and
 Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
3 k
i1 5 ma 3.00 mA
2 k 3 k
2 k
i 2 5 ma 2.00 mA
2 k 3 k

Design Note: Current division only applies when the same

voltage appears across both resistors.
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent circuit represents real-world
battery models.
Complex circuits can be simplified to these representation to
help us understand the circuits.
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent voltage at the output.
Solution:
Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and values
in figure.
Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent
voltage vTH.
Approach: Voltage source vTH is
defined as the output voltage with
no load.
Assumptions: None.
Analysis: Next slide
Applying KCL at the output node,
vo vs vo
i1 G1 v o v s G S v o
R1 RS
Current i1 can be written as: i1 G1 v o v s

Combining the previous equations

G1 1v s G1 1 G S v o

G1 1 R1RS 1RS
vo vs vs
G1 1 G S R1RS 1RS R1
Using the given component values:

vo
1RS
vs
50 11 k
v s 0.718v s
1RS R1 50 11 k 1 k
and

v TH 0.718 v s
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent resistance.
Solution:
Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and values
in figure.
Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent
resistance RTH.
Approach: RTH is defined as the Test voltage vx has been added to the
equivalent resistance at the output previous circuit. Applying vx and
terminals with all independent
sources in the network set to zero. solving for ix allows us to find the
Assumptions: None. Thevenin resistance as vx/ix.
Analysis: Next slide
Applying KCL,
i x i1 i1 G S v x
G1v x G1v x G S v x
G1 1 G S v x
vx 1 R1
Rth RS
i x G1 1 G S 1

R1 20 k
Rth RS 1 k 1 k 392 282
1 50 1
Problem: Find the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Solution:
Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and
values in figure.
Unknowns: Norton equivalent
short circuit current iN. A short circuit has been applied
Approach: Evaluate current across the output. The Norton
through output short circuit. current is the current flowing
Assumptions: None. through the short circuit at the
Analysis: Next slide
output.
Applying KCL,
i N i1 i1
G1v s G1v s
G1 1v s
v s 1
Short circuit at the output causes
R1 zero current to flow through RS.
Rth is equal to Rth found earlier.
50 1 vs
iN vs (2.55 mS)v s
20 k 392
Check of Results: Note that vTH=iNRth and this can be used to check the
calculations: iNRth=(2.55 mS)vs(282 ) = 0.719vs, accurate within
round-off error.

While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at
the output terminals, there is one difference between the two circuits.
With no load connected, the Norton circuit still dissipates power!
 Nonrepetitive signals have continuous spectra often
occupying a broad range of frequencies
Fourier theory tells us that repetitive signals are
composed of a set of sinusoidal signals with distinct
amplitude, frequency, and phase.
The set of sinusoidal signals is known as a Fourier
series.
The frequency spectrum of a signal is the amplitude
and phase components of the signal versus
frequency.
 Audible sounds 20 Hz - 20 KHz
Baseband TV 0 - 4.5 MHz
FM Radio 88 - 108 MHz
Television (Channels 2-6) 54 - 88 MHz
Television (Channels 7-13) 174 - 216 MHz
Maritime and Govt. Comm. 216 - 450 MHz
Cell phones 1710 - 2690 MHz
Satellite TV 3.7 - 4.2 GHz
 All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.
Resistors can be purchased with 10%, 5%, and
1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often 10%.)
Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances such as +20%/-50%.
Power supply voltages typically vary from 1% to 10%.

Device parameters will also vary with temperature and age.

Circuits must be designed to accommodate these variations.
We will use worst-case and Monte Carlo (statistical) analysis to
examine the effects of component parameter variations.