CHAPTER 1 SUBSTRUCTURE

1.1 Earthwork
 INTRODUCTION
Earthwork: the processes whereby the surface of the
earth is excavated and transported to and compacted
at another location.

Earthworks are engineering works created through the

moving or processing of parts of the earth's surface involving
quantities of soil or unformed rock. The earth may be moved
to another location and formed into a desired shape for a
purpose.

Much of earthworks involves machine excavation and fill or

backfill.

Scale: ranges from small works (the excavation of ditches

and trenches for drainage and pits and trenches for
foundations) to the large earthworks (highways and dams).
 INTRODUCTION
carried out at an early stage in a construction project.

completion of the earthworks within the scheduled time is

often the key to the completion on time of the whole project

success often depends on:

o an adequate site investigation and preparing practical

and satisfactory designs of the earthworks.

o the choice and efficient use of the correct types and size
of plant to meet the particular requirements of the site.

o Weather condition
SCOPE OF EARTHWORKS
Site clearing
Parameters to be checked on before commencing the clearing
works;
marking of the respective area to be cleared and grubbed
checked the cut-off elevations
checked depth and size of trees to be removed
identified clearly and verified the existing utilities and
services lines
ensure that monuments, markers and special trees are
properly marked for protection.
marks all trees and vegetations that are to be
undisturbed
potential hazard such as flammable area, slipping area,
etc.
terrain, soil condition and foliage
ensure that sub contractor has proper controls of erosion
and drainage
environment protection plan has been approved and the
contractor is familiar with the requirements
 Site clearing
Site Clearing Involves;
demolition of existing buildings,
the grubbing out bushes and trees,
disposal works and
the removal of top soil to reduce level.

Clearing, grubbing, demolishing, breaking up and removing

all trees, shrubs, vegetation, butts, structures such as walls,
fences and other obstruction within the site which have been
designated to be demolished or removed.

All spoils and debris shall be removed and disposed of off-

site at an approved certified construction landfill.
Demolition
Site clearing
 Cutting and excavation
Most construction projects require the movement of earthwork
on site. This will result in altering the existing elevation to a
different or finish elevation.

To determine the amount of soil to be moved, the estimator

needs to have a plot plan or topographic survey.

This drawing is developed by plotting the readings (elevations)

obtained from a topographic field survey usually performed by
a licensed land surveyor.
 Types of
Materials

Purposes

Cutting and excavation

Classification of Excavation based on type
of material:
Topsoil excavation
Earth excavation
Rock excavation
Muck excavation - this usually contains
excess water and unsuitable soil
Unclassified excavation - this is any
combination of material types

Cutting and excavation

Classification of Excavation based on it
purposes:
Stripping
Roadway excavation
Drainage or structure excavation
Bridge excavation
Channel excavation
Footing excavation
Borrow excavation
Dredge excavation

Cutting and excavation

 Cutting and excavation
Excavation can be either a part of the permanent works
(e.g. cuttings) or a temporary expedient in the construction
of the works (e.g. for foundations and drainage)

The sides of the

excavations are required
to remain stable during
their design life, can be
achieved by:
excavating the material
to a stable slope angle
retaining or supporting
the material.
Cutting and excavation
Cut and Fill in during earthworks
Engineers need to concern themselves with issues of geotechnical engineering
(such as soil density and strength) and with quantity estimation to ensure that
soil volumes in the cuts match those of the fills, while minimizing the distance
of movement.

In the past, volume analysis were done by hand using a slide rule and with
methods such as Simpson's rule.

Nowadays, calculations can be performed with a computer and specialized

software, including optimisation on haul cost and not haul distance.

Cutting and excavation

Cutting and excavation
Cutting and excavation
 Transport and moving
Earthwork transportation is something that projects
seldom avoid.

Earthwork is expressed in units of volumes (cubic

meters in metric). Increases in such volumes require
additional trucks (or more runs of the same truck),
which cost money.

It is important for designers to design the project

which require very little earthwork.

Trucks or dump trucks are the most necessary

equipment to transport excavated material,
aggregates and construction material.
 Transport
and moving
Transport and moving
 Compaction
Reasons:
Increased bearing capacity
Increased compressibility
Reduce permeability
Improve stability
Heavy/highway vs. building foundation compaction
operations
 All pronounced depressions left in the
original ground surface by removal of
objectionable material from within
embankment limits are filled with
acceptable material and compacted to the
density required.
The upper 6 in. of the original ground is
compacted weighing no less than 10 t, or
with other approval compacting
equipment.

Compaction
 Compacting equipment requirements
vary from contract to contract.
The types of compactors commonly
used are:
Three wheel roller
Smooth drum vibrator roller
Vibratory tamping roller
Static tamping roller or sheepsfoot
Crawler-tread equipment or bulldozer
Mechanical tamps or vibrator.

Compaction
 The compactor to be used is
determined by the Contractor and is
dependent upon several factors:
Size of embankment
Type of materials being compacted
Conditions of materials being compacted
Availability of equipments
Contractors preference.

Compaction
Compactor type Material Lift Depth
3 wheel All soils 8 in. max
Smooth Drum All soils 8 in. max
Vibratory
Tamping-Foot Soil or shale Length of tamping
foot
Crawler-Tread rock Refer specifications
Crawler-Tread aggregates 6 in. max
Smooth drum aggregates 6 in. max
Vibratory
Mechanical Tamp or soils 6 in. max
Vibratory
Mechanical tamp or aggregates 4 in. max
Vibratory

Compaction
Compaction
 Sloping
Function of the natural angle of repose, density,
surface and subsurface water flow.

Early stabilization of surfaces is critical in construction.

Eliminate points of concentrated flow using slope

drains as outlets.

Difficult slopes may require riprap, gabions, or other

measures for permanent stabilization .
 Slope stabilization is
important to ensure that
failure or landslides will not
occur.
Properly designed slope
protection and stabilization
has to include two
components:
a vegetational-biological
and
a mechanical-structural
component.
For maximum effect, both
components must be
integrally planned prior to
construction.

Sloping
Sloping
Sloping
 KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL
EARTHWORK OPERATIONS

1. Control surface and subsurface water

2. Maintain optimum moisture range by drying, mixing ,
or wetting
3. Identify and monitor cut & fill quantities
4. Good layout (horizontal & vertical control)
5. Minimize handling - minimize stockpiling
 KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL
EARTHWORK OPERATIONS

6. Optimize haul lengths

7. Minimize cycle time
8. Proper selection and sizing of excavators and haul
units
9. Alternate haul unit wheel paths
10. Experienced personnel in the field

To be continue..