Hahne - The Corruption and Redemption of Creation in Romans 8

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THE CORRUPTION AND REDEMPTION OF CREATION:
AN EXEGETICAL STUDY OF ROMANS 8 :1 9 -2 2 IN LIGHT OF
JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
A Thesis subm itted to the Faculty of W ycliffe College and the
B ib lica l Departm ent o f the Toronto School of Theology.
In p a rtia l fu lfilm e n t o f the requirem ents fo r the degree o f
D octor of Theology
awarded by W ycliffe College and the U niversity o f Toronto.
by
H a rry A lan Hahne
Toronto, O ntario
A p ril 1997
copyright 1997 H arry A lan Hahne
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THESIS ABSTRACT
Romans 8:19-22 is the m ajor passage expressing the apostle Pauls concepts o f the
present condition and the eschatologlcal hope o f the n a tu ra l w orld. The passage says th a t the
creation was corrupted and now suffers because of the Fall of hum anity. C reation also longs
fo r the eschatologlcal g lorification o f the ch ild re n o f God, because a t th a t tim e th e n a tu ra l
w orld w ill be transform ed to freedom and glory.
It has become a commonplace fo r New Testam ent scholars to claim th a t Pauls thought
was strongly influenced by Jewish apocalyptic though t. The apocalyptic elem ents in the
theology o f Romans 8:19-22 have been acknowledged even by m any scholars w ho do n o t
accept the general prem ise th a t Pauls theology is rooted in Jewish apocalyptic thought.
A lthough the genre o f th is passage is not an apocalypse, the worldview, the theology and many
o f the expressions are very sim ila r to those fo u n d in Second Temple Jewish apocalyptic
w ritin g s. U nfortunately, there is a tendency fo r m any researchers sim ply to say th a t the
passage is "apocalyptic" w ith o u t clearly in d ica tin g w h at is m eant b y th a t term .
This study examines the views o f th e co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation in several
m ajor Jewish apocalyptic w orks w ritte n between the th ird century B.C. and about 100 A D .
(1 Enoch, Jubilees, 2 Enoch, 4 Ezra, 2 B aruch and the Apocalypse of M oses/Life o f Adam and
Eve). The fu n ctio n o f the personification o f the n a tu ra l w orld in com m unicating the message
about the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation is also explored. Follow ing a detailed
exegetical study of Romans 8:19-22, the view o f the corru ption and redem ption o f creation in
th is passage is compared to the approaches taken in the Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s to
| determ ine the ways in w hich Pauls though t in th is passage is sim ila r to and different from
i.
| Jew ish apocalyptic theology.
| The diversity o f views in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s shows th a t it is not enough
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sim ply to label the theology o f Romans 8:19-22 as "apocalyptic." It is im portant to id e n tify the
p a rtic u la r type o f apocalyptic though t closest to Pauls ideas. The Jew ish apocalyptic
m aterials represent several stream s of thought, a ll o f w hich are "apocalyptic" in perspective,
despite th e ir diversity. These ideological stream s can be distinguished by th e ir treatm ent of
three key issues: (1) the co rru p tio n of creation in th is age; (2) the cause o f the co rru p tio n of
creation; and (3) the fu tu re hope fo r the redem ption of the m aterial creation.
(1) There is a tension in m any Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s between the creation as
under Gods control and the creation as damaged by sin. A lthough a few w ritin g s stress the
perfection and consistent operation of the n a tu ra l w orld, the m a jo rity describe creation as
corrupted due to sin. Even m any w ritin g s th a t emphasize the norm ally consistent operation of
the n a tu ra l w orld indicate th a t a t least parts of creation are corrupted o r th a t creation is
corrupted a t specific tim es in h isto ry. Romans 8:19-22 follow s th a t m a jo rity stream of Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t stresses th a t creation has been corrupted by sin.
(2) In Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s creation may be corrupted due to the sins o f the
fallen W atchers, hum an sins, or both. Among those w orks th a t focus on hum an sins, the
co rru p tio n m ay be eithe r due to th e Fall, ongoing hum an sins, or eschatological hum an sins.
Romans 8:19-22 focuses on the decisive damage th a t the Fall of h um an ity brought to the
created order, re su ltin g in the enslavement o f creation to corruption and fu tility .
(3) The m a jo rity o f Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s look forw ard to an eschatological
redem ption of creation. Some anticipate a new creation, w hile others expect the transform a
tio n o f the present creation eithe r to its pre-Fail cond ition o r to a perfect state th a t exceeds
w hat it lo st due to sin. M any w orks describe a tem porary, earthly golden age w ith a perfected
n a tu ra l w orld. Romans 8:19-22 follow s th a t stream of apocalyptic though t th a t looks forw ard
to the perm anent transform ation o f the existing creation, the removal o f the damage caused by
sin, and the perfection o f creation to share the glory and freedom of the glorified children o f
God. Paul, however, does n o t describe the exact eschatological changes th a t the n a tu ra l w orld
w ill undergo, in contrast to the viv id descriptions found in m any Jew ish apocafyptic w ritings.
CONTENTS
TABLES AND FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... v ii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................. vUi
ACKNO W LEDG M ENTS...........................................................................................................................ix
INTR O D UCTIO N................................................................................................................................... 1

The C o rru p tio n and Redem ption o f C reation in Pauls T h o u g h t........................................... 1
The R elationship Between Rom. 8:19-22 and Jew ish Apocafyptic L ite ra tu re ................... 3
The Scope o f the Present S tu d y ................................................................................................. 5
SECTIO N I: HISTO R Y OF RESEARCH ON ROMANS 8:19-22
CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION OF ROMANS 8 :1 9 -2 2 ............................... 8

P a tristic In te rp re ta tio n ............................................................................................................... 8
M edieval In te rp re ta tio n ............................................................................................................. 29
R eform ation E ra In te rp re ta tio n ............................................................................................... 42
18th-19th C entury In te rp re ta tio n .......................................................................................... 50
M odem In te rp re ta tio n ................................................................................................................ 61
Com m entaries and A rticle s on Romans ......................................................................... 61
Rom. 8:19-22 in Studies o f Eschatology and Pauline Theology ................................. 69
Sum m ary o f M odem Views ............................................................................................... 78
Excursus: The C o rruptio n and Redem ption o f C reation in W orks on Theology o f
N a tu re .............................................................................................................................. 81
CHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON TH E APOCALYPTIC

BACKGROUND TO ROMANS 8:19-22 ................................................................................... 100
C haracteristics o f Jew ish A pocalyptic Literature ................................................................ 100
The D iffic u lty o f D efining "A p ocafyptic"............................................................................ 100
The C o rru p tio n and Redem ption o f Creation as Features o f Apocalyptic Thought . . 102
The C o rruptio n and Redem ption o f C reation in Jew ish Apocalyptic W ritin g s ................. 104
The R elationship o f Pauls Thought to Jew ish A pocalyptic W ritin g s ................................. 109
The Apocafyptic Dim ensions o f Romans 8:19-22 ................................................................ 125
C o n c lu s io n s ................................................................................................................................ 135
SECTION H: TH E CORRUPTION AND REDEM PTION OF CREATION

IN JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
CHAPTER 3 : EARLY JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE .................................................... 139

1 Enoch Book 1 (ch. 1-36): The Book of W atchers ............................................................. 140
Date, Provenance and U n ity o f the Book o f W a tc h e rs .................................................. 140
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1 Enoch 1-5 ......................................................................................................................... 141
1 Enoch 6-16 ....................................................................................................................... 147
1 Enoch 17-36 ....................................................................................................................... 157
Sum m ary o f the Book o f the W a tc h e rs ............................................................................ 161
1 Enoch Book 3 (ch. 72-82): The A stronom ical Book ......................................................... 162
Date and Provenance o f the A stronom ical B o o k ........................................................... 162
1 Enoch 72:1-80:1; 82:1-20 ............................................................................................... 162
1 Enoch 8 0 :2 -8 1 :1 0 ............................................................................................................. 166
Sum m ary o f th e A stronom ical B o o k ................................................................................... 169
1 Enoch Book 4 (ch. 83-90): The Book o f Dream s ............................................................. 169
Date and Provenance of the B ook of Dream s ................................................................ 169
The F irs t D ream V ision (Ch. 83-84) ................................................................................ 170
The A n im a l Apocalypse (Ch. 85-90) ................................................................................ 172
Sum m ary o f the Book o f D re a m s ..................................................................................... 175
1 Enoch Book 5 (ch. 91-108): The Epistle o f E n o c h .............................................................. 176
Date, Provenance and U n ity o f 1 Enoch Book 5 ........................................................... 176
The Apocalypse of Weeks (93:3-10: 9 1 :1 1 -1 7 )................................................................ 178
A N ature Poem (Ch. 9 3 :1 1 -1 4 ).......................................................................................... 182
The E pistle o f Enoch (91:1-10, 18-19; 92; 93:1-2, 11-14; 9 4 -1 0 5 )............................ 182
The B irth o f Noah (Ch. 106-107) ..................................................................................... 187
Sum m ary o f Book 5 o f 1 E n o c h ...........................................................................................188
The Book o f J u b ile e s .................................................................................................................. 190
Date, Provenance and Genre o f J u b ile e s ......................................................................... 190
The C o rruptio n o f C reation ..................................................................................................192
The Redem ption o f C re a tio n ................................................................................................. 202
The Personification o f C reation .......................................................................................... 211
Sum m ary o f J u b ile e s ............................................................................................................. 212
CHAPTER 4: 2 ENOCH (SLAVONIC E N O C H ).................................................................................214

Date, Provenance and Recensions o f 2 Enoch ....................................................................... 214
The C o rruptio n o f C re a tio n .........................................................................................................218
The C onsistent O peration o f the N a tu ra l W o rld ................................................................218
Aspects of the C orruption o f C re a tio n .................................................................................220
The Cosmic Im pact o f S in P rio r to the F lo o d .....................................................................222
A cco u n ta b ility fo r Treatm ent o f N a tu re .............................................................................. 224
The Redem ption o f C reation .......................................................................................................224
The Com ing New A g e ............................................................................................................. 224
C haracteristics of Paradise ................................................................................................. 226
N ature in the New A g e ........................................................................................................... 228
The Personification of C reation ................................................................................................. 230
Sum m ary o f 2 Enoch .................................................................................................................. 232
CHAPTER 5: JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

FROM THE FIRST CENTURY A .D ................................................................................................234
1 Enoch Book 2 (ch. 37-71): The B ook o f P a ra b le s ................................................................ 234
Date and Provenance o f the Book of P a ra b le s .................................................................. 234
F irs t Parable (ch. 38-44) .................................................................................................... 236
Second Parable (ch. 45-57) ............................................................................................... 239
T h ird Parable (ch. 5 8 -7 1 ).................................................................................................... 242
Sum m ary o f the Book o f Parables ..................................................................................... 250
4 Ezra ............................................................................................................................................ 251
Date, Provenance and U n ity o f 4 Ezra .............................................................................. 251
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The C o rruptio n o f C reation ................................................................................................. 255
The Personification o f Creation .......................................................................................... 276
Sum m ary o f 4 E z r a ............................................................................................................... 278
2 B aruch ....................................................................................................................................... 280
Date, Provenance and U n ity o f 2 Baruch ......................................................................... 280
The C o rru p tio n o f C reation ................................................................................................. 283
The P ersonification o f Creation ..........................................................................................303
Sum m ary o f 2 B a ru c h .......................................................................................................... 306
The Apocalypse o f Moses and the Life o f Adam and E v e ...................................................... 307
Date, Provenance and Genre o f the Apocalypse of Moses and the Life o f Adam and
E v e .....................................................................................................................................307
The Personification o f Creation ..........................................................................................319
Sum m ary o f the Apocalypse o f Moses and the Life o f Adam and E v e .......................... 320
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY: THE CORRUPTION AND REDEMPTION OF CREATION IN JEWISH

APOCALYPTIC LITE R A TU R E ......................................................................................................322
General T re n d s ............................................................................................................................. 322
The C o rruptio n o f C re a tio n ........................................................................................................ 323
Causes o f the C orruption o f C re a tio n ................................................................................ 324
Aspects o f tire C orruption o f C re a tio n ................................................................................ 327
The Degree o f C o rru p tio n ......................................................................................................329
Sum m ary o f the C o rruptio n o f C re a tio n ............................................................................330
The Redem ption o f C reation ......................................................................................................332
The R elationship Between the O ld and New C re a tio n .................................................... 332
The F uture D w elling Place o f the R ig h te o u s .....................................................................334
The Eschatological Changes in C re a tio n ............................................................................335
N ature in the Future W o r ld ................................................................................................. 337
Sum m ary o f the Redem ption o f C reation ......................................................................... 338
The P ersonification o f C re a tio n ................................................................................................. 340
Types of P e rs o n ific a tio n ........................................................................................................ 340
Functions o f P e rso n ifica tio n ................................................................................................. 342
Sum m ary o f the Personification o f C re a tio n .....................................................................343
SECTIO N m : INTERPRETATION OF ROMANS 8:19-22 IN TH E LIG H T OF

JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
CHAPTER 7: EXEGESIS OF ROMANS 8:19-22 ......................................................................... 347

The Theme and the Relationship o f the Passage to Its C o n te x t...........................................347
S tructure o f the P assage.............................................................................................................350
The M eaning o f K rto iq ..................................................................................................................353
The In te rp re ta tio n of Verse 1 9 ................................................................................................... 361
The In te rp re ta tio n of Verse 20 ................................................................................................. 370
The In te rp re ta tio n of Verse 2 1 ................................................................................................... 381
The In te rp re ta tio n of Verse 22 ................................................................................................. 391
Sum m ary o f M ajor Themes in Rom. 8:19-22 ....................................................................... 401
; The Redem ption o f C re a tio n ................................................................................................. 403
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The P ersonification o f C reation 405
CHAPTER 8: COMPARISON OF ROMANS 8:19-22 AND JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC

LITERATURE ON THE CORRUPTION AND REDEMPTION OF CREATION ........................ 407
The C o rru p tio n o f C re a tio n ......................................................................................................... 407
The Im pact of S in on the N a tural W o r ld .............................................................................407
The Cause o f Cosmic C o rru p tio n ........................................................................................ 408
Is C reation Its e lf F allen o r a V ictim o f S in ? ........................................................................411
Aspects o f the C o rruption o f C re a tio n ................................................................................. 412
The Period D u ring W hich C reation Is C o rru p te d .............................................................. 414
The S o lid arity Between H u m an ity and the N atural W o r ld ..............................................416
The Redem ption o f C reation .......................................................................................................417
The Hope o f th e Eschatological Redem ption o f C reation ................................................ 417
The R elationship Between the O ld and the New C re a tio n s..............................................418
The Tim e o f the Redem ption o f C re a tio n ............................................................................ 419
The Redem ption o f Creation and the Eschatological D estiny o f the People o f God . . 420
E schatological Changes In the N a tu ra l W o r ld ................................................................... 421
Two Age D u a lis m ..................................................................................................................... 423
The S o lid arity Between H um anity and the N a tural W o r ld ..............................................424
The Personification of C reation .................................................................................................. 425
Aspects o f the N atural W orld Personified .......................................................................... 425
Types of P e rs o n ific a tio n ......................................................................................................... 426
The Functions o f Personification ........................................................................................ 429
The F un ction o f th e C o rruption and Redem ption o f C reation T h e m e s ............................... 431
CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 435

A pocafyptic Theology o r L ite ra ry Genre? ................................................................................. 435
The Q uestion o f L ite ra ry Dependence ...................................................................................... 436
The Strands o f Jew ish Apocafyptic Thought Closest to Rom. 8:19-22 ............................. 437
B IB LIO G R A P H Y ................................................................................................................................... 440
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TABLES AND FIGURES
i Tables
Table 1: P a tristic Views o f Krtaiq in Rom. 8:19-22 ..................................................................... 24

Table 2: P a tristic Views o f the C o rru p tio n of C reation .............................................................. 26
Table 3: P a tristic Views o f the Redem ption o f C re a tio n .............................................................. 27
Table 4: S ym m etrical and A sym m etrical P a tristic Views o f C reation and Redem ption . . . . 28
Table 5: M edieval Views o f the C o rruptio n of C reation and the Meaning of icrioiq .............. 38
Table 6: M edieval Views o f the Redem ption o f C reation ............................................................ 40
Table 7: S ym m etrical and A sym m etrical M edieval Views o f C reation and Redem ption . . . . 41
Table 8: R eform ation Views of the C orruption o f Creation and the M eaning o f ie rfo i 49
Table 9: R eform ation Views of the Redem ption o f C re a tio n ....................................................... 50
Table 10: 18th-19th C entury Views o f the M eaning o f Kttoi? in Rom. 8 :1 9 -2 2 ..................... 59
Table 11: 18 th -1 9 th C entury View s o f the C o rruptio n and Redem ption of C re a tio n 59
Table 12: M odem Views o f the M eaning o f icrtou; in Rom. 8:19-22 ........................................ 79
Table 13: R elationship Between Judgm ent and Blessings of the Flood and Eschatological
E r a s ................................................................................................................................................. 156
Table 14: S um m ary o f the Book o f W a tc h e rs .............................................................................. 161
Table 15: S um m ary o f the A stronom ical B o o k ............................................................................ 169
Table 16: S um m ary o f the Book o f D re a m s ................................................................................. 175
Table 17: S um m ary o f 1 Enoch Book 5 ........................................................................................ 189
Table 18: S um m ary o f J u b ile e s .........................................................................................................213
Table 19: S um m ary o f 2 E n o c h .........................................................................................................233
Table 20: S um m ary o f the Book o f P arables....................................................................................251
Table 21: S um m ary o f 4 E z r a ........................................................................................................... 279
Table 22: Sum m ary o f 2 B a ru c h ...................................................................................................... 307
Table 23: Sum m ary o f the Apocalypse o f Moses and The Life o f Adam and E v e ................... 321
Table 24: The C o rru p tio n o f C reation in Jew ish A pocalyptic L ite ra tu re .................................... 330
Table 25: The Redem ption of C reation in Jew ish Apocafyptic L ite ra tu re ..................................338
Table 26: The P ersonification o f C reation in Jew ish Apocafyptic L ite ra tu re ............................. 344
Table 27: B irth Pangs in the New T e s ta m e n t................................................................................. 395
Figures
Figure 1: A pocafyptic Views of the C orruption o f C re a tio n ......................................................... 323

Figure 2: A pocafyptic Views of the Relationship o f the Old and New Creations ......................333
Figure 3: A pocalyptic Views of the D estiny o f the R ig h te o u s ....................................................... 335
Figure 4: The C o rru p tio n o f C reation in Jew ish Apocafyptic W ritings and Rom. 8:19-22 . . 437
j Figure 5: The Redem ption o f C reation in Jew ish Apocafyptic W ritings and Rom. 8:19-22 . 438
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
G eneral W orks
ANF A . Roberts and J. D onaldson, eds.. The Ante-Nicene Fathers

APOT R. H. Charles, ed., The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha o f the O ld Testament
LCC Jo h n B a illie , ed.. Lib ra ry o f C h ristian Classics
NIDCC J . D. Douglas, ed.. New International D ictionary o f the C hristian Church
NIDNTT C olin Brow n, ed.. New International D ictionary o f New Testament Theology
NPNF H. Wace and P. Schaff, tra n s., A Select Libra ry o f the Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers o f the C hristian Church
OTP Jam es H. C harlesw orth, ed.. The O ld Testam ent Pseudepigrapha
PG J . P. M igne, ed., Patrologia Graeca
PL J . P. M igne, ed., Patrologia Latina
TDNT G. K itte l and G. F ried rich, eds., Theological D ictionary o f the New Testament
NT New Testam ent
OT O ld Testam ent
Jo u rn a l abbreviations taken from the Jo u rn a l o f B ib lica l Lite ra tu re Instructions fo r

Contributors.
A pocalyptic W ritin gs
1 En. F irst (Ethiopic) Enoch

2 En. Second (Slavonic) Enoch
2 Bar. Second B aruch
4 Ez. F o u rth Ezra
AA A n im al Apocalypse (second dream visio n in 1 Enoch B ook 4)
AB A stronom ical Book (1 Enoch Book 3)
Ap. Mos. Apocalypse o f Moses
AW Apocalypse o f Weeks in 1 Enoch B ook 5
BD Book o f Dream s (1 Enoch Book 4)
BP Book o f Parables (1 Enoch Book 2). A parable num ber m ay be specified (BP 1).
BW Book o f W atchers (1 Enoch Book 1)
Ep. En. E pistle o f Enoch in 1 Enoch Book 5
En. Noah Book o f Noah in 1 En. Book 5
Ju b . Jubilees
LAE Life o f Adam and Eve
Pss. Sol. Psalms o f Solomon
Sib. O r. S ibylline O racles
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis w ould never have been completed w ith o u t the help o f the m any people who
supported, prayed and encouraged me throughout the long, gruelling process o f researching
and w ritin g.
I w ant to th a n k m y thesis supervisor, D r. R ichard Longenecker, fo r h is m any h e lp fu l
edito rial suggestions and his m odel o f gracious and balanced scholarship.
Numerous friends have helped me persevere, in clu d in g m y pastor and friend, Rev. John
McLaverty. I p a rticu la rly appreciate D r. Tom Sappington, who le t me bounce ideas o ff h im in
the early stages o f the project, and D r. M yles Leitch, who has become a special friend and
"soul-m ate" d u rin g th e la st year. I am grateful fo r the prayers o f my fellow elders a t S pring
Garden C hurch, especially Norm an MacLeod, who encouraged me and asked about m y
progress every week.
1 am very grateful fo r the prayers o f m y parents. The prayers o f m y m other-in-law ,
M rs. D orothy Thompson, were also a trem endous encouragement. She knew th is w ould be the
year I w ould graduate, despite m any obstacles.
More th a n anything, I th a n k God fo r m y dear w ife, Elizabeth, who always believes in
me and loves me unconditionally. She listened p a tie n tly when I went in to "lecture mode" to
w ork out m y ideas and she supported me w ith frequent words o f encouragement thro ugho ut
th is long process, even w hile com pleting her own PhD.
F inally I th a n k God fo r giving me c la rity o f though t and enabling me to persevere to
com pletion in the m idst o f a busy schedule o f teaching and run n in g a business. I give h im
th is thesis to be used fo r h is glory.
ix
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INTRODUCTION
A . The C orruption and R edem ption o f C reation in Pauls Thought
The A postle Pauls concepts of th e present condition and the eschatological hope of the
n a tu ra l w orld are frequently overlooked in b ib lic a l research. The m ost im portant passage
expressing these them es is Romans 8:19-22, where Paul discusses the corru ption and
suffe ring o f cre a tio n as w e ll as creations longing fo r deliverance. These concepts appear in the
context o f the suffe ring of th e ch ild re n o f God, who hope to share fu tu re glory w ith C h rist (w .
17-30). Paul presents the suffe ring of believers, therefore, as p a rt o f the larger problem of the
c o rru p tio n of th e entire created order, w h ich was damaged by the F all o f hum anity. F u rth e r
m ore, when th e ch ild re n of God are resurrected and enjoy th e ir eschatological glory w ith
C h rist, the w hole creation w ill also be transform ed to a state of freedom and glory.
H. Paul Santm ire has observed th a t th ro u g h o u t m ost of the histo ry o f the C hurch, w ith
a few im p o rta n t exceptions, there has been a tendency to downplay the place o f the n a tu ra l
w o rld in b ib lic a l thought. The m ajor tra d itio n s o f C h ristian theology have focused on the
com m union o f hum ans w ith God and th u s have downplayed the im portance o f the n a tu ra l
w o rld. A n thropo centric theology th a t focuses on Gods relationship w ith hum anity generally
m isses the cosm ic dim ensions of b ib lic a l th o u g h t.1 Yet there has also been an im portant
secondary stream of th o u g h t th a t celebrates Gods presence in the created order and places a
1H. Paul S antm ire, The T ra va il o f Nature. The Ambiguous Ecological Promise o f C hristian
Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 1-7, 31-188. A s im ila r critique has been made
b y Thom as L u th e r M arberry, "The Place o f the N a tural W orld in the Theology o f the Apostle
Paul" (PhD D issertatio n, B aylor U niversity, 1982), 19-55 and Joseph Lee Nelson, J r., "The
G roaning o f C reation: A n Exegetical S tudy o f Romans 8:18-27" (ThD D issertation, Union
Theological S em inary of V irg in ia , 1969), 2. O ther reasons are explored by M arberry, 19-55
and Jo h n G. G ibbs, Creation and Redemption. A Study in Pauline Theology, Supplem ents to
Novum Testam entum , no. 26 (Leiden: E. J . B rill, 1971), 6-32 (especially pp. 31-32).
.. .. .
greater value on the n a tu ra l w orld.2
The m a jo rity o f w orks on Pauline and NT theology have no section on th e n a tu ra l w orld
in Pauls thought. Jo h n G ibbs believes th a t th is is due to the d iffic u lty o f subsum ing the
creation and its redem ption under the in teg ra ting principles proposed b y variou s scholars as
the center o f Pauls though t, such as ju s tific a tio n by fa ith , C hristology o r Heilsgeschichte.3
Recently, however, several scholars have shown th a t the n a tu ra l w orld plays a larger
p a rt in Pauls th o u g h t th a n has often been recognized. Although it is b y no m eans a central
Pauline concept, the n a tu ra l w orld and its redem ption plays an im p o rta n t role th a t influences
other Pauline theological ideas. John G ibbs, fo r example, has studied cosm ic C hristology as
w e ll as creation and redem ption in Pauls letters. He shows th a t the creation is essential to
Gods redem ptive purposes and th a t God w ill redeem the n a tu ra l w orld, n o t m erely hum an
souls. Thomas M arberry notes three m ajor them es in Pauls conception o f the n a tu ra l w orld,
in h is study of the n a tu ra l w orld in the theology o f Paul: (1) Everything is created by God.
(2) The universe is sustained by C h rist and reflects som ething o f Gods n a tu re and beneficent
care, even though it is cu rre n tly incom plete and subject to fru s tra tio n and the presence of evil.
(3) A tim e w ill come w hen nature w ill be renovated and perfected, w ith e vil removed.4
Rom. 8:19-22 is the m ost im p o rta n t passage fo r understanding P auls theology of the
n a tu ra l w orld. The passage contains the largest concentration o f the w ord Ktunq in Pauls le t
ters and stresses the second and th ird m ajor them es th a t M arbeny shows are central to Pauls
though t about creation. Nevertheless, there has been com paratively little research in to the
teachings o f th is passage on the present state and fu tu re redem ption o f the n a tu ra l w orld.5
2Santm ire, T ra v a il pp. 31-188.
3G ibbs, Creation and Redemption, 6-32, surveys the m ajor studies o f Paul since F. C. B aur
to show how infrequently Pauline scholars include a category fo r creation and redem ption.
I
4M arbeny, 133-87.
t
k e ls o n s 1969 study o f Rom. 8:18-27 is the m ost thorough study of the passage to date.
B . The R elationship Between Rom . 8 :1 9 -2 2 and Jew ish A pocalyptic L ite ra tu re
In recent decades it has become a commonplace fo r NT scholars to claim th a t Pauls
thought was strongly influenced by Jew ish apocalyptic theology. A lthough A lbert Schweitzer
argued in the early tw entieth century th a t Pauls roots were in Jew ish apocalypticism , E rnst
K&semann started a m odem resurgence o f interest in th is idea when he claim ed th a t apocalyp
tic was "the m other o f a ll C h ristian theology."6 More recently J. C hristiaan Beker has given
the m ost thorough dem onstrations o f the claim th a t Pauls thought is apocalyptic at its heart.
Beker argues th a t the coherent core o f Pauls theology is the apocalyptic triu m p h o f God: "the
hope in the daw ning victo ry o f God and the im m inent redem ption o f the created order, w hich
he has inaugurated in C h rist."7 Paul used the genre o f le tte r ra th e r th a n apocalypse, b u t the
theological perspective o f h is w ritin g s has m any sim ila ritie s to Jew ish apocalyptic theology.
A lthough these ideas have been controversial, KSsemann and Beker have influenced m any NT
researchers to explore the sim ila ritie s between Pauls ideas and those found in Jew ish apoca
lyp tic w ritings.
The apocalyptic elements in the theology o f Rom. 8:19-22 have been acknowledged by
num erous scholars, even among some who do not accept the general premise th a t Pauls
theology is rooted in Jew ish apocafyptic thought.8 A lthough the genre o f th is passage is not
an apocalypse, the worldview, the theology and m any of the expressions are very sim ila r to
Nelson, however, m akes little use o f Jew ish apocafyptic lite ra tu re to set the passage in its
religio us-h istorical context, although he acknowledges th a t Paul draws heavily on th is
background (Nelson, Groaning, 158, 163-6). M any studies o f the redem ption o f creation in
Pauline thought focus on Col. 1:15-20, often to the neglect o f Rom. 8:19-22.
6E m st K&semann, "The Beginnings o f C h ristia n Theology," in Apocalyptic, ed. Robert W.

F unk, Jo u rn a l fo r Theology and the C hurch (New York: Herder and Herder, 1969), 6: 40; E rnst
Kasemann, New Testament Questions o f Today (London: SCM, 1969), 133.
7J . C hristiaan Beker, Paul the Apostle. The Trium ph o f God in Life and Thought (Philadel
phia: Fortress Press, 1980), ix.
E.g. the Romans com m entaries by KSsemann, Fitzm yer, Sanday and Headlam, B a rrett,
Lam brecht, D unn, and m any others. See chapter 2.
those found in Jew ish apocalyptic w orks. M odem apocalyptic researchers distinguish between
"apocalypse" as a lite ra ry genre and "apocalyptic eschatology" as a religious perspective.9 Not
every w ritin g th a t has apocafyptic thought uses an apocalypse as its lite ra ry form . This insight
has opened the door fo r fu rth e r study o f the apocalyptic characteristics found in passages like
Rom. 8:19-22. Beker, fo r example, sees th is passage as one o f the clearest confessions of the
apocalyptic triu m p h o f God in Pauls le tte rs.10
Yet despite the widespread acknowledgm ent of the s im ila rity between Rom. 8:19-22
and Jew ish apocafyptic thought, there has been little w o rk exploring the dim ensions o f th is
s im ila rity . M any researchers, p a rticu la rly in com m entaries, sim ply say th a t the passage is
"apocalyptic" w ith o u t clearly in d ica tin g w hat the term means. "Apocalyptic" is a slippery term
to define and there has been m uch debate about the distinguishin g characteristics of apoca
ly p tic lite ra tu re . There also has been little research in to the theology o f Jew ish apocalyptic
lite ra tu re on the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. Hence there is no clear foundation for
com paring the sim ila ritie s and differences between Rom. 8:19-22 and the Jew ish apocalyptic
w ritin g s. M any o f the studies sim ply use apocafyptic proof texts, w ith o u t exam ining the
fu n c tio n o f the cited passages w ith in the apocalyptic w orks themselves.11 Thus, although it
is w idely accepted th a t Rom. 8:19-22 reflects an apocalyptic perspective, it is not always clear
exactly w hat th a t im plies.
There is also a tendency in m any studies o f apocalyptic thought, p a rticu la rly in older
w orks, to lum p together a ll Jewish apocalyptic lite ra tu re , as if the theology o f the apocalyptic
w ritin g s was m o n o lith ic.12 Some recent apocafyptic researchers are more careful to d is tin
9Jo h n J. C ollins, "Introduction: Towards the M orphology o f a Genre," Semeia 14 (1979): 3;

Paul D. Hanson, "Apocafyptic, Genre," in Interpreters D ictionary o f the Bible. Supplement, G. A.
B u ttric k , ed. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), 29-30.
10Beker, Paul the Apostle, 363-6.
u E.g. Nelson, Groaning, 158, 163-6.
12E.g. D. S. R ussell, The Method and Message o f Jew ish Apocalyptic. 200 BC - AD 100
guish the diverse types of th o u g h t w ith in apocalypticism , even w ith in a single apocafyptic
w o rk .13 The diverse strands o f Jew ish apocalyptic th o u g h t on the co rru p tio n and redem ption
o f creation m u st be id entified before Pauls theology in Rom. 8:19-22 can be fa irly com pared to
Jew ish apocalyptic thought. O nly th e n w ill it be possible to determ ine the sim ila ritie s and
differences between th is passage and Jew ish apocafyptic lite ra tu re , and to determ ine the
stra n d o f apocalyptic though t to w hich Pauls ideas are closest.
C. The Scope o f th e Present Study
T his stu d y examines the Jew ish apocalyptic views o f the co rru p tio n and redem ption of
creation and th e n explores Pauls th o u g h t in Rom. 8:19-22 in lig h t o f th is background. The
stu d y consists o f three sections:
(1) Section I surveys past research in to the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation in
Rom. 8:19-22 and the relationship o f Pauls ideas in the passage to Jew ish apocalyptic
thought.
(2) Section II exam ines several m a jo r apocalyptic w orks w ritte n between the th ird
ce n tu ry B.C. and the late firs t century A .D . to determ ine th e ir perspective on the co rru p tio n
and redem ption o f creation and the fu n ctio n o f these themes w ith in each apocafyptic w ork.
The personification o f the n a tu ra l w o rld is also examined to determ ine how it fu n ctio n s to com
m unicate the message about the c o rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. Im portant sim ila ritie s
and differences between the w orks are th e n explored to id e n tify the several m ajor approaches
(Philadelphia: W estm inster Press, 1964), 263-303; E thelbert Stauffer, New Testament Theology
(1941: re p rin t. New York: M acm illan, 1956), 72-4; David M ichael Russell, "The New Heavens
and New E a rth : Hope fo r the C reation in Jew ish Apocafyptic and the New Testam ent" (PhD
D issertation, Southwestern B a ptist Theological Sem inary, 1991), 182-98.
13E.g. C ollins, "Introdu ction," 1-19; M a rtin u s C. de Boer, "Paul and Jew ish A pocalyptic
Eschatology," in A pocalyptic and the New Testam ent. Essays in Honor o f J. Louis M artyn, ed.
Joel M arcus and M arion L. Soards, J o u rn a l fo r the S tudy of the New Testam ent Supplem ent
Series (Sheffield: Sheffield Academ ic Press, 1989), 169-90; Alden Lloyd Thompson, Responsibil
ity /o r E vil in the Theodicy o f IV E zra , SBL D issertatio n Series, no. 29 (Missoula, M ont.:
Scholars Press, 1977), 5-82.
taken b y Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s concerning the corru p tio n and redem ption of creation.
(3) Section III is an exegetical study of Rom. 8:19-22, followed by a com parison between
the treatm ents of the corru p tio n and redem ption o f creation in th is passage and the Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s. T his com parison shows the ways in w hich Pauls though t in th is passage
is s im ila r to and d iffe re n t from Jew ish apocalyptic theology. I t also identifies the strands of
Jew ish apocalyptic th o u g h t th a t Pauls ideas are m ost like , in order to determ ine the sense in
w hich Pauls approach to the co rru p tio n and redem ption of creation in Rom. 8:19-22 m ay be
said to be apocalyptic.
SECTION I:
HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON ROMANS 8:19-22
CHAPTER 1:
HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION OF ROMANS 8:19-22
T h is survey of the interpretations o f Rom. 8:19-22 consists o f two parts: The firs t
chapter explores the various in te rp re ta tio n s o f th is passage thro ugh the h isto ry o f the Church.
The second chapter surveys the research in to the s im ila rity of Pauls teachings in th is passage
to the theology o f the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritings.
Throughout C hurch history, three issues have been p a rtic u la rly central fo r understand
ing the m eaning o f Rom. 8:19-22: (1) the m eaning o f ktio i? in the passage; (2) the cause and
extent of the co rru p tio n o f creation; and (3) the nature o f the eschatological redem ption o f
creation.
A . P a tris tic In te rp re ta tio n
The earliest clear reference to Rom. 8:19-22 is found in the w ritin g s of Irenaeus (c.
120-200). O n the basis o f th is passage, in Adversus Haereses he says th a t (1) creation w ill be
restored to its prim eval condition p rio r to the fin a l judgm ent; (2) hum an beings w ill be judged
in the very same creation in w hich they gave w itness; and (3) believers w ill ultim a te ly reign
over creation after it has been renewed. Irenaeus says,
It is ju s t th a t in th a t very creation in w hich they toiled or were afflicted, being proved in

every w ay by suffering, they should receive the reward of th e ir suffering. . . . It is fittin g ,
therefore, th a t the creation itse lf, being restored to its prim eval condition, should w ith o u t
re s tra in t be under th e dom inion of the righteous.1
Irenaeus efforts to refute G nostic theology led him to devote a considerable am ount of
space to th e m ate rial order. The entire fifth book of Adversus Haereses discusses the fin a l
ire n a e u s, Adversus Haereses 5.32.1.
redem ption o f hum an flesh along w ith the whole m ate rial order. In contrast to the G nostics,
Irenaeus sees God as both the creator o f the physical w orld and the one responsible fo r its
redem ption.2 Thus there is a strong ecological m o tif present in Irenaeus theology.3
In Irenaeus understanding, the earth is cursed because o f Adam s sin. Yet creation
its e lf is not the c u lp rit nor is it fallen. C reation reta ins the essential goodness th a t it had
when it was created. The m a jo rity of creatures s till contin ue in subjection to God.4 There is,
however, som ething in m a tte r th a t m akes it lia b le to co rru p tio n , and so the m ate rial always
needs the s p iritu a l, w hich is n o t subject to co rru p tio n .5
God is actively involved in nature. He created everything and continues to be actively
involved in h is creation. He pou rs out h is blessings on the m ate rial w o rld and the eternal
W ord even became incarnate in hum an flesh.6 F urtherm ore, God w ill b rin g a ll o f creation, not
sim p ly hum an ity, to a fin a l perfect fu lfillm e n t. God always intended th is to be the destiny of
creation, even if Adam had never sinned.7 C h rist was not cru cifie d sim ply fo r the redem ption
o f hum an beings, b u t fo r a ll o f creation.8 Thus the end o f h isto ry w ill involve a ric h renewal o f
a ll creation, in w h ich "neither the substance n o r the essence o f the creation w ill be annihilated
. . . b u t the fashion o f the w o rld passes away."9 W hen the creation has been renovated and
set free, it w ill produce an even greater abundance o f fru it th a n it did before the Fall and
2Cf. A lla n D. G alloway, The Cosmic C hrist (New Y ork: H arper and B rothers, 1951), 107-8.
3Cf. Santm ire, T ra v a il 44.
4Adversus Haereses 2.28.1, 7; 2.2-5.
5Adversus Haereses 2.19.6.
6Cf. Santm ire, T ra v a il 35, 39.
7Ib id ., 36.
8Cf. Paul Evdokim ov, "N ature," S J T 18 (1965): 12.
| 9Adversus Haereses 5.31.1.

[
9
iI.
f
i
f
anim als w ill be restored to obedience to h u m a n ity.10
Irenaeus view is one o f the best early examples of w hat Santm ire calls a "sym m etrical"
approach to creation and redem ption: God created a ll things and he w ill redeem a ll thing s, not
sim ply h u m a n ity.11 Irenaeus Interprets the apocalyptic m otifs In Rom. 8 quite lite ra lly. He
seeks p rim a rily to in terpret the b ib lica l te xt ra th e r th a n to resort to theological or philosophical
speculation as some la te r Fathers did. In fact, he ra re ly resorts to cosm ic speculation,
evidently in an effort to avoid the G nostic error o f separating God too fa r from his creation.12
G nosticism represents an extreme denial o f the value o f the n a tu ra l w orld. Some
G nostics (such as Basilides) made use o f Rom. 8:19-22 in support o f th e ir th o u g h t.13
A lthough there were m any G nostic approaches, several general observations can be made:
(1) G nosticism made a serious attem pt to come to term s w ith the cosm ic dim ensions o f evil. It
d id th is , however, in a way th a t denied the d e sira b ility or p o ssib ility o f the redem ption o f the
n a tu ra l w o rld.14 (2) The G nostics viewed m atter s tric tly negatively, as the dom ain o f d a rk
ness and evil. They saw the body as a prison enslaving the divine spark w ith in hum an beings.
According to Basilides, the creation o f the n a tu ra l w orld was either the re s u lt o f a progressive
series o f em anations from the divine15 o r because some elements o f Gods creation wandered
from th e ir proper sphere.16 V alentinus approach seems to be a com bination o f the tw o, w ith
a series o f em anations and the fa ll from perfection o f Sophia, the youngest o f the em anations,
10Adversus Haereses 5.33-34. He bases these ideas on Is. 11:6-9 and Rom. 8:19-21.
n Cf. Santm ire, T ra va il 176.
12Cf. Galloway, 108, 111; Santm ire, T ra v a il 31.
13See the description o f the theology o f Basilides in H ippolytus, Phllosophoumena 7.15.
14Cf. Galloway, 66-7.
15Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 1.24.3-4.
16H ippolytus, Philosophoumena 7.15. Cf. Galloway, 71-2.
10
w hich resulted in the b irth o f the dem iurge who created and rules m atter.17 (3) Because of
the inherent evil and in fe rio rity o f m atter, the Gnostics viewed m atter as only w orthy o f and
destined fo r fin a l d e struction.18 (4) Hence in G nosticism there is no place fo r Pauls affirm -
j
ation th a t the creation w ill one day be set free from slavery to corruption and w ill experience
great glory (Rom. 8:21), or fo r a physical resurrection o f the bodies of believers (Rom. 8:23).
j According to H ippolytus, Basilides understood the "m anifestation of the sons o f God" in Rom.
)
1 8:19 to refer to th e ascent o f those who have sonship from the lower to the higher realm s, w ith
the re su lt th a t the divine spark w ill come again in to u n io n w ith deity and th u s escape bodily
1
1 existence.19
There are passing references to Rom. 8:19-22 in the w ritin gs o f several Church Fathers
of the second and th ird centuries. T e rtu llia n (c. 145-200) uses Rom. 8:19-21 in h is opposition
to the claim o f Hermogenes th a t m a tte r is in herently evil. He uses the passage to show th a t
evil in the w orld w ill come to an end in the tim e o f eschatological harm ony among the anim als
described in Is. I I . 20 Theophilus o f A ntioch (late second century) alludes to some concepts
found in Rom. 8:19-22 when he discusses Gen. 1:26: The anim als were created good, b u t
when Adam sinned the anim als became bad, since the hum an dom inion over the anim als
im plies th a t the anim als follow h im as a servant follows his m aster. S im ilarly, when hum anity
is fin a lly redeemed, the anim als w ill also be redeemed.21 Archelaus (3rd C.) affirm s th a t at
the com ing o f the Lord there w ill be an upheaval of the "universal creation," w hich w ill then be
17Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, 1.12; H ippolytus, Philosophoumena, 6.24-25. Cf. Galloway,

p. 75.
I
i 18Clem ent, Strom ata 2.8; 4.13. Cf. Santm ire, T ra va il 34; Galloway, 76.
19H ippolytus, Philosophoumena 7.15. Cf. Nelson, Groaning, 17-8.
20A gainst Hermogenes 11.
21Theophilus o f A ntioch, A d Autolycum 2.7, 17. Cf. David S utherland W allace-H adrill, The
Greek P atristic View o f Nature (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1968), 116.
11
.. ____________________________
delivered from its present bondage.22 H ippolytus (d. 236) makes in cide nta l references to
Rom. 8:19-22 in h is response to the G nostic heretic Basilides.23
Clement o f A lexandria (c. 153-217) set the stage fo r the A lexandrian approach to
cosm ic redem ption, w hich was developed fu rth e r by Origen. Everything th a t exists does so by
the w ill o f God, and is therefore good and beloved by him . E vils in nature are o nly apparent.
God allow s them to serve the pedagogical functions o f correction and punishm ent of hum an
beings. Hence there is little need fo r cosm ic redem ption, since the creation is n o t fallen. So
Clem ent meets th e G nostic challenge b y denying the existence o f a cosmic problem .24
When Clem ent discusses Rom. 8, he focuses on the themes o f suffering (v. 18) and
hope (w . 24-25), and he uses the passage to emphasize the value o f m artyrdom .25 H is
P latonism prevents h im from understanding Pauls interest in the n a tu ra l w orld in Rom. 8:19-
22. Since God is only know n in pure thought, to a tta in the vision o f God the body m ust be
renounced and the soul m ust be separated from the body, w hich is w hy m artyrdom has
value.26 Clem ents views, however, are quite opposite to Pauls teaching th a t the present
state o f creation is one o f co rru p tio n , w hich w ill one day be elim inated (w . 19-22), and th a t the
bodies of believers w ill be redeemed and resurrected (v. 23; cf. 1 Cor. 15).
Origen (c. 186-255) freq uently refers to Rom. 8:19-22 in several o f his works. He
understands K tim q to refer to the entire universe 27 w ith the possible exception o f such
22D isputation w ith Manes 37.
23Philosophumena 7.15.
2*Paedogogus 1.8. Cf. G alloway, 80-4.
25Strom ata 4.7.
26Strom ata 5.65.1-68.3. Cf. Heinz K ra ft, E arly C hristian Thinkers: A n Introduction to
Clem ent o f A lexandria and Origen, W orld C h ristian Books, no. 52 (New York: Association Press,
1964), 44.
27De P rin cp iis 1.7.5, "the whole o f creation."
12
inanim ate objects as plants and rocks, a ll o f w hich are hoping fo r deliverance fro m bondage to
co rru p tio n .28 On the surface, th is m ight appear close to Irenaeus lite ra l b ib lic a l approach.
In fact, however, the M iddle P latonic influence on Origens ideas resulted in quite a different
understanding o f Rom. 8:19-22.29
O rigen adopted from M iddle P latonism the idea th a t creation is arranged in a hierarchy,
progressing down fro m the s p iritu a l to the m ore m aterial. God is at the top of the hierarchy of
being, the pure angels are nearest to God, hum an beings are next as embodied s p irits ,
followed b y the anim als, plants, and inanim ate m atter. O rigen sees God as the Unchanging
One, who dw ells in e te rn ity surrounded b y ra tio n a l s p irits (XoyiKoi). Some o f these s p irits
became "sated" and, th u s, u n d e r the leadership o f Satan, they exercised th e ir free w ill and
tu rn e d fro m God, fa llin g away from God tow ard non-being. God created the m a te ria l w orld in
order to stop the fa ll o f these ra tio n a l s p irits tow ard non-being. He encased these s p iritu a l
beings in m a tte r to prevent th e ir decline tow ard non-existence.30
Thus in Rom. 8:20 th e "fu tility to w hich creation was subjected is the m ate ria l
condition. "The va n ity to w h ich the creature is s u b je c t. . . is n othing else th a n th e body; for
although the body o f the sta rs is ethereal, it is nevertheless m ate rial."31 T h u s the negative
view o f th e body and th e m a te ria l w orld th a t is apparent in Clem ent was developed fu rth e r by
O rigen. The soul is im prisoned in th e body. T his applies to hum an beings as w e ll as to the
28Exhortations to M artyrdom 13; Commentary on John 1.24. Since only those th in g s th a t

embody s p irits w ill u ltim a te ly be redeemed, Origen apparently excludes p la n ts and rocks b u t
includes heavenly bodies.
29O rigen lived d u rin g the tra n s itio n tim e between M iddle Platonism and Neoplatonism . He
studied und er Am m onius Sacca, one of the la st great M iddle P latonist teachers, w ho taught
P lotinus, the fa th e r o f Neoplatonism . Cf. Robert Schnucker, "O rigen," NIDCC, 733; G. T. D.
Angel, "Am m onius Sacca," NIDCC, 36.
30De P rtndpiis 1.4.1, 5.1-5, 6.2; 2.9.3-8; 3.5.4. Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 45-51; Galloway,
85-6.
31De Prtncipiis 1.7.5.
13
sun, m oon and stars, a ll o f w hich encase eternal s p irits .32 A nim als and anim ate things,
however, are n o t s p iritu a l beings b u t are pure m atter, and so serve sim ply as agents fo r the
m oral education of hum an ity.33 God is the one who subjected creation to fu tility (v. 20),
since he encased the s p irits in m a tte r afte r the fa ll o f the sp irits. C reation is "groaning" and in
"slavery to corru ption" (Rom. 8:19, 21) these sp irits long to be freed from m atter.34 The
u ltim ate goal o f a ll ra tio n a l creatures is to re tu rn to the bodiless existence th a t they o rig in a lly
enjoyed in eternity.35
W hile O rigen does n o t view m atter as evil (in contrast to the Gnostics), he does see it as
in fe rio r to s p irit. M atter was created by the goodness o f God as a response to the fa ll of the
sp irits, and it functions p rim a rily to in s tru c t and discipline fallen s p irits to prepare them to
re tu rn to th e ir pure s p iritu a l existence.36 A fte r quoting Rom. 8:20-21 concerning the subjec
tio n o f creation to fu tility , he concludes th a t certain souls, "on account o f th e ir excessive
m ental defects, stood in need of bodies o f a grosser and more solid nature."37 U ltim ately,
however, m a tte r w ill be destroyed when it no longer has a fu n ctio n to fill. In the m eantim e, it
is the realm o f the demons. So the proper approach to the body is asceticism .38
A lthough Origen agrees w ith Irenaeus th a t creation w ill be returned to its pre-Fall state
at the end o f tim e, h is conception o f th is ultim ate state differs. For since m atter is in herently
32De P rtndpiis 1.7:5: 3.5.1,4; Contra Celsum 7.50, 65.
33Contra Celsum 4:81-89. Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 50.
34Commentary on Romans 4. Cf. Thomas E. Clarke, The Eschatological Transform ation o f

the M aterial W orld According to S t Augustine (Woodstock, M d.: W oodstock College Press,
1956), 7.
35De P rtndpiis 1.3,5. Cf. K raft, 69.
36De P rtndpiis 1.5.1; 3.5.4. Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 49-50.
37De P rtndpiis 3.5.4.
^D e P rtndpiis 1.5.5; 5.6.2. Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 50.
14
in fe rio r to s p irit, it cannot have a place in eternity. As created beings learn obedience to
C h rist, they become w orthy of being restored to a higher place in the hierarchy of being.
U ltim ately, only the sp irits o f ra tio n a l beings, i.e. angels, hum ans and heavenly bodies, w ill be
redeemed. M atter its e lf w ill not be redeemed b u t w ill be destroyed at the end o f tim e. Since
anim als and inanim ate things are low in the hierarchy of being and do n o t contain sp irits, they
w ill sim ply cease to exist.39 This w ould seem to im ply th a t eventually there w ill be no form o f
bod ily existence. Yet Origen sim ultaneously tries to hold on to the orthodox doctrine of the
bo d ily resurrection o f believers. The new bodies o f believers, however, w ill not be composed of
the same gross m atter th a t they now have, b u t w ill be made up o f a new refined type o f m atter.
The resurrection body w ill be s p iritu a l body w ith o u t tru e corporeality.40
A nother difference between Origen and earlier orthodox theologians is th a t fo r Origen
the tra n sfo rm a tio n w ill not be cataclysm ic b u t a gradual process over m any w orld ages.
O rigen believed in a cycle o f w orlds th a t repeatedly come in to existence and are destroyed.41
T his h isto rica l process w ill ultim a te ly clim ax in a great fin a l conflagration th a t w ill p u rify
creation and take away the grossness of m atter, thereby enabling creatures th a t have been
obedient to C h rist to live in the heavenly w orld aga in42
Origens M iddle Platonic philosophy colors the way he reads Paul and causes him to
diverge from Pauls teachings in Rom. 8:19-22 at several points. H is treatm ent is a good
example of an asym m etrical approach to creation and redem ption: God created a ll things, b u t
only s p iritu a l thing s w ill be redeemed. M aterial things w ill ultim a te ly be destroyed. W hile
m uch of Origens theology was la te r condemned by the C hurch, m any aspects o f his thought
39De P rtndpiis 1.6.2; 3.5.6. Cf. Nelson, Groaning, 138; Santm ire, T ra va il 50.
40De P rtndpiis 1.6, 8.2, 7.1-5; 2.3-6; 4.2.10. Cf. Galloway, 89; Santm ire, T ra va il 51.
41De P rtndpiis 2.3.4-5; 3.5.3. Origen trie s to support th is w ith Rom. 8:20-21, M t. 24:35
and 1 Cor. 7:31. Cf. Galloway, 90; K raft, 76-7.
42Contra Celsum 5.14-17.
15
' i . .. .
rem ained h ig h ly in flu e n tia l. H is theology o f nature was assumed b y m uch of the C hurch for
m any centuries.43
A thanasius (c. 293-313) refers to Rom. 8:19-22 several tim es, b u t in terprets it as a type
o f realized eschatology. The "slavery to corru ption" (v. 21) refers to the curse o f the Law.44
C h rist destroyed death and delivered h u m a n ity from its bondage to corruption. Athanasius
in terpretation, however, loses sight o f the eschatological im plications of the passage, fo r he
uses it p rim a rily to make a case fo r v irg in ity 45 W hile A thanasius does not have such a
negative view o f the n a tu ra l w orld as Clement and Origen, he nevertheless in te rp re ts th is
passage in a w ay th a t focuses entirely on hum an redem ption.
M ethodius (d. 311) discusses Rom. 8:19-22 in a way th a t shows h is interest in the
fu tu re of a ll creation. He understands ic iic iq as either the to ta lity o f created thing s o r the
w orld. The w o rld aw aits the redem ption o f h u m a n ity from the co rru p tio n o f the body. There is
a com ing d estruction o f the w orld, b u t it w ill n o t be fin a l since the creation w ill be restored
again and w ill rejoice w hen the sons of God are resurrected.46 This positive view o f the fu tu re
o f the m aterial creation is s im ila r to th a t o f Irenaeus and stands in s trik in g contrast to the
negative views o f Clem ent and Origen.
Gregory o f Nyssa (330-395) m akes a num ber o f incidental references to Rom. 8:19-22
th a t suggest th a t h is view was in lin e w ith the earlier view o f Irenaeus. He clearly indicates
th a t Ktim q refers to "a ll the creation."47 He personifies creation and sees it as sharing a
com m unality w ith hum anity. As a re su lt, the creation experienced loss because o f the
43Santm ire, T ra v a il 49.
44Discourses A gainst the A rians 15.14.
^Defenses Before Constantine 33. Cf. Nelson, Groaning, 20.
46Discourses on the Resurrection 1.8.
*7Adversus Eunomium, 3.1.
16
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pe rd itio n o f h u m a n ity and expectantly aw aits the revealing of the ch ild re n o f God.48 Gregory
believed th a t hum an beings are called to bridge the gap between the m aterial and sp iritu a l, fo r
they are p a rt o f b oth w orlds. H um an beings are a m icrocosm o f the w orld, fo r they com bine
both physical and s p iritu a l aspects. The hum an ta sk is to m ake th e whole of creation
p a rticip a te in h u m a n itys own u n io n w ith God thro ugh C hrist.49 T his im plies both (1) present
respon sibilitie s fo r hum an ity, and (2) an eschatological redem ption o f creation when the
ch ild re n o f God are resurrected and m anifested.
Am brose (339-397) refers to Rom. 8:19-22 in several o f his works, b u t he is in consist
ent in h is in te rp re ta tio n of iciunq. Sometim es he includes all ra tio n a l creatures,50 b u t at
other tim es he lim its the te rm to hum an beings.51 Once he uses the passage to emphasize
th a t C h rist is n o t p a rt o f the creation, fo r he is n o t groaning in tra va il or in bondage to
co rru p tio n .52 So w hile it w ould seem th a t h is basic view was broader th a n sim ply hum an
k in d , yet Am brose was w illin g to discuss Rom. 8:19-22 only in term s of C h ris ts in ca rn a tio n fo r
the salvation o f hum an beings (the "whole o f creation" he exp licitly equates w ith "eveiym an").
In h is com m entary on Romans, "Am brosiaster" (c.375)distinguishes between Ktvtnq
and hum an ity, thereby im plying th a t K uoiq refers eithe r to non-hum an creatures or to
subhum an nature.53 C reation aw aits th e fu tu re glory o f the sons of God and w ill share in
th e ir glory. This fu tu re glory w ill involve a new q u a lity o f life th a t w ill be re s tfu l and free from
iaAdversus Eunomium 4.3.
49Cf. A . M. A llc h in , "The Theology o f N ature in the Eastern Fathers and Am ong A nglican
Theologians," in M an and Nature, ed. H ugh M ontefiore (London: C ollins, 1975), 147-8: Paulos
G regorios. The Hum an Presence. A n Orthodox View o f Nature (Geneva: The W orld Council o f
C hurches, 1978), ch. 5; Evdokim ov, 9-10, 12.
De S p iritu Sancto 1.5, 62.
f slDe Fide 5.8, 105.

1
i 52De Fide 1.14, 86-87.
53Com m entaria in X M E pistulas Paulinas 124-125.
17
servile labor.54
Jerome rejects O rigens in te rp re ta tio n o f Rom. 8:19-22 th a t the sun, moon, and stars
are ra tio n a l beings who disobeyed God and th u s were "subjected to vanity and enslaved to
co rru p tio n by being encased in m ate rial bodies.55 A lthough Jerome rejects th is negative view
o f m a tte r as in h e re n tly co rru p t, he does n o t provide h is own in te rp re ta tio n of the m eaning o f
Rom. 8:19-22.
Chrysostom (c. 345-407) in te rp re ts kxiou; very broadly as "the heaven, the earth, and
the w hole creation."56 The te rm encompasses hum an beings, non -ration al beings57 and
inanim ate thing s.58 In a hom ily on Rom. 8:12-27, he says Paul personifies the creation,
m uch like m any o f the C T Psalms and Prophets. He does th is "not th a t we are to fancy them
alive, or ascribe any reasoning power to them , b u t th a t we m ay learn of th e greatness o f the
blessings, so great th a t they reach even to things w ith o u t sense . . . [and) th a t we may
understand the extrem ity o f the evils."59 A ll o f creation shares a so lid a rity w ith hum ankind
and was made fo r the sake o f hum anity. W hen Adam sinned, nature was corrupted and thus
Adam was the one who subjected creation (v. 20). Nature suffers fo r the correction o f
hum ankind, w h ich is ju s t since the creation was made fo r the sake o f the hum an race.60
Chrysostom also has a positive hope fo r the fu tu re o f creation, w hich is based on Rom.
^N elson, Groaning, 25. argues th a t the author looks forw ard to freedom from work.
55Letter 124.4, 6, 9-11. Nelson, Groaning, 24, m isreads th is as an description o f Jerome's

own view.
56Concerning the Statues, H om ily 10.10.
57Commentary on Romans, H om ily 14.
58Hom ilies on John, H om ily 26. He relates Jn . 3:8 ("the w in d blows where it wishes") to
Rom. 8:20 to show th a t creation also includes "things w ith o u t life."
59Commentary on Romans, H om ily 14.
60Ib id .
18
8:19-22. T his flow s out of h is view of the u n ity between the fate of creation and hum anity. A ll
creation w ill share in the fu tu re blessings of believers, "as a nurse w ho is b rin g in g up a kin g s
ch ild , w hen he has come in to h is fathers power, does herself enjoy th e good th in g s along w ith
| him ."61 In the eschaton, creation w ill be "freed from the ruined state," it w ill be clothed w ith
] a 'b rig h te r garm ent," and it w ill be restored to the in co rru p tib le cond ition it enjoyed before the
I
j Fall. A t th a t tim e the anim al kingdom w ill be radica lly changed, in keeping w ith the OT hope
ii
; th a t the w o lf w ill lay down w ith the lam b (e.g. Is. 11:6-9). The d ark re a lity o f natures cruelty
w ill fin a lly be overcome.62
i W hile Chrysostom has a positive view o f the n a tu ra l w orld, he always ties the state of
the n a tu ra l w orld to the condition of hum ankind. B oth the corru ption and redem ption of
creation are closely linked to the Fall and fin a l redem ption o f the hum an race. He shows little
interest in nature in and o f itse lf. For Chrysostom , the purpose of creation revolves around
the im p a ct it has on hum ankind, a view th a t is typ ica l o f P atristic theology as a whole.
Theodore o f M opsuestia (350-428) argues fo r the u n ity of a ll creation on the basis of
Rom. 8:19-22. W hile the groaning and tra va ilin g o f creation (Rom. 8:22) is p rim a rily sp iritu a l,
the whole visible creation shares and participates in it.63
The m ature thought o f Augustine64 (354-430) represents an im portant departure from
61Ibid.
Ibid. Cf. W allace-H adrill, 117; Nelson, Groaning, 21-2.
63PG 66:823, 828. Cf. W allace-H adrill, 104; Nelson, Groaning, 26.
64The discussion here focuses on the thought o f the m ature Augustine. Part o f the
d iffic u lty in understanding Augustines theology is th a t he went through m any changes in his
th in kin g . H is tho u g h t m ay be divided in to three m ajor periods:
(1) In his early life he was a Manichaean. M anichaeism , like G nosticism , is essentially
antim aterial. It holds to a dualism of tw o coetem al and opposite principles, good and evil.
The good was attacked by the evil, then scattered and im prisoned w ith in the m aterial w orld,
w hich is a prison fashioned by the evil principle. Salvation involves extricating the good from
the evil w o rld o f m atter. T his view is hostile to the body and has no place fo r the redem ption
o f the m ate rial w orld.
(2) A fte r a decade as a M anichaean, Augustine le ft M anichaeism and came under the
19
the tra d itio n a l understanding o f K iim q th a t proved h ig h ly in flu e n tia l on the m edieval under
standing of Rom. 8:19-22. A ugustine freq uently refers to Rom. 8:19-22 and in v irtu a lly every
instance he understands Ktitnq as hu m a n ity.65 He describes "the h u m ilia tio n w hich took
place in Adam , in whom the whole hum an creature, as it were, being corrupted at the root, as
it refused to be made subject to the tru th , 'was made subject to va n ity."66 In no passage
does Augustine in te rp re t Kticn.^ as the whole creation or the n a tu ra l w orld. A thanasius had
applied the passage to C h rists deliverance of h u m a n ity from the Law and Ambrose had
allowed the p o ssib ility th a t Kz'unq in one passage was lim ite d to hum anity. Augustine,
however, was the firs t to consiste ntly and e xp licitly lim it tcrlcnc; to hum anity.
A ugustines interest in the F a ll o f Adam , personal sin, g u ilt, and personal forgiveness
led him to understand Rom. 8:19-22 as the effect o f the F a ll o f Adam on the hum an race.
influence o f Neoplatonism , thro ugh P lotinus and Porphyry. T his allowed Augustine to see God
as to ta lly transcendent from creation. H um an beings are com pletely creatures, w ith o u t a
spark o f the divine substance in them . Yet God, the u ltim a te good, embraces a ll things, even
the "lowest" m aterial things. The w orld is an expression o f the overflow ing goodness of God
(e.g. Confessions, 7.13). Nevertheless, d u rin g th is period, A ugustines interest is p rim a rily in
the ascent of the hum an soul from the low er to the higher realities, from the m aterial to the
s p iritu a l {Soliloquies, 1.2.7).
(3) W hile he never lo st m any o f the Neoplatonic elements in h is though t, Augustines
m ature though t was fu rth e r refined as he interacted m ore w ith b ib lic a l concepts. As he
repeatedly studied the Genesis creation account, he began to th in k less o f the spatial cat
egories o f P lotinus and more about the tem poral categories o f b ib lic a l history. The w orld had a
beginning, when God created it, and it w ill have an ending, when a new creation comes in to
being by the w o rk of God. T hu s the m ature A ugustine had an in terest n o t sim ply in God and
the soul b u t in contem plating "the whole o f re a lity as a universal, ric h ly endowed history,
guided and blessed by God thro ugho ut" (Santm ire, T ra v a il 59). He began to th in k m ore about
the progress o f the ages as God fu lfills h is plan in histo ry, cu lm in a tin g in the fu lfillm e n t of the
b ib lic a l prom ise o f a new creation.
For a survey of the development o f A ugustines though t about the n a tu ra l w orld, see
Santm ire, Travail, 55-60 and Peter B row n, Augustine o f Hippo: A Biography (Berkeley:
U niversity o f C alifornia, 1967), ch. 5.
^ . g . De Moribus Ecclesiae Catholicae 13.23: De Fide et Symbolo 10.23; De Nuptius et

Concupiscentia 2.50: Expositions on Psalm s 25.6. A n exception is Letter 55 (to Januarius)
11.20, where he in terprets xxia i^ as any image made by m an, w hich should n o t be worshipped
because it is m utable. Cf. C larke, 34-5; Nelson, Groaning, 30-1.
66Expositions on Psalms 119.66.
20
Therefore, it was "s in fu l m an" th a t was subjected to fu tility because o f Adam s sin, though God
subjected h u m a n ity to th is state "in hope." "F u tility ," then, refers to the penalty o f the F a ll.67
He even uses Rom. 8:20 to argue th a t o rig in a l sin affects in fa n ts .68 Pauls statem ent th a t the
creation was subjected "not of its own w ill" (Rom. 8:20) indicates th a t h u m a n ity was subjected
to the penalty o f the F all in v o lu n ta rily .69 Thus w hile A ugustine agrees w ith earlier exegetes
th a t the F all and the curse are in view in Rom. 8:19, he denies th a t the passage refers to
anything beyond hum anity.
A ugustines view o f Rom. 8:19-22 is understandable in lig h t o f his overall conception o f
the creation. God both created and actively sustains a ll th in g s. The fundam ental purpose of
creation is fo r beauty and to b rin g glory to the God, who b rin g s in to being such a m agnificent
system, and only secondarily fo r the benefit o f hum anity. Gods goodness is poured out on
creation and reflected in its beauty and the harm onious operation and in te rp la y o f a ll its parts.
To A ugustine the creation is not fallen o r corrupted, b u t fu ndam en tally good and b e a u tifu l. He
e xp licitly rejects Origens concept o f a pretem poral fa ll and the m ore prevalent p a tristic idea
th a t the F all o f Adam had an effect on the m aterial w orld. A dam s sin and the curse o f Gen.
3:17 only affected th e hum an race.70
A ugustine also had a positive view of the hum an physical body. In sharp contrast to
the m any p a tristic theologians w ho were influenced by P latonic ideas o f the body, Augustine
views the body as a home fo r the soul, a friend, a spouse. The resurrectio n body w ill be the
same body as the present body, though glorified to even greater beauty, so th a t "m y own flesh
67Exposttions on Psalms 25.6.
68De N uptius et Concupiscentia 2.50.
69Romanos, PL 2075. Cf. C. E. B. C ranfleld, A C ritical and Exegettcal Commentary on the

E pistle to the Romans, In te rn a tio n a l C ritica l Com m entary (E dinburgh: T. and T. C lark, 1975),
414.
70Cf. C larke, 4, 34-5: Santm ire, T ra v a il 61-4.
21
< .
shall be m y dear frie n d thro ugho ut eternity."71
Despite h is view th a t creation is n o t fallen o r corrupted. Augustine s till held to the hope
o f a fin a l renewal o f a ll creation, although he does n o t base it on Rom. 8:19-22. A t the end of
h isto ry there w ill be a universal conflagration. Then a ll o f creation, in clud ing the bio-physical
w orld, w ill be renewed, glorified and come to rest. There w ill be a m aterial form to the new
heavens and earth, and h u m a n ity w ill be able to see even more clearly, w ith physical eyes, the
creative governance of God thro ugho ut the w orld.72 Concerning th is renewal o f creation,
Augustine says.
B y th is universal conflagration the q u a lities o f the corru ptible elements w hich suited o u r
co rru p tib le bodies shall u tte rly perish, and o u r substance shall receive such qualities as
shall, b y a w onderful tran sm utation , harm onize w ith o u r im m ortal bodies, so th a t, as the
w orld its e lf is renewed to some better th in g , it is fitly accommodated to men, themselves
renewed in th e ir flesh to some better th in g .73
Thus A ugustine continues th e hope held by m ost o f the Fathers concerning the fu tu re
perfection o f creation, although in contrast to m ost e arlier theologians, th is does n o t involve a
redem ption from the im pact o f sin on the n a tu ra l w orld. The positive nature o f the m aterial
w orld, w ith its goodness and beauty, continues and w ill be fu rth e r enhanced in eternity, being
made even clearer fo r a ll to see.
Iron ically, then, Augustine rejects a cosm ic in te rp re ta tio n of Rom. 8:19-22, not because
o f a depreciation o r lack of in terest in the m aterial w orld o r an anthropocentric theology, b u t
p rin c ip a lly because o f h is extrem ely positive view o f the m aterial w orld. He w ants to avoid any
im p lica tio n th a t the w orld is tainted in any way o r is som ething other th a n the good creation of
71Sermons, 155.5; 30.4. Cf. M argaret R uth M iles, Augustine on the Body (M issoula, M ont.:
Scholars Press, 1979), 97, 121-2; Santm ire, Travail, 67-8. M iles notes, however, th a t
Augustine s till had a sort o f psychological dualism about the body, since at tim es he fe lt
alienated from the body, p a rtic u la rly sexually. T his was probably a holdover from h is earlier
M anichaean days.
72C ity o f God 22.29; 20.16. Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 64-5.
73C ity o f God 20.16.
22
God. This is in sharp contrast to Origen and m any other Fathers who had a m ore negative
view of the m a te ria l w orld, due to Platonic influence, and who interpreted Rom. 8:19-22 in
keeping w ith th a t view. It also contrasts w ith Irenaeus, who had no d iffic u lty affirm ing the
j essential goodness of creation, w hile s till recognizing the b ib lica l them e of the im pact of s in on
j
th e n a tu ra l w o rld and the hope o f its fin a l redem ption and glorification. A ugustines em phasis
I
on the goodness, purposefulness and harm onious operation o f creation because o f Gods
sustaining w o rk is certa inly consistent w ith m any b ib lica l themes and is a valuable co n trib u
tio n to early C h ristia n theology. U nfortunately, however, he m issed the equally b ib lica l theme
o f the dysteleology present in nature because of the F all. Rom. 8:19-22 and m uch of the OT
a ffirm th a t th in g s are presently not rig h t w ith the n a tu ra l w orld due to the effects o f hum an
sin , and so there is a need and hope fo r the redem ption o f a ll of creation. W hile Augustine
anticipated an eschatological renew al o f creation, th is was not to correct the damage caused
b y sin b u t sim ply to enhance th e c la rity w ith w hich Gods glory is displayed in creation.
There are a few other m in o r references to Rom. 8:19-22 by fo u rth and early fifth
ce n tu ry Fathers. H ila ry of P oitiers (c. 315-368) uses w . 19-21 only to argue th a t C hrist is not
a creature subject to co rru p tio n .74 B asil o f Caesarea (330-379) refers to the passage several
tim es, b u t has no apparent interest in the present state or fu tu re o f the creation.75 Pelagius
(c. 383-431) in te rp re ts k tio k ; as the angels76 and C yril (d. 444) understands it as the subhu
m an n a tu ra l w o rld.77
The P a tristic approaches to Rom. 8:19-22 and the corru ption and redem ption of
creation can be sum m arized by the treatm ent o f three m ajor issues: (1) the m eaning of xxunq;
74De Trtnitate 12.5.
75E.g. Hom ilies on the Hexaemeron, 8.102; 9.1.
76Cf. C ranfleld, Romans, 411.
^PG 74:821. Cf. C ranfleld, Romans, 411.
23
(2) the co rru p tio n o f non-hum an m ate ria l creation; and (3) the redem ption o f non-hum an
m ate rial creation.
The Fathers had three p rim a ry views o f k t u t k ; in Rom. 8:19-22: (1) The m ost popular
P atristic in te rp re ta tio n was th a t tcrimq refers to a ll created things, w ith the possible exception
o f angels. The Fathers generally included b oth hum ankind and the non-hum an, m aterial
creation in the term (Irenaeus, Archelaus, M ethodius, and O rigen (except anim als and plants),
Gregory o f Nyssa, Chrysostom , and Theodore of Mopsuestia). Frequently the Fathers refer to a
so lid a rity between the non-hum an m aterial creation and hum anity, w hich often serves as a
basis fo r th e ir understanding o f the co rru p tio n and redem ption of creation (Theophilus,
Gregory o f Nyssa, Chrysostom , Theodore of M opsuestia). (2) A few o f the Fathers, such as
Theophilus, "Am brosiaster," C yril, and possibly T e rtu llia n , lim it xrienq to subhum an nature,
recognizing the contrast Paul m akes between the "creation" and the "sons o f God" in verse 20.
(3) In the late p a tris tic period an im portant m in o rity in terpretation o f tcxunq emerged.
O ccasionally Am brose, and consistently A thanasius and Augustine, lim ite d tcrioiq only to
hum anity. U nlike m any la te r interpreters, Augustine, however, did n o t adopt th is view due to
an anthropocentric, nature-devaluing theology b u t because o f h is high view o f the goodness o f
creation.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the P a tristic interpretations o f K tio iq in Rom. 8:19-22:
Table 1: Patristic Views of iccUn? in Rom. 8:19-22
Person: Date: All Creation Subhuman Nature Rational Creatures All Humanity Angels
Irenaeus 120-200 X
Tertullian 145-200 ?
Theophilus late 2nd C. X
Origen c. 186-255 except plants, animals
Archelaus 3rdC. X
Methodius d. 311 X
Hilary of Poitiers 315-368 ?
Athanasius c. 293-373 X
24
Person: Date: All Creation Subhuman Nature Rational Creatures All Humanity Angels
Gregory of Nyssa 330-395 X

Ambrose 4th C. 1 2
"Ambrosiaster" c. 375 X
Chrysostom c. 345-407 X
Theodore of Mopsuestia 350-428 visible creation
Pelagius c. 383-431 X
Augustine 354-430 X
Cyril d. 444 X
The P a tristic views of the co rru p tio n o f creation can be divided in to three m ajor
approaches: (1) A ll o f creation is corrupted due to the Fall o f Adam (Theophilus, Irenaeus,
Origen, Chrysostom , Gregory of Nyssa). The m a jo rity of these Fathers see creation its e lf as
fallen, b u t Irenaeus speaks of creation as sim ply being cursed due to the Fall and hence
creation reta ins its essential goodness. Since the non-hum an m aterial creation shares a
s o lid a rity w ith hum anity, when Adam fe ll a ll o f creation was affected (Chrysostom, Theodore of
M opsuestia, Gregory of Nyssa). (2) M any of the Fathers saw the m ate rial w orld as evil in its e lf
o r a t least in fe rio r to s p irit, due to Platonic o r Neoplatonic influences on th e ir theology
(M ethodius, Clem ent of A lexandria (to some extent), O rigen, Jerome, the Gnostics). T his
understanding was p a rtic u la rly prevalent in the A lexandrian school. O rigen w ent so fa r as to
say th a t the m aterial w orld was created as a re s u lt o f the fa ll o f eternal s p irits and th a t these
s p irits are subject to the fu tility o f being encased in m aterial bodies. M any o f the Fathers,
therefore, avoided the cosmic im plicatio ns o f Rom. 8:19-22 because of th e ir negative views o f
m a tte r and the body. Hence when they deal w ith the passage, th e ir focus is on the hum an
s itu a tio n , especially the them es o f suffering and hope and the value of m artyrdom as a release
from the body (Athanasius, C yprian, Clem ent o f Alexandria, Basil o f Caesarea). (3) A nother
approach was to argue th a t creation was unaffected b y the Fall, hence denying th a t there is a
cosm ic problem (Clement o f A lexandria and p a rtic u la rly Augustine). Nature is s till good, as it
25
was when it was o rig in a lly created.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the m ajor P atristic views o f the co rru p tio n o f creation,
p a rtic u la rly as tau g h t in Rom. 8:19-22:
Table 2: Patristic Views of the Corruption of Creation
Result of Fall Matter and Who

Person Date Body are Evil Subjected
Creation Corrupted Creation Fallen Creation Not Corrupted Creation?
Irenaeus 120-200 X No!
Tertullian 145-200 No!

Theophilus late 2nd C. X X
Clement of Alexandria c. 153-217 X Inferior to spirit
Origen c. 186-255 Fall of spirits led to Inferior to spirit God
creation of matter
Gnostics 2nd-4th C. X
Methodius d. 311 X
Gregory of Nyssa 330-395 X
Chrysostom c. 345-407 X X Adam

Augustine 354-430 X No! God
The Fathers had tw o m ajor views concerning the fin a l state of the non-hum an m aterial
creation: (1) M any o f the Fathers anticipated an eschatological redem ption of a ll creation to
free it from bondage to co rru p tio n (Theophilus, Irenaeus, T e rtu llia n , Archelaus, M ethodius,
O rigen, Chrysostom , Augustine). M any expect the restoration of the pre-F all state o f the
n a tu ra l w orld (Theophilus, M ethodius, and O rigen in a different sense). O thers look to an even
m ore perfect fin a l state o f creation (Irenaeus, Chrysostom , Augustine). O ften the n a tu ra l w orld
is seen to share in the fin a l blessings o f believers because o f its so lid a rity w ith hum anity
(Theophilus, M ethodius, Chrysostom , Gregory o f Nyssa) and believers w ill live in th is renewed
m ate ria l w orld (Irenaeus, M ethodius, Chrysostom , Augustine). W hile there w ill be a fin a l
conflagration, it w ill not destroy the w o rld b u t p u rify it (Archelaus, M ethodius, Augustine).
(2) N ot a ll P atristic w riters, however, look fo r a fu tu re redem ption o f the n a tu ra l w orld.
Num erous Fathers do not even refer to Rom. 8:19-22. O thers focus on hum an suffering and
26
hope when th e y discuss the passage. The A lexandrian Fathers, in particular, generally had a
negative view o f the fu tu re of the m aterial creation, and so tended to lim it redem ption only to
hum an souls. Clem ent o f A lexandria e xplicitly denied a fu tu re cosmic redem ption. To Origen
the fin a l state w ould involve a destruction of m atter and a re tu rn to the non-m aterial form o f
th e eternal s p irits . A thanasius interpreted Rom. 8:19-22 only of the present redem ption of
hum ans.
The follow ing ta b le sum m arizes the m ajor P atristic in terpretations o f the redem ption of
creation, as show n in Rom. 8:19-22:
Table 3: Patristic Views of the Redemption of Creation
Type of Redemption of the Natural World Associated Events
Person Date Natural Restore More Perfect Destroyed Not Connected Believers
World Pre-Fall Than Pre- and Redeemed with Human Live in New
Redeemed State Fall Recreated Redemption Creation
Irenaeus 120-200 X X X
Tertullian 145-200 X
Theophilus late 2nd C. X X X
Clement of Alexandria c. 153-217 X
Gnostics 2nd-4th C. Matter
destroyed
Origen c. 186-255 X X Matter
destroyed
Archelaus 3rdC. X X
Methodius d. 311 X X X X X
Athanasius c. 293-373 X
Ambrose 4th C. X
Chrysostom c. 345-407 X X X
Augustine 354-430 X X X X
The Fathers show no apparent interest in the issue of the Jewish apocalyptic back
ground o f Pauls ideas in Rom. 8:19-22. Galloway suggests th a t th is m ay be, in part, because
27
the Gentile C hristians never fe lt quite at home w ith apocalyptic sym bolism .78 It m ay also be
due to a desire of the hellenized C hurch to distance its e lf from its Jew ish roots. O f course, a
"com parative religions" approach to studyin g the Bible is generally a more m odem interest, so
it is not su rp risin g to fin d an in te re st in th e Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s m issing from th e
P a tristic w riters.
The sym m etry of a p a rtic u la r view o f creation and redem ption can be determ ined by
how hum anity and the n a tu ra l w o rld are viewed in relatio n to three issues: (1) original created
goodness; (2) present co rru p tio n o r fallenness; and (3) fu tu re redem ption.79 The views o f
Irenaeus, O rigen and A ugustine are representative of th e three m ajor positions taken during
th e P atristic period. The follow ing tables illu s tra te these approaches:
Table 4: Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Patristic Views of Creation and Redemption
Irenaeus (Symmetrical) Origen (Asymmetrical)
Humanity Material Creation Humanity Material Creation
Created Good X X Created Good X

Corrupted/Fallen X X Corrupted/Fallen X X
Future Redemption X X Future Redemption X
Augustine (Asymmetrical)
Humanity Material Creation
Created Good X X
Corrupted/Fallen X
Future Redemption X X
A ll three views argue fo r the created goodness, fallenness and eschatological redemp
tio n of hum an beings. They differ, however, in how they approach the non-hum an, m aterial
creation. Irenaeus is com pletely sym m etrical w ith respect to the creation and redem ption of
78Galloway, 55-60.
79Santm ire, T ra va il 177-178.
28
both h u m a n ity and the n a tu ra l w orld. Both Origen and Augustine are asym m etrical, b u t in
different ways. O rigen is clearly asym m etrical since the m aterial creation was not created good
and w ill u ltim a te ly be destroyed. O nly h u m a n ity was created good and w ill be redeemed.
i
| S antm ire argues th a t A ugustines view is sym m etrical, even more ric h ly so th a n
I
: Irenaeus view.80 A ugustines theology, however, is a ctu a lly asym m etrical, b u t in a different
i
way th a n O rigens. A ugustine is overbalanced in the direction of the goodness of the n a tu ra l
w orld. It was created good and has not experienced any effects o f the Fall o f Adam . W hile th e
n a tu ra l w o rld w ill be glorified one day, it w ill n o t experience a tru e redem ption since it has
never become corrupted. A tru ly sym m etrical view m ust take in to account n o t only the
o riginal goodness o f creation by also the co rru p tin g im pact of the Fall on it. The sym m etrical
view o f Irenaeus is m ore consistent w ith the them es o f Rom. 8:19-22.
B. M edieval In terp retation
The early and high M edieval period has been called an "Age of A nxiety." Life in Europe
was harsh. N ature was feared and viewed as s ta rk and hostile.81 It is not surprising, there
fore, th a t A ugustines positive theology o f the present state o f the n a tu ra l w orld and Irenaeus
positive fu tu re hope fo r creation are rare ly echoed in th is period. John the Scot (c. 810-877) is
typ ica l in h is anticosm ic theology, adapted from Origen and the Neoplatonic D ionysius the
Areopagite (c. 500). H um anity was o rig in a lly intended to have a s p iritu a l body only, and the
n a tu ra l w o rld and m ate rial body were only created as a result of the Fall. Redem ption involves
deliverance from the body and the destruction o f corru ptible m atter. The resurrection body
w ill be w h o lly s p iritu a l.82 T his type o f theology has no room for the type o f positive fu tu re
80Ibid.
81Ib id ., 77.
82M. D. Chenu, Nature, Man, and Society in the Tw elfth Century: Essays on New Theological
Perspectives in the L a tin West, trans. Jerome Taylor and Lester K. L ittle (Chicago: U niversity o f
Chicago Press, 1968), 25: Santm ire, Travail, 77-8.
29
hope fo r the n a tu ra l w orld found in Rom. 8:19-22. There is no sense o f so lid a rity w ith the
n a tu ra l w orld as found in the w ritin g s of m any o f the Fathers.
A n exception to th is w idely-held negative view of nature developed in the W estern
M onastic m ovem ent. Benedict (c. 480-550) and his followers w ent in to the wilderness of
Europe seeking to tam e nature, n o t only fo r survival b u t also as a praise offering to God. They
did n o t view n a ture as alien or seek to exploit it, b u t to w ork in cooperation w ith it in a
"creative stew ardship" or a sort of "cooperative m astery." Likewise, the traveling C eltic m onks
o f Iris h m onasticism sought a friendsh ip w ith nature, attem pting to reproduce Adam and Eves
perfect control o f the anim als. T he ir goal was a "contem plative m astery" as they wandered in
the w ilderness. They were m ore in line w ith the Eastern concept th a t the saint would have
ra p p o rt w ith n a ture because o f h is holiness. W hile these m onastic approaches were m in o rity
positions in th e ir day, they helped to prepare the way fo r the late m edieval optim ism about
nature and fo r the investigative cu rio sity th a t led to the rise of m odem science.83
No exam ples o f the exegesis o f Rom. 8:19-22 by the Benedictine or C eltic m onks are
available. Nevertheless, the actions o f these m onks im ply several things about th e ir views on
the issues raised b y the passage: (1) The Benedictine m onks apparently had an A ugustinian
view o f the goodness o f the n a tu ra l w orld, in contrast to the Pauline concept th a t som ething is
not rig h t w ith its present state. (2) The C eltic m onks were also optim istic about nature, b u t
allow ed fo r a greater degree o f alienation o f h um an ity from the anim al w orld due to the Fall. It
was not, however, so m uch th a t they conceived o f the n a tu ra l w orld as corrupted as th a t they
considered the hum an relatio nship w ith and m astery over nature to have been damaged by the
Fall. (3) B oth the Benedictine and C eltic m onks were optim istic th a t hum an piety can restore
j the pre-F all re la tio n o f h u m a n kin d w ith nature. (4) Yet neither had m uch interest in an
t
I
George H u ntston W illiam s, "C h ristia n A ttitu d e s Toward N ature," C hristian Scholars
Review 2 (Fall 1971, W inter 1972): 31-3; Santm ire, T ra va il 78-9; Clarence J. Glacken, Traces
on the R hodian Shore. Nature and Culture in Western Thought From Ancient Times to the End o f
the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: U n iversity o f C alifornia Press, 1967), 349.
30
J . .. .
eschatological tran sfo rm a tio n o f nature as described in Rom. 8:19, 21, 23. Restoration of the
n a tu ra l w orld is an h isto rica l process through hum an piety, not a clim a ctic act o f God at the
end o f history.
t
i D u ring the early and high M edieval periods. E astern and W estern theology began to
i
move apart in several ways. One o f the m ajor differences was the approach taken to the
m ate rial w orld. E astern C h ristia n ity tended tow ard a m ore physical and n a tu ra l approach to
salvation th a n W estern C h ristia n ity. Where W estern C h ristia n ity focused more on personal
and social salvation. Eastern C h ris tia n ity saw salvation as both personal and cosmic. For
example, Jo h n o f Damascus (c. 675-749) argued th a t the Resurrection o f Jesus was n o t only a
source o f personal life and forgiveness fo r the believer, b u t also a source o f life and lig h t fo r a ll
creation.84 E astern Fathers, such as Isaac the S yrian (d. c. 700) and M axim us the Confessor
(580-662), argued fo r a so lid a rity between h um an ity and the rest o f creation. Based on Rom.
8:19-22 they ta u g h t th a t the fate o f the whole creation is bound up w ith th a t o f the hum an
race. Isaac the S yrian argued th a t as the whole cosmos was disordered b y hum an sin, it may
be transfigured b y grace through hum an love. The believer has a respon sibility to show
ch a rity to the whole creation, in clu d in g anim als, demons and hum an enemies of the tru th .85
A pparently he in terpreted kuctk; in Rom. 8:19 in the w idest possible sense. M axim us the
Confessor held th a t it is the re sp o n sib ility of hum an beings to cultivate the earth in to Paradise
and to restore it to the order it was to have according to the divine plan. The C h ristians task
is to m ake the w hole of creation participate in h is o r her u n io n w ith God thro ugh C h rist.86
In the E astern C hurch o f the early M edieval period, therefore, there is a greater interest
th a n in m ost o f th e W estern C hurch in themes im p o rta n t to Rom. 8:19-22. A m ajor difference
A llch in , 143-4.
V la d im ir Lossky, The M ystical Theology o f the Eastern Church (London: James Clarke,
1957), 110-1; A llc h in , 146; Evdokim ov, 12.
Evdokim ov, 9-10.
31
from Rom. 8 is the Eastern C hurchs stress on the process of restoring the w orld to its pre-Fail
cond ition thro ugh loving hum an a ctivity, as opposed to a clim actic eschatological transform
ation o f the w orld b y God at the end o f history. T his Eastern view o f cosmic redem ption is
sim ila r to the desire of the Benedictine and Celtic m onks o f the W estern C hurch to restore
harm ony w ith the anim al kingdom , though the sense o f so lid a rity w ith nature is stronger in
the Eastern C hurch.
The tw elfth century was a tim e of tra n s itio n in the view o f nature in the W estern
C hurch. The widespread negative view of the n a tu ra l w orld was gradually replaced b y an
optim ism and confidence rem iniscent of the Benedictine and C eltic m onks. The century was
m arked by a greater confidence in the hum an a b ility to m aster nature and by a growing
scientific cu rio sity, based on the assum ption o f the ordered stru ctu re o f nature.87 The
hierarchy o f being th a t was derived from John the Scot and D ionysius the Areopagite was a
dom inating concept. The w orld is the re su lt of an em anation from the One, to the sp iritu a l,
and fin a lly to the m aterial. Frequently th is concept was accompanied by the earlier anticosm ic
view, represented, fo r example, by the popular gnosticizing C a th a iii.88 B u t the leading
theologians generally com bined the hierarchy o f being w ith the concept found in Platos
Timaeus th a t the One is overflow ing goodness. T hus the m ost common view was th a t the
w orld was good, a re su lt of the overflowing goodness o f God. The concept o f a cosm ic Fall was
e xp licitly rejected.89
A la in of Lille (c. 1128-1202) was a typ ica l theologian of th is era. He assumes a
hierarchy o f being. God created a good, b e a u tifu l and ordered m aterial universe, w hich is th e
dom ain of N atura. The n a tu ra l w orld continues to be good, it never experienced a fa ll, nor d id
Chenu, 23.
89Santm ire, T ra v a il 80-2.
32
it suffe r due to th e F a ll o f Adam. Nevertheless, traces of the anticosm ic view o f John the Scot
rem ain in A la in s th in k in g . N atures goodness is going nowhere and w ill u ltim a te ly pass away.
Furtherm ore, the goodness o f irra tio n a l creatures is only p a rtia l, since it is good only in regard
to th e beginning o f the w orld (ab alphaJ. B u t the goodness o f ra tio n a l creatures, fo r whom the
w orld was created, is good both in the beginning and in the ending (ex alpha et omega]. Thus
redem ption is o nly fo r hum anity, n o t the n a tu ra l w orld. Hum ans m ay in h e rit eternal life , b u t
the end o f the n a tu ra l w orld is only death.90 Thus in regard to the m ajor them es o f Rom.
8:19-22 A la in u ltim a te ly rejects both the present corru p tio n and the fin a l redem ption o f a ll
creation, fo r he assumes both the created and ongoing goodness o f the n a tu ra l w orld.
E u thym iu s Zigabenus (1 1th- 12th C.) was exceptional in h is lite ra l b ib lica l interpreta
tio n d u rin g an age dom inated by allegorical in te rp re ta tio n and a theology heavily influenced b y
P latonic categories.91 In h is com m entary on the Pauline epistles he discusses Rom. 8:19-22
in some detail. H is exegesis is heavily dependent on Chrysostom , so h is in terpretation echoes
the sym m etrical P a tristic interpretations o f Irenaeus and Chrysostom . He understands Kxioi?
as subhum an n a ture and, lik e m any o f the Fathers, he personifies nature. He argues th a t the
"fu tility " (patcaotTiq) o f v. 20 refers to the "slavery to corru ption" o f v. 21, based on the
parallelism between the two expressions. The auv-com pounds (ouoxevcx and covoBivoa) o f v.
22 p o in t to a so lid a rity between h u m a n ity and nature, and so indicate th a t the subhum an
creation suffers together w ith hum an ity.92
Francis o f A ssisi (1182-1226) is d iffic u lt to in te rp re t, both because he was a m an o f
action more th a n a theologian and because so m uch m ythology has arisen about him .
D om inating h is theology and practice is a strong sense o f the goodness o f a ll o f Gods creation.
90Ib id ., 82-4.
91D onald M. Lake, "E uthym ius Zigabenus," NIDCC, p. 357.
"E u th y m iu s Zigabenus, Commentarius in X IV epistolas S. P auli et VZT catholicas, ed. N.

Calogeras, Athens, 1887, 1:91-93, cited by Cranfleld, Romans, 413.
He often gives th a n ks fo r various creatures and expresses h is love fo r them . He clearly fe lt a
strong so lid a rity w ith a ll creatures, both anim ate and inanim ate, and often refers to them as
h is "brothers and sisters."93 The C h ristia n is to become a C h ristlike servant of both hum an
beings and irra tio n a l creatures. This is based on the m odel o f C h rists h u m ility in taking on
hum an likeness (Phil. 2:5-8), w h ich reflects the descending goodness of God. Identificatio n
w ith C h rist in th is way restores an in d ivid u a l to com m union w ith Gods goodness in the
created w o rld .94
Francis loving behavior tow ard a ll of creation flow s not only from h is C hristology b u t
also from h is eschatology. He looks forw ard to a renewal o f a ll creation, not sim ply the
salvation o f hum an beings. Since the end of the w orld and the com ing kingdom are so near,
we should live now by the laws o f the kingdom , showing h u m ility, love, poverty, chastity and
obedience. F rancis preaching to the b ird s and flow ers, therefore, m ay be understood n o t as
id iosyn cratic behavior, b u t as an attem pt to act consistently w ith th e solida rity of a ll creation
and w ith an im m ine nt expectation o f the renewal of a ll created things. Francis lived in lig h t o f
a realized eschatology. He sought to live in th is w orld in term s of the next w orld, when a ll
th in g s w ill be renewed.95 Francis early biographer. Celano, associates Francis behavior w ith
a realized eschatological in te rp re ta tio n of Rom. 8:19: "He discerned the hidden th in g s o f
creation w ith the eye o f the heart, as one who had already escaped in to the glorious lib e rty of
the ch ild re n o f God."96
93E.g. Canticle o f the Sun. Celano, V ita Prtma 59, 61; Celano, V ita Secunda 165; cited by
Edward A. A rm strong, S t Francis: Nature M ystic, The D erivation and Significance o f the Nature
Stories o f the Franciscan Legend (Berkeley: U niversity o f C alifornia Press, 1973), 148, 160, 171.
For other examples, see Roger D. S orrell, S t Francis o f A ssisi and Nature. Tradition and
Innovation in W estern C hristian A ttitudes Tow ard the Environm ent (New York: Oxford U niversity
Press, 1988), 43-4.
S antm ire, T ra v a il 109-13.
9SIb id ., 113-7.
Celano, V ita Prtm a 80; cited b y Arm strong, 60.
34
M any elements in F rancis theology and life echo earlier theologians. He reflects the
optim ism about nature th a t was com m on in h is day. He did not, however, share the negative
view o f the end o f the w o rld found in theologians such as A la in o f Lille. H is beliefs about the
n a tu ra l w o rld were s im ila r to those o f A ugustine, although A ugustine was a theologian and
F rancis was a m an o f action. B o th believed stro n g ly in the overflow ing goodness o f God in a ll
creation, and both denied a sig n ifica n t im pact o f th e F a ll on the n a tu ra l w orld. Both looked
forw ard to a glorious eschatological renew al o f a ll th in g s in w hich Gods glory w ould be even
m ore cle a rly displayed in the m ate rial creation.97 Francis also has sim ila ritie s to the earlier
B enedictine and C eltic m onks. Both desired to live in harm ony w ith nature, reproducing
Adam and Eves rela tio n sh ip to the n a tu ra l w orld. The m any stories o f h is attunem ent w ith
anim als echo tales o f earlier w andering saints.98 Furtherm ore, Francis approach to nature
has m uch in com mon w ith the E astern Fathers. H is deep sense o f so lid a rity and com m union
w ith anim als and concern fo r p ra c tic a l expressions of love tow ard the n a tu ra l w orld are quite
s im ila r to Isaac the S yrian and M axim us th e Confessor.99
Bonaventure (1221-1274) echoes m any o f th e same themes found in A la in o f U lle ,
in clu d in g th e hierarchy o f being and the overflow ing goodness o f God in a ll creation. He
stresses th e divine immanence in nature, m uch as his m entor Francis did. Thus fo r Bonaven
tu re the w hole w o rld is fu ll o f the glory of God. Even a t the lowest levels o f the hierarchy of
being there is the influence of the divine and a k in d of d im m irro r image reflecting Gods
goodness, wisdom and power. Yet although he accepts a hierarchy o f being, Bonaventure is
fa r from the anticosm ic view o f O rigen and John th e Scot. He shares m uch, in fact, w ith
A ugustine and F rancis in h is view o f the goodness o f creation.100
"S a n tm ire , Travail, 108, 117.
"A rm stro n g , 35-41, 71, 209; S orrell, 39-44.
"A llc h in , 145.
100Leonard J. Bowman, "The Cosmic E xem plarism o f Bonaventura," JR 55, no. 2 (A pril
35
Nevertheless, Bonaventure has an asym m etrical view of redem ption. The whole order
o f nature fin d s its fu lfillm e n t in hum anity. O nly s p iritu a l creatures re tu rn to God, not the
whole creation. Like A la in of Lille, he views nature as good ab alpha, b u t s p iritu a l creatures
as good ex alpha e t omega. A lthough he is aware o f the b ib lica l teaching o f the fin a l renewal of
a ll things, h is explanation o f how th a t renewal occurs robs it o f any real m eaning fo r nature.
Bonaventure agreed w ith such e arlier theologians as Gregory o f Nyssa and M axim us the
Confessor th a t hum an creatures are a m icrocosm o f nature. They n o t only reflect b u t also
embody a ll thing s in the hierarchy o f being below them , both m aterial and vita l. Hence when
hum an beings are united w ith God, a ll things, in effect, in the biophysical w orld are united
w ith God as w ell, because hum an ity embodies both the m aterial and the s p iritu a l.101 O n the
surface th is view allow s Bonaventure to a ffirm a fin a l renewal o f a ll things. In reality, however,
h is understanding is thoroughly anthropocentric and denies any real p a rt fo r nature in the
consum m ation. In the fin a l analysis only hum an beings are redeemed and the w orld o f nature
is destroyed, w ith no place in eternity. This concept o f hum an beings as a m icrocosm became
firm ly entrenched in both Eastern and C atholic th o u g h t.102
Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) shares w ith h is age both (1) an optim ism in the hum an
a b ility to understand nature and its place in the overall scheme o f things, and (2) a hierarchial
view o f the created order. Thomas stresses the transcendence o f God. the in fin ite distance
between God and h is creation. He seeks to weld together the idea o f God as the transcendent,
self-sufficient good (adapted from A ristotle) and God as overflowing goodness (adapted from
Plato). Thomas believes th a t the creation is good, though he has a different sense o f "good"
than Augustine, since he does not emphasize the immanence of God in creation as Augustine
i
1
1975): 187; Santm ire, Travail, 98-9.
101Bowman, 195.
1 Santm ire, T ra va il 101-2.
36
did. Each p a rt o f creation was created b y God to realize some specific potentia l as a p a rt o f a
larger whole. The great dive rsity o f creatures reflects the in fin ite and m any sided goodness of
God. The hum an body is not a prison, b u t a good and essential servant o f the soul. The
whole m aterial creation exists to serve hum anity, to satisfy hum an needs, and aid in the
hum an quest to know G od.103
Thomas rejects the idea o f a cosm ic fa ll as taught b y Origen, as w ell as a fa ll o f nature
when Adam fe ll. N ature was not changed by the F all of hum ankind. Hum an relations w ith
nature, however, can ce rta in ly be colored by hum an sin and hum an sin has increased the
problem s h u m a n ity has w ith the hostile side o f n a tu re .104 Thom as view o f the im pact o f the
F a ll on the n a tu ra l w o rld largely flow s out of h is dual concept of perfection. He argues th a t
there are two senses in w hich a th in g can be perfect: (1) the perfection o f the form o f the
whole, and (2) the perfection th a t is the end o f the whole. The form er perfection is the sense in
w hich nature is perfect and was created good. The la tte r perfection, w hich is the end o f the
whole universe, is the beatitude o f the saints. This la tte r perfection does not belong to nature,
b u t it is an added unm erited grace only bestowed b y God on hum an beings. It was th is added
grace th a t was lo st by h um an ity at the F all. Since th is added grace did n o t belong to nature in
the firs t place, it could n o t be lost, and so nature d id not suffer from the F a ll of h u m a n ity.105
Thomas view o f grace and perfection led h im to be am biguous in h is teaching on the
fin a l renewal of the m a te ria l w orld at the consum m ation o f history. The bodies o f the saints
w ill be resurrected, since the hum an body is intended to serve the soul and th e ir separation is
contrary to n a tu re .106 Since the environm ent was made fo r the benefit o f hum anity, the
103Compendium o f Theology 152; Summa Theologica, 1.47.1. Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 88-90.
104Summa Theologica 1.47.2; 1.96.1; 1.72.1.
105Galloway, 123-5; Santm ire, T ra v a il 92.
'^C om pendium o f Theology 151-153.
37
m a te ria l creation w ill be rewarded fo r its fa ith fu l service to the hum an race and th u s it w ill be
renewed. T his only applies, however, to the fo u r m a te ria l elements and to the heavenly bodies.
A nim als, p la n ts and m inerals w ill not be renewed b u t w ill sim ply cease to exist. Since these
m a te ria l th in g s only exist fo r the upkeep of earthly hum an life , when hum an beings no longer
live a m aterial existence, the reason fo r existence o f these m aterial thing s w ill come to an end.
Since non-hum an th in g s were n o t created w ith the added grace th a t hum anity was and cannot
know th e love o f God, they can have no p a rt in the fin a l end of hum an ity.107
T hu s Thom as is asym m etrical in h is view o f creation and redem ption. W hile a ll things
were created good, the goodness o f non-hum an m a te ria l things is in fe rio r to th a t o f hum an
beings and, u ltim a te ly, o nly hum an beings can be redeemed. Thomas concept o f tw o orders of
perfection governs h is view. So even though he speaks o f the goodness o f nature, he could not
rejoice w holeheartedly in n a tures goodness as A ugustine did, nor could he lo ok forw ard to a
positive fin a l end fo r a ll o f creation, as Irenaeus and Augustine did.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the m ajor view s o f the m edieval C hurch on th e
co rru p tio n o f C reation:
Table 5: Medieval Views of the Corruption of Creation and the Meaning of iccung
Person: Date: Nature Corrupted Matter Result of Nature is Good, Meaning of v tta it
by Human Fall Cosmic Fdll Not Fallen
Early Western:
John the Scot c. 810-877 X No!
Benedictine Monastics 6th-12th C. human relationship X
Celtic Monastics 6th-12th C. human relationship X
Early Eastern:
Maximus the Confessor 580-662 X
Isaac the Syrian d. c. 700 X
j 107Summa Theologica 3.91.1, 4-5. Supplementum to Summa Theologica 8.91 art. 4, 5. Cf.
G alloway, 123-9; S antm ire, T ra va il 92-4; T. F. Torrance, "The Eschatology of the Reform ation,"
in Eschatology. Four Papers Read to the Society Jor the Study o f Theology (Edinburgh: Olover
and Boyd, 1953), 38.
!
.
f,
Person: Date: Nature Corrupted Matter Result of Nature Is Good, Meaning of m im t
by Human Fall Cosmic Fall Not Fallen
High to Late:
Euthymius Zigabenus 11th-12th X ab alpha only Subhuman nature
Alain of Lille 1128-1202 X
Francis ot Assisi 1182-1226 ab alpha only
Bonaventure 1221-1274 X
Thomas Aquinas 1224-1274 ab alpha only
T his table shows th a t the M edieval views o f the present state o f creation fa ll in to three
basic groups: (1) In the early M edieval period, the W estern C hurch (typified by John the Scot)
largely feared na tu re and viewed it negatively. Since Origens view o f the m aterial w orld
dom inated, m ost believed th a t m a tte r was created as a re su lt o f a cosm ic fa ll and hence was
in herently co rru p t. (2) By contrast, some of the W estern m onastics (e.g. Benedictine and
C eltic monks) believed th a t nature is good. The F a ll o f Adam hindei'ed the hum an relationship
w ith nature, b u t the proper hum an harm ony w ith and m astery over nature could be restored
thro ugh piety. B y about the 12th c e n tu iy th is o p tim istic view o f nature dom inated the
W estern C hurch (e.g. A la in o f L ille , Francis o f Assisi, Bonaventure. Thomas Aquinas).
However, w ith few exceptions (p rim a rily Francis), m ost believed the goodness o f nature was
lim ite d to th is present w o rld lab alpha) and w ould n o t continue to its fin a l consum m ation (ex
alpha et omega), since nature is n o t som ething th a t can be redeemed. Francis was rare among
m edieval W estern C h ristia n s in h is consistent, A u gustinian view o f the goodness o f creation,
both presently and in its fin a l glorious consum m ation. (3) The Eastern theologians (e.g. Jo h n
o f Damascus, Isaac the Syrian, M axim us the Confessor) also had a positive view o f the n a tu ra l
w orld, although they generally believed th a t the F a ll o f Adam corrupted nature to some extent
and hinders hum an relatio ns w ith nature. The W estern b ib lica l exegete E uthym ius Zigabenus
also fits in to th is category. H is lite ra l exegesis of Rom. 8:19-22 led h im to a sym m etrical view
s im ila r to th a t o f Irenaeus. Because o f hum anitys so lid a rity w ith the n a tu ra l w orld, the
39
n a tu ra l w orld was also corrupted when Adam fell.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the m ajor m edieval views of the redem ption o f creation:
Table 6: Medieval Views of the Redemption of Creation
Type of Redemption of Natural World Solidarity of Nature

Person: Date: and Humanity
Eschatologlcal Climax Historical Process Matter Destroyed
Early Western:
John the Scot c. 810-877 X
Benedictine Monastics 6th-12th C. X
Celtic Monastics 6th-12th C. X
Early Eastern:
Maximus the Confessor 580-662 X X
John of Damascus c. 675-749 Christ's work benefits all
creation
Isaac the Syrian d. c. 700 X X
High to Late:
Euthymius Zigabenus 11th-12th X X
Alain of Lille 1128-1202 X
Francis of Assisi 1182-1226 X X X
Bonaventure 1221-1274 human bodies only X
Thomas Aquinas 1224-1274 elements, heavenly X
bodies only
T his table shows th a t m edieval views o f the redem ption o f the n a tu ra l w orld fa ll in to
three m ajor categories: (1) The dom inant view o f the W estern Church throughout the Medieval
period was th a t the m aterial w orld w ould be fin a lly destroyed, not redeemed or renewed. For
example, in the E arly Medieval period, John the Scot followed Origen in looking forw ard to the
fined destruction o f the n a tu ra l w orld and fin a l hum an deliverance from the physical body.
T his view continued to dom inate thro ugh the la te M edieval period. Despite an optim ism about
the hum an a b ility to understand nature and a belie f in natures basic goodness, m any (e.g.
A la in o f L ille , Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas) saw the goodness o f nature as only tem porary
(ab a lp h a I U ltim ately the m aterial creation w ill be destroyed and have no place in e te rn ity
w ith hum ankind. The only sense in w hich the n a tu ra l w orld w ill be redeemed is in the
40
redem ption of hum an beings as a m icrocosm o f nature. Since the biophysical side o f hum ani
ty w ill be redeemed, hum ans represent the low er form s o f life in th e ir redem ption and
resurrection (Bonaventure). W hile Thomas Aquinas claim s th a t there w ill be a renewal o f a ll
creation, he lim its th is to the fo u r elements and the heavenly bodies, and he excludes anim als,
plants and inanim ate created things.
(2) Some o f the W estern M onastics (e.g. Benedictine and Celtic m onks) and m ost o f the
E astern C hurch (e.g. M axim us the Confessor, Jo h n o f Damascus, Isaac the Syrian) understood
the redem ption o f creation as an h is to rica l process produced by hum an pie ty m ore th a n an
eschatological clim ax brought d ire ctly b y God. C h ristians are to show love to a ll creatures and
thro ugh th e ir piety to restore the environm ental conditions o f Paradise. W hile the hum an race
is the high p o in t and focus o f creation, the Eastern C hurch viewed salvation in more cosm ic
term s th a n the W estern C hurch, perceiving a so lid a rity between hum an ity and the rest o f
creation. Francis o f A ssisi also carried o u t the s p irit o f the Eastern C hurch and the early
m onastics in h is efforts to show love to a ll creatures o f God. (3) A sm all m in o rity looked
forw ard to an eschatological renew al o f creation re su ltin g in new heavens and a new earth (e.g.
E uthym ius Zigabenus, Francis o f Assisi). Francis practical expressions o f love tow ard anim als
as h is brothers and sisters was a re su lt o f h is expectation th a t the whole cosmos was soon to
be gloriously renewed and th a t th e saints w ould enjoy eternal life in th is glorified m aterial
creation o f God. T his view was a rare exception in an age dom inated by an asym m etrical view
o f creation and redem ption, w ith no expectation o f a fin a l renewal of creation.
The follow ing table shows the asym m etrical views o f these medieval theologians:
Table 7: Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Medieval Views of Creation and Redemption
Early Western (Asymmetrical)___________ Early Eastern/Monastic (Almost Symmetrical)
Created Good X Created Good X X

Corrupted/Fallen X X Corrupted/Fallen X X
Future Redemption X Future Redemption X historical process
41
Thomas Aquinas (Asymmetrical) Francis of Assisi (Asymmetrical)
Created Good X X Created Good X X

Corrupted/Fallen X Corrupted/Fallen X
Future Redemption X Future Redemption X X
T h u s th e m edieval views o f creation and redem ption were generally asym m etrical. The
early m edieval W estern view emphasized th e co rru p tio n o f creation, m uch as O rigen did. The
la te r W estern view was asym m etrical in the opposite direction, stressing the present goodness
o f creation, b u t w ith no hope fo r its fin a l renewal. F rancis view was asym m etrical in an
A u g u stin ia n w ay, w ith little recognition o f th e im pact o f the fa ll on the n a tu ra l w orld. The
Eastern and B enedictine view was the m ost sym m etrical, although the renewal o f creation was
seen p rim a rily as an h is to ric a l process ra th e r th a n an eschatological clim ax, th u s m issing an
Im po rtant elem ent fou n d in Rom. 8:19-22.
C. R eform ation E ra In te rp re ta tio n
The though t o f the P rotestant Reform ers centers on God and hum an ity In general and
personal hum an salvation in p a rtic u la r - an approach K a rl B a rth has called "theanthropo-
centric." Hence the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation and passages such as Rom. 8:19-
22 do n o t occupy a sig n ifica n t place in th e ir w ritin g s. Nevertheless, when they discuss these
topics, th e ir in te rp re ta tio n is generally a sym m etrical one th a t echoes such C hurch Fathers as
Irenaeus m ore th a n the m edieval in terpretations. The Reform ers restored the place o f the
earth in C h ristia n eschatology, ra th e r th a n being concerned sim ply w ith heaven alone.108
M a rtin L u th e r (1483-1546) focused on issues related to ju s tific a tio n by fa ith and kept
the n a tu ra l w o rld In the p e rip heiy o f h is th o u g h t. Nevertheless, he prides him self in his
interest and knowledge about the n a tu ra l w o rld , In contrast to h is Roman C atholic opponents.
108Torrance, 39.
42
I
He considers an appreciation o f the beauty o f creation and in sigh t in to Gods w o rk in the
n a tu ra l w o rld a m a rk o f the redeemed.109 In lig h t o f th e focus o f h is theological battles, it is
rem arkable th a t L u th e r devotes as m uch space as he does to the n a tu ra l world.
Some of L u thers statem ents about hum anitys so lid a rity w ith nature sound alm ost
Franciscan at tim es. Adam and Eve enjoyed a "com m on table" w ith the anim als before the
Fall. H um an so lid a rity w ith and re sp o n sib ility fo r the earth resulted in the earth being cursed
along w ith hum an ity a fte r the F all. In th is post-Fall w orld, the redeemed are capable o f a more
v ita l relationship w ith nature and can properly appreciate and m agnify God fo r the beauty and
wonder o f Gods creation. Nevertheless, L u th e r does n o t have the fu lly positive sense of
hum an so lid a rity w ith nature th a t Francis had, since nature is also fu ll o f thing s to fear and is
an agent o f Gods w ra th and ju d g m e n t.110
In h is exegesis o f Rom. 8:19-22, L u th e r notes th a t the A u gustinian view th a t tcrioi^
refers to h u m a n ity was dom inant in h is day. He disagrees, however, w ith th is approach and
says th a t K iio iq includes n o t m erely hum an beings b u t the whole w o rld .111 This move away
from the dom inant m edieval view opens the door fo r the concept o f an eschatological redem p
tio n o f creation, w hich was generally la cking in m edieval thought.
L u th e r sees the creation as good and not contam inated by sin . The nature o f the
anim als is the same as it was at the creation .112 He rejects the m edieval hierarchy o f being,
in clu d in g the concept th a t God created and sustains th e w orld th ro u g h angels. God is directly
109Lathers Works, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan, vol. 22, Sermons on the Gospel o f John, (St. Louis:
Concordia, 1957), 496; Luther, Table Talk, vol. 1, D. M a rtin Luthers Werks (Weimar: H.
B6hlaus, 1967), 1160: cf. H einrich Bom kam m , Luthers W orld o f Thought, trans. M a rtin H.
B ertram (St. Louis, M o.: Concordia. 1958), 184; S antm ire, Travail, 131.
110Luther, Luther's Works, vol. 1, Lectures on Genesis (chapters 1-5), 42; Table Talk, 1:1160.
Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 128, 130-1.
11L u th e r, L u th e fs Works, vol. 25, Lectures on Romans, 359-360.
n2Table Talk 1:678. Cf. Bom kam m , Luther, 192.
43
active in sustaining h is creation and is present "in, w ith and under" a ll things. Thus the w orld
reflects the goodness, glory and power o f God.113 Luther frequently refers to the beauty o f
nature, in w h ich Gods character is reflected and through w hich the believer can le a m o f
God.114
Yet since God intended hum ankind to ru le the w orld, L u th e r argued th a t w hen Adam
sinned God cursed nature and used th a t w hich was entrusted to hum ankind, i.e. nature, to
chastise h im .115 W hile the earth is innocent and s till desires to produce the best fru its , it is
prevented from doing so because o f the curse. Nature stands under the "le ft hand o f God," i.e.
his w rath. So there are thorns, thistles, insect pests, floods and fires, w hich serve as messen
gers o f Gods w rath. T his hostile side o f nature is used by God to m otivate hum an beings to
cling to the "rig h t hand o f God," i.e. his free m ercy in C hrist, through the W ord and Sacra
m ents.116 The "fu tility " o f Rom. 8:20, therefore, is hum anity, to w hich creation was sub
jected as a re su lt o f the F all. Hence nature is subject to hum an abuse and suffers from the
sins o f wicked people, n o t sim ply the curse resultin g from the F a ll.117 Death among plants
and anim als, however, is n o t a bad th in g or a re su lt of the curse, b u t p a rt o f the plan
established by God as a norm al process o f nature. Death only has a sting fo r hum an beings
fo r whom it is a consequence o f sin, since they were intended to have an im m ortal relationship
w ith God.118
113Bom kam m , Luther, 181, 188-9; Santm ire, Travail, 128, 130.
114E.g. "A ll creation is the m ost b e a u tifu l book o r Bible, in it God has described and
portrayed h im s e lf (Luthers Werke, 48:201.5). Cf. Santm ire, Travail, 124.
115Bom kam m , Luther, 192.
116Luther, Genesis, 205. Cf. Santm ire, T ra va il 125.
117Luther, Romans, 362-363. Cf. Bom kam m , Luther, 191-2.
118Sermon o f June 20, 1535, Luthers Werke, 41:307. Cf. Paul A lthaus, The Theology o f
M artin Luther, trans. Robert C. Schultz (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1966), 405; Nelson, Groaning,
49, 51; Bom kam m , Luther, 191.
44
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
L u th e r considers the redem ption of nature to be b oth an ongoing process and an
eschatological clim ax. In his lecture on Rom. 8 he says th a t the deliverance o f creation in to
th e "lib e rty o f the glory o f the sons of God" happens every day in the saints, a view he shares
w ith m any m edieval theologians. L u th e r also sees an eschatological dim ension in Rom. 8:19,
w hich h is m edieval predecessors neglected.119 The suffering of creation is tem porary, since
th e w orld w ill only last 6000 years (based on 2 Pet. 3:13). Then the whole creation w ill be
delivered from its bondage, cleansed, transform ed and renewed. This transform ed heaven and
earth w ill be even more glorious and b e a u tifu l than Paradise was. The brightness of th e sun
and m oon w ill be greater and the earth m ore productive. U nlike Calvin, L u th e r is unafraid to
speak o f the glories o f the fu tu re transform ed w o rld.120
Erasm us (1466-1536) carefully in terprets m any o f the lin g u istic details o f Rom. 8:19-
22. He understands K iio iq in the broad sense of "the whole structure o f the w o rld," in clud ing
th e earth, w ater, a ir, the celestial bodies and even angels. Since a ll o f these thing s were
created to serve hum an beings, they aw ait anxiously the day when the sons o f God w ill receive
th e ir resurrectio n bodies and be set free in glory. The w orld was subjected to servitude b y God
and is in a present state o f corruption. "F u tility " im plies th a t creation does not achieve w hat it
strives for. Even in irra tio n a l things there is a n a tu ra l craving fo r perfection. The sun and
m oon strive in v a in to restore things th a t are tra n sito ry. C reatures try to achieve a k in d of
im m o rta lity thro ugh reproduction, b u t in vain. The whole cosmos groans w ith the sufferings
o f h um an ity and in some sense participates in hum an m isery in the m o rta l body. The angels
are moved by hum an m isfortunes and grieve fo r us. The w orld bears th is present state of
servitude to co rru p tio n , because it know s it w ill n o t be forever, since the w o rld w ill be free
when the sons o f God are set free. Erasm us, however, does not speculate on w h at changes
119Luther, Romans, 360-364. Cf. Nelson, Groaning, 44-5, 52.
120Luther, Selected Psalms, vol. 12 Luthers Works, 119, 121.
45
th is fin a l freedom w ill m ean fo r the w o rld .121
M any o f the 16th ce n tu ry A nabaptists (e.g. J o h n Denck, Jacob Ziegler, Augustine
Bader, A n tho ny Pocquet, Jo h n B radford) looked fo r a n earthly m anifestation of th e kingdom o f
God and took a radical view tow ard th e fin a l redem ption o f a ll creation. They argued th a t the
"resto ratio n o f a ll thing s" (Acts 3:21) w ill Include the salvation o f anim als, sometimes even
demons. Jo h n B radford was b u rn e d a t the stake fo r such a view, w hich he claim ed was based
on Rom. 8:22.122 A reaction to these extreme views accounts In p a rt fo r the hesitancy o f
C alvin and o ther 16- 17th ce n tu ry theologians to explore the dim ensions o f the redem ption o f
a ll creation.
P h ilip M elanchthon (1497-1560) devotes considerable space to Rom. 8:19-22 in h is
com m entary on Romans. He agrees w ith L u th e r th a t K tioiq refers to the whole universe.123
In Loci Communes, however, h is m a in Interest is to show the s p iritu a l nature o f C h rists
kingdom and to oppose th e C h ilia sts b e lie f in the e a rth ly success o f the kingdom . So w hile he
affirm s the teaching o f Is. 65:17-18 th a t the entire creation w ill be renewed, he Is so caught up
w ith polem ic against the A n abap tists th a t h is statem ents about the eschatological redem ption
o f creation become m ute d.124
Jo h n C alvin (1509-1564), lik e Luth e r, has a theanthropocentric theology th a t focuses
121Erasm us, New Testam ent Scholarship. Paraphrases on Romans and G alatians, The
Collected W orks of Erasm us, no. 42, ed. Robert D. Sider, trans. Jo h n B. Payne, A lb e rt R abil J r.
and W arren S. S m ith J r. (Toronto: U niversity o f Toronto, 1984), 48-9; Erasm us, New Testa
m ent Scholarship. A nnotations on Romans, The Collected W orks o f Erasm us, no. 56, ed. Robert
D . Sider, tra n s. Jo h n B. Payne, A lb e rt R abil J r. and W arren S. S m ith J r. (Toronto: U niversity of
Toronto, 1994), 217-8.
122George H u n tsto n W illiam s, The R adical Reform ation (Philadelphia: W estm inster, 1962),
843-4.
123P h ilip p M elanchthon, Rdmerbrief-Kom m entar 1532, M elanchthons W erke in Ausw ahl, no.
5, ed. G erhard Ebeling (G utersloher: Gerd M ohn, 1965), 237-8.
124P h ilip p M elanchthon, M elanchthon on C hristian Doctrine: Loci Communes, trans. Clyde L.
M anschreck (1555; re p rin t. New York: O xford U niversity Press, 1965), ch. 30 ("Of the Kingdom
o f C hrist"), pp. 275 and ch. 31 ("O f the R esurrection o f the Dead"), pp. 281-282.
46
on hum an salvation and shows only a m in o r interest in the n a tu ra l w o rld and eschatology.
Nevertheless, h is com m itm ent to b ib lic a l exegesis leads h im to affirm the teachings of Rom.
8:19-22 on the c o rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation, even though he does not fu lly fit these
ideas in to h is system. C alvin praises the beauty o f nature, w hich has the stam p o f the divine
glory despite the F a ll and is the realm o f Gods sovereign providence.125
C alvin understands Kxunq in Rom. 8 :1 9 f to include anim als and inanim ate things, b u t
apparently not hum an beings o r angels.126 The F a ll of Adam led to the condem nation o f the
non-hum an creatures and resulted in the derangement of th e perfect order o f creation. Thus
the w orld is now fallen along w ith hum ankind, though God continues to sustain the w o rld so it
does not to ta lly fa il. God subjected creation to th is state as p a rt o f the curse for the F all
because a ll other creatures were made fo r the sake of h u m a n kin d .127 "F u tility " refers to the
tem porary, unstable state o f existence o f everything in nature. The groaning and tra v a il of
creation do n o t reflect intelligence in non-hum an creatures, b u t show th a t creation n a tu ra lly
aspires to the perfection from w hich it fe ll, a process th a t is hindered because of the F all. A ll
non-hum an creatures groan to overcome the transiency of th is life , looking forw ard to the
fu tu re Resurrection day w hen they w ill again achieve th a t perfection fro m w hich they have
fallen. The im agery of the tra va il of c h ild b irth indicates th a t th e present groaning w ill n o t be
in vain, b u t looks forw ard w ith hope to a fin a l positive re s u lt.128
A t the dawn o f the kingdom o f heaven on the R esurrection day, the fallen creation w ill
be redeemed and w ill partake in glory. Though th is w ill occur at the tim e o f the g lo rifica tio n o f
the saints, the non-hum an creation w ill not experience glory in the same sense as the children
12SInstitutes, 1.14.21; 1.5.1; Opera Selecta 9.793.
126John C alvin, Commentaries on the E pistle o f Paul the Apostle to the Romans, tra n s. John
Owen (Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerdmans, 1959), 303-4; Institutes, 3.9.5.
127Instltutes, 2.2.5; Romans, 304.
I28Romans, 305-306; Institutes, 3.25.2.
47
of God. The w orld w ill be restored to its pre-Fail perfection and w ill experience a fin a l glory
appropriate to its nature. In contrast to Luther, Calvin Is hesitant to speculate on the exact
nature o f the glory of the new heavens and earth. He says th a t it is inappropriate to Inquire
about such questions as w hether anim als w ill be im m o rta l.129 W hile C alvin affirm s the hope
of a new heavens and earth, he Is not clear w hat fu n ctio n th is has in Gods plan. W hat is the
| purpose o f a new earth, in lig h t o f the fact th a t the resurrected saints w ill need nothing
I
m aterial? C alvin sim ply says th a t the saints w ill take great pleasure in the mere knowledge of
the new w orlds sweetness, even though they w ill have no use fo r it . 130
W hile C alvin m inim izes the im portance o f the renewal o f a ll creation, and w hile he
never fu lly integrates th is concept into his theology, h is com m itm ent to the teachings of
S cripture causes h im to re ta in th is theme In h is w ritings. Q uistorp suggests several factors
th a t caused C alvin to m inim ize the role of the non-hum an creation in eschatology: (1) Calvins
stress on election, fin a l judgm ent and the redem ption o f hum anity tended to exclude the
"restoration o f a ll things" (Acts 3:21). (2) H is understanding of salvation was essentially
in d ivid u a listic. (3) H is view of death involved the entrance in to life and deliverance from the
m ortal body, w hich he calls a prison, a ro ttin g carcass and dung. The body is p art o f th is
w orld, w hich is a sepulchre. (4) H is zeal to oppose the m aterialism of the A nabaptists
sometimes led him to a sp iritu a lizin g tendency and caused him to read the book of Revelation
in term s o f C hurch histo ry (like Augustine) ra th e r th a n eschatology. For these reasons, the
renewal o f creation occupies a role on the periphery o f C alvins thought, although h is com m it
m ent as a b ib lic a l exegete led h im to tre a t the subject seriously when he dealt w ith it . 131
Despite the fact th a t the Reformers interests are centered on hum an salvation, Luther
l29Romans, 305.
l30Instttutes, 3.25.2.
131H e inrich Q uistorp, C alvins Doctrine o f the Last Things, trans. H arold K night (Richmond.
Va.: Jo h n Knox Press, 1955), 57-63, 160-1, 190, 193.
48
and C alvin offer In sig h tfu l exegesis of Rom. 8:19-22 and some valuable com m ents on a
theology of the n a tu ra l w orld. The Reform ation m arks a departure from the asym m etrical
views o f creation and redem ption th a t dom inated the Medieval C hurch and a re tu rn to the
sym m etrical view found in such Fathers as Irenaeus and Chrysostom.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the Reformers views on the m eaning o f ktutu; and the
co rru p tio n o f creation:
Table 8: Reformation Views of the Corruption of Creation and the Meaning of lcctciq
Meaning of rrim q Result of Fall Who

Person Date Subjected
All Creation Subhuman Nature Creation Corrupted Creation Fallen Nature Still Good Creation
Erasmus 1466-1536 X X God

Luther 1483-1546 X X X God
Melanchthon 1497-1560 X X
Calvin 1509-1564 X X X X God
B oth L u th e r and C alvin emphasize the goodness and beauty of the entire creation,
w hich was n o t lo st despite the co rru p tin g influences o f the Fall. Neither, however, have as
strong a sense of com m union w ith nature as Francis and some o f the m edieval m onastics had.
Lu th e r and M elanchthon argue th a t tcxioi? in Rom. 8:19-22 should be understood as the entire
universe, w hile C alvin lim its it to the sub-hum an m aterial creation, both anim ate and in a n i
m ate. Erasm us includes b oth the sub-hum an m aterial creation (w ith an em phasis on in a n i
m ate things) and angels. L u th e r and C alvin agree th a t the entire creation has been corrupted
as a re su lt of the curse fo r the s in of hum ankind. Luther also notes th a t nature continues to
suffe r under the sins of w icked people. Furtherm ore, Luther stresses the present hostile side
o f nature as an aspect o f the "left hand o f God, i.e. h is w rath, and C alvin notes th a t it is only
Gods re s tra in t th a t keeps the system o f nature from fa llin g apart under the im pact of sin.
L u ther speaks of a so lid a rity between hum an kind and nature, and he ties the corru ption of
creation to th is so lid a rity and to hum an responsibility fo r the management of the w orld.
49
E rasm us connects the enslavem ent and fin a l freedom o f the w orld to the fate o f hum an ity,
since the w o rld, in clud ing angels, was created to serve hum anity.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the Reform ers views on the redem ption o f creation:
Table 9: Reformation Views of the Redemption of Creation
Type of Redemptlon of Natural World

Person Date
Eschatological Climax Historical Process Restore Pre-Fall State More Perfect Than Pre-Fall
Erasmus 1466-1536 X X
Luther 1483-1546 X X X
Melanchthon 1497-1560 X X
Calvin 1509-1564 X X
Anabaptists 16 C. X even animals saved
Despite the bleak fu tility o f the present state o f creation, the Reformers a ll agree th a t
the w o rld looks forw ard w ith hope to a glorious fin a l redem ption. A ll see an eschatological
place fo r the earth, b u t they have d iffe re n t view s o f the nature of th a t fu tu re . C alvin sees the
fin a l state as a restoration to the pre-F all state of the w orld. L u th e r argues fo r an eschato
logical tra n sfo rm a tio n o f a ll creation th a t w ill re su lt In new heavens and a new earth, w hich
w ill be even b e tte r th a n Paradise. U n like C alvin, Luther is una fraid to describe the glories of
th is fu tu re w orld. Lu th e r also sees a p a rtia l re tu rn to the proper trea tm ent o f creation through
the ongoing w o rk of the righteous. M elanchthon and Erasm us a ffirm a fin a l renewal, b u t are
vague as to its nature. M any of the A nabaptists take the concept o f the renew al o f creation to
an extrem e and argue fo r the salvation o f anim als and even demons, a position th a t the
m ainstream Reformers are quick to refute.
D . 1 8 th -1 9 th C entu ry In te rp re ta tio n
N um erous exegetical w ritin g s were produced in the 18th and 19th centuries. In
co n tra st to m any earlier w rite rs, 19th ce n tu ry com m entators showed an increased concern to
exam ine ca re fu lly the details in a b ib lic a l te xt in its context, ra th e r th a n sim ply to use the
50
B ible fo r polem ical and theological purposes.
One o f the m ost im p o rta n t interpretive questions in Rom. 8:19-22 is the m eaning of
Kxitn^, since it largely determ ines w hether o r n o t one w ill in terpret the passage in term s o f the
co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. M any o f the 18th and 19th century com m entators
(e.g., Bengel (1742), T ho luck (1844), Godet (1850), Plum er (1870), Meyer (1874)) survey the
diversity of views held among the 17th-19th century w riters. O pinions included the whole
universe, the entire hum an race, Adam and Eve, unbelievers in general, unbelieving Jews,
unbelieving G entiles, C hristians, angels, s p irits in the stars, subhum an nature, non-hum an
anim ate creatures, and inanim ate created th in g s .132
Despite such a wide range o f opinions, th e dom inant view o f th is period is th a t tcxiou;
refers to the whole m ate rial creation apart from hum an beings. The term "nature" is increas
in g ly used to refer to th is aspect o f creation. M ost com m entators include b o th anim ate and
inanim ate non-hum an m ate rial thing s (e.g. Fritzsche (1836), C. Hodge (1864), Plum er (1870),
M eyer (1874), B. Weiss (1899), Shedd (1879), P h ilip (1893), Denney (1890), H. C. G. M oule
(1896), Gore (1899), Beet (1900), Sanday and Headlam (1902)).133 A few, however, lim it it
132Johann A lbrecht Bengel, Gnomen o f the New Testament (1742; re p rin t. E dinburgh: T. &
T. C lark, 1877), 105; Frederich A ugust G ottreu Tholuck, Exposition o f S t P aul's Epistle to the
Romans, tran s. Robert Menzies (Philadelphia: S orin and B all, 1844), 255-60; H. A. W. Meyer,
C ritical and Exegetical Handbook to the E pistle to the Romans, trans. John C. Moore and E dw in
Johnson (E dinburgh: T. & T. C lark, 1874), 2:70-4; Frederic Godet, Commentary on the Epistle
to the Romans, tran s. A. C usin and Talbot W. Chambers (1883; reprint, G rand Rapids, M i.:
Zondervan, 1956), 313-4; W illiam S. Plum er, Commentary on Paul's Epistle to the Romans (New
York: Anson D. F. Randolph, 1870), 403-7.
133Meyer, Romans, 2:69-75; Charles Hodge, Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans,
Revised ed. (New York: A rm strong and Son. 1896), 269; Plum er, 403-5; Bernard Weiss, Der
B rie f an die Romer, 9 th ed., Kom m entar uber das Neue Testament, no. 4 (G ottingen: Vanden-
hoeck and Ruprecht, 1899); W. G. T. Shedd, A C ritica l and Doctrinal Commentary Upon the
E pistle o f StJPauI to the Romans (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1879), 252; James
Denney, "St. Pauls Epistle to the Romans," in The E xpositofs Greek Testament, ed. W.
Robertson N icoll, The E xpositors G reek Testam ent (Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerdm ans, 1970),
2:649; George P hilip, "C reation W aiting fo r Redemption. An Expository S tudy o f Romans
8:19-22," ExpTim 5 (1893-1894): 315; K. F. A. F ritz s c h e ,, Pauli A d Romanos Epistola (Halle:
Gebauer, 1836-1843), 151; H. C. G. M oule, The Epistle o f Paul the Apostle to the Romans, The
Cambridge B ible fo r Schools and Colleges, no. 37 (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press.
51
only to anim ate, non-hum an creatures (Godet (1850)),134 o r only to Inanim ate thing s
(Tholuck (1844)).135 The sig nifica nt point Is th a t there was a growing consensus du rin g th is
period th a t Paul Is Interested In the m aterial creation. Since Paul contrasts the "creation" w ith
the "sons o f God" (v. 22), K tio i? m ust refer to non-hum an created things. Prior to th is tim e the
dom inant views were th a t kxio i^ referred to (1) the entire created order, (2) a ll m aterial created
things, or (3) hum anity, a view w hich dom inated m ainly d urin g the m iddle ages. O nly rarely
p rio r to the 19th century was there an effort to distinguish it from hum anity (in the P atristic
era, only Theophilus, C yril and "Am brosiaster"; In the m edieval era, E uthym ius Zigabenus; in
the Reform ation era, C alvin, the A nabaptists and Francisco Turretino). By the 19th century,
however, the view th a t ktutk; in th is passage refers to the non-hum an m aterial created order
became the dom inant interpretation. The view th a t the w ord refers to th e entire m aterial
created order is rare ly held (e.g., Bengel, Lange (1888, non-redeemed b u t redeemable cre
ation)).136
A n im portant exception to th is m ajority view is the revival o f the A ugustinian view th a t
tenon; refers to a ll hum an beings (Locke (1705-1707), o r only to unbelievers, S tu a rt (1833),
O ltram are (1881-1882), W. F. W hitehouse (1905)).137 W hitehouse surveys the use of Kxioi
1896); Charles Gore, S t Pauls Epistle to the Romans. A Practical Exposition (London: John
M urray, 1899), 1:303; J. A. Beet, A Commentary on S t Pauls E pistle to the Romans (New York:
Thomas W hittaker, 1900), 235; W illiam Sanday and A rth u r C. Headlam, A C ritical and
Exegetical Commentary on the E pistle to the Romans, 5th ed. (Edinburgh: T. and T. C lark,
1902), 207.
134Godet, Romans, 313-7.
135Tholuck, 257-8.
136Bengel, 105; J. P. Lange, The Epistle o f Paul to the Romans, Revised ed., ed. P. Schaff and
M. B. Riddle, trans. J. F. H u rst (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1888), 270. T his view is
also held b y P. Schaff and M. B. Riddle, the E nglish revisers of Langes com mentary.
137Jo h n Locke, A Paraphrase and Note to the Epistle o f S t Paul to the G alatians, the fir s t
and second Epistle to the Corinthians, and the Epistle to the Romans and Ephesians (1705-
1707), cited by Meyer, Romans, 2:75; Hughes O ltram are, Commentatre sur VEpilre aux
Romatns (1881-1882), cited by Sanday and Headlam, 207; W illiam Fitzhugh W hitehouse, The
52
in the NT and claim s th a t it is never used fo r "nature." Rather it is either used in an active
sense o f "creating" o r a passive sense o f "creature." It is sheer foolishness to th in k th a t Paul
had in view a regeneration o f nature. The inanim ate creation cannot enjoy eternal blessedness
since it is incapable o f fa ith .138 O ltram are trie s to disassociate Paul from the Jew ish concept
o f the death and decay o f nature due to th e F a ll and its renewal when the M essiah comes.
These w rite rs have in common a rejectio n o f the personification of nature and an
understanding th a t the personal language o f th e passage indicates th a t hum an beings are in
view. Since "anxious longing" and "eagerly aw aiting" are personal term s suggesting conscious
ness, Rom. 8:19-22 refers to hum an beings w ho w a it in hope to be united w ith God, th e ir
creator. It is in teresting th a t though these w rite rs share Augustines in terpretation o f Rom.
8:19-22, they do n o t hold h is high view o f the n a tu ra l w orld. F or it was Augustines high view
o f the goodness of th e n a tu ra l w orld th a t led h im to in terpret th is passage as a reference to
hum anity. Nevertheless, he s till looked fo r a glorious fu tu re fo r nature in the new earth. By
contrast, these 19th century scholars depreciate the im portance of the n a tu ra l w orld and
assign it no place in the eschaton. So w h ile they end up w ith a sim ila r in terpretation o f Rom.
8:19-22, they do n o t have the same m otives o r underlying theology o f nature.
M any o f those who in te rp re t K tiou; as a reference to hum anity also take a non-
eschatological approach to Rom. 8:19-22. T h is is p a rticu la rly evident among classical liberals
in the 19th century. Schleierm acher (1831), fo r example, says th a t the passage deals w ith sin
and the freedom fro m sin th a t the new person has in C hrist. H is emphasis is entirety on
hum an fellow ship w ith C h rist now, not in the vague fu tu re . He shows no in terest in the place
o f the n a tu ra l w o rld in the consum m ation.139 S im ila rly H am ack (1896) sees the interest of
) Redemption o f the Body. Being an E xam ination o f Romans VZZZ 18-23, 2nd ed. (London: E llio t
Stock, 1905).
138W. F. W hitehouse, 22-4, 27-38.
139F rie d rich Schleierm acher, The C hristian Faith, ed. and tran s. b y H. R. M ackintosh and J.
53
!
i
!
i _______________________________ . ____
th e early C hurch In eschatology as an "evil inheritance" from the Jews.140 In fact, m any
w orks on Pauls theology from around th e tu rn o f the century displayed little o r no interest in
eschatology, and hence m ake no m ention o f passages like Rom. 8:19-22 (e.g., Seeberg (1905);
W einel (1906); Andrews (1915); H erm ann (1927)). Herm ann even condemns as pan the istic the
b e lie f th a t Gods w orking reveals its e lf in the physical w o rld .141
T his branch o f Protestant th o u g h t reflects an im portant s h ift away from th e position of
th e Reform ers, who were able to m a in ta in an in te re st in the n a tu ra l w orld, even though the
re la tio n sh ip o f hum an beings to God was in the center o f th e ir thought. A fte r th e Reform ation,
a gradual change to o k place, re su ltin g in the secularization o f nature in m uch o f 19th century
Protestant thought. Nature was no longer seen as the theater o f Gods glory and a place o f his
pow erful w orking. Nature became a self-enclosed m achine, set apart from bo th God and
h u m a n ity, w hich hum ans m ust transcend if they are to be rig h tly related to G od.142
Santm ire a ttrib u te s th is fundam ental change in Protestant thought about nature to
three m ajor c u ltu ra l forces: (1) the developm ent o f n a tu ra l science, w ith its m echanistic view of
n a tu ra l law; (2) the socio-political w o rld o f m odem in d u stria liza tio n , w hich seeks to dom inate
and use n a ture ra th e r th a n cooperate w ith it as a responsible steward; and, m ost im portantly,
(3) the influence o f Im m anuel K ant (1724-1804), whose concept o f the separation between
na ture and grace provided the philo sophical foundation fo r th is change in Protestant th in k
in g .143 K ant distinguished phenom ena (reality as it appears to the understanding) from
noum ena (reality as it is in itself). Science can on ly study phenomena, b u t re lig io n deals w ith
S. Stew art (E dinburgh: T. & T. C lark, 1956), 499, 696-709.
140A d o lf H am ack, The Theological Translation Library, vol. 1, H istory o f Dogma (London:
Norgate, 1896), 101.
141See the discussion in Nelson, pp. 88-90.
143Ib id ., 133-6.
54
m oral and s p iritu a l concepts th a t are based on unco nditional categorical im peratives,
independent o f em pirical study, and hence in the area o f the noum ena.144 Santm ire charac
terizes K ants ideas as an "ecological sieve," w hich filte re d o u t the ecological ideas on the
circum ference o f the though t o f L u th e r and Calvin. W hat was le ft was radica lly theanthropo-
centric: God viewed in iso latio n from nature and h u m a n ity viewed in iso la tio n from
n a tu re .145 Galloway observes th a t th is also made im possible any m eaningful form ulation o f
a doctrine o f cosmic redem ption, since propositions about the environm ent bear no system atic
re la tio n to propositions about m orals and the s p iritu a l dim ension.146 Thus not only Kant,
b u t also those who were influenced by h is thought, show little in terest in the redem ption o f the
n a tu ra l w o rld and passages such as Rom. 8:19-22.147
Some 19th century A nglican theologians (e.g., H ort, Gore, Paget) took a m ediating
position th a t rejected such a s tric t separation o f nature and grace. The controversial docu
m ent Lex Mundi, w h ich states th is position, shows th e ir in terest in the n a tu ra l w orld and
stresses the sanctifica tion o f m a tte r as a p a rt o f a sacram ental view o f the whole of life .148
These scholars had a general optim ism about nature and its goodness, order and u n ity. They
144Galloway, 140-1.
146Galloway, 142.
147For example, R itsch l (1822-1889) argues th a t hum ans, as p a rt o f nature and yet having
a s p iritu a l dim ension, can rise above nature and have dom inion over it through the kingdom of
God. The hum an m oral and in te lle ctu a l outlo ok is fundam entally in conflict w ith nature.
N ature is depreciated and is incapable o f redem ption. Cf. H. R ichard N iebuhr, C hrist and
Culture (New York: H arper and B rothers, 1951), 101; Santm ire, T ra v a il 138.
148This perspective has its roots in R ichard Hooker (1554-1600), the in flu e n tia l Anglican
theologian o f the Reform ation era. Hooker says Gods influence is seen in the essence o f a ll
th in g s and his wisdom is shown in the varied aspects o f h is creation. Thus there is no
d isju n ctio n between nature and grace, b u t they can m u tu a lly illu m in a te each other. H is
"theology o f conjunction," in w hich thing s usu a lly seen as contradictory are in fact comple-
m entaiy, plays an im p o rta n t role in A nglican thought, at least through the 19th century. Cf.
A llch in , pp. 149-153.
55
had an evo lu tio n a iy hope in the general progress and im provem ent o f the n a tu ra l w orld. The
m ate rial w o rld is ris in g to a destiny beyond a ll belief, prepared fo r it by God, in w hich it w ill
partake o f Gods likeness.149 Yet in contrast to the hope o f Rom. 8:19-22 and the OT proph
ets, th is resto ratio n o f nature is a n historica l, evolutionary process, not a clim actic eschatolog
ica l tran sform ation o f the w orld b y the power o f God.
M any o f those who saw Rom. 8:19-22 as a reference to the non-hum an creation and its
eschatological fate focused th e ir a tte n tio n on various im portant exegetical details in the
passage, such as who subjected creation to vanity, as im plied by the passive verb linetdYq (v.
20). H. C. G. M oule sum marizes the m ain options: (1) Satan, who prom oted the F all and is
now "god o f th is w orld"; (2) hum anity, w hich fe ll and thereby brought about the co rru p tio n o f
the earth; and (3) God, who judged the hum an race and the earth because o f the Fall. Moule
eventually settles on God, noting th a t the creation was subjected "in hope" (v. 20).150 The
m a jo rity o f com m entators agree w ith th is view, seeing a reference to the curse (Gen. 3:17) th a t
God placed on the earth as a re su lt o f the F all o f Adam (e.g. Bengel, Tholuck, Meyer, Hodge,
Weiss, Sanday and Headlam, Denney, Gore, Lange, H. C. G. Moule). A m in o rity, however, held
th a t it is h u m a n ity (e.g., Godet, Lipsius (1891)), since it was because o f Adam th a t the ground
was cursed. They argue th a t 8ux plus the accusative is unusual as a reference to God. God is
the efficient cause o f the curse, n o t the m oral cause, w hich is suggested by 8ux plus accusa
tiv e .151
Some o f the 19th century com m entators ponder the significance of the erov-compounds
in v. 22. Several approaches are taken: (1) Denney, Sanday and Headlam see it as a reference
to creation in its entirety, i.e. a ll the parts o f w hich creation is made up. (2) Fritzsche (1836-
149Charles Gore, Lex MuncU, 10th edition (London: John M urray, 1890), 422-443; A llch in ,
149, 153-4.
150H. C. G. M oule, Romans, 151.
151Godet, Romans, 314-5.
56
1843) and Lipsiu s follow th e medieval in te rp re te r E uthym ius Zigabenus, arguing fo r hum an
ity s so lid a rity w ith nature. They claim th a t th is shows th a t the n a tu ra l w orld groans and
suffers together w ith h um an ity due to the im pact o f sin on the w o rld .152 (3) O ltram are takes
the u nu sual approach th a t the erov-compounds indicate th a t creation groans inw ardly, roughly
equivalent to ev feceutoi^.
The 19th century com m entators are aware o f the am biguity in the m eaning of 6xi and
are divided over its m eaning: (1) M any argue fo r a causal in te rp re ta tio n and translate it
'because" (Godet, Weiss (reading the te xt Sum), H. C. G. Moule, and m ost English translations
from the Tyndale version to the KJV). C reation has hope because" creation w ill one day be set
free from its slavery to corru ption. (2) O thers argue th a t it should be translated "that" since it
introduces the contents o f the hope (Tholuck, Meyer, Sanday and Headlam, Denney and m any
la te r tran slatio ns: 1881 E nglish Revised, M oflfatt, W eym outh, Goodspeed). T his w ould m ake
v. 21 indicate th a t the content o f the hope is "th a t" one day the creation w ill be set free from its
slavery to corru ption. The choice made fo r the fu n c tio n o f o n has little apparent effect on
w hether o r n o t a w rite r sees a fu tu re renovation o f creation in th is passage.
The com m entators who argue th a t Krim refers to the n a tu ra l w orld emphasize the
fu tu re redem ption o f creation. M ost look fo r a fin a l transform ation o f nature th a t w ill re su lt in
a greater state th a n the n a tu ra l w orld had before the fa ll (e.g., Godet, Lange, Denney, Meyer,
Sanday and Headlam). N ature w ill experience a new liberty, as a product o f its solida rity w ith
redeemed and glorified hu m a n ity. W hen the sons o f God are glorified they w ill dw ell in a new
w orld suitable fo r th e ir glorious new co n d itio n .153 O nly rarely do 19th century commenta
to rs see the fin a l state of creation as a re tu rn to the lib e rty and order th a t existed in nature
152Cf. Sanday and Headlam, 209, fo r a discussion of a ll of these views.
153Meyer, Romans, 2:78; Denney, 649; Sanday and Headlam, 212; Lange, Romans, 272;
Godet, Romans, 315.
57
p rio r to the F a ll (e.g., Plum er).154 Com m entators o f th is period are hesita nt to speculate on
the exact tran sform ation th a t creation w ill undergo. They sim ply a ffirm the b ib lic a l teaching
th a t there w ill be new heavens and a new earth. Godet goes the fa rth e st w hen he says th a t
the tran sform ation w ill m ean a new nature in its entirety, even w ith different co n stitu tio n and
laws. There w ill be no resurrection o f in d ivid u a l anim als, b u t only a co n tin u a tio n of the
species in the new w orld. Yet even Godet does n o t go fu rth e r to speculate on the types o f
changes th a t w ill take place in the co n stitu tio n o f n a tu re .155
A n Im portant recurren t theme among the 19th century com m entators w ho see Kivaiq as
nature is th e so lid a rity between h u m a n ity and n a tu re . Plum er, Denney, Godet and Sanday
and Headlam a ll say th a t since h u m a n ity was created to be the head o f creation, when Adam
sinned the rest o f creation was subjected to the curse. S im ilarly, when the sons of God enter
glory, the n a tu ra l w orld w ill also share in th a t g lo ry and freedom .156 Fritzsche and Lipsius
indicate th a t the oov-com pounds emphasize the s o lid a rity between hum anity and n a tu re .157
Sanday and Headlam express the strongest statem ent regarding Pauls sense o f so lid a rity w ith
nature, w hen they a ffirm th a t Paul shows:
an intense sym pathy w ith nature in and o f itse lf. He is one o f those (like St. Francis of
Assisi) to whom it is given to read as it were the thoughts o f p la n ts and anim als. He
seems to la y his ear to the earth and the confused m u rm u r w h ich he hears has a
m eaning fo r him : it is creations yearning fo r th a t hap pie r state intended fo r it and of
w hich it has been defrauded."158
The follow ing tables sum m arize the 18th and 19th century in terpretations o f Rom.
8:19-22:
154Plum er, 409.
155Godet, Romans, 315.
156Plum er, 409; Godet, Romans, 314; Denney, 649; Sanday and Headlam, 209, 212.
157Frltzsche, 153.
158Sanday and Headlam, 212.
58
' d -------------------------------------- ---- -----

Table 10: 18th-19th Century Views of the Meaning of m io i^ in Rom. 8:19-22
Person Date All Creation Subhuman Na Animate Nature Inanimate Nature All Humanity Non-Christians
ture
Locke 1705 X
Bengel 1742 X
Schleiermacher 1831 X
Stuart 1833 X
Fritzsche 1836 X
Tholuck 1844 X
Godet 1850 X
Hodge 1864 X
Plumer 1870 X
Meyer 1874 X
Shedd 1879 X
Oltramare 1881 X
Lange 1888 X
Denney 1890 X
Lipsius 1891 X
H. C. G. Moule 1896 X
Gore 1899 X
Weiss 1899 X
Beet 1900 X
Sanday and Headlam 1902 X
W.F. Whitehouse 1905 X
Table 11:18th-19th Century Views of the Corruption and Redemption of Creation
Who Subjected Creation? Type of Redemption of Natural World

Person Date
God Adam Restore Pre-Fall More Perfect than Historical Only Humanity
State Pre-Fall Process
Locke 1705 X
Bengel 1742 X
Schleiermacher 1831 X
Stuart 1833 X
Tholuck 1844 X
Godet 1850 X X
59
. J ________________________ . .
Who Subjected Creation? Type of Redemption of Natural World
Person Date
God Adam Restore Pre-Fall More Perfect than Historical Only Humanity
State Pre-Fall Process
Hodge 1864 X
Plumer 1870 X
Meyer 1874 X X
Shedd 1879
Oltramare 1881 X
Lange 1888 X X
Denney 1890 X X
Lipslus 1891 X
H. C. G. Moule 1896 X
Gore 1899 X X
Weiss 1899 X
Beet 1900
Sanday and Headlam 1902 X X
W. F. Whitehouse 1905 X
This survey o f 18th and 19th century exegesis shows several im portant trends: (1) The
w rite rs show a great interest in careful exegesis o f the text, using im proved gram m atical,
h is to ric a l and c ritic a l tools. (2) Nevertheless, th e ir in terpretations o f the passage offer little new,
though they refine the in te rp re ta tio n at some points. (3) The m ost significant change is in the
understanding o f the m eaning o f K tioiq in Rom. 8:19-22. The dom inant view in the 19th
ce n tu ry (e.g., Meyer, C. Hodge, Plum er, Weiss, Shedd, Denney, H. C. G. M oule, Gore, Beet,
Sanday and Headlam) is th a t it refers to the entire m aterial creation apart from hum anity, a
view only rarely seen p rio r to th is tim e. This view is generally accompanied by a belief in the
co rru p tio n o f nature due to the F a ll o f Adam and a positive hope fo r the fin a l renewal o f the
w o rld in the consum m ation. Rom. 8:19-22 is a pivotal passage in th is sym m etrical view, w hich
echoes such Fathers as Irenaeus and Chrysostom.
(4) A n im p o rta n t m in o rity, p a rtic u la rly among 19th and early 20th century liberals, do
n o t in te rp re t the passage as a reference to the corru p tio n and redem ption o f creation at a ll (e.g.,
60
Locke, S tuart, O ltram are, W hitehouse, Schleierm acher). M ost o f these see m a iq in the passage
as p urely a reference to hum an ity, th u s lim itin g Rom. 8:19-22 to the groaning o f hum anity
under the effects o f sin and the hope o f the fu tu re redem ption o f the saints. W hile th is view
form ally agrees w ith an A ugustinian in te rp re ta tio n , th e m otivation is entirely different from th a t
o f Augustine. Augustine had a high view o f the goodness and im portance o f the m aterial w orld,
w hich was coupled w ith a hope fo r the fin a l g lo rifica tio n fo r the renewed earth as an eternal
dw elling place fo r the saints. B u t 19th century scholars in te rp re tin g iccioiq as h um an ity are
m otivated by an anthropocentric theology th a t depreciates the n a tu ra l w orld and often shows
little concern fo r any type o f eschatology. Hope fo r the redem ption or renewal o f creation has no
place in such a system.
E . M odem In te rp re ta tio n
I . Com m entaries and A rticles on Romans
The variety o f in terpretations o f the m eaning o f xrtvmq in Rom. 8:19-22 is no less diverse
in the 2 0 th century th a n in the 18th and 19th centuries. In fact, whereas in the 19th century
there was a general consensus th a t m a n ; in Rom. 8:19-22 refers to the n a tu ra l w orld,
scholars o f the m odem era have less agreement. The in terpretations can be divided in to three
broad categories: (1) the whole creation: (2) creation apart from hum anity; and (3) only
h um an ity itself.
A significant num ber o f m odem scholars argue th a t the whole creation is in view in
Rom. 8:19-22 (e.g. Nelson, G ibbs, Gerber, B a rre tt, M ichel, Nygren, Bruce, G riffith , R ust,
Stacey, B ru n n e r (sometimes)).159 This in te rp re ta tio n seems to include the n a tu ra l w orld,
159Nelson, Groaning, 192; John G. G ibbs, "Pauline Cosmic C hristology and Ecological
C risis," JB L 9 0 (1971): 471; Gibbs, Creation and Redemption, 40; Uwe Gerber, "R6m V iii.l8 ff
als exegetisches Problem der D ogm atik," N oifT8 (1966): 64-8; C. K. B arrett, The Epistle to the
Romans (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), 166 ("whole created w orld"); O tto M ichel, Der B rie f
an die Romer, ubersetzt und erkl& rt (Gdttingen: Vandenhoeck and R uprecht, 1955) ("die Fulle
des Geschaffen"); F. F. Bruce, The E pistle o f Paul to the Romans. A n Introduction and Commen
tary, Tyndale New Testam ent Commentaries, ed. R. V. G. Tasker (Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerd-
61
hum an kind and s p iritu a l beings.160 In contrast to the 19th century. In w hich th e non
hum an m ate rial creation view dom inated, th is m arks a re tu rn to the view th a t dom inated In
the p a tris tic era. The m ost Im portant proponent of th is view Is Nelson, whose 1969 disserta
tio n on Rom. 8:18-27 is the m ost sig nifica nt w ork on the passage to date. A fter a thorough
w ord study o f kxictk; and xoapo^ and an extensive study of the h isto ry o f research on the
passage, he e x p lic itly rejects the 19th century consensus th a t Paul has the n a tu ra l w orld In
m ind. He concludes:
Pauls reference In Romans 8:19 is probably the w idest possible, w ith o u t any Inte ntion
to exclude any category a t th a t stage o f the expression.. . . Pauls discussion moves
sh o rtly to a specific group w ith in the larger whole. Though the p a rtic u la r expression
does have the believers and the creation in parallel, both groaning, it seems b e tte r to
elim inate nothing from the d e fin itio n o f the tcrunt;. A sharp dualism between m an and
N ature is not Pauls purpose at th is place, [his em phasis]161
Those who take th is all-in clu sive in te rp re ta tio n o f ictunq argue th a t the Fall of Adam had an
im pact on the entire creation, not sim ply hum anity. In so doing, they stress the so lid a rity
between hum ankind and the rest o f creation.
M any of those w ho take an all-inclusive in terpretation, however, have d iffic u lty being
consistent w ith some o f the im plications o f th is view. Despite th e ir claim s fo r th e breadth o f
kuctu;, m ost show a m arked reluctance to apply the teachings of the passage to non-C hristians
m ans, 1963), 173 (tentatively); G wilym O. G riffith , "The Apocalyptic Note in Romans," ExpTim
56 (1945): 154; E ric C. R ust, N ature and Man in B iblical Thought (London: L utterw orth Press,
1953), 198-9; W. David Stacey, "Pauls Certainties, n. Gods Purpose in CreationRomans V iii.
22-23," The Expository Times 69 (1957): 178 ("whole created order - m an, b ird , beast, field,
forest, everything"). E m il B runner, Dogmatics, vol. 2, The C hristian Doctrine o f Creation and
Redemption (London: L u tte rw o rth Press, 1946), 439 and E m il B runner, Dogmatics, vol. 3, The
C hristian Doctrine o f the Church, F aith and the Consummation (London: Lutterw orth, 1962),
439, refer to Kxien? as the whole creation, w hile E m il B runner, Revelation and Reason. The
C hristian Doctrine o f F a ith and Knowledge (Philadelphia: W estm inster Press, 1946), 72, says it
refers to unbelieving m ankind.
160G riffith , "Apocalyptic," 154, e xp licitly includes "not only Nature* b u t the whole created
order, visible and invisible, earthly and angelic."
161Nelson, Groaning, 192.
62
o r to s p iritu a l beings, p a rtic u la rly demons.162 For example. Nelson says th a t Pauls reference
to KTunq in th is passage is "the w idest possible, w ith o u t in te n tio n to exclude any
category."163 Yet in another place he lim its the term to the "non-hum an order," since cre
a tion was subjected to fu tility "not o f its own w ill" (v. 20). He also makes a d istin ctio n between
"the creation" and believers in w . 22-23, based on the m iv-com pounds and the reference to
believers w ith "we also" in verse 2 3 .164 In m any cases, therefore, an all-inclusive under
standing is closer in practice to a n a tu ra l w orld interpretation. The goal of these scholars,
apparently, is to stress h um an itys so lid a rity w ith the rest o f creation and to emphasize th a t
C h rists w o rk extends to "the cosm ic to ta lity " (Gibbs term ).165 In the process, however, some
are inconsistent or fuzzy in th e ir understanding o f Pauls use of kuou ; in Rom. 8:19-22.
A va ria tio n o f the a ll-inclusive approach is the view th a t Paul had in m ind the entire
m ate rial creation, thereby excluding angels and demons (e.g. Dodd, Foerster).166 A nother
va ria tio n is th a t Paul had in m ind the entire creation apart from C hristians (apparently
Kasemann and Leenhardt).167 Kasemann, however, is inconsistent lik e m any o f those who
162A n exception is G riffith , who e xp licitly includes both m aterial and im m aterial created
things.
164Ib id ., 195, 215-7. G ibbs shows the same inconsistency, fo r in "Cosmic," p. 471, he says
kxiou; "undoubtedly refers to the whole creation," b u t on p. 472 he speaks o f "creation" as
d is tin c t from hum an ity, w hich "eagerly aw aits its own release in the HeUsgeschichte o f the
sons o f God."
165Gibbs, Creation and Redemption, 471.
166C. H. Dodd, The B ible and the Greeks (London: Hodder and Stoughten, 1954), 108.
W erner Foerster, "Kxi^to," TDNT 3:1029, says it refers to "nature . . . both oiganic and in o r
ganic, b u t on p. 1031, he says it refers to the whole o f creation, except fo r Satan and angels.
It m eans "a ll th a t w hich on m ans account (including m an him self) was subjected to vanity."
167E m st Kasemann, Commentary on Romans, trans. Geoffrey W. Brom iley (Grand Rapids,
M i.: Eerdm ans, 1980), 233; Franz J. Leenhardt, The Epistle to the Romans, trans. H arold
K night (London: L u tte rw o rth Press, 1961), 219. Leenhardt says it is the w orld In so fa r as it is
d is tin c t from the C hurch, the sphere in w hich the saving action o f the C hurch is exercised.
W hile on the surface th is seems to refer to unsaved hum an ity, Leenhardt clearly includes
63
4 ___________________________ _
take an a ll-in clu sive view, fo r he says (1) th a t th e emphasis is on the non-hum an creation, in
keeping w ith the Jew ish apocalyptic background of the passage, and (2) th a t the non-C hristian
w orld plays little role in Pauls view. T hus K&semann, in practice, ends up closer to the view
th a t the n a tu ra l w orld is the focus fo r Paul, and so he sees the th ru s t o f the passage as
showing the cosm ic dim ensions of the F a ll and the w o rk o f C hrist.
The m ost pop ula r m odem in te rp re ta tio n o f icxunt; in Rom. 8:19-22 is th a t it refers to
the m ate rial creation apart from h u m a n ity (e.g. Cranfield, Fitzm yer, D unn, Zahn, Fritzsche,
W. M anson, Lietzm ann, Lagrange, G augler, M urray, David Francis, Lenski, Boylan, Holtz-
m ann, Bardenhower, Loane, B a rth (earlier)).168 Thus Paul is seen to have had in m in d th a t
p a rt o f creation called "nature" b y m odem people, and so does not include s p iritu a l beings
(angels o r demons) or hum an beings. The m ethodology generally taken is to sta rt w ith ktIok;
in the broad sense of a ll created things, and th e n gradually to elim inate various p a rts of
nature (pp. 222, 224).
168C. E. B. C ranfield, "Some O bservations on Romans 8.19-21," in Reconciliation and Hope.

New Testam ent Essays on Atonem ent a n d Eschatology, ed. Robert Banks (Grand Rapids, M i.:
Eerdm ans, 1974), 225; C ranfield, Romans, 411; Joseph A. Fitzm yer, Romans. A New Transla
tion w ith Introduction and Commentary, The A nchor Bible, no. 33, ed. David Noel Freedman
(New York: Doubleday, 1993), 506; Jam es D.G. D unn, Romans 1-8, W ord B ib lica l Commen
ta ry, no. 38A, ed. D avid A. H ubbard, G lenn W. B arker and Ralph P. M artin (Dallas: W ord,
1988), 469; T. Zahn, D er B rie f des Paulus an die Rcmer, T h ird ed. (Leipzig:, 1925), 400;
Fritzsche, 151; W illiam Manson, "Notes on the Argum ent o f Romans 1-8," in New Testament
Essays. Studies in Honor o f Thomas W alter Manson, ed. A. J . B. Higgins (Manchester, England:
M anchester U niversity Press, 1959), 163; Hans Lietzm ann, A n die Romer, 4th ed., Hanbuch
zum Neuen Testam ent, no. 8 (Tubingen: M ohr, 1933), 84; M. J. Lagrange, Safnt P a u l Epitre
AuxR om atns (Paris: J. Gabalda, 1950), 207; E. G augler,, vol. 1, Der Rom erbrief (Zurich:
Zw ingli, 1945-1952), 1:299; John M urray, The E pistle to the Romans, The New Inte rna tional
Com m entary on the New Testam ent, ed. F. F. Bruce (Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerdmans, 1959),
301-2 ("non-rational creation, anim ate and inanim ate"); David Francis, 'T errestial Realities:
T h e ir Liberation," Jeevadhara 8 (1978): 150; P a trick Canon Boylan, S t Pauls Epistle to the
Romans (D ublin: M. H. G ill and Son, 1934), 142; H einrich J u liu s Holzmann, Lehrbuch der
Neutestam entliche Theologie (Freiburg: J.C .B. M ohr, 1911), 2:48; O tto Bardenhewer, Der
R om erbrief des heiligen Paulus (Freiburg: Herder, 1926); M arcus L. Loane. The Hope o f Glory.
A n Exposition o f the Eighth Chapter in the E pistle to the Romans (London: Hodder and
Stoughton, 1968), 81, 90; K a rl B a rth , The E pistle to the Romans, 6th ed., trans. Edwyn C.
Hoskyns (London: O xford U niversity Press, 1933), 306-8. B a rth is inconsistent, since in h is
la te r Shorter Commentary on Romans, p. 99, he says is m ainly hum ankind.
64
creation by showing th a t they are incom patible w ith w h at Paul says in the passage and
elsewhere in h is w ritin g s .169 The view th a t Paul is speaking about the entire non-hum an
creation, both m aterial and s p iritu a l, is a rarely held va ria tio n (J. Schneider).170
The conclusions draw n from b o th o f these in te rp re ta tio n s vary little from the idea th a t
a ll o f creation is in view. B oth approaches recognize th a t Paul is p o in tin g to a so lid a rity
between hum an ity and the rest o f creation. Both approaches lo ok fo r an eschatological
renew al o f the cosmos. Since few th a t hold to an a ll-in clu sive view a ctu a lly go as fa r as to
suggest th a t demons and a ll unbelievers w ill be redeemed, in p ra ctica l term s they end up at
the same place as those who say th a t nature is p rim a rily in view. Such an approach, however,
is m ore precise in recognizing Pauls d is tin c tio n between "the creation" and believers (w . 19,
23).
A rath er un u su a l approach is taken by Fuchs, w ho claim s th a t Paul has the angels in
view .171 H is in terpretation, however, has not had any im pact on m ost other interpreters,
who tend to exclude the w orld o f s p iritu a l beings fro m the passage.
V ariations on the A u g u stin ia n view th a t iccioi^ refers to h u m a n ity are held in certain
circles durin g the 20th century. Some apply it to th e whole o f hum an kind (e.g. T. W. Manson,
S chlatter, G utbrod, H.W. Schm idt, B a rth (later)),172 others only to C hristians (e.g. Reumann,
169E.g. C ranfield, Romans, 411-2.
170J . Schneider, "arevaÔD," TDNT 7:601.
17IE. Fuchs, Die Frieheit des Glanbens: Romer 5-8 ansgelegt (M unich: Kaiser, 1949), 109.
172T. W. Manson, "Romans," in Peakes Commentary on the Bible, ed. M atthew B lack and H.
H. Rowley (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1962), 966; A d olf S chlatter, Gottes Gerechtigkeil:
Etn Komm entar zum Romerbrief, 3rd ed. (S tuttgart: Calwer Verlag, 1959), 269-75; G utbrod, Die
Paulinische Anthropologie (1934), cited b y Foerster, TDNT 3:1024; Hans W ilhelm Schm idt, Das
B rie f des Paulas an die Romer, Theologischer Handkom m entar zum Neuen Testam ent, no. 6
(B erlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1962), 145-7; B a rth , Shorter, p. 99. This seems to be the
m ain idea for B arth, even though in h is earlier E pistle to the Romans (pp. 306-308) he refers to
teams as "nature." B u t even in E pistle to the Romans he emphasizes th a t hum an beings are
fallen creatures aw aiting redem ption, ra th e r th a n the whole universe aw aiting release. The
n a tu ra l w orld is only an incidental background fo r the a ll im p o rta n t dram a of God and
65
d _ III M P i .11 Ml II -I mi ' n

T- - - - . . . -
Hom m el, V6gtle, H. Schm idt, R Knox),173 and a few only to unbelievers (e.g. Gager, B ru n n e r
(sometimes)).174 S chlatter calls it a "highly excited fantasy" and Reum ann labels it a "cosmic
daydream " to claim th a t Paul is interested in the whole o f creation.175 They argue th a t Rom.
8:19-22 does n o t present a creation theology b u t a discussion o f anthropology and soteriology.
T h is view bu ild s on the fact th a t the m a jo r in terest in Pauls le tte rs is hum an salvation.
F or example, B a rth (p a rticu la rly in h is la ter period) sees the n a tu ra l w orld as sim ply a theater
fo r the dram a o f hum an redem ption. W hile n a tu re is n o t evil, it is o f m in o r im portance in
Gods plan and w ill occupy no place in eternity.178 B runn er claim s th a t xxung in an absolute
sense generally refers to hum an ity in Paul177 and th a t in passages lik e G al 5:17 and 6:15 it
hum an ity. Cf. the analysis o f B a rth s view b y Norm an Young, Creator, Creation and F aith
(London: C ollins, 1976), 100-1.
173Jo h n Reumann, Creation and New Creation (M inneapolis: Augsburg, 1973), 119;
H ildebrecht Hommel, "Das H arren der K reatur," in Schopjer und Erhalter. Studien zum Problem
Christentum und A ntike , ed. H ildebrecht Hommel (Lettner: B e rlin. 1956), 7-23, argues th a t
P aul m eans believers only, though the o rig in a l tra d itio n m ay have referred to a ll creation.
A n to n Vogtle, "R5m 8,19-22: Eine Schopfungs-Theologische Oder Anthropologische-Soteriolog-
ische Aussage?," in Melanges Bibliques En Hommage A u R. P. Beda Rigaux, ed. A. Descamps
and A. H a lleux (Gembloux, Belgium : D uculot, 1970), 351-66, claim s it is an apocalyptic
fragm ent embedded in Pauls argum ent b u t applied to C hristians (cf. A nton V6gtle, Das Neue
Testam ent und die Zukunft des Kosmos (Dusseldorf: Patmos-Verlag, 1970), 184; H. Schm idt,
Romer, 145. Ronald A. Knox, A New Testament Commentary fo r English Readers, vol. 2
(London: B um s, Oates and W ashbource, 1954), 2:100, says th a t it refers to the bodies o f
believers.
174John G. Gager, 'F u n ctio n a l D iversity in Pauls Use of End-Tim e Language," JB L 89

(1970): 325-37, says o rig in a lly icitctq referred to the whole created order, b u t fo r Paul the
cosm ic dim ension has been reduced and his concern is sim ply fo r hum anity. B runner,
Revelation and Reason, 72, says it refers to unbelieving m ankind: cf. Romans, pp. 174-175
(p rim a rily m ankind, b u t "not im possible" inanim ate creation is included). C ontrast, however,
Creation and Redemption, p. 439 and where he says th a t the whole creation groans and
Church, p. 439, where he teaches th a t there w ill be a creaturely environm ent fo r redeemed
h u m a n ity to dw ell in.
175S chlatter, 274; Reumann, 99.
176S antm ire, T ra va il 148-53; Young, 101.
1^B ru n n e r, Revelation and Reason, 72.
66
refers to believers.176 S chlatter notes th a t K tuns can refer to a ll things th a t have arisen
thro ugh th e creative a ctivity o f God, in clu d in g hum an beings. He argues th a t in Rom. 8 :19f it
refers to hu m a n beings who w a it in u n tirin g hope o f being unite d w ith God, since anoicapor
Soida and dneK5exo}uxi are personal acts expressing consciousness.179 Hommel and Gager
assert th a t the sim ila ritie s between Rom. 1:21 and 8:20 in speaking about fu tility (paxatoxriq)
show th a t b oth verses are speaking about the fu tility o f hum an existence apart from God.180
Ronald Knox, however, holds th a t in some sense the m aterial w orld is in view, fo r the bodies of
believers are p a rt of the m aterial w orld. Thus n a ture w ill have a p a rt in the fin a l renewal w ith
the bodies o f believers as its representative in th e R esurrection.181
M any o f the scholars cited above (e.g. Reum ann, Gager, Hommel, Vogtle) claim th a t
Paul used an apocalyptic fragm ent th a t o rig in a lly referred to the suffering of the entire created
order due to hum an s in and its fu tu re renewal along w ith redeemed hum anity. They believe,
however, th a t Paul used the m ate rial in a d iffe re n t m anner to refer to the suffering o f C h ris
tia n s as they aw ait th e ir fin a l glory. Pauls purpose was to refute enthusiasts who thought
th a t they had already achieved a ll o f th e ir u ltim a te benefits in C h rist.182
The in te rp re ta tio n regarding who subjected creation to fu tility has reached m ore o f a
consensus th a n the in te rp re ta tio n o f ktI ok;. The m ajority o f com m entators agree th a t God is
in view and th a t the reference is to the curse follow ing the F a ll of Adam (e.g. C ranfield,
K&semann, Lagrange, Dodd, Nelson, Best, B oylan, Nygren, Bruce, Stacey, Huby, Lenski,
M ichael, Francis, Leenhardt, G riffith , Gaugler, Loane, M urray, Rust, H ill, Scroggs, Gerber;
178Gager, "F unctional D iversity," 328; Hom m el, 19; Reumann, 98-9.
179S chlatter, 269-70.
| 180Hommel, 19; Gager, "F unctional D iversity," 328-9.
1 181Ronald Knox, 2:99-100.

i
f
182Reum ann, 98-9; Gager, "Functional D iversity," 328; Hommel. 19; VGgtle, Z ukunft des
Kosmos, 183-207; Vdgtle, "R6m 8,19-22," 351-66.
f 67
B a rth (earlier)).183 There is, however, a noticeable m in o rity w ho see hum an beings behind
the passive verb linetayn (v. 20). M ost o f these la tte r interpreters see it as a reference to Adam
(e.g. R Knox, Fuchs, Lampe, Lyonnet, Foerster, D elling, D avid Sm ith)184, w hile a few see it
as a broader reference to sin fu l hum an ity in general (e.g. Stauffer, Evdokimov, Zahn).185
G enerally th is approach also sees the F all in the passage, w ith the stress on the hum an beings
who sinned and so brought a curse on nature as w ell as hum anity. A few place the blame on
Satan (e.g. P. D ubarle, P allis)186 or on the Satanic power o f s in (Heim).187 B arth takes an
u nu sual view in h is la te r Shorter Ccmmentary on Romans, arguing th a t Jesus C h rist subjected
h um an ity and the whole creation to va n ity b y the judgm ent pronounced and executed on the
cross.188
183C ranfleld, Romans, 1:413; Kdsemann, Romans, 235; Lagrange, Romans, 208; C. H. Dodd,
The E pistle o f Paul to the Romans, M offatt New Testam ent Com m entary, no. 6 (London: Hodder
and Stoughton, 1932), 134; Nelson, Groaning, 196-8; E rnest Best, The Letter o f Paul to the
Romans (Cambridge: Cam bridge U niversity Press, 1967), 198; Boylan, 143; Anders Nygren,
Commentary on Romans (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1949); Bruce, 172; Stacey, "Pauls
C ertainties," 174; R C. H. Lenski, The Interpretation o f SL Pauls E pistle to the Romans
(Colum bus, Ohio: Lutheran Book Concern, 1936; re p rin t. M inneapolis: Augsburg, 1961), 538;
Francis, 152; Leenhardt, 220-1; G w ilym O. G riffith , SL P auls Gospel to the Romans (London:
B lackw ell, 1949), 95; G augler, 1:303; Loane, 83; M urray, 303; R ust, 733; Edm und H ill, "The
C onstruction o f Three Passages From St. Paul," CBQ 23 (1961): 297; Robin Scroggs, The Last
Adam. A Study in P auline Anthropology (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1966), 91; Gerber, 64-8;
B a rth, Romans, 309. Some tran slators also paraphrase it in a way th a t shows th a t God is in
view: M offatt, W eym outh, P hillips, NEB, Jerusalem Bible.
184Ronald Knox, 2:100; Fuchs, 109; G. W. H. Lampe, "The New Testam ent D octrine of
K tisis," SJT 17 (1964): 458; Stanislas Lyonnet, "Redemptio "Cosmica" Secundum Rom
8.19-23," VD 44 (1966): 228; David Sm ith, The Disciples Commentary on the New Testament
(London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1932), 4:344; Foerster, "k x i^co" in TDNT 3:1031; D elling,
"TdffCKD" in TDNT 8:41.
185Stauflfer, 74; Zahn, 400; Evdokim ov, 1.
186P. D ubarle, "La theologie du cosmos," in In itia tio n th&ologique, ed. P.

D ubarle (1952), 322, cite d b y Leenhardt, 221; A. P allis, To the Romans (1920), cited by
K&semann, Romans, 235.
187K a rl Heim , The W orld: Its Creation and Consummation, trans. Robert S m ith (Philadelphia:
M uhlenberg Press, 1962), 125. Heim apparently does not believe in a personal devil, b u t he
believes a type o f d u a listic evil power is a t w a r w ith God th a t has corrupted the w orld (p. 129).
I88K arl B a rth , A Shorter Commentary on Romans (Richmond, Va.: John Knox Press, 1959),
68
The in te rp re ta tio n of oxt (v. 21) is as varied in the 20th century as it was in the 19th
century. M any tran slate the word as "th a t," in d ica tin g the content o f the hope (e.g. Dodd,
Lenski, Francis, Bruce, NASV, NIV, P h illip s, G erm an tran slatio ns except Gaugler, French
tra n sla tio n s except Lagrange),189 w hile others translate it "because," in d ica tin g the basis fo r
the hope (e.g. C ranfield, B arrett, Lagrange, M ichel, Leenhardt, Boylan, Gaugler, KJV,
NEB).190 A few are am bivalent about the m eaning (e.g. Nelson, M urray).191 M odem
com m entators have added nothing essentially new to the argum ents fo r one side o r the other.
2 . Rom . 8 :1 9 -2 2 in Studies o f Eschatology and Pauline Theology
Jurgen M oltm anns studies o f eschatology have im portant im plicatio ns fo r Rom. 8:19-
22 and the topic o f the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. The s ta rtin g point fo r M olt
m anns theology is eschatology, w hich he sees as the doctrine o f C h ristia n hope. From firs t to
la st - not m erely as an epilogue - the C h ristia n fa ith is eschatology.192 Hope fo r Gods w o rk
in the fu tu re is based on h is actions in b ib lic a l history. Thus although ju s tific a tio n is based
on C h rists death and Resurrection, it also looks forw ard to the fu tu re in the Parousia.193
Hope sees in the R esurrection o f C hrist a fu tu re fo r the earth on w hich C h rist died, not an
100 .
189Francis, 153; Bruce, 173; Lenski; Dodd, Romans, 133; German tra n sla tio n s b y DeWette,
Ju lich e r, Franz Sigge and O tto Kuss (see discussion in Nelson, p. 97); French translations
in clu d in g D avid M artin , O stervald, Stapffer, S. Lyonnet (see discussion in Nelson, p. 97).
1"C ra n fie ld , Romans, 414-5; Boylan, 144; B a rre tt, Romans, 166; M ichel; Leenhardt, 222;
Lagrange, Romans, 209.
191Nelson, Groaning, 205-7; M urray, 304.
1"J u rg e n M oltm ann, Theology o f Hope. On the Ground and Im plications o f a C hristian
Eschatology, trans. Jam es W. Leitch (New Y ork: H arper and Row, 1967), 16.
193Ju ig e n M oltm ann, The Future o f Creation, trans. M argaret Kohl (London: SCM, 1979),
166-8.
69
e te rn ity in heaven.194
B ib lica l hope fo r the fu tu re is n o t an otherw orldly escape from h is to ry or a re tu rn to a
pre-existent Paradise. The new redeemed creation w ill be ra d ica lly new, u n like anything God
has done before, since Gods prom ises are always fu lfille d in unexpected ways.195 In the
consum m ation redeemed h u m a n ity w ill be glorified, i.e. it w ill acquire a p a rt in the glory o f
God. S im ila rly, the w hole creation w ill be set free from its enslavem ent to fu tility and
participate in the all-perm eating glory of God.196
The creation m u st be viewed m essianicalty, in lig h t o f Jesus the Messiah. Thus
creation m u st be viewed in term s o f its fu tu re fo r which it was made and in w hich it w ill be
perfected. God is m aking creation h is home, "on earth as it is in heaven." In the end, when
the m essianic reign o f God arrives, there w ill be a true m ultifaceted com m u n ity of a ll things,
bonded in love, p a rticip a tio n , and com m unication as the creation is u n ifie d in the cosmic
S p irit. In the Bible, creation is aligned tow ards its redem ption from the very begin n ing. The
creation o f the w orld p o in ts tow ard the Sabbath, when creation is com pleted.197
The subjection o f creation to fu tility referred to in Rom. 8:20, therefore, means th a t sin
closed the open system o f the w o rld against its own potentialities and fixed it in its present
state. Conversely, salvation involves the divine opening of closed system s.198
The prom ise o f fu tu re glory described in Rom. 8:19-22 not only gives hope fo r the
fu tu re , b u t also m akes us aware o f present sufferings. This in n e r dialectic brings believers in to
a profound so lid a rity w ith the whole enslaved creation. Paul describes th is in three concentric
194M oltm ann, Theology o f Hope, 21.
19SM oltm ann, Future o f Creation, 115-6.
196Ib id ., 125.
197Jurgen M oltm ann, God in Creation: A n Ecological Doctrine o f Creation. The G ifford
Lectures 1984-1985 (London: SCM, 1985), 5-10.
198M oltm ann, Future o f Creation, 122-3.
70
. .. .
circles: (1) th e ch ild re n o f God have been seized b y the firs t energies of the s p irit, b u t long fo r
lib e rty; (2) they long fo r th e redem ption o f the body, even though they are freed from the body
o f sin and death; (3) believers are bound in a common destiny w ith a ll other e arthly creatures
in th e ir b o d ily suffering and death.
U n like the hum an race, n a ture did not fa ll through its own sin. M oltm ann argues,
therefore, th a t it is dub iou s to speak o f a fallen creation. Yet creation has a sadness and a
yearning fo r the freedom o f the m essianic age. Pauls description o f the tran sitoriness o f the
w o rld is n o t m etaphysical, b u t m essianic. It is b u ilt around hope fo r the kingdom o f God,
w hich w ill m ean perfected lib e rty fo r th e non-hum an creation. The fu tu re lib e rty o f believers is
not exclusive, b u t inclusive. W here the original creation started w ith nature and ends w ith
hum anity, the eschatological redem ption reverses th is order and sta rts w ith hum an ity and
ends w ith a ll creation. Thus, in M oltm anns view, creation does not aw ait C h rist per se, b u t
the redeemed ch ild re n o f God.199
In m odem P auline studies there has been a tendency to dow nplay the place o f the
n a tu ra l w orld. Few o f th e m ajor P auline and NT theologies have a section on the n a tu ra l w orld
in Paul o r on the fu tu re state o f the creation. For example, the theme is om itted in the NT
theologies o f F. C. B aur, C arl H olsten, J. C. K. H oltzm ann, M ila r Buroughs, O. Pfleiderer, A.
Lem onnyer, M. Goguel, A . Richardson, M. M einertz, Francis A m iot, J. C. K. von Hofm ann, E.
B. A lio, L. Cerfaux, Paul Feine, R u dolf B ultm ann, W. G. Kum m el. C. A. A. Scott has a chapter
on "Salvation: Its C onsum m ation in th e F uture," b u t Rom. 8 :19f is not m entioned n o r is the
fu tu re of creation.200 Ferdinand P rat m entions creation and redem ption and has an exposi
tio n o f Rom. 8 and Col. 1. Yet, iro n ica lly, he says th a t P aul "nowhere speaks o f a physical
"M o ltm a n n , God in Creation, 67-8.
200C. A. A. Scott, C h ristia n ity According to St. Paul (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press,
1927).
71
renovation o f nature."201 Charles G ib lin e xp licitly rejects the idea th a t Paul has any concern
fo r the tran sform ation o f creation.202
According to R udolf B u ltm a n n , the physical w orld has no place in the eschaton in Paul.
In Rom. 8:19-22 Paul has lapsed in to a G nostic-type o f fantasy o f the cosmos, w hich has no
m eaning and portrays a fu tu re redem ption in w h ich Paul him self does not believe. He rejects
the p o ssib ility th a t in Paul the fu tu re can be "conceived in term s o f fantastic cosmic term s,
despite a ll the apocalyptic im agery w h ich has found its way in to the New Testam ent."203
KSsemann and Braaten note th a t e xiste n tia list theology such as B ultm anns individualizes
salvation to such an extent th a t there is no room fo r any cosmic concern, n o r does it leave any
place fo r apocalyptic elem ents in P auls thought. To speak of the n a tu ra l w orld as p art o f ones
eschatological hope is an expression o f in a u th e n tic faith. In the last day, h um an ity stands
alone w ith God.204
In a survey o f the them e o f creation and redem ption in m odem treatm ents o f Pauls
theology, Jo h n G ibbs notes th a t one reason w hy m any Pauline theologies have not included
th is them e is the d iffic u lty o f subsum ing the ideas of the creation and its redem ption under
the in teg ra ting p rin cip le around w h ich variou s scholars believe Pauls thought is b u ilt.205
For example, it is quite d iffic u lt to f it it u n d e r "ju s tific a tio n by fa ith ."206 G ibbs argues th a t
201Ferdinand P rat, The Theology o jS a in t Paul, tran s. Jo h n L. Stoddard (W estm inster, Md.:
The Newman Bookshop, 1927), 238-9.
202Charles Homer G iblin, In Hope o f Gods G lory. Pauline Theological Perspectives (New
York: Herder and Herder, 1970), 394-5.
203R udolf K arl B ultm ann, P rim itive C h ristianity in Its Contemporary Setting (New York:
M eridian Books, 1956), 208, cf. pp. 178, 184, 186].
204K3semann, Romans, 236; C arl E. Braaten, C hrist and Counter-Christ: Apocalyptic Themes
in Theology and Culture (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1972), 122-4.
205G ibbs, Creation and Redemption, 6-32.
206Nevertheless, L u ther is quite balanced in h is treatm ent o f the redem ption of creation,
despite h is m ajor focus on ju s tific a tio n b y fa ith .
72
Cosmic C hristology is a better integrating idea for Pauls though t, since it includes creation
and redem ption. O thers have dealt w ith the them e by beginning w ith the w o rk o f God (e.g. O laf
Moe) or eschatology (e.g. B. W eiss, A lbert Schweitzer).
There have been several exceptions to the trend to ignore the redem ption of creation in
Paul. H enry Carre (1914), fo r example, held th a t a ll th a t was lo st in Adam m ust be restored
through C hrist. Since Gods w ra th was b o th cosmic and eschatological, so salvation fo r
hum ankind m ust be cosmic and eschatological, being inseparably connected w ith the
redem ption o f the w orld from Satan and h is hosts.207 S im ila rly, E. P. Sanders recognizes
th a t w hile Pauls focus is on th e salvation of hum anity, Paul also e xp licitly affirm s the u ltim ate
redem ption o f the non-hum an cosmos.208 Eduard Schweizer (1963) also argues th a t in Rom.
8, as in the whole o f Romans, Paul is not m ainly interested in the redem ption of the in dividual,
b u t o f the whole cosmos 209
A lb e rt Schweitzer (1931) b u ilt h is in te rp re ta tio n o f P aul on eschatology. He argued th a t
Paul has the concept of a vast cosmic redem ption, o f w h ich the believers personal redem ption
is a part. The whole w orld is transferred from the perishable to the im perishable, w ith the
believer sharing in th is w orld event.210 Nevertheless, Schweitzer weakened the force of th is
cosmic redem ption by saying th a t Paul has dem ythologized the idea to an eschatological
m ysticism , in w hich redem ption is already present fo r the believer. Thus Pauls m ystical
doctrine o f the w o rld is only sym bolic, w ith the real focus o f eschatological redem ption being
207Hem y B. Carre, Pauls Doctrine o f Redemption (New York: M acm illan, 1914), 40, 43.
208E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 468,
473-4.
209Eduard Schweizer, 'The C hurch As the M issionary Body of C hrist," in Neotestamentica.

Deutsche und Englische Aufsatze, ed. E duard Schweizer (Zurich: Z w ingli Verlag, 1963), 320.
210A lb e rt Schweitzer, The M ysticism o f Paul the Apostle, trans. W. M ontgom ery and F. C.
B u rk itt (1930; re p rin t, New York: Henry H olt and Co., 1931), 54, 66.
73
d .. . . . . .
on the in d ivid u a l.211
A. M. H u nte r (1954) argued th a t Paul though t in term s o f cosmic redem ption, not ju s t
personal eschatology. According to H unter, in Rom. 8:19-22 Paul shows th a t o u r w orld is a
fallen one, in w hich evidence of waste and fu tility abounds.212 Pauls eschatology involves
bo th realized and fu tu ris t elements: The end has come and C h rist has trium p hed over death in
the cross and is now reigning, yet there w ill be a fin a l cosm ic consum m ation when C h rist
comes in glory.213
W. D. Davies refers to the n a tu ra l w orld in several o f h is works on Paul and on b ib lica l
theology. W hile nature is m entioned less frequently in Paul th a n in the OT and the Gospels,
Paul indicates th a t hum an disobedience can d is ru p t nature and th a t the F a ll o f Adam had
cosm ological significance. Since the universe w as created fo r the sake of hum anity, when
Adam sinned the whole creation was involved in h is corru ption.214 S im ila rly, redem ption
includes the cosmos, not sim ply hum an beings. Davies frequently m entions Rom. 8:19-22 in
h is discussion o f these topics, p a rtic u la rly in Paul and Rabbinic Judaism (1955). H is m ajor
co n trib u tio n is in showing th a t there are m any p o in ts o f s im ila rity between the Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s and Paul on the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. The Jewish
w ritin g s, in fact, go m uch fu rth e r th a n Paul in speculating on the exact nature o f the corru p
tio n o f creation. Judaism also connects cosmic redem ption w ith the M essianic Age, m uch like
Paul who connects it w ith the revealing o f the ch ild re n of God 215
211Ib id ., 74, 112.
212A. M. H unter, The E pistle to the Romans (London: SCM Press, 1955), 82.
213A. M. H unter, 'The Hope of G lory: The Relevance o f Pauline Eschatology," In t 8 (1954):
131-5.
214W . D. Davies, The New Creation (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971), 54, 59; W. D.
Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism : Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology, Revised ed.
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1955), 37-9.
215Davies, Paul, 39-40; W. D. Davies, The Gospel and the Land (Berkeley: U niversity o f
H e n iy Shires (1966) says th a t Pauls eschatology has tw o aspects, in d ivid u a l and
corporate, w h ich are n o t a n tith e tic b u t com plem entary. Pauls view o f nature Is a basic feature
o f h is eschatology. The fu tu re consum m ation w ill mean not the destruction o f the physical
w o rld b u t its tra n sfo rm a tio n (Col. 1:20; 1 Cor. 15:28; Rom. 8:18-25). Shires argues th a t it is
I in the area o f eschatology th a t Paul m ost clearly borrow s from Judaism .216
1
I Several m a jo r studies durin g th e past qua rter century have argued th a t the n a tu ra l
I
i
w o rld plays a la rge r p a rt in Pauline th o u g h t than has often been recognized. These scholars
have shown th a t although it is n o t a ce n tra l Pauline concept, it plays an im p o rta n t role in
' P auls th o u g h t and influenced m any other of h is theological ideas.
One h e lp fu l recent w o rk is the dissertation b y Thomas M arberry (1982) on the theology
o f the n a tu ra l w o rld in Pauls letters. He notes three m ajor them es in Pauls concept of the
n a tu ra l w orld: (1) E verything is created b y God. (2) The universe is sustained by C h rist and
reflects som ething o f Gods nature and beneficent care, even though it is c u rre n tly incom plete
and subject to fru s tra tio n and the presence o f evil. (3) A tim e w ill come when nature w ill be
renovated and perfected, w ith evil removed. Rom. 8:19-22 is one o f the central passages from
w h ich M arberry draw s the second and th ird propositions.217 M arberry dem onstrates th a t
these concepts do n o t come from H ellenistic thought, b u t are closely related to a Jew ish apoc
a lyp tic view o f the creation, w hich developed from ideas found in the Old Testam ent proph
ets.218
Joseph Nelsons 1969 d issertatio n is the m ost significant study of Rom. 8:18-27 to
date. He begins w ith an extensive h isto ry o f in terpretation of the passage, tra cin g two m ajor
C a lifo rn ia Press, 1974), 205.
216H enry M. Shires, The Eschatology o f Paul (Philadelphia: W estm inster Press, 1966), 24,
28. 33-4.
217M arberry, 112-30.
218Ib id ., 133-87.
75
approaches th a t appear th ro u g h o u t C hurch history: (1) an anthropocentric view, w hich sees
hum an redem ption in the passage, and (2) a cosm ic view, w hich stresses the im pact th a t the
F a ll had on th e n a tu ra l w o rld and its eschatological redem ption. He th e n does a detailed
exegesis o f the passage and m ajor w ord studies of ic ii.c n <; and Kocgoq, arguing th a t k iu jk ; in th is
passage refers to a ll of creation. In lig h t o f th is m eaning of ktktk;, Nelson argues fo r a cosm ic
in te rp re ta tio n o f the passage, showing th a t Paul teaches a fin a l redem ption o f the entire
creation. He alludes to the Jew ish background o f th e concepts in th is passage, b u t he only
quotes a few passages in an u n c ritic a l m anner.219
Jo h n G ibbs has done some very in s ig h tfu l w o rk on the them e o f creation and redem p
tio n in the Pauline letters. In his m onograph on creation and redem ption in Paul (1971), he
studies several sig n ifica n t P auline passages, in clu d in g Rom. 8 :1 8 -2 2 220 and argues th a t the
creation is essential to Gods redem ptive purposes. G ibbs holds th a t the universal Lordship of
C h rist is the ce n tra l them e in Pauls theology. From th is cosm ic C hristology flow s several
sig nifica nt them es o f creation and redem ption: (1) Gods redem ptive action presupposes h is
w o rk o f creation. Redem ption is no afte rthoug ht of the F all, b u t the act o f creation was the
beginning o f Gods redem ptive w ork. (2) Gods redem ptive activity includes the whole creation,
not m erely the souls of hum an beings. In Rom. 8 :19f, Kxiai refers to the whole creation.
(3) Rom. 8:19-22 teaches a s o lid a rity between hum an beings and the n a tu ra l w orld, w hich
im plies th a t th e entire creation is affected both by h u m a n itys fa ll and by hum an itys redem p
tion. (4) This so lid a rity re su lts in hum an sin leading to the suffering o f creation and to n a ture
sharing in the g lo iy of the redeemed. (5) E vil is a re a lity in the w orld and obstructs the
m ediating Lordship of C hrist. The "fu tility " (paxaioiT|q) echoes the "vanity" o f Ecclesiastes and
refers to the discord in the universe due to hum an rebellion against the Creator (Gen. 3:17).
219Nelson, Groaning, 173-243.
220A1so Rom. l:18f; 5:12-21; 8:19-23, 38-39; Eph. 1:3-14; 1 Cor. 8:6; Phil. 2:6-11; Col.
1:13-20.
76
The powers o f evil in the w orld th a t prom pt people to w orship false gods m ay also be in view
(cf. 1 Cor. 8:6). (6) The redem ption of the whole creation is not tangential to Gods purposes,
fo r C h rist is Lord o f a ll creation and took on the form o f a servant to redeem a ll creation and
brin g it under h is Lordship. Thus the basis of redem ption is not hum an need so m uch as
Gods character, w hich is expressed in C h rists Lordship. Hence redem ption involves the
cosm ic to ta lity , since a ll was created fo r Gods glory and is under C h rists Lordship. The
m ate rial creation has w orth not sim ply because o f hum anity, b u t because o f Gods grace, fo r it
is som ething God made.221 (7) Jesus Lordship has tw o foci: the cosmic to ta lity and the
C hurch. O nly as Jesus exercises his Lordship over the C hurch w ill evil in the cosmic to ta lity
be fin a lly overcome.222
G ibbs argues th a t the fu n ctio n o f Rom. 8:18-39 is to show evidences th a t suffering w ith
C h rist results in g lo rifica tio n w ith him , and so to provide m otivation to live as debtors to the
H oly S p irit. In w . 19-22 the present w a iting and eager longing o f creation indicates th a t it w ill
be set free from its bondage to decay in to the freedom in the g lo iy o f the children o f God. Thus
the movement from suffering to g lo iy of a ll creation attests to the re a lity of the same hope fo r
believers. Conversely, the m eaning of the present suffering o f a ll creation (w . 19, 22) is rooted
in the w aiting and hope o f C hristians fo r the redem ption o f th e ir physical bodies (v. 23).
The fact th a t creation is subjected to hope suggests th a t there is no fin a l d u a lity
between th is w orld and the next, since the new creation represents a fu lfillm e n t o f the old.
C reation has always rem ained under the control o f God and th u s was never w ith o u t hope. The
background to Pauls concepts is in the OT and in the apocalyptic concept o f h um anitys
so lid a rity w ith the rest o f creation.
J. C hristiaan Bekers im portant stu d y o f Pauline theology (1980) seeks to dem onstrate
221Gibbs, Creation and Redemption, 33-47, 139-53.
222Jo h n G. Gibbs, "Inte rpretation of the R elation Between Creation and Redem ption," SJT
21 (1968): 1.
77
!
i
i
i
th a t Pauls th o u g h t is fundam entally rooted in an apocalyptic perspective. He argues th a t the
u n ifyin g concept in Paul is the apocalyptic conception o f the "triu m p h o f God," i.e. "the hope in
th e daw ning victo ry of God and the im m inent redem ption o f the created order, w hich he has
inaugurated in C h rist."223 Rom. 8:17-39 is the m ost im p o rta n t confession o f the triu m p h of
God in Paul's letters. The apocalyptic them e o f the suffering o f the present age in contrast to
th e com ing glory encompasses the entire creation, not sim ply believers (w . 18-19). The
C h ristia n is com pelled b y the S p irit to lo o k outside the C hurch to the groaning creation, w hich
is in bondage to decay, since the C h ristia n is s till an in te g ra l p a rt o f the unredeemed creation
and w ill be u n til the day o f Gods fin a l deliverance (w . 21, 23) 224 Pauls apocalyptic th in kin g
in tim a te ly connects sin and death, so th a t cosm ic death is th e inevitable re su lt o f the sin of
Adam (v. 20).225 Paul also celebrates the u ltim a te cosmic triu m p h (w . 21, 31-39), w hich is a
ce rta in ty because Gods sovereignty moves events from th is present suffering to Gods fin a l
triu m p h (w . 29-30). Thus even suffering is n o t a tragic flaw in the universe, b u t serves a
purpose in Gods triu m p h a l plan.226
3 . Sum m ary o f M odern View s
The m ost im p o rta n t exegetical question th a t m odem com m entators have wrestled w ith
in Rom. 8:19-22 is the m eaning of xxunq. As in the 19th century, the m a jo rity view is th a t it
refers to the subhum an creation. A significant num ber of interpreters argue th a t the entire
creation is in view. A few scholars, however, take the A ugustinian position th a t it refers to
hum anity. The follow ing table shows the d ive rsity o f m odem in terpretations:227
223Beker, Paul the Apostle, ix, 36.
224Ib id 363-6.
22SIb id ., 222.
226Ibid., 363-6.
227Dates refer to the year o f the authors Romans com m entary o r a rticle on Rom. 8:19-22.
78
'
Table 12: Modern Views of the Meaning of ic tio i^ in Rom. 8:19-22
Person Date All Creation Subhuman Subhuman and All Humanity Unbelievers Believers Angels
Nature unbelievers
Holzmann 1911 X
Zahn 1925 X
Bardenhewer 1926 X
Lietzmmann 1933 X
Barth 1933, 1933 1959
1959
Gutbrod 1934 X
Boylan 1934 X
Lenski 1936 X
Gaugler 1945 X
Brunner 1946 sometimes sometimes
Nygren 1949 X
Griffith 1949 X
Fuchs 1949 X
Lagrange 1950 X
Rust 1953 X
Dodd 1954 X
R. Knox 1954 X
Michel 1955 X
Hommel 1956 X
Stacey 1957 X
Barrett 1957 X
Schlatter 1959 X
Murray 1959 X
W. Manson 1959 X
Leenhardt 1961 X
T. W. Manson 1962 X
H. W. Schmidt 1962 X
Bruce 1963 X
Foerster 1964 X sometimes
Gerber 1966 X
Loane 1968 X
Nelson 1969 X ?
79
Person Date All Creadon Subhuman Subhuman and All Humanity Unbelievers Believers Angels
Nature unbelievers
Vdgtle 1970 X
Gager 1970 X
Gibbs 1971 X ?
Reumann 1973 X
Cranfield 1974 X
0. Francis 1978 X
Kisemann 1980 ? X
Dunn 1988 X
Moo 1991 X
Fitzmyer 1993 X
The question o f who subjected creation to fu tility has reached m ore o f a consensus In
the m odem era th a n in the 19th century. The m a jo rity of com m entators believe it is God,
although there Is an im p o rta n t m in o rity who see it as a reference to Adam. A few see it as a
reference to h um an ity in general o r Satan.
Despite the widespread acknowledgement In the com m entaries th a t Rom. 8:19-22
describes the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f the n a tu ra l w orld, Pauline theologies since F. C.
B a u r have ra re ly m entioned these them es. The n a tu ra l w orld In general tends to be down
played In w orks on Pauline theology. In part, th is is because o f a preoccupation w ith finding a
"center" around w hich a ll o f Pauls theological concepts can be arranged and the d iffic u lty of
fittin g the redem ption o f creation u n d e r an Integrating category such as ju s tific a tio n by faith,
anthropology, being "In C h rist or C hristology. Those who refer to the them e are frequently
those who posit a center fo r Pauls th o u g h t th a t encompasses a concern fo r the non-hum an
creation, such as the cosm ic C h rist (Gibbs), eschatology (A. Schweitzer, M oltm ann) o r the
apocalyptic triu m p h o f God (Beker). In p a rticu la r Beker emphasizes the im portance o f Rom.
; 8:17-39, since he sees it as the m ost pow erful confession o f the triu m p h o f God In Pauls
i
letters and because the passage Illu stra te s the apocalyptic them es th a t Beker believes are
j
80
central to Pauls thought. O ther Pauline scholars who have recognized the im portance o f the
cosmic dim ensions o f Pauls though t include H unter, Carre, Davies, M arberry, Nelson and
Gibbs. The num erous Pauline theologies th a t fa il to consider the corru ption and redem ption o f
the n a tu ra l w orld perpetuate the asym m etrical theology o f redem ption th a t has characterized
m uch o f C hurch history.
4 . Excursus: The C orruption and Redem ption o f C reation in W orks on Theology o f Nature
In the last h a lf o f the 20th century there has been a greatly increased interest in
developing a theological perspective on the n a tu ra l w orld. P rio r to 1950 there was very little
interest in nature among C h ristia n theologians and when the topic o f nature was considered in
the early 20th century, often the m ajor interest was in n a tu ra l theology. A prim e example is
W illiam Temples massive w ork Nature, God and M art Temple seeks to set out a n a tu ra l
theology o f God, hum anity, the hum an relationship to God, ethics and nature, w ith these
topics explored purely as a science, w ith o u t any reliance on scrip tu ra l revelation. It is not
surprising, therefore, th a t Temple m akes no m ention o f the co rru p tio n o f creation due to the
F all o r to an eschatological redem ption o f creation.228
E arly h in ts of a change began in the 1950s. E ric R ust wrote in 1953 an im portant
study o f the b ib lica l theology of nature. He deals w ith such topics as the creation o f the w orld,
the purpose o f nature, Gods a ctivity in nature, hum anitys place in the n a tu ra l order and the
fin a l state o f nature. Rusts w ork is in sig h tfu l, though at tim es he groups a ll b ib lic a l authors
in to one m onolithic stance. He includes an extensive section on the view of nature in Second
Temple Judaism and notes th a t Paul closely follow s th is view. U nlike m any la te r w orks on a
theology o f nature, R ust has a lengthy discussion o f the corru ption and redem ption o f
228W illiam Temple, Nature, Man, and God. Being the G ifford Lectures Delivered in the
University o f Glasgow in the Academic Years 1932-1933 and 1933-1934 (London: M acm illan,
1949), 4. A lthough Temple accepts some type o f fa ll and evil in hum anity (pp. 356-377), he
never looks at the im plications o f hum an sin on the n a tu ra l w orld.
81
creation, w ith an em phasis on NT passages such as Rom. 8:19-22; 1:19-25; Eph. 1:10, Col.
1:20 and the book of Revelation. The w orld was created good and was designed to display
Gods g lo iy. Now, however, it is fallen and corrupted, and the reflection o f Gods glory is
restricted. The created w orld suffers and decays due to hum an sin. It is also subject to
dem onic powers who use it fo r th e ir purposes. Yet the eschatological hope o f the Bible is th a t
creation w ill be redeemed and a ll created thing s w ill glo rify God (Rom. 8:22; Rev. 5:13) The
present m a te ria l order w ill not be destroyed b u t transform ed. Redeemed hum an ity w ill dwell
in th is transform ed earth and glorify God in th e ir resurrection bodies.229
Charles Raven in the early 1950s w rote a book discussing the histo ry o f C h ristian
views o f nature and n a tu ra l religion. In h is discussion o f Rom. 8:19-23, Raven takes the
u n u su a l p osition th a t the tra va il o f creation refers to the S p irit o f God actively co-operating
w ith the creatures in the process o f evolution, w hich w ill one day give b irth to the children o f
God. Since Paul does not have a doctrine of the F all, the fru s tra tio n and im perfection o f
creation is due to Gods decree and purpose, n o t to any act o f Satan or hum an beings.230
Later in th e 1950s W. D. Stacey w rote several jo u rn a l articles on nature, in clud ing one
on Rom. 8:19-22. W hile nature m ay reveal God, it does not always do so, and so m any
C h ristia n beliefs cannot be know n through nature. According to several b ib lica l w rite rs
(including Paul in Rom. 8), the Fall of Adam had an im pact on the n a tu ra l w orld, w ith the
re s u lt th a t the w o rld is no longer as God created it. Thus the noxious element in nature is the
re s u lt o f the divine curse fo r Adams rebellion (Gen. 3:17-19). T his fa lle n creation aw aits its
redem ption, w hen God w ill regenerate nature and re tu rn it to its o riginal perfection (Rom.
8:19-22; M t. 19:28; Is. 11; Lev. 26:3-6).231
229R ust, N ature and Man in B iblical Thought, 232-9, 275-89.
230Charles E. Raven, N atural Religion and C hristian Theology. The G ifford Lectures, 1951.
F irs t Series: Science and Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press, 1953), 19, 34-6.
231W. David Stacey, "The C hristian View o f Nature," ExpTtm 67 (1956): 364-6; Stacey,
82
Stacey fin d s it d iffic u lt to accept th a t nature became fallen due to the F all o f Adam. He
argues th a t nature existed in its co n tra d icto iy state before the hum an race came on the scene.
W hile the F a ll had some effect on nature (e.g. the ground was cursed), the p rim a ry problem
was due to the strife between the powers o f lig h t and darkness before the creation of the
m aterial w orld. The w o rld, as w e ll as hum anity, became a battleground, and both were
dragged in to co rru p tio n and fu tility . So Stacey fin d s it h e lp fu l to recognize th a t redem ption is
n ot lim ite d sim ply to hum an ity. As Rom. 8 indicates, the redem ption o f the children o f God
w ill be the means fo r the redem ption o f nature. The w o rk o f C h rist has cosm ic dim ensions in
overcom ing evil. A lthough we m ay n o t know the exact causal connection, the redem ption of
hum an ity w ill be the signal fo r the great tran sform ation o f creation.232
The real boom in w ritin g s on a theology o f nature began in the 1960s and 1970s.
D u rin g th is tim e there was a grow ing in te re st in developing w h at Braaten calls an "eco-
theology," i.e. "a theology of na ture th a t takes in to account the developing ecological crisis-
consciousness."233 Several factors can account fo r th is trend: (1) Braaten observes the
general tre n d o f theology since W orld W ar II to move from existential theology tow ard p o litica l
themes (e.g. theology o f revolution, lib e ra tio n , etc.).234 (2) Reumann notes the frequent
im balance th a t tra d itio n a l theology has in its treatm ent o f the tension between creation and
redem ption in the roles o f God and C h rist. S ittle r observes th a t even redem ption is considered
alm ost exclusively fro m the perspective o f hu m a n ity. Some theologians are seeking to redress
these im balances and explore the im plicatio ns of the creative role o f C h rist and the im pact of
the w o rk o f C h rist on creation as a whole.235 (3) M ost im p o rta n tly, th is interest among
"Pauls C ertainties," 178-81.
^ S ta c e y , "N ature, 366-7.
233Braaten, 119.
234Ib id ., 119-20.
235Joseph S ittle r, "Called to U n ity," Ecumenical Review 14, no. 2 (January 1962): 175-87;
83
I
theologians reflects the changing views in W estern society at large. Braaten notes th a t
technological advancem ent has resulted in a greater interest among westerners in the w orld
we live in. The interest in ecological theology in the 1960s and 1970s paralleled the develop
ing concern in the w estern w orld about ecology and damage to the environm ent.236
Joseph S ittle r was one o f the m ost im portant pioneers in developing a theology o f
nature. In h is 1961 address to the W orld C ouncil o f Churches he noted th a t tra d itio n a lly the
realm of grace has been restricted to hum an salvation. He called fo r a consideration o f the
cosm ic dim ensions of C hristology.237 T his theme is developed fu rth e r in h is la te r w orks
where he looks at Gods grace at w ork in nature, as taught in bo th OT and NT. Due to the
interrelatedness o f a ll thing s, theological and ethica l discussions m ust include ecology. The
NT (especially the Gospels, Ephesians, Colossians and Romans) teaches a cosmic C hristology,
in w hich the w o rk o f C h rist involves a ll o f creation. C h rist is the agent of, present in , and the
goal and m eaning o f a ll th a t is . Rom. 8:19-22 is a key passage show ing the m eaning of
redem ption fo r the whole creation.238
The F a ith and O rder Com m ission of the W orld Council o f Churches (of w hich S ittle r
was a m em ber u n til 1966) soon responded to S ittle rs call fo r a consideration of the doctrine o f
grace in lig h t o f the hum an place in the nature. In 1964, the com m ission proposed to study
the theme "C reation, New Creation, and the U n ity o f the C hurch."239 This eventually cu lm i
nated in th e ir 1967 paper, "God in Nature and H istory," w hich was largely w ritte n b y Hen-
Reumann, 7-11.
236Ibid.
237S ittle r, "U n ity," 175-87.
238Joseph S ittle r, Essays on Nature and Grace (Philadephia: Fortress Press, 1972). 37-8,
45-8, 88-9, 113: cf. Joseph S ittle r, The Ecology o f F a ith (Philadelphia: M uhlenberg, 1961).
239W orld C ouncil o f Churches, Commission on F a ith and Order Paper Number 44 (Geneva:
W orld C ouncil o f Churches, 1965), p. 43.
84
d rik u s Berkof. T his study p rim a rily takes a b ib lica l theology approach, though it also asks
some questions regarding the relationship between C h ristian fa ith and m odem technology.
W hile th is study is broad in its treatm ent o f b ib lic a l themes, it has several im portant observa-
tio n s relevant to the corru p tio n and redem ption o f creation: (1) The "creation" in Rom. 8:19-22
i
J includes both h um an ity and non-hum an nature, w hich stresses the u n ity between hum an and
I non-hum an creation. H um anity is p art of nature (Gen. 1, 2:7; 1 Cor. 15:47) and is nurtu re d
by nature, though it is also m aster of nature and guides and transform s nature (Gen. 1:26-28).
(2) H um an freedom and responsibility im p ly the p o ssib ility o f sin. The b ib lica l teaching is th a t
creation is fallen (Gen. 3; Rom. 5). This is an im plicatio n of the u n ity between hum anity and
nature, and o f the decisive role th a t h u m a n ity plays in nature. Thus there is a tragic element
in Gods creation. W hile some suffering is p a rt o f providence as the "fu tility " o f the creation
(Rom. 8:20; 1 Cor. 15:45), m uch evil, suffering and death is the re su lt o f hum an sin. This is in
contrast to a scie ntific worldview th a t says th a t death, strife and suffering are inherent in life.
(3) The C hurch needs a renewed concept o f the consum m ation, w hich includes the
renewal o f the w o rld according to the new h u m a n ity in C hrist. Consum m ation is a higher
w ork th a n creation, fo r it w ill involve more th a n m erely restoring the original pre-Fail situation.
Paul does not e xp licitly describe the fu tu re glory o f the non-hum an creation, beyond calling it
"liberty" (Rom. 8:21). The b ib lic a l view o f history, however, is not c irc u la r (Paradise regained),
since the new creation is bringing the w orld to its ultim a te goal. The common m isconception
is th a t th is w orld w ill be destroyed, b u t th is is not tru e in even the m ost apocalyptic o f NT
passages. The new w orld w ill have both c o n tin u ity and d iscontinu ity w ith the present one.
There is co n tin u ity in th a t the new w orld w ill involve a glorious unfolding o f w hat God has
begun in h istory through his Son and the S p irit. In contrast w ith a Jew ish apocalyptic
| outlook, however, the new age is not to ta lly separated from the old age. Nevertheless, there is
i
disco n tin u ity, since the w orld has to be renewed and recreated according to the new hum anity
85
. . _ _
of the risen Lord.240
K a rl Helm s 1962 book com pares scientific views and b ib lic a l views o f the nature and
o rig in o f the universe and h um an itys place In the universe. He argues th a t the whole creation
is fa lle n and pervaded by an unsatisfied need. There Is an evil In the p la n t and anim al w orld,
so th a t livin g creatures m u st often devour each other to live. Nature Is corrupted due to the
a ctivity of Satanic power, not a curse resultin g from the Fall. The fu tu re transform ation o f the
w orld w ill affect a ll creatures and the very essence o f creation, so th a t there w ill be an end to
the polar laws In w h ich death and warfare between creatures rule. C h rists own Resurrection
to a state free fro m c o rru p tio n is the firs tfru its of th is dram atic change.241
C. F. D. M oule In 1964 gave a series of lectures a t the U niversity o f London on nature
in the NT, w hich he la te r expanded in to a sm all book. He argues th a t one im p lica tio n o f the
image o f God is th a t h u m a n ity is a vice-gerent of God, given dom inion over nature to use it
responsibly. Due to th is positio n o f delegated respon sibility and power, the sins o f hum an
beings im pact the n a tu ra l w orld. The OT frequently shows the effect of hum an sin on the
n a tu ra l w orld, b oth due to the F a ll (Gen. 3) and due to ongoing sin (Hos. 2:21-23; Job 5:17-23;
Is. 11, etc.). As long as h u m a n ity fa ils to play the role assigned by God, nature w ill be
fru stra te d and dislocated. The NT view is sim ilar, although the theme is not as common as it
is in the OT.
Concerning Rom. 8:19 M oule says, "creation was subjected to fru s tra tio n . . . because
o f Adam s sin w hich pulle d down nature w ith it, since God had created Adam to be in close
connection w ith n a ture." Paul is alm ost "Franciscan" in h is sensitive awareness o f the rapport
between h u m a n ity and nature. The m ajor difference between the NT and the OT view is th a t
240W orld C ouncil o f Churches, "God in Nature and H istory," in God, H istory, and H istorians.
M odem C hristian View s o f H istory, ed. C. T. M cln tire (New York: Oxford U niveristy Press,
1977), 303-4, 306-9. 311-3, 323-4.
241Heim , 103-9, 125, 135-6.
86
the NT focuses on C h rists role in resto ring the proper re la tio n sh ip of redeemed h u m a n ity to
the rest o f the w o rld . The NT applies Ps. 8 to C hrist, in d ica tin g th a t a ll th in g s w ill be placed in
subjection u n d e r C hrist. Since redeemed hum an ity is sum m ed up in C h rist, h u m a n ity w ill be
restored to its proper role in creation due to C h rists w o rk (1 Cor. 15:25-28; Heb. 2:6-8). O nly
as hum an beings fu lfill th e ir proper place in relatio nship w ith God w ill the dislocations of
nature be removed.
M oule believes th a t such OT descriptions of the tran sfo rm a tio n o f nature as the w o lf
lyin g down w ith the lam b are m etaphorical and not to be taken lite ra lly . Even at the lowest
level o f nature death is to be found, fo r th e body defends its e lf constantly against a tta ck from
m icrobes. The tra n sfo rm a tio n o f creation, therefore, w ill n o t end death in nature o r change
predators in to herbivores, b u t w ill elim inate the abuses of nature. So "fu tility " in Rom. 8:20
refers to the h u m an abuse o f nature th a t w ill one day be reversed, lib e ra tin g the ecological
system .242
G. W. H. Lampe has a sim ila r perspective in h is 1964 a rticle on the NT doctrine o f
ktictu;. W hile acknowledging th a t Paul has the F all o f Adam in m ind in Rom. 8:20, he fin d s it
unacceptable to say th a t decay in nature and physical death are a re su lt o f the F all. These are
p a rt o f the o rig in a l created ord e r and therefore good. O nly fo r hum an beings is death
abnorm al. Nevertheless, he argues th a t the low er creation is fru stra te d in its development
because h u m a n ity is not fu lfillin g its intended role o f m ediating Gods creating and sustaining
w o rk to the creation.243
R ichard Means noted in a 1968 a rticle th a t m ost branches of C h ris tia n theology have
failed to develop an adequate theology o f th e relatio nship between h u m a n ity and nature. The
death o f God cam p sim ply pretends th a t nature (as w e ll as God) does n o t exist. T ra d itio n a l
242C. F. D. M oule, M an a n d Nature in the New Testam ent Some Rejlections on B ib lica l
Ecology (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967), 3-12.
243Lampe, "New Testam ent D octrine," 457-8, 461.
87
Protestant theology, as based on L u ther and C alvin, creates a sharp dualism between nature
and supem ature. The n a tu ra l theology approach is not so m uch a theology o f nature as a
search fo r support fo r m orals through the n a tu ra l w orld. The vast lite ra tu re on the re la tio n
ship between re lig io n and science is m ainly concerned w ith epistemology.244 Gordon
Kaufm an, in fact, argues th a t the theological problem o f nature goes to the roots of the
C h ristia n fa ith and cannot be changed w ith o u t upsetting the in n e r logic o f the system.
B ib lica l theology is anthropocentric and nature has significance only as it m irro rs aspects of
the hum an predicam ent o r relationship w ith God.245
One o f the m ost im p o rta n t w rite rs on a theology of nature is Paul Santm ire. He began
in 1966 w ith a dissertation on K a rl B a rths doctrine of creation, and he has continued over the
past tw o decades w ith several articles and books on ecological theology.246 Santm ire calls for
an ecological reading of b ib lic a l theology, in contrast to the m ore typical anthropocentric
approach. He argues th a t th e B ible has three root m etaphors: (1) a m etaphor of ascent, w hich
focuses on the relationship o f hum an beings to God, (2) a m etaphor of m igration to a good
land, and (3) a m etaphor of fecundity. Furtherm ore, the Bible can be read in term s o f tw o
m ajor m otifs: (1) a s p iritu a l m otif, w hich emphasizes the m etaphor o f ascent, where the
hum an s p irit rises above nature to have com m union w ith God, and (2) an ecological m o tif,
w hich emphasizes the them es o f m igration to a good land and fecundity. T his la tte r m o tif sees
the hum an s p irit rooted in the w orld o f nature and celebrates Gods presence "in, w ith and
244R ichard L. Means, "M an and Nature: The Theological Vacuum ," C hristian Century 85
(1968): 579-81.
245Gordon Kaufm an, "A Problem for Theology: The Concept o f N ature," HTR 65 (1962):
337-66.
246H. Paul Santm ire, "C reation and Nature: A S tudy o f the D octrine of Nature w ith Special
A tte n tio n to K a rl B a rths D octrine o f Creation" (PhD D issertation, H arvard U niversity, 1966);
Travail, "New Theology o f N ature," Lutheran Q uarterly 20 (1968):290-308; B rother Earth.
Nature, Cod, and Ecology in a Time o f C risis (Camden, N.J.: Thomas Nelson, 1970); "Ecology
and E th ica l Ecum enics." A nglican Theological Review 59 (1977):98-101.
88
under" the whole created order as the context In w hich a life o f obedience to God is to be
pursued.247 Santm ire shows th a t throughout C hurch h isto ry one or the other o f these ap
proaches has dom inated, and on ly rarely have the two been held in balance. The m ajority of
theologians have taken an anthropological approach, w hich stresses the s p iritu a l m o tif and
sees nature as sim ply the backdrop fo r Gods dealings w ith h um an ity in history.248
Santm ire w ants to read S cripture in term s o f the ecological m otif, w hich stresses God
and hum an ity being w ith nature ra th e r th a n over against nature. He traces th is m o tif through
the OT and NT and shows th a t it is present in a ll parts o f the B ible except fo r John and
Hebrews, where the s p iritu a l m o tif dominates. In the OT the la nd plays a central role in the
life o f Israel, w hich emphasizes th e m etaphors of fecundity and m igration to a good land. In
m any o f the prophets the stress is on an eschatological renewal o f the whole earth, w hich w ill
overflow w ith fecundity. T hroughout the OT God is the creator and sustainer o f a ll things.
Even Israels election theology need not be viewed as p rim a rily anthropocentric. For th e ir
relatio nship w ith Yahweh is n o t sim ply w ith the Lord o f Israel, b u t firs t and forem ost an
encounter w ith "the Lord o f Heaven and earth," who graciously delivers the people and calls
them to obedience.
Santm ire argues th a t m ost o f the NT is in c o n tin u ity w ith the "prophetic-apocalyptic
tra d itio n ." The NT is shaped b y the ecological m otif, b u t viewed eschatologically. Thus in
Jesus teachings in the Synoptic Gospels, God cares fo r a ll o f creation and the kingdom o f God
encompasses the fullness o f creation, not sim ply hum anity. The fu tu re o f the kingdom w ill
involve the renewal o f the whole creation. C h rists a u th o rity is over a ll things in heaven and
earth. Paul sim ila rly carries on th e prophetic-apocalyptic them e o f the renewal o f a ll creation.
Rom. 8:19-22 is one o f the m ost im portant passages showing th is theme. 2 Peter and
j --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| 247Santm ire, T ra v a il 9, 181-183, 189.
248Santm ire, T ra v a il 31-179; Creation and Nature, 11-66.
89
Revelation also have a strong view o f the role o f the earth in the eschaton. The Lordship o f
C hrist is universal, since he created and sustains a ll th in g s and one day a ll things w ill re tu rn
to him (Rom. 11:36; 1 Cor. 8:6; 15:22-28; P h il 3:21). Colossians and Ephesians show the
cosmic Lordship o f C h rist to an even fu lle r extent (e.g. Col. 1:15-20; Eph. 1:10; 3:10).249
W hile Santm ire m ay overstate the case fo r th e c e n tra lity o f the ecological m o tif in the Bible, his
w ork is an im p o rta n t c o n trib u tio n th a t draw s a tte n tio n to these often overlooked themes.
In 1971 th e A rchbishop o f C anterbury appointed a com m ittee w ith in the D octrine
Com m ission o f the C hurch of England to stu d y the relevance o f C h ristia n doctrine to the
problem o f the relatio nship of h u m a n ity and the environm ent. Hugh M onteflore, A. M. A llch in ,
Don C u p itt, M ary Hesse, John M acquarrie and A. R. Peacock contributed to the report (1975),
w hich looks at b ib lica l, h isto rica l, theological and ethica l issues related to ecology. W hile Rom.
8:19-22 is only m entioned b rie fly, several theological issues are raised th a t are relevant to the
passage. God created everything good and despite the re a lity of sin , the w o rld rem ains the
good creation o f God. Nature has a sacram ental character, in th a t it functions sym bolically to
reveal God and is a n in strum ent th a t He uses to fu lfill H is purposes. They reject the idea th a t
the F a ll o f Adam had any im pact on the n a tu ra l w orld. Floods, droughts, earthquakes,
parasites and carnivores are p a rt o f an orderly b u t unfin ishe d universe in the process o f
evolving to m a tu rity . Nevertheless, because o f the in tim a te interdependence between hum ani
ty and its environm ent, evils com m itted by s in fu l people do have an im pact on the environ
m ent and as a re s u lt nature has become distorted com pared to Gods good purposes. Nature,
however, is experiencing the b irth pangs o f a new w o rld (Rom. 8:22), as the Holy S p irit leads
the w o rld tow ard a fu lfillm e n t th a t we cannot yet grasp. The NT speaks o f universal salvation
and resto ratio n o f a ll things. Not only h u m a n ity b u t th e rest o f creation w ill be caught up in
the New Heaven and new E a rth as a ll th in g s re tu rn to God from whence they came. It is
249Santm ire, Travail, 189-214.
i 90
I
d iffic u lt to understand a bod ily resurrection th a t does n o t involve the w orld o f w hich the
hum an body is a p a rt.250
One o f the articles in the Anglican com m ission report is by Jo h n Baker on the b ib lic a l
view o f nature. W hile the NT has relatively little on nature com pared to the OT, it a ffirm s the
basic OT view th a t nature is p a rt o f Gods created order (Heb. 11:3; A cts 17:24-28) and is good
(M t. 6:26; 10:29; 6:28f; Rom. 14:14) and it shows a positive concern fo r anim als (Lk. 13:15;
15:4; M t. 12:11). Yet there is also a m in o r tone of pessim ism and anxiety, w hich reflects a
general a ttitu d e o f the M editerranean w orld at the tim e. In the Jew ish w orld th is appeared in
apocalyptic lite ra tu re as a despair th a t the w orld is evil and an expectation o f a cataclysm ic
w o rk o f God to banish evil and establish a new w orld order. In Rom. 8:19-22 Paul accepts the
apocalyptic view th a t the w orld is in 'bondage to decay" and the whole creation "groans in
tra v a il." B u t he m odifies th is view by saying th a t God p u t the creation in th is state and w ill
deliver it w hen the ch ild re n o f God are com plete. Paul agrees w ith th e sense o f deep seated
co rru p tio n and bondage to Fate in the w hole created order th a t was com m only accepted in his
day. B u t he adds a b e tte r answer to the problem . It is not th a t the w orld o f nature is
redeemed along w ith hum an souls to live in harm ony in the Kingdom o f God on earth, b u t that
those who believe in Jesus are s p iritu a lly liberated and aw ait the to ta l rem aking o f the cosmos
by Gods own hand.251
In a 1977 jo u rn a l article, Hugh M ontefiore, the head o f the A nglican com m ission on
na tu re , criticize s tra d itio n a l w estern theology fo r th in k in g o f redem ption only in term s o f
hum an souls. He w ants to broaden redem ption to include the m a te ria l w orld. The fu tu re
hope fo r the kingdom o f God is to "come on earth as in heaven." M ontefiores concept o f the
250Hugh M ontefiore et al., "M an and N ature. The Report," in M an and Nature, ed. Hugh
M ontefiore (London: C ollins, 1975), 35-6, 38, 41, 59, 61-4; Jo h n A u s tin Baker, "B ib lica l
A ttitu d e s to N ature," in M on and Nature, ed. Hugh M ontefiore (London: C ollins, 1975), 87-109.
251Ib id ., 102-9.
r 91
redem ption o f the earth, however, is not an eschatological clim actic act o f God as m uch as an
h isto rica l process whereby the people o f God act as co-redeemers w ith God, restoring the
damaged earth. He has a strong evolutionary approach In w hich the soul emerged from
m a tte r th a t was a p o te n tia lity in the prim eval atoms.252
George H endrys 1980 book is one o f the few fu ll scale studies o f the theology o f nature
to explore seriously the im plications of Rom. 8:19-22 and to look at the fu tu re of creation in
lig h t of b ib lic a l theology.253 H is theology o f nature com bines insights from religion, philos
ophy and science. He argues th a t a theology o f nature m ust study the place, m eaning and
purpose o f nature in the plan o f God in both creation and redem ption. Rom. 8:18-22 is an
im p o rta n t guide fo r the C h ristia n perception o f nature. The passage shows the so lid a rity
between h u m a n ity and the rest o f nature, w hich are involved in a common history. Thus both
hum an sin and hum an redem ption have a significant im pact on the whole cosmos. Viewed in
its e lf apart fro m its destiny, nature reflects a sense of fu tility in its endless repetitio n o f the
same processes on a tre a d m ill getting nowhere. The effects o f hum an sin im pact the whole of
nature. Gen. 3 shows th a t w hen h um an ity fa lls out w ith God, the whole w orld is afflicted.
Rom. 8:20 shows th a t the non-hum an p a rt of creation (ictiai?) was subjected by God to the
fu tility o f a repetitio us and wearisome ro utine due to the F all o f Adam. C hristians, however,
m ust see the w orld w ith hope in lig h t o f its ultim ate destiny. Nature reflects an in n e r tension
in its present state (v. 22). The groanings o f creation, w hich express its present fu tility , also
are the b irth pangs o f the new creation, w hich p o in t to the expectation of the glorious destiny
fo r w hich it was created. It is only as nature is viewed in lig h t of the Gospel th a t th is can be
seen. The redem ption o f creation w ill n o t involve a tran sform ation o f the structure o f the w orld
(as if the groaning was fo r a deliverance from an in fe rio r design) or a re tu rn o f a ll fin ite things
j
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252Hugh M ontefiore, "M an and Nature: A Theological Assessment," Zygon 12 (1977): 203-4,
206-8.
2S3George S tu a rt Hendry, Theology o f Nature (Philadelphia: W estm inster Press, 1980).
j 92
)
5
to the in fin ite God. Rather it m eans the com pletion of the goodness fo r w hich everything was
created.
The lib e ra tio n o f C hristians is a paradigm fo r the u ltim a te lib e ra tio n of a ll o f creation,
(v. 19; cf. Is. 1 l:6 f). Thus hum anity occupies the pivotal role in Gods purposes fo r the whole
creation. T his should enlarge our conception o f ourselves to see o u r profound responsibility
fo r the care o f the n a tu ra l w orld. Nature looks to h um an ity as the in strum ent fo r her own
redem ption. A good m odel fo r the NT (especially Pauline) conception o f redem ption is a set of
three concentric circles. The center circle is C h rist, w hich is the focus o f the C h ristian faith.
The next circle is hum anity, w hich centers on p a rticip a tio n in C h rist fo r its own redem ption.
The outer circle is the rest o f creation, w hich w ill experience a glorious renewal as hum an ity is
redeemed and assumes its proper place in Gods order and C hrists Lordship im pacts the
whole creation (Rom. 8: 21; 1 Cor. 15:23-28; Eph 1:22; 3:10; Col. 1:15-20)254
Douglas H a lls 1986 book on ecological b ib lic a l theology responds to the frequent
accusation th a t C h ristia n ity is to blame fo r the ecological crisis due to the teaching th a t
hum an ity has dom inion over the rest o f creation. The B ible has often been read in a way that
re stricts salvation to the purely s p iritu a l dim ension and devalues nature. A better reading
sees the fate o f nature at the core o f the Gospel as an im plicatio n o f the universal Lordship of
C hrist. The proper governance o f the w orld is a hum an responsibility. This role is one of
stewardship and accountability fo r the welfare o f the w orld, ra th e r th a n possession or mastery.
O ur proper relationship to nature is an aspect o f the image o f God. The responsibility of
hum an beings is to image the Creator, w hich leads to a reinterpretation o f the concept of
dom inion over nature. Taking Jesus as the m odel, he argues th a t it means sacrificial service
o f those fo r whom one is responsible. Pauls "apocalyptic theology" is ric h w ith ecological
i themes, such as the groaning o f creation, the fin a l redem ption of the w orld (Rom. 8:19, 21)
| and the universal Lordship o f C hrist. W hile ecological them es are on the periphery, they
t
1 -------------------------------------------
254Ib id ., 187-9, 194, 204-7, 210-1, 213-21.
93
cannot be Ignored as has often been done. W hile the B ible speaks o f the superiority o f hum an
beings over nature, it also emphasizes the so lid a rity between h um an ity and the w orld and
th u s there are passages denouncing sins against property and anim als. O ur concept o f
C h ristian love m u st be broadened to Include n o t only God and hum an beings b u t also nature,
since a love fo r God im plies a love fo r his creation.255
A s im ila r stew ardship approach is taken by Lawrence Osborne in h is 1990 book on a
theology o f environm entalism . He discusses several b ib lica l passages and some ethical
im plications fo r C hristians o f the hum an stew ardship o f creation. Rom. 8:18-25 shows th a t
"the non-hum an p art of creation is not m erely a dispensable backdrop to the hum an dram a of
salvation h isto ry b u t is its e lf able to share in the glorious lib e rty th a t Paul envisions fo r the
covenental com m unity. W hat we have here is a C hiistological and pneum atological (and,
hence trin ita ria n ) tran sform ation o f the O ld Testam ent concept of hum an dom inion.256
A lthough in recent decades there have been an increasing num ber o f w orks on the
theology o f nature, m any o f the m ajor w orks have little interest in eschatology or in the b ib lica l
themes of the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. Even m any who m ention these them es
fa il to discuss Rom. 8:19-22. The report b y the Anglican com m ission on theology and the
environm ent (1975) m entioned above only m entions Rom. 8:22 once, even ignoring the passage
in the essay on the b ib lic a l view. Eschatology plays an in sig n ifica n t role in th is study. John
Carmodys 1983 study of the theology o f nature is a C atholic perspective th a t combines
concepts from Tao and Bhuddism . H is b ib lic a l survey, however, m akes no m ention of Rom.
8 :19fF o r eschatological passages such as Is. 65, 2 Pet. 3 o r the book o f Revelation. W. A.
W hitehouse (1964) focuses on a theological m ethod for developing a theology o f nature. He
255Douglas Jo h n H all, Im aging God. Dom inion A s Stewardship (Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerd-
m ans, 1986), 41-50,, 53, 82, 129-30, 165-7, 172-3, 184-98.
256Lawrence Osborne, Stewards o f Creation. Environm entalism in the U g ht o f B iblical

Teaching (Oxford: Latim er House, 1990), 36.
94
argues fo r a balance between scie n tific in sig h ts and b ib lic a l revelation, b u t the scientific
m ethod takes p rio rity .257 Peacock has a sacram ental view o f n a tu re s m anifestation o f God,
w hich is heavily based on W illia m Temples w o rk on n a tu ra l theology. The redem ption o f
nature involves a process o f co n tin u a l evolution as an outw o rking o f Gods creative pro-
M any o f th e recent w orks on a theology o f nature and ecological ethics have been from
a process theology perspective. Process theologians such as John Cobb, Charles B irch and
Ian B a rbo ur have w ritte n w orks on a theology o f nature and ecology.259 These theologians
derive th e ir thought from the m etaphysics o f A lfred N orth W hitehead, who argued th a t re a lity
is a dynam ic process in w hich the entire universe, in clu d in g God, is constantly evolving and
im proving itself. According to process theology, every event in the universe is the result o f a
complex in te ra ctio n o f God, past causes and in d ivid u a l self-realization. N ature, h u m a n ity and
God are u n ite d and interdependent like a liv in g organism . W hile God is the greater mover,
persuader and giver o f aim s, he is also a fullfledged m em ber o f the com m unity o f beings,
moved by a ll th in g s and the great p a rtic ip a to r in life .260
257W. A. W hitehouse, Tow ards a Theology o f N ature," SJT 17 (1964): 129-45.
258A. R. Peacock, "A Sacram ental View o f N ature," in M an and Nature, ed. H ugh M ontefiore
(London: C ollins, 1975), 140-1.
259Jo h n B. Cobb, J r., Is It Too Late? A Theology o f Ecology (Beverly H ills, Ca.: Bruce, 1972);
L. Charles B irch , "Nature, H u m an ity and God in Ecological Perspective," in F aith and Science
in an U njust W orld: Report o f the W orld Council o f Churches Conference on Faith, Science and
the Future, ed. Roger S h inn (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1960), 1:62-73; L. Charles B irch, Nature
and God (Philadelphia: W estm inster Press, 1965). For a thorough critiq u e o f the Process
Theology approach to nature, see Claude S tew art, N ature in Grace: A Study in the Theology o f
Nature, NABPR D issertation Series, no. 3 (Macon, Ga.: M ercer U n iverisity Press, 1983).
260The sem inal w o rk is A lfred N orth W hitehead, The Concept o f N ature (1920; re p rin t,
i Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press, 1930). Cf. H arold K. S chilling, "The W hole E arth Is
> the Lords. Toward a H o listic E th ic," in E a rth M ight Be Fair. Reflections on Ethics, Religion, and
[ Ecology, ed. Ian G. B arbour (Englewood C liffs, N.J.: P rentice-H all, 1972), 120-2; Jo h n B. Cobb,
| J r., A C hristian N atural Theology. Based on the Thought o f A lfre d N orth W hitehead (Philadel-
i phia: W estm inster Press, 1965); Ian G. B arbour, In tro d u ctio n to E arth M ight Be Fair. Reflec
tions on Ethics, Religion, and Ecology, ed. Ia n G. B arbour (Englewood C liffs: Prentice-H all,
95
I
Process theologians derive a basis fo r ecological ethics from these concepts. For
example, H arold S ch illin g calls fo r a h o listic ethical stance th a t recognizes the interrelatedness
o f a ll th in g s and th u s extends the b ib lica l ethic o f love fo r neighbor to include love fo r nature.
O ur m odel is God who is aware of the "groaning o f nature" and shows h is love fo r the lilie s o f
the fie ld by clo thing them .261
B a rb o u r is typ ica l o f process theologians when he argues th a t o u r m odem ecological
problem s w ill not be resolved by technological solutions alone, nor b y the rejection o f technolo
gy, b u t by a technological solution guided by m ore sensitive religious views and ethical
m otivations. The new a ttitu d e tow ard nature should come from 3 sources: (1) b ib lica l themes
such as stew ardship and the in trin s ic value o f a ll creation: (2) scie ntific in sigh ts such as
nature as a dynam ic process, the interdependence o f liv in g things and m an as a p a rt of
nature: and (3) philosophy, in p a rtic u la r process philosophy, contem poraiy theology, and
o rien ta l tra d itio n s. B arbours in te rd iscip lin a ry theology o f nature emphasizes the u n ity and
interdependence o f h u m a n ity and nature, w hile recognizing th e ir diversity. Like a ll process
theologians, B arbour stresses Gods immanence in nature. A ll nature is a dynam ic and
creative process in w hich creation is a contin uin g w ork, not a one tim e act o f God at the
beginning o f tim e. B arbour is heavily indebted to W hitehead and T eilhard de C hardin in th is
aspect o f h is thought.262
B a rb o u r also draws on b ib lic a l them es m uch m ore than m any other process thinkers.
He notes the b ib lic a l teaching th a t nature was created b y God and is therefore essentially
good. W hile the creation story ju s tifie s hum an power over creation, a one sided emphasis on
1972), 8-9.
261S ch illin g, 109.
262B arbour, "Introdu ction," 1-12; "A ttitudes Toward N ature and Technology," in E arth M ight
be Fair. Reflections on Ethics, Religion, and Ecology, edited by Ian G. B arbour (Englewood
C liffs, N .J.: P rentice-H all, 1972), pp. 152-158: "An Ecological E th ic, C hristian Century 87
(1970): 1184-1190.
96
th is has often led to the subjugation o f the environm ent. The corrective Is to stress the often
Ignored b ib lic a l them es o f the responsibility o f hum an ity fo r nature, n o t as dom inion b u t as
stew ardship, and the in trin s ic value o f nature in itse lf, not sim ply as an in strum ent fo r hum an
purposes. B a rbo ur also recognizes the b ib lica l teaching th a t nature w ill participate in the fin a l
hum an redem ption (Is. 11:6; Rom. 8:19-22), w hich flows out o f the u n ity between hum anity
and nature. Nevertheless, he argues th a t there is an underlying negative element in Paul,
w h ich was developed m ore in the early centuries o f C hristian thought in to G nosticism and
asceticism , w h ich see the w o rld as evil and place the prim ary hope in the next w orld.263
Despite the abundant w ritin g s on a theology o f nature from the process perspective,
process theologians tend to show little interest in the b ib lica l o r Pauline teachings on the
co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. B arbour is unusual in h is w illingness to place some
value on the b ib lic a l teachings on nature, w hile holding largely to a process perspective.
Nevertheless, even fo r B arbour th is is a m inor and m uted aspect of h is thought. Process
theologians generally have no place fo r the corru ption o f creation and they conceive o f the
redem ption o f creation as a process in w hich God gives life to a ll things and in w hich a ll things
evolve to a m ore perfect state.264 T his is an histo rica l process in w hich God w orks from
w ith in , ra th e r th a n the clim a ctic eschatological event Paul speaks o f in Rom. 8:19-22.
T eilha rd de C hardins approach is a philosophical theology o f nature influenced by
process th o u g h t and scie ntific evolutionary concepts. Teilhard agrees w ith Paul th a t the Fall
o f hum an ity affected the whole universe.265 He sees sin as a sta tistica l necessity stem m ing
from disorder. W hen Paul says th a t creation was subjected to vanity (Rom. 8:20), he is
263Ian G. B arbour, "A ttitudes Toward Nature and Technology," in E a rth M ight Be Fair.
Reflections on Ethics, Religion, and Ecology, ed. Ian G. B arbour (Englewood C liffs, N.J.:
Prentice-H all, 1972), 147-50.
264E.g. S ch illin g, 120-2.
265Teilhard de C hardin, "Note su r le C hrist untversel", in Oeuvres de Pierre Teilhard de

C hardin 9:14.
97
re fe rrin g to th is tendency fo r m a tte r to decay to disorder according to the second la w o f
therm odynam ics. Thus sin is more o f a state th a n a n act.266 A t the same tim e there is a
co n tin u a l cosmic process of evolution governed by the law o f "com plexity consciousness," by
w hich everything is developing tow ard higher organization and more intense form s o f con
sciousness. In the m idst of the dying physical cosmos, life and consciousness are gradually
emerging and intensifying. E v o lu tio n is now ready fo r the next great step forw ard, w hich is the
development o f sheer personalized s p irit, w h ich w ill only happen through the proper use of
hum an consciousness. The exalted resurrected C h rist is the central p o in t o f the w hole
universe and H is role is to draw a ll th in g s to H im self ("plethorization"). W hen C h rist reaches
H is ow n fullness. H is highly in ten sified , sp iritu a lize d body w ill be the only rem nant of m aterial
re a lity. A ll biophysical re a lity w ill die a death o f heatlessness and disintegrate tow ard
nothingness. H um an re a lity w ill be transfigured in to the w hite s p iritu a l heat o f u ltim a te love
in the fullness o f C h rist, u n ite d w ith C h rist as the head o f the body. Then the process of
evolution w ill cease. Thus w hile T eilhard w a nts to affirm the goodness and beauty o f the
m a te ria l w orld, its goodness is not in itse lf, b u t only as it draws hum anity tow ard its ultim ate
s p iritu a l destiny.267
W hile on th e surface some o f T eilhards ideas appear sim ila r to those found in Paul, he
also im ports philosophical and scie ntific views o f nature th a t would have been foreign in the
firs t century. T eilhard agrees w ith Paul th a t hum an sin damages the entire universe. W hile
his explanation o f the nature o f sin as the in herent state o f disorder in m atter is n o t Pauline, a
tendency tow ard disorder is a plausible in te rp re ta tio n of th e va n ity resultin g from sin (Rom.
266Robert L. Faricy, 'T e ilh ard De C hardins Theology o f Redem ption," TS 27 (1966): 555-7,
561.
267Pierre Teilhard de C hardin, Hym n o f the Universe, tran s. Simon Bartholom ew (New York:
H arper and Row, 1965), 65; The Future o f M an, tran s. Norm an Denny (New York: H arper and
Row, 1964), 267-268; M ans Place In the Universe, trans. Rene Hague (New York: H arper and
Row, 1966), 22, 79; cf. Santm ire, Travail, 157-64; H enri de Lubac, The Religion o f Teihard.De
C hardin, trans. Rene Hague (London: W illia m C ollins, 1967), 142.
98
U
8:20). He emphasizes w ith P aul th a t God w ill w o rk th ro u g h C h rist to redeem the cosmos, not
sim ply In d ivid u a l hum an beings. O n the other hand, he sees the tran sform ation o f the w orld
to be an evolutionary process, ra th e r th a n a clim a ctic eschatological act o f God as found in
Rom. 8:19-22, w hich is m ore in keeping w ith the OT and Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re .268
Furtherm ore, in contrast to th e Jew ish and Pauline view, in the fin a l analysis a ll m atter w ill be
destroyed, w hen s p irit reaches its fu ll evolution and in teg ra tion w ith the cosmic C hrist. To a
large extent, the points o f contact between Paul and T eilhard are more in cid e n ta l than
re su ltin g from a fundam ental agreement of perspective.
T his survey shows th a t m ost m odem approaches to a theology o f nature are asymmet
ric a l in th e ir view o f the c o rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. They stress the goodness of
Gods creation, although they recognize th a t the n a tu ra l w o rld is damaged by hum an ecologi
cal irre sp o n sib ility. A lthough they usu a lly try to extend redem ption to th e n a tu ra l w orld,
m any theologians seek the tran sform ation o f nature th ro u g h hum an m ora l actions and
evolutionary advancement, ra th e r th a n b y a clim a ctic eschatological act o f God. Few m odem
theologies o f nature give serious consideration to Rom. 8:19-22 o r b ib lic a l teachings about the
co rru p tio n and eschatological redem ption o f the n a tu ra l w orld. B a rbo ur is rare among process
theologians in h is attem pt to give a hearing to b ib lic a l passages such as Rom. 8:19-22. O ther
im portant exceptions include the theological w orks b y R ust, S ittle r, H endry, H a ll and Osborne
as w e ll as b ib lic a l theology essays b y Stacey and C. F. D. M oule. These authors attem pt to
give serious consideration to b ib lic a l passages on the co rru p tio n and eschatological redem p
tio n o f creation thro ugh divine intervention, yet w ith a view to m odem ecological concerns. In
p a rticu la r, H a ll and Osborne are suggestive of fu rth e r w o rk th a t could be done to develop a
theology o f nature rooted in a b ib lic a l perspective o f creation and redem ption, yet w ith ethical
applications fo r the ecological problem s of W estern in d u stria lize d society.
268Teilhard, Future, 267-268; M ans Place, 22, 79. Cf. the critique s o f Teilhard by Faricy,
559-60 and Nelson, Groaning, U263-268.
99
CHAPTER 2:
HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON THE APOCALYPTIC

BACKGROUND TO ROMANS 8:19-22
A. C haracteristics o f Jew ish A pocalyptic L iteratu re
1. The D iffic u lty o f D efining "Apocalyptic"
"Apocalyptic" is a notoriously d iffic u lt te rm to define. To reduce the confusion, it has
become com monplace In apocalyptic research to distin g u ish apocalyptic theology from the
lite ra ry genre. U su ally the term s "apocalypse" o r "apocalyptic lite ra tu re " are used fo r the
lite ra ry form , "apocalyptic eschatology" is used fo r the perspective and theological ideas of
apocalyptic lite ra tu re , and "apocalypticism " refers to the sociological ideology o r movement th a t
spawned these ideas.1 A t tim es the term "apocalyptic" is conveniently used to refer to a ll
three aspects, b u t it is h elpful to recognize th a t several d is tin c t aspects are intertw ined in the
term .
A lthough m uch o f w hat is distinctive in apocalyptic lite ra tu re is eschatological, it is too
narrow to lim it th e distinctive features o f apocalyptic though t sim ply to eschatology.2 John
Hanson, "Apocalyptic, Genre," pp. 29-30; C ollins, 'In tro d u ctio n ," 3: P h ilipp Vielhauer,
"In tro d u ctio n [to Apocalypses and Related Subjects]," in New Testament Apocrypha, ed. E.
Hennecke and W. Schneemelcher (Philadelphia: W estm inster, 1965), 2:582; M ichael A Knibb,
"Prophecy and th e Emergence o f the Jew ish Apocalypses," in Israe l's Prophetic Tradition.
Essays 1n Honor o f Peter R. Ackroyd, ed. R ichard Coggins (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity
Press, 1982), 157-61. Klaus Koch, The Rediscovery o f Apocalyptic. A Polemical W ork on a
Neglected A rea o f B iblical Studies and Its Damaging Effects on Theology and Philosophy, trans.
M argaret Kohl (G utersloh: G utersloher Verlagshaus Gerd M ohn, 1970; re p rin t, London: SCM
Press, 1972), 23-33, distinguishes apocalyptic as a lite ra ry type and apocalyptic as an
h isto rica l m ovem ent, in w hich he stresses the "a ttitu d e o f m ind" o f apocalyptic (p. 33). James
t B arr, "Jew ish A pocalyptic in Recent S cholarly S tudy," BJRL 58 (1975): 16, divides these
j categories fu rth e r to distinguish (1) language use; (2) stru ctu re : (3) the "sort o f th in g th a t is
j to ld ; and (4) doctrine. A lthough his divisions m ay be too fine, they h ig h lig h t some valid
characteristics o f apocalyptic lite ra tu re .
2E.g. V ielhauer, 589, notes th a t apocalyptic lite ra tu re includes the revelation of secrets
100
C ollins observes th a t scholars have been overly preoccupied w ith apocalyptic eschatology,
w hich Is n o t the only concern o f the apocalypses.3 The term "apocalyptic theology" is more
com prehensive th a n "apocalyptic eschatology" to refer to the distinctive features o f apocalyptic
though t.4 For in ad d itio n to a d is tin c t eschatology, the apocalyptic w ritin g s have a character
is tic cosmology, a p a rtic u la r view o f sin, a certa in view o f history and tim e, a developed
angelology and several other im p o rta n t theological perspectives. Apocalyptic though t
encompasses "the whole fie ld o f ideas, doctrines and points of view"5 o f such lite ra tu re , and
n o t sim ply eschatology - even though eschatology is one o f the dom inant concerns in the
apocalyptic w ritin g s.
M ost m odem scholars recognize th a t apocalyptic theology is also to be found in works
th a t do not use the genre of apocalypse. A n apocalyptic perspective can be found in lite ra tu re
as diverse as narrative, m idrash, testam ents and sibylline oracles. Jam es B a rr says,
W hen we use the te rm apocalyptic we generally have in m ind content and p o in t o f view
ra th e r th a n sim ply form : we th in k o f a set o f ideas and attitudes, w hich fin d typ ica l
expression in the apocalypse form more s tric tly so called b u t w hich are also found over a
other th a n the eschatological, b u t he denies th a t these revelational secrets are im portant in

defining the genre.
3John J. C ollins, The Apocalyptic Im agination: A n Introduction to the Jew ish M a trix o f
C h ristianity (Crossroad, 1984), 8; cf. R B a rry M atlock, Unveiling the Apocalyptic PauL Pauls
Interpreters and the Rhetoric o f Criticism , Jo u rn a l fo r the Study o f the New Testam ent Supple
m ent, no. 127 (Sheffield: JSO T Press, 1996), 254-5. C ollins, however, also notes th a t
eschatology is an essential aspect o f apocalyptic theology, and those who w ant to avoid the
m ention o f eschatology in a d e fin itio n o f apocalyptic have gone too fa r (e.g. C hristopher
Rowland, The Open Heaven (London: Society fo r Prom oting C hristian Knowledge, 1982), 14,
stresses the d ire ct revelation o f heavenly m ysteries; cf. J . Carmignac, "Quest-Ce Que LApoca-
lyptique?," RevQ 10 (1979): 3-33: H a rtm u t Stegemann, "Die Bedeutung der Q um ranfunde f iir
die E rforschung der A pokalyptik," in Apocalypticism in the M editerranean W orld and the Near
East, ed. David H ellholm (Tubingen: J.C .B. M ohr, 1983), 495-530). S im ilarly, Sanders
approach, w h ich stresses the them es o f revelation and reversal, is inadequate because these
features are also found in other types o f lite ra tu re and th is misses the cosmological, eschato
logical and m ystica l tendencies o f apocalyptic w ritings.
4Cf. Leander E. Keck, "Paul and Apocalyptic Theology," In t 38 (1984): 233.
^ a r r , "Jew ish A pocalyptic," 16; cf. pp. 15-181; cf. Koch, Rediscovery, 33, "a p a rtic u la r
a ttitu d e o f m ind," although he emphasizes eschatology.
101
*I _____________ __
m uch w ider range of lite ra tu re .6
T his suggests, as w ell, th a t it is reasonable to exam ine the apocalyptic dim ensions o f Pauls
theology in passages such as Rom. 8:19-22, as w ill done la te r in th is study.
2 . The C orruption and R edem ption o f C reation as Features o f A pocalyptic Thought
D eterm ining th e distin ctive characteristics of apocalyptic theology is complex. The lis ts
o f characteristics provided b y scholars are am azingly diverse and often contain a m ixtu re o f
theological, sociological and form al characteristics. Because o f the diversity of the apocalyptic
w ritin g s, it is rare to fin d a ll o f these features in any one apocalypse. B a rr observes th a t there
are "bundles of features on various levels; perhaps no w o rk is so perfect and ideal an example
o f apocalyptic th a t it embodies a ll o f these features, b u t substantial clusters o f these features
n orm ally constitute su fficie n t reason to use the term apocalyptic."7
Despite th is diversity, however, m ost lis ts of features o f apocalyptic theology include
aspects associated w ith the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. The corru ption o f the
created order due to s in is, in fact, ce n tra l to the apocalyptic perspective. C ollins p o in ts out
th a t "the underlying problem o f a ll the apocalypses [is that) th is w orld is out o f jo in t, one m ust
look beyond it fo r a so lu tio n .8 Apocalypses are frequently concerned w ith the cause fo r th is
state o f affairs. Sometimes they a ttrib u te it to p o litic a l factors (in some h isto rica l apocalypses),
b u t m ore often it is the re su lt of the sin o f fallen angels or hum ans (in both h isto rica l and
6B arr, "Jewish A pocalyptic," 18.
7Ib id ., 18-9; cf. C ollins, "In tro d u ctio n ," 8. Even apocalyptic eschatology is diverse.
Rowland, 36, observes th a t in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re , there are "a variety of eschatol
ogical beliefs existing alongside each other. As a re su lt it is im possible to separate o u t a
strand of eschatological expectations th a t is coherent enough to be distinguished as an
apocalyptic sectarian ideology." Even Rowland, however, th in ks o f apocalyptic eschatology as
transcendental and other-w orldly (pp. 36-37, 48). despite the presence o f examples o f th is -
w o rldly eschatology in some apocalyptic lite ra tu re .
8Jo h n J . C ollins, "The Jew ish Apocalypses," Semeia 14 (1979); 27.
102
personal apocalypses).9
S im ilarly, m ost lis ts o f apocalyptic features stress dualism and a two-age theology.
There is in apocalyptic th o u g h t a sharp d istin ctio n between th is present evil age or w orld,
w hich is corrupted by sin, and the glory o f the fu tu re perfect w orld or age o f righteousness.
The freq uently observed pessim ism about th is present evil age is due to a profound sense of
the widespread im pact o f s in .10 C ollins also notes th a t in m any apocalypses p rim o rd ia l
events such as the F all of Adam o r the fa ll o f the W atchers have a paradigm atic significance
fo r the rest o f h isto ry.11
A n im p o rta n t p a rt o f eschatological hope in the apocalyptic w ritin g s is a radica l cosmic
tran sform ation through Gods intervention. A lthough apocalyptic thought is pessim istic about
the w orld in th is age, it is hopeful about the fu tu re transform ation o f the w o rld .12 C ollins
fin d s the them e of the cosm ic tran sform ation and the renewal o f the whole w o rld in twelve o u t
of the fifteen Jew ish apocalypses he examines. He says "the eschatological solution involves
eithe r a cosm ic tran sform ation th a t fundam entally alters th is w orld, or an otherw orldly
a fte rlife ."13 M ost other lis ts o f apocalyptic features also stress the cosmic dim ensions o f
9Tbid.
1These features are in m ost lists, in clu d in g those o f Koch, Rediscovery, 28-33; V ielhauer,
581-607; Rowland, 28; Leon M orris, Apocalyptic (London: Intervarsity Press, 1972), 34-67 and
Beker, Paul the Apostle, 136. Wayne Meeks stresses a three-fold dualism as the defining
characteristic o f apocalyptic: (1) cosm ic: heaven and earth; (2) tem poral: th is age and the age
to come; and, (3) social: sons o f lig h t and sons of darkness (Wayne A. Meeks, "Social F unctions
o f Apocalyptic Language in Pauline C h ristia n ity," in Apocalypticism in the M editerranean W orld
a nd the Near E a s t Proceedings o f the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism , Uppsala,
August 12-17, 1979, ed. David H ellholm , 2nd ed. (Tubingen: J.C.B. M ohr, 1989), 171-80).
u C ollins, "In tro d u ctio n ," 7. He fin d s th is feature in six o f the fifteen apocalypses he
examines (C ollins, "Jewish Apocalypses," 28).
12Cf. Braaten, 125-8; Galloway, 13-8, contrary to W ilhelm Bousset, Die Religion des
Judentum s im spathellenistischen Zeitalter, 4th ed., ed. Hugo Gressmann (B erlin: Reuter and
Reichard, 1906; re p rin t, Tubingen: M ohr, 1966), 581, whose view is typical o f the w idely held
concept th a t apocalyptic is pessim istic about the fu tu re o f the w orld.
13C ollins, "Jew ish Apocalypses," 27-8. In h is lis t o f features, he also m entions the ju d g -
103
* .... - - . . . .
apocalyptic hope, w hen the powers o f evil w ill be brought to an end, the present earthly
cond ition s w ill be overthrow n, and a new, paradisal w orld order w ill be in s titu te d .14 This
hope fo r a glorious fu tu re w o rld is also im p lic it In apocalyptic dualism . The expectation of a
b o d ily resun-ection also shows concern fo r the m aterial creation.15 A ll o f these m otifs are
related to the them e o f the redem ption o f creation.
B. The C orruption and R edem ption o f C reation in Jew ish A pocalyptic W ritings
Despite the w idely acknowledged im portance o f the corru ption and redem ption of
creation in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, there has been no fu ll scale study o f these themes.
F urtherm ore, m any o f the existing surveys tend to fla tte n the theology o f apocalyptic to be
m ore uniform th a n it is .16 For example, David Russells dissertation looks a t several apoca-
m e n t o f the w o rld, i.e. the n a tu ra l elem ents (4 o f 15 apocalypses), bod ily resurrection (5
apocalypses) and eschatological upheavals th a t d istu rb the order of nature (10 apocalypses).
The la tte r also could be related to th e co rru p tio n of creation.
14V ielhauer, 581-607, stresses th e universalism o f apocalyptic th o u g h t and its cosmic hope.
In th e lis t of distin ctive features o f apocalyptic lite ra tu re by Koch, Rediscovery, 28-33, five of
these eight features relate to the redem ption o f creation: (1) the urgent expectation o f the
im pending overthrow o f e arthly conditions: (2) the End as a cosmic catastrophe: (3) a new
salvation arises, paradisal in character; (4) tra n s itio n from disaster to fin a l redem ption by the
act o f God, in w h ich the Kingdom o f God w ill become visible on earth; and, (5) the catchword
"glory" describing fin a l state o f a ffa irs in heaven and earth. M orris, Apocalyptic, 34-7, lists six
o f eleven characteristics th a t relate to the cosmic transform ation: (1) God w ill intervene to
b rin g in a new age; (2) a com ing c ris is w ill shake the foundations of the w orld and its present
system ; (3) the triu m p h o f God, who w ill b rin g th is present evil w orld to a cataclysm ic end and
establish a b etter state of affairs; (4) dualism stresses the new age/w orld: (5) m ediation:
focuses on a new era b rin g in g an end to the whole present system; (6) h is to ric a l perspective:
h is to ry is a tim etable showing how close m en are to the u ltim ate event when the powers o f evil
are brought to an end. Bekers sim ple lis t emphasizes universal cosm ic expectation and the
im m inent end o f the w orld (Beker, Paul the Apostle, 136). H is la te r revised lis t includes (1) the
vin d ica tio n o f God; and (2) the universal salvation o f the w orld.
15C ollins, "In tro d u ctio n ," 6-7, 28.
16This is also observed by Donald E. Gowan, "The Fall and Redem ption of the M aterial
W orld in Apocalyptic L iterature," H B T 7, no. 2 (1985): 88. In p a rt th is is a product o f the
influence of R. H. Charles. Since C harles assumed th a t apocalyptic lite ra tu re has a m odem
d o ctrin a l and logical consistency, he posited interpolations and amended the te xt freely in an
e ffo rt to m a in ta in th is consistency. See the critiq u e o f Charles by John J. C ollins, "Apocalyptic
L ite ra tu re ," in E a rly Judaism and Its M odem Interpreters, ed. R. A. K raft and G. W. E.
104
lyptJc w ritin g s as a background fo r the NT view o f the new heavens and e arth.17 U n fortu
nately, he assumes th a t a ll apocalyptic w orks have m uch the same view o f th is subject, so he
fa ils to do ju s tic e to th e diversity o f perspectives in apocalyptic lite rature.
In a dd ition , m any o f the discussions of these them es are to be found in w orks on
theology ra th e r th a n studies of the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials themselves. E thelbert
S tauffer, fo r exam ple, has a good b u t b rie f sum m ary o f the Jew ish apocalyptic view o f the
im pact o f the F a ll on n a ture and the fu tu re transform ation o f the w orld in his 1956 book on
NT theology.18 A lthough S tauffers statem ents are largely true, he integrates ideas from
diverse types o f m aterials to form a com posite pictu re th a t does n o t take in to account the
va rie ty o f perspectives found in th is lite ra tu re . E ric R usts b ib lica l theology of nature includes
a section on the co rru p tio n of the created order and the renewal o f the earth in the Pseude-
pigrapha, b u t h is w o rk suffers from a s im ila r weakness.19
A lla n G allow ay has a sum m ary o f the apocalyptic view of the w orld, the corru ption o f
the w o rld due to the F all, and the hope o f the fu tu re tran sform ation of the w orld.20 He
stresses th a t although there is a pessim istic side to th e apocalyptic view o f the w o rld due to
the im pact o f sin , there is also a positive side. He fin d s in th is lite ra tu re "an element of
unbounded optim ism w h ich exists side b y side w ith the pessim ism ," since there was the
expectation o f a new earth and a tran sform ation o f the whole o f creation. The apocalyptic
N ickelsburg (Chico, Ca.: Scholars Press, 1986), 348, and B arr, "Jewish Apocalyptic," 31-2.
17D. M. Russell, The "New Heavens and New E arth": Hope fo r the Creation in Jew ish
A pocalyptic and the New Testam ent
18S tauffer, 72-4.
19R ust, 158-60.
20G alloway. 20-30. Galloways synopsis of apocalyptic is excellent, b u t u n fortu nately he is

too q u ick to dem ythologize such apocalyptic concepts as angels, descriptions o f Paradise and
the F all, so he sometimes m isses the significance of these ideas in the worldview o f the
apocalypticists.
105
paradox holds these contrasting a ttitu d e s in tension.21
D. S. Russell's im portant 1964 book on Jew ish apocalyptic contains several h e lp fu l
chapters on topics related to the co rru p tio n and redem ption of creation, in clu d in g "creation
and recreation," "the M essianic kingdom ," and "the tim e o f the end."22 In a la te r published
lecture, he looks at th e corru ption o f inanim ate n a ture b y fallen angels and the h u m a n F all, as
w ell as the expectation th a t the created w orld w ill be recreated. The redem ption o f the cosmos
belongs together w ith the redem ption o f h um an ity in Gods purpose.23 A t tim es, however,
Russells atte m pt to create a sort o f system atic theology o f Jewish apocalyptic th o u g h t does not
do ju stice to the diversity w ith in the apocalyptic w ritin g s. For w hile Russell recognizes the
existence o f diverse views w ith in the apocalyptic m aterials (e.g. the tension between a m ilita ry
le ader/earthly kingdom eschatological hope and a cosm ic/transcendent hope24), h is system
atic approach im plies a greater s im p lic ity and consistency th a n a careful reading o f the
lite ra tu re j u stifies.25
A h e lp fu l direction fo r study is suggested b y N ils A . D ahl in an article com paring
different views o f the relationship between the o rig in a l creation and the fu tu re w orld in Jew ish
and C h ristia n lite ra tu re . He distinguishes seven different types of relationships fo u n d in
various texts, w hich are sometimes com bined in one w ork: analogy (between the o rig in a l and
the new creation), contrast, re s titu tio n , tran sform ation (superiority), id e n tity (things from the
beginning w ill retu rn), reservation (some things are kept in to the new world) and inclusiveness
(the present creation includes the w o rld to come).26 D ahls classification of texts m ay a t
21Ib id ., 14-5: cf. 16-18, 40.
22Russell, Method a n d Message, 263-303.
23D. S. Russell, Apocalyptic: Ancient and M odem (London: SCM Press, 1978), 34-6.
24Ib id ., 34-5.
25See the critique o f Russell by C ollins, "Apocalyptic Literature," 349.
28N ils A. D ahl, "C hrist, Creation and the C hurch," in The Background o f the New Testament
106
(
|
4< ______
tim es be debatable, fo r he has a tendency to lum p together diverse texts from different tim e
periods and various perspectives. Nevertheless, h is schema is a sig nifica nt Im provem ent over
earlier studies, w hich often assumed th a t a ll "late Jew ish" lite ra tu re or a ll apocalyptic w ritin g s
have a s im ila r view.
In h is 1977 dissertation on the respon sibility fo r evil in 4 Ezra, Alden Lloyd Thompson
has an excellent survey o f the diverse views of the o rig in o f and respon sibility fo r evil in Jewish
lite ra tu re up to A.D. 100. He discusses physical and m oral evil as w ell as the cosm ic effects of
sin. He also examines various Jew ish views o f the re sp o n sib ility fo r evil, in clu d in g the Fall of
Adam, the fa lle n W atchers, in d ivid u a l responsibility, and the evil im pulse in hum an nature.
He is careful to distinguish the views of different docum ents, ra th e r than to group a ll o f the
Jew ish w ritin g s together.27
Donald Gowan sum m arizes various apocalyptic views on th e fa ll and redem ption o f the
m ate rial w orld in a sig nifica nt 1985 article. He notes the danger o f generalization about the
"apocalyptic view" and he calls fo r nuancing these generalizations b y studying each w ork on its
own.28 Gowan claim s th a t there are "10 different views" in the ten apocalyptic w orks he
studies, i.e. in 1 En. (5 books), 2 E n., Ju b ., 4 Ez., 2 B ar., and Syb. Or. Some have no interest
in th e m a te ria l w orld; some have a positive view o f the w o rld, w ith no sense th a t it is fallen;
some follow the OT pattern o f n a tu ra l phenom ena as agents of judgm ent; some have a deep
concern fo r the w ell-being o f the m a te ria l w orld. Nevertheless, he notes several general
patterns: (1) A pocalyptic lite ra tu re does not have a deeply pessim istic view o f nature, contrary
to the com m on conception.29 (2) H um an rebellion and tran sitoriness is contrasted w ith the
and Its Eschatology, ed. W. D. Davies and D. Daube (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press,
1956), 422-43.
27Thom pson, Responsibility, 5-83.
28Gowan, "F all and Redem ption," 88.
29Ib id ., 110-101.
107
obedience and re g u la rity o f th e rest o f creation. (3) Sin brings a curse on the m ate rial w orld,
w h ich God intends to overcome. The fa ll of nature is a m isnom er, since the curse is either due
to hum an s in or, more often, due to the rebellion o f the angels, based on Gen 6:1-6. (4) The
de stru ctio n o f the w orld is not because the cosmos is hopelessly sin fu l, b u t it is a punishm ent
fo r hum an sin. (5) The tran sform ation o f the earth is not due to liftin g the curse on the w orld,
b u t it is p a rt o f Gods blessings fo r the righteous when h is ru le over the cosmos becomes
m anifest. The transform ed w orld w ill provide blessings fo r hum an beings in the new age.30
In an im p o rta n t 1989 article, M artin us de Boer shows th a t there are two m ajor tracks
in Jew ish apocalyptic eschatology: (1) Cosm ological-apocalyptic eschatology: T his age is under
th e influence o f evil angels who fe ll a t the tim e o f Noah. T his type o f passage stresses cosmic
powers (e.g. 1 En. 1-36).31 (2) Forensic-apocalyptic eschatology: T his age is characterized by
the fact th a t hum ans w ilfu lly rejected God and brought death and perversion to the w orld
th ro u g h the Fall. The stress is on the hum an accou nta bility and choice to obey God and the
Law. (e.g. 4 Ez; 2 Bar; 1 En. 91-105).32 De Boer notes th a t a few apocalyptic books combine
both tra cks (e.g. IQ S 1-4; 1QM; CD; Ju b ., T. 12 Pat.).33 De Boers approach helps to cla rify
the diverse apocalyptic approaches to the corru p tio n o f the w o rld in th is age.
D avid R ussells 1991 dissertation on the new heavens and earth, explores the hope fo r
th e fu tu re o f the created order in the OT, Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re , Q um ran w ritin g s and
th e NT. He rejects the com m on conception th a t the concern o f Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re is
p rim a rily otherw orldly. He convincingly dem onstrates th a t these w ritin g s do not depreciate
the present creation, b u t th a t God has a concern fo r the m ate rial w orld. Creation is not
"fallen." R ather the created order is "good yet perverted" by hum an sin and longs fo r
30Ib id ., 99-100.
31De Boer, 174-5, 180.
32Ib id ., 177-81.
33Ib id ., 174-7.
108
release.34 U nfortunately, R ussells attem pt to fin d a coherent theology o f the fu tu re of
creation thro ugho ut a wide range o f lite ra tu re leads to a tendency to fla tte n im portant
differences in perspective between m any o f these w ritin gs. For example, he argues th a t the
1
OT, Jew ish apocalyptic w orks, Q um ran and the NT consistently teach the renewal and
i
; tra n sfo rm a tio n o f the present creation, rath er th a n the destruction o f the w orld and the
I
creation o f a new one ex nihUo.3S

I
Recent studies th a t account fo r the diversity w ith in the apocalyptic w ritin g s are a
considerable im provem ent over earlier studies, w hich tended to fla tte n out apocalyptic
theology. A lthough m ost are brief, they are, nevertheless, suggestive o f fu tu re directions of
study. Furtherm ore, the im portance o f the corru ption and redem ption of creation in Jewish
apocalyptic theology stresses the need for a more complete study o f these themes.
C. The R elationship o f Pauls Thought to Jew ish A pocalyptic W ritings
P rior to the late 19th century, scholars generally paid little a tte n tio n to the apocalyptic
features o f NT though t and its possible background in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritings. In the
la te 1850s, A d o lf H ilgenfeld argued th a t apocalyptic was the connection between OT prophecy
and the NT.36 For a short w h ile h is ideas raised considerable discussion among NT scholars.
H is views, however, had little influence on OT scholarship, w hich was dom inated a t the tim e
b y the lite ra ry c ritic is m school (W elhausen, Duhm , etc.). That approach believed Jesus and
J o h n the B a p tist were connected to th e Prophets and it saw apocalyptic as an aberrant
sid etrack and in fe rio r im ita tio n o f OT prophetic lite ra tu re .
34D. M. Russell, 150-2.
3SIbid., 241-3. Russell recognizes th is tendency in m any w orks (p. 91), b u t unfortunately
j he fa lls in to th e same trap.
I 36A dolf H ilgenfeld, D iejudische A pokalyptik in ih re r geschichtUchen Entw icklung. Ein Beitrag
j z u r Vorgeschichte des Christentum s (Jena, 1857), 2. See Johann M ichael Schm idt, Die
i Judische A pokalyptik (N eukirchen-Vluyn: N eukirchener, 1969), 127, fo r a discussion of the
reactions to H ilgenfelds views.
109
, . U . . . . . .
Late in the 19th century the discussion was raised again when Johannes W eiss argued
th a t Jesus concept o f the kingdom o f God had an apocalyptic basis.37 T his shocked m any
scholars o f the day, since Weiss understanding o f the kingdom of God as transcendent,
fu tu ris tic and supe rn atu ral was at odds w ith the cu rre n t Protestant view th a t it was im m a
nent, non-eschatological (or realized) and ethical. H is w o rk was a c ritic a l tu rn in g p o in t th a t
com pelled NT scholarship to begin focusing on apocalyptic eschatology.38
S hortly thereafter R ichard Kabisch became one o f th e firs t to show the influence o f
apocalyptic thought in Pauls letters. He argued th a t Paul was a Pharisaic Jew, whose
apocalyptic longing fo r the coining o f the M essiah was fu lfille d in Jesus. Pauls preaching is
based on contem porary Jew ish apocalyptic hopes, b u t it is m odified b y h is belief th a t the
Messiah has arrived.39 Pauls doctrine and ethics are a fu n c tio n o f his apocalyptic eschatol
ogy. The physical universe belongs to the old age, w hich is under the bondage o f s in and
death. It is displaced fo r believers by the new order inaugurated by Jesus death and
Resurrection. The C h ristia n life involves life fro m the dead and deliverance from both
judgm ent and the death th a t infects the creation.40
A t the beginning o f the 20 th century,41 A lb e rt Schweitzer argued fo r a strongly
apocalyptic reading of both Jesus and Paul. He claim ed th a t th e ir eschatology was "consist-
37Johaness Weiss, Jesus Proclamation o f the Kingdom o f God, trans. R. H. Hiers and D. L.
H olland (1882; re p rin t, Philadelphia: Fortress, 1971), 133.
R ichard E. S turm , "D efining the W orld A pocalyptic: A Problem in B ib lica l C riticism ," in
Apocalyptic and the New Testam ent Essays in Honor o f J. Louis M artyn, ed. Joel M arcus and
M arion L. Soards, Jo u rn a l fo r the S tudy of the New Testam ent Supplem ent Series (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1989), 26.
39R ichard Kabisch, Die Eschatologie des Paulus in ihren Zusammenhdngen m il dem
G esam tbegriff Paulinism us (Gdttingen: Vandenhoeck and R uprecht, 1893), 12, 317.
40Ib id ., 183, 188-228.
41For a thorough study o f the tw entie th century interest in apocalyptic and Paul, see
M atlock. He has an especially thorough discussion o f Schweitzer and K&semann.
110
ent" and "thoroughgoing." The theology o f Jo h n the B aptist, Jesus and Paul are "the cu lm in a t
in g m anifestations o f Jew ish apocalyptic though t."42 Jesus theology and Pauls after h im is
"a deeply ethical and perfected version o f the contem porary Apocalyptic." In contrast w ith the
typ ica l Religionsgeschichte view th a t Pauls th o u g h t was rooted in Hellenism , Schweitzer
argued th a t Pauls ideas, like Jesus, were rooted in Jew ish apocalyptic. A true h isto ry o f
religions approach shou ld explain Pauls th o u g h t on the basis of "Late Judaism " and give
w eight to the Im portance o f h is eschatology, w h ich Is sim ila r to apocalyptic w orks such as
1 Enoch, 4 Ezra, 2 B aruch and Jubilees.43 The core o f Pauls theology is his eschatological
m ysticism , a concept th a t Schweitzer suggested in h is earlier works, b u t did n o t fu lly develop
u n til h is im portant 1930 w o rk on Pauls m ysticism .44 Pauls theology o f dying and ris in g w ith
C h rist and h is ethics b u ild on Jesus eschatological preaching of the kingdom o f God, w ith the
added concept o f salvation through Jesus death and Resurrection. The death o f Jesus is
sig n ifica n t fo r believers as the event in w hich the realization o f the kingdom begins. The
in tim a te connection between salvation in C h rist and the hope of the kingdom enabled prim itive
C h ris tia n ity to survive the delay of the Parousia.45
A bout the same tim e, W ilhelm Bousset, a NT scholar o f the h isto ry of religions school.
42A lbert Schweitzer, The Quest o f the H isto rical Jesus, trans. W. M ontgom ery (London: SCM,
1910; re p rin t, New York: M acm illan, 1961), 367; A lb e rt Schweitzer, Paul and H is Interpreters.
A C ritica l H istory, tra n s. W. M ontgom ery (1912; re p rin t, London: Adam and Charles Black,
1912), ix-x, 240-1.
43Ib id ., ix-x, 177. M atlock, 51-3, observes th a t Schweitzer tended to lum p together the
"Late Jew ish" w orks, b o th apocalyptic and non-apocalyptic, in an effort to fin d a coherent
background to Paul. The consistently apocalyptic approach o f la te r in terpreters such as Beker
m u st n o t be read in to Schweitzer. Schweitzer w anted to show th a t Pauls ideas are sim ila r to
la te Jew ish eschatology, ra th e r th a n H ellenistic o r prophetic thought. According to Schweitzer
th e fu tu ris tic elements o f Pauls eschatology have these roots, b u t the realized portion s came
from h is reflection on the C h rist event.
44Schweitzer, Q uest 241; Schweitzer, M ysticism .
45Ib id ., 380-1, 392. Nevertheless, Schweitzer believed th a t Jesus apocalyptic expectations

were "crushed" fo r the early C hurch by the fact th a t Jesus death did not im m ediately b rin g
about the end o f tim e.
I ll
!
f
* -
argued (1) th a t apocalyptic was one of the dom inant ideas in Judaism at the tim e o f the NT,
and (2) th a t apocalyptic though t had a sig n ifica n t influence on early C h ristia n ity, in clud ing
Paul. He believed th a t before Paul became a C h ristian, he had an eschatological outlook
s im ila r to 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch. Nevertheless, Bousset was hesitant to accept Schweitzers
contention th a t Jesus ideas were also rooted in Jew ish apocalyptic thought.46
In the 1930s the French scholar M aurice Goguel w rote one o f the strongest defenses of
th e view th a t Jesus w as non-apocalyptic b u t th a t the early church was apocalyptic. Jesus
derived fro m John the B a p tist, who was apocalyptic, b u t he differed from conventional
apocalyptic because o f h is preaching o f conversion. Yet Jesus separated from John , and so
also from apocalyptic. The R esurrection com pelled Jesus follow ers to re tu rn to apocalyptic
ideas. T his apocalyptic element gradu ally declined: It is weaker in Paul and John, and the
idea o f an apocalyptic w orld catastrophe gradually disappears in the la te r ancient C hurch.47
U n fo rtu n a te ly, Goguels argum ent is weakened by h is lim ite d conception o f apocalyptic, w hich
he believes was centered on the d estruction o f Satan in the eschaton.
In the early 1940s E thelbert S tauffer used a Heilsgeschichte approach to emphasize an
apocalyptic background o f the NT. Paul was an apocalyptic Pharisee p rio r to h is conversion,
who incorporated a strongly apocalyptic theology in to h is le tters.48 Redemption, therefore, is
placed w ith in the context o f creation and Heilsgeschichte w ith in the context o f universal
history. T hus the NT w rite rs were a t home in an apocalyptic w orld of id eas49
46Bousset, Religion des Judentum s; W ilhelm Bousset, D ie ju disch e A pokayptik. Ihre

religionsgeschichtliche H e rku n fi und ihre Bedeutung ju r das Neue Testament (B erlin: Reuther
und Reichard, 1903), 56.
47M aurice Goguel, "Eschatologie et apocalytique dans le christianism e p rim itif," RHR 106
(1932): 383. 387.
48S tauffer, 36.
49Ib id ., 21. A fter W W II, S tauffer altered his views about the apocalyptic nature o f Jesus
teachings: Jesus message was p rim a rily a message about today, w hich differed fundam entally
from the apocalyptic message of h is day, in clu d in g th a t o f Jo h n the B aptist. "Jesus sup-
112
A roun d the tim e of the Second W orld W ar, R u dolf B u ltm an n tu rn e d alm ost an entire
generation o f NT scholarship away from considering Jew ish apocalyptic as a m a jo r influence
on NT th o u g h t. B u ltm a n n acknowledged th a t the ideas o f Jesus and early C h ris tia n ity were
su b sta n tia lly shaped by Jew ish apocalyptic,50 being rooted in both Jew ish apocalyptic and
G nostic redeemer m ythology.51 Nevertheless, B u ltm a n n held th a t m odem theology m ust
reject these apocalyptic ideas because they have been em pirically disproved by the fact th a t
the Parousia o f C h rist never took place as the NT expected.52 He used a process o f "dem yth
ologization" to d istin g u ish the substance o f the gospel from its p a rtic u la r h is to ric a l express
ions.
B u ltm a n n argued th a t P aul h im self began th is process o f dem ythologization b y m oving
the in te rp re ta tio n of the earliest keiygm a beyond m ythology tow ard th e anthropologically
centered doctrine o f ju s tific a tio n . T hus "Pauls theology is, a t the same tim e, a n th ro p o l
ogy. . . . Pauls C hristology is sim ultaneously soteriology."53 The eschatological m om ent of
salvation is not an event yet to occur, as in Jew ish apocalyptic th o u g h t, b u t it is som ething
th a t happens when an in d ivid u a l hears the gospel and chooses fa ith . The age o f salvation has
already dawned fo r the believer.54 T hus B ultm ann in te rp re ts Paul existentialfy, in term s of
anthropological self-understanding. The cosm ological-futuristic language th a t has its roots in
porters d id not understand th is because they were too infected b y vu lg a r apocalyptic ideas."
A fte r h is death, apocalyptic fever broke out w ith o u t re s tra in t (e.g. A cts 2:39f). E thelbert
S tauffer, Jesus, Paulus und W ir: A n tw ort a u j etnen offenen B rie f von Paul A lthaus, W alter
K unneth und W iljried Joest (Ham burg: W ittig, 1961), 118f.
R u d o lf K a rl B u ltm an n, Theology o f the New Testam ent (New Y ork: Charles S cribners
Sons, 1951), 1:74-92.
51Ib id ., 174, 177; R udolf K a rl B ultm ann, "The New Testam ent and M ythology," in Kerygma
and M yth, ed. H. W . B artsch (London: S.P.C.K., 1953), 1:15.
B u ltm an n, "New Testam ent and M ythology", 5.
B u ltm an n, Theology, 191.
^B u ltm a n n , "New Testam ent and M ythology," 31.
113
Jew ish apocalyptic though t is obsolete and m isleading when interpreted lite ra lly and so should
be re-interpreted anthropologically. "M yth should be interpreted not cosm ically, b u t
anthropologically, o r better s till, existentially."55 A lthough there is apocalyptic eschatology in
Pauls letters, it is the produ ct of Pauls personal history ra th e r th a n the essence o f the gospel.
For example, B u ltm an n acknowledges th a t Rom. 8:18-25 and 2 Cor. 4:17-18 are rooted in a
Jew ish belief in transcendent glory as a com pensation fo r present suffering, yet he argues th a t
th is has "lost its m otive power" fo r Paul.56 U nfortunately, B ultm anns existential reading o f
Paul prevented him from understanding the apocalyptic dim ensions o f Pauls thought on th e ir
ow n term s.57
M any NT scholars adopted B u ltm an ns view in the post-w ar era, p a rtic u la rly in
Germany. J6rg Baum garten, fo r example, agrees w ith B ultm ann th a t Paul dem ythologizes
Jew ish apocalyptic tra d itio n s by draw ing im plications fo r the life o f the com m unity. Paul is
m a in ly interested in C hristology, anthropology and ecclesiology, w hich leads h im to downplay
the cosmological, dem onological and m ythological elements. Paul, however, could not use
apocalyptic tra d itio n s in th is way i f he did not see the Resurrection o f C h rist as a radica l break
in the two age scheme of apocalyptic.58
The discovery o f the Q um ran docum ents w ith th e ir frequently expressed apocalyptic
theology was an im p o rta n t factor in the resurgence of interest in a Jew ish apocalyptic
background to the NT. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain m any examples o f apocalyptic thought in
55Ib id ., 10.
56B ultm ann, Prim itive C hristianity, 186, cf. 178, 184.
57See the critiq u e by Beker, Paul the Apostle, 141-2 and Sturm , 27-8. Beker believes th a t
one reason B u ltm an n m isreads P aul is th a t he im ports Johannine categories in to h is interpre
ta tio n o f Paul.
Jdrg Baum garten, Paulus und die A pokalyptik. Die Auslegung apokalyptischer Uberliefer-
ungen in den echten Paulusbriejen, W issenschaftliche M onographien zum A lte n u n d Neuen
Testam ent, no. 44 (N eukirken-Vluyn: N eukirchener, 1975).
114
w ritin g s th a t do n o t use an apocalypse as a lite ra iy form . T his m akes it harder to deny th a t
apocalyptic theology m ig h t be used in NT docum ents th a t are non-apocalyptic in genre.59
E rnst Kasem ann is one o f the m ost in flu e n tia l advocates o f th is re tu rn to the im p o rt
ance o f Jew ish apocalyptic. A lthough a student o f B ultm ann, he directly opposed h is teachers
anthropocentric views and returned to Schweitzers view th a t Jew ish apocalyptic theology was
form ative in Pauls th in k in g . He claim s th a t apocalyptic is "the m other of a ll C hristian
theology.60 Kasem ann argues, however, th a t Jesus own teachings were not apocalyptic,
since he denies the a u th e n ticity of apocalyptic ideas such as the Son of Man sayings, the
resto ratio n of the twelve trib e s, and the com ing Parousia, based on form c ritic a l assump
tio n s.61 He defines apocalyptic as a type o f eschatology th a t focuses on u ltim a te history.62
"Pauls apostolic self-consciousness is only com prehensible on the basis o f h is apocalyptic. 63
Pauls view o f C h rist as Lord o f the universe who subjugates a rebellious w orld is profoundly
an apocalyptic perspective.64 In contrast to Schweitzer, who claim ed on the basis o f Pauls
apocalyptic hope th a t ju s tific a tio n was sim ply a "subsidiary crater" in Pauls thought,65
Kasemann argues th a t Gods righteousness and the believers ju s tific a tio n by God are p rim a ry
59W illiam A. Beardslee, "New Testam ent Apocalyptic in Recent Interpretation," In t 25 (1971):
422.
60K&semann, "Beginnings," 40; Kasemann, New Testament Questions, 133.
61Kasemann says th a t Jesus teachings started w ith John the B a ptists apocalyptic message
as a p o in t o f departure. H is teachings, however, did n o t have an apocalyptic stam p, b u t
proclaim ed the im m ediacy o f the God who was near at hand (Ibid., 101). For a critique o f th is
u n lik e ly double d isco n tin u ity o f Jesus from John the B a ptist and the early C hurch, cf. Koch,
Rediscovery, 78.
KSsemann, New Testam ent Questions, 109, n. 2.
Kasemann, "Beginnings," 34. Even Pauls doctrine o f ju s tific a tio n "cannot be understood
at a ll w ith o u t h is apocalyptic," because it is not a question o f reward b u t God becoming a ll in
a ll (1 Cor. 15:28). (Kasemann, New Testament Questions, 15).
Ib id ., 133-4.
Schweitzer, M ysticism , 225.
115
.. . / _______________
m arks o f the new age.66 A lthough at tim es KSsemann oversim plifies early C h ristia n apoca
lyp tic to "the im m ine nt expectation of the Parousia,"67 he single-handedly started a renais
sance o f research in to the apocalyptic dim ensions o f NT thought, p a rtic u la rly in the letters of
Paul. F urtherm ore, u n like Weiss and Schweitzer, he allow s early C h ristia n apocalyptic to
redefine the contem porary understanding o f tim e and history.
A ro u n d the same tim e as Kasemanns sem inal essay, U lrich W ilckens w rote about the
relatio nship o f apocalyptic to the doctrines o f God, salvation and revelation in Paul. Pauls
antinom y between the Law and C hrist is only com prehensible in lig h t o f Paul as an apocalyptic
th in ke r. The soteriological fu n ctio n o f the Law in apocalyptic Judaism is excluded by Pauls
apocalyptic und erstan ding of C h rist crucified. W ilckens also believed th a t Jesus thought was
rooted in Jew ish apocalyptic.68 Koch observes th a t W ilckens was in danger of overstressing
how w idespread apocalyptic thought was a t the tim e of the NT, b u t he is im p o rta n t fo r
E rn st Kasem ann, "J u stifica tio n and S alvation H isto ry in the E pistle to the Romans," in
Perspectives on P a u l tran s. M. Kohl (London: SCM, 1969), 76-7; Kasemann, New Testament
Questions, 105.
67I. H ow ard M arshall, "Is Apocalyptic the M other of C h ristia n Theology?," in Tradition and
Interpretation in the New Testam eni ed. G erald F. H awthorne and O tto Betz (Grand Rapids,
M i.: Eerdm anns, 1987), 32-44. M arshall believes th a t apocalyptic is n o t the m other o f C h rist
ia n ity, b u t ce rta in ly the "near horizon" (cf. M orris, Apocalyptic, 9-11). W . G. R ollins, "The New
Testam ent and A pocalyptic," NTS 17 (1970-1971): 454-76, acknowledges some theological-lit
erary correspondence between Jewish apocalypticism and the early C hurch, b u t he also points
o u t some fundam ental h isto rica l, sociological and theological differences (p. 476):
Jewish Apocalyptic: Early Church:
Expected a coming Messiah Messiah had already come

World-loss Meaningfulness of world involvement
Religious exclusivism Brought in sinners
Arcane mysteries known only to the elect Published its tidings
Distant God who will come as judge God had come near in human flesh
U lric h W ilckens, "Die Bekehrung des Paulus als religionsgeschichtliche Problem," ZTK 56
(1959): 285.
116
recognizing the Influence of several c ritic a l apocalyptic ideas on early C h ristia n th in k in g .69
W ilckens was not as w e ll accepted among NT scholars as Kasemann, b u t he influenced
th e system atic theologian W o lfh a rt Pannenberg, who fu rth e r developed h is ideas o f history,
revelation and apocalyptic. Pannenberg argued th a t h isto ry is only understandable in lig h t o f
th e End, its fu tu re goal. T h is perspective is possible because the fin a l cond ition o f hum an ity
is proleptically anticipated in the R esurrection o f Jesus. Revelation is Gods self-disclosure in
history, w hich is only com pletely com prehensible at the end o f history. T his apocalyptic
perspective was the presupposition o f the h isto rica l th in k in g o f the W est and the horizon th a t
spans the whole of C h ristia n theology in general.70
Kasemanns w ritin g s provoked a flu rry o f articles and m onographs on the apocalyptic
background o f Pauls thought. For example, S tuhlm acher traces Pauls em phasis on the
righteousness o f God to the Jew ish apocalyptic concept of Gods saving ju s tic e , as found in the
Q um ran w ritin g s and in variou s apocalyptic w orks.71 Charles G ib lin argues th a t Pauls
theology is strongly apocalyptic. Rom. 8 is "the grand clim ax o f the ju rid ic a lly phrased Pauline
apocalypse o f Gods gospel" as developed in Rom. 1-8.72 Jo h n Gager studies Pauls use of
end tim e language in several passages and concludes th a t apocalyptic is one o f Pauls m ajor
points of departure.73 A pocalyptic scholar D. S. Russell argues th a t Jew ish apocalyptic
influenced NT thought and serves as the bridge between OT and NT, b u t apocalyptic thought
69Koch, Rediscovery, 74.
70W olfhart Pannenberg, Revelation As H istory (New Y ork: M acm illan, 1968): W olfhart
Pannenberg, "Redemptive Event and H istory," in Basic Questions in Theology, ed. W olfhart
Pannenberg (London: SCM, 1970), 20.
71Jub., 1 En., T. 12 Pat., 4 Ez. and 2 B ar., as w ell as Is. 24-27 and Dan. Peter S tu h l
m acher, Gerecktigkeit Gottes bei Paulus (GSttingen: Vandenhoeck and R uprecht, 1965), 175.
^G ib lin , 394-5.
73Gager, "F unctional D iversity," 325-37.
117
was transform ed and reinterpreted In the NT In lig h t o f the person and presence o f Jesus.74
J. C hristiaan Beker has produced the m ost thorough recent argum ents fo r the
apocalyptic nature of Paul's thought. He believes th a t Pauls gospel is essentially apocalyptic,
although h is w ritin gs use the genre o f le tte r ra th e r th a n apocalypse. "Paul is an apocalyptic
theologian w ith a theocentric outlook. The C hrist-event Is the tu rn in g p o in t in tim e th a t
announces the end o f tim e."75 Paul's le tters have a dialogical relatio nship between the
coherent core o f h is thought, w hich Is essentially apocalyptic, and the contingent expression of
h is ideas to meet the needs o f the churches to w hich he wrote.76 In h is 1980 m onograph on
Paul, Beker argues th a t the coherent core o f Pauls theology Is the triu m p h o f God: "the hope
in the daw ning victory of God and the im m inent redem ption o f the created order, w hich he has
inaugurated in C hrist." "Pauls herm eneutic translates the apocalyptic theme of the gospel
in to the contingent p a rticu la ritie s o f the hum an situatio n."77 There is a flu id interaction
between the coherent and contingent th a t m arks Pauls herm eneutic. Yet Paul form ulated
more clearly th a n any other early C h ristian theologian the coherent stru ctu re o f the gospel and
its abiding tru th .78
74Russell, Apocalyptic, 41, 49, 51-5.
75Beker, Paul the Apostle, 362.
76Ib id ., 38-41.
^ Ib id ., ix. In h is la te r articles, Beker tile s to avoid the term "core," preferring instead the
term "coherence." Core im plies a center in Pauls thought around w hich a ll h is ideas can be
arranged. Coherence suggests a flu id , flexible structure, a field of m eaning, a netw ork of
sym bolic relations th a t nourishes h is thought and constitutes h is "lin g u istic w orld." Coher
ence cannot be restricted to one "contingent" symbol, such as the eschatological triu m p h of
God (as in Paul the Apostle). (J. C hristiaan Beker, "Recasting Pauline Theology," in Pauline
Theology, ed. Jouette M. Bassler (M inneapolis: Fortress, 1991), 1:16-7). Nevertheless, despite
Bekers protests, it is hard to avoid the conclusion th a t he understands the apocalyptic
in te rp re ta tio n o f the C hrist-event to be the center of Pauls thought: "The coherence of the
gospel, then, is constituted by the apocalyptic in terpretation o f the death and resurrection of
C hrist" ("Recasting," 18).
78Ibid.
118
Beker believes th a t Paul was an apocalyptic Pharisee p rio r to h is conversion.79 He
argues:
Jew ish apocalyptic form s the basis of Pauls thought. It constituted (a) the thought w orld
o f Paul the Pharisee and, therefore, (b) the fundam ental gram m ar and context through
w hich Paul filte re d the C h rist event and interpreted it as the apokalypsis tou chrtstou (Gal.
1:12; cf. 1:16; 2:2).80
Even though Paul did not w rite apocalypses, apocalyptic m otifs dom inate his thought. His
m odifications o f the C h ristia n tra d itio n are n o t due to H ellenistic-Jew ish influences, b u t are
m odifications o f an apocalyptic substratum .81 Pauls th o u g h t is m olded by fo u r central
m otifs o f Jew ish apocalyptic: (1) the faithfulness and vin d ica tio n o f God, (2) the universal
salvation of the w orld, (3) the dualistic structure o f the w orld, and (4) the im m inent coining o f
God in glory.82 These apocalyptic ideas and term inology, however, undergo "profound
m odification" in Paul, because of h is conviction th a t God has already acted decisively in
C h rists death and Resurrection. Thus believers can claim the new creation and live already in
the power o f the S p irit.83 Yet the present re a lity does not soften the in te n sity o f Pauls
apocalyptic expectations, since the C hrist-event is a proleptic a n ticip a tio n of the glory of God
in the Parousia.84
A lthough Bekers w o rk is controversial,85 it has encouraged a growing num ber of
79Beker, Paul the Apostle, 143.
J. C h ristiaan Beker, The Trium ph o f God. The Essence o f Pauls Thought, trans. Loren T.
S tuckenbruck (1988: re p rin t. M inneapolis: Fortress, 1990), 19; cf. Beker, "Recasting," 17.
81Ib id ., 17-8.
82Beker, Triumph, 21-36. This is a m odification o f h is earlier lis t o f distinctive features : (1)
h isto rica l dualism ; (2) universal cosmic expectation; and (3) the im m inent end o f the w orld
(Beker, Paul the Apostle, 136).
Ib id ., 145-6.
Ib id ., 145, 150, 152
T o r a skeptical critiq u e o f th is approach, see R. B a rry M atlock, Unveiling the Apocalyptic

P a u l Dean Flem m ing, "Essence and Adaptation. C ontextualization and the H eart o f Pauls
119
m odem scholars to exam ine the apocalyptic dim ensions of m uch o f Pauls theology. For
exam ple, Douglas Low shows th a t Pauls exhortations are m otivated by h is apocalyptic
eschatology.86 T h is dissertatio n b u ild s on Bekers ideas, b u t it is weakened by the fa ct th a t
Low does not exam ine any Jew ish apocalyptic texts to establish such an apocalyptic approach
to P auls paraenesis. Essays and m onographs exploring the apocalyptic dim ensions o f specific
P auline passages have been w ritte n b y M artyn, G etty, D onfried, Achtem eier, Hayes, de Boer,
N eil E llio t, and Francis B ridger, among others.87
A round the tim e o f Bekers Paul, Paul M inear argued in h is book on NT apocalyptic th a t
C h ris tia n ity is fu n d a m e n ta lly a n apocalyptic m ovem ent, grounded in Jew ish apocalyptic
th o u g h t. He defended th is w ith m any NT passages, in clu d in g several passages from
Gospel" (PhD D issertatio n, U niversity o f Aberdeen, 1987), 78-80, agrees w ith Beker th a t the
gospel cannot be strip p e d o f a ll apocalyptic modes o f though t w ith o u t ra d ica lly altering its
content. The apocalyptic perspective, however, does not w o rk equally w ell fo r a ll aspects o f the
apostles thought. W hile th e apocalyptic triu m p h o f God accounts fo r im p o rta n t elements o f
Pauls though t, it suffers from th e same weakness as other attem pts to fin d the center o f Paul
th a t Beker critiq u e s, in th a t it leaves m uch unsaid.
86Douglas A lan Low, "Apocalyptic M otivation in Pauline Paraenesis." (Doctoral D issertation,

S outhern B a p tist Theological Sem inary, 1990).
87J . L. M artyn, "Apocalyptic A ntinom ies in Pauls Letters to the G alatians," NTS
31(1985):410-424; cf. M artyns e a rlie r "Epistem ology a t the T u rn o f the Ages: 2 C orinthians
5:16," in C hristian H isto ry and Interpretation. Studies Presented to John Knox (Cambridge:
Cam bridge U n ive rsity Press, 1967): 269-287; M A G etty, "An Apocalyptic Perspective on Rom.
10:4," Horizons in B ib lica l Theology 4-5(1982-1983): 79-131; K. P. D onfried, "Paul and
Judaism : I Thessalonians 2:13 as a Test Case," In t 38 (1984): 242-253; de Boer, 169-90; Neil
E llio t, The Rhetoric o f Romans. Argum entative C onstraint and Strategy and Paul's Dialogue w ith
Judaism , Jo u rn a l fo r the S tudy o f the New Testam ent Supplem ent Series, no. 45 (Sheffield:
JSOT Press, 1990). Paul J . Achtem eier, "An A pocalyptic S h ift in E arly C h ristia n T radition,"
CBQ 45 (1983) : 231-48, accepts Bekers thesis o f th e apocalyptic core o f Pauls though t and
looks fu rth e r at the movem ent away from apocalyptic in la te r books such as Eph., Col.,
Pastorals and 2 Th. F rancis B ridger, "Ecology and Eschatology: A Neglected Dim ension,"
TynB ul 41 (1990): 290-301, looks at the ecological im plications o f the apocalyptic eschatology
in Rom. 8:18-27 and Col. 1:15-17. M any essays are also in the F estschrift fo r J.L. M artyn,
in c lu d in g R ichard B . Hayes, "T he R ighteous One as Eschatological Deliver, A Case Study in
Pauls H erm eneutics," in A pocalyptic and the New Testament. Essays in Honor o f J. Louis
M artyn, ed. Joel M arcus and M arion L. Soards, Jo u rn a l for the S tudy o f the New Testament
Supplem ent Series 24 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989): 191-215.
120
Romans.88
M any who accept Bekers basic thesis have refined h is th e o iy about the apocalyptic
nature o f Pauls theology. Leander Keck dem onstrates th a t Paul has taken m any elements
i from Jew ish apocalyptic, b u t transform ed them fo r h is own use. Pauls theology is apocalyptic
!
i not because it includes "vindication, universalism , dualism and im m inence," as Beker claim s,
I
i b u t because o f the perspective o f d is c o n tin u ity between God and the w orld: God and the
I
| redem ptive fu tu re stand against the w o rld and its history. In th is Paul is thoroughly apocalyp
tic , though other theologies contributed to h is C hristology a t certain points. In w orking out
th is perspective he d id not produce apocalyptic theology, b u t set out h is own creative interpre
ta tio n o f the consequences of the C h rist event.89
Keck points out several im p o rta n t differences between the theology o f Paul and th a t of
Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re : (1) Paul has a to ta lly diffe re n t sta rtin g point. He does not begin
w ith theodicy, b u t w ith the cross and R esurrection o f C h rist and then he ends w ith theodicy
(e.g. Rom. 9-11). Yet the way he m akes Jesus cross and R esurrection central relies on an
im p o rta n t dim ension o f apocalyptic theology. B y affirm in g th a t the R esurrection has occurred,
he affirm s th a t the end-tim e scenario is now launched. (2) A lthough apocalyptic is pessim istic
about the hum an condition, Pauls understanding is even m ore radical. H um anity is in
bondage on several levels: evil s p iritu a l powers, sin, flesh and Law. 4 Ezra is the closest to
Pauls view o f the enslaving power o f sin. (3) Pauls soteriology agrees w ith apocalyptic on
some them es, such as the eschatological rescue from Gods w rath and a sense of an im m inent
end. It goes in a quite different directio n, however, fo r the M essiah does not vindicate Israel
against the nations, b u t he overcomes the d ivision between Jews and Gentiles. Paul has no
in terest in describing details o f eternal salvation or dam nation, though he agrees on the fact of
Paul S. M inear, New Testament Apocalyptic (Nashville: Abingdon, 1981). 113.
89Keck, 241.
121
i both. (4) Since Paul sees him self in the period between the cross/R esurrection and the end of
| the age, there is a tension between the already and not-yet, w hich is generally absent from
!
apocalyptic theology.90
. Keck believes th a t it is presently im possible to determine the h isto rica l relationship
between Paul and Jew ish apocalyptic. "The problem o f Paul and apocalyptic w ould be more
soluble if one could show th a t Paul had read an apocalypse (especially one we too can
read)."91 The h isto rica l relationship is d iffic u lt fo r several reasons: (1) The term s "Paul" and
"apocalyptic" are am biguous. "Apocalyptic" is one o f the m ost m isused words because it
resists de fin itio n and it is used fo r a type o f lite ra tu re , a c u ltu ra l phenomenon and a type o f
eschatology. (2) It is d iffic u lt to determ ine w hich texts are apocalypses, because few tra its are
found in a ll such texts and m any apocalyptic te xts combine other genres. The theological
content o f apocalyptic lite ra tu re also varies greatly. (3) It is d iffic u lt to relate Paul accurately to
his C h ristia n predecessors. Thus Keck believes it is more fru itfu l to compare the theology of
the Pauline le tte rs w ith apocalyptic theology, w ith o u t positing genetic relationships.92
Vincent B ranick agrees w ith Beker th a t Paul has an apocalyptic fram ework, b u t he
argues th a t Bekers w o rk is "one-sided," since Paul was also open to "realized eschatology."
Thus he rejects Bekers view th a t the "apocalyptic structure o f thought" form s the consistent
and indispensable center o f Pauls thought. He agrees th a t Paul b u ild s m uch o f his theology
on certain apocalyptic features, in clu d in g h isto rica l dualism , universal cosmic expectation,
and the im m inent end o f the w orld. Salvation is not sim ply s p iritu a l and privatized b u t
involves the transform ation o f the m ate rial cosmos, in clud ing the hum an body. The apocalyp
tic perspective is an im p o rta n t herm eneutical key to understanding some d iffic u lt aspects of
Pauls thought. For example, the dualism o f flesh and s p irit expresses cosmological dim en-
-------------------------------------------
90Ibid., 235-40.
91Ib id ., 230.
Ib id ., 223, 229.
122
i
II
sions m ore th a n anthropological elements. For since God is going to triu m p h over the forces o f
evil th a t have vitia te d the universe, salvation is a m a tte r o f grace and not hum an m erit. Paul
diffe rs from tra d itio n a l apocalyptic, however, in th a t the end tim e has begun w ith the Resur
re ctio n o f C h rist.93 Thus there is an "alrea dy/not yet" tension and the seeds o f realized
eschatology in Paul, w hich anticipate la te r books such as Ephesians and Colossians.94
Some who accept Bekers contention th a t Pauls though t has apocalyptic roots argue
th a t it also has roots in the Jew ish wisdom tra d itio n . For example, in her study o f Rom. 9-11
E lizabeth Johnson argues th a t Paul has m odified apocalyptic thought p a rtia lly in tra d itio n a l
ways using wisdom ideas, s im ila r to some apocalyptic lite ra tu re , and p a rtia lly due to his
experience o f the C h rist event.95 In the death and R esurrection o f Jesus, Gods redem ption
has broken in to the w orld, and th e S p irits presence in the C hurch is a foretaste o f the glory
th a t is to come. Yet eschatological riches aw ait the w orld fo r w hich C h rist died.96 H er survey
of apocalyptic lite ra tu re shows th a t the more an apocalyptic w rite r uses tra d itio n a l wisdom
language and m otifs, the m ore he sees potentia l fo r m eaningful hum an life before the escha-
to n .97
As was discussed earlier, M a rtin u s de Boer showed th a t Jew ish apocalyptic eschatology
can e ith e r be cosm ological-apocalyptic, w hich sees th is age under the influence o f evil angels,
or forensic-apocalyptic, w h ich stresses th a t hum an itys w illfu l rejection o f God in the F all
b roug ht death and perversion to the w orld. Cosm ological-apocalyptic eschatology is consistent
V incent P. B ranick, "Apocalyptic Paul?," CBQ 47, no. 4 (1985): 664-6.
Ib id ., 669-74.
95E. Elizabeth Johnson, The Function o f Apocalyptic and Wisdom Traditions in Romans 9-11,
SBL D issertatio n Series, no. 109 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989); cf. Beker, Paul the Apostle,
192.
! Johnson, 109:211-2.
"Ib id ., 207.
j 123
w ith Kcisemanns cosm ological understanding of apocalyptic eschatology, b u t forensic-apoc
a lyptic eschatology is consistent w ith B u ltm a n n s view, w hich stresses in d iv id u a l decisions
about the Law. C ontrary to B u ltm an n, however, forensic-apocalyptic eschatology is s till
cosm ic in scope, n o t sim ply in d ivid u a listic since it is s till concerned w ith Gods claim on the
w orld. It also is s till theocentric, not m erely anthropocentric as B u ltm an n claim s.98
De B oer believes th a t Paul com bines both views, although Paul m odifies them C hristo-
logically. In Rom. 1:1-5:11 the forensic-apocalyptic dom inates, b u t in Rom. 6:1-8:39,
cosm ological-apocalyptic eschatology is prom inent (sin, death, righteousness, flesh, s p irit,
cosm ological powers). In Rom. 5:12-21 the tw o tracks interpenetrate, since the passage m arks
the s h ift from the predom inantly forensic to the predom inantly cosm ological (cf. 1:16-17 and
3:9, both c ritic a l ju n c tu re s in the argum ent, w hich anticipate th e sh ift, and 8:1, 33-34, w hich
recall it). A lth ough Paul speaks o f fa ith to com bat the claim th a t w orks o f the Law w ill lead to
eschatological a cq u itta l and life , the m eaning o f fa ith is a ctu a lly determ ined b y the cosmolog
ical-apocalyptic disclosure of Gods righteousness in the cru c ifix io n o f C h rist. C h rists death
cannot be understood in pu re ly forensic term s, since it m arks Gods triu m p h a n t invasion o f
the w orld "und er sin ," to liberate the ungodly from its deadly power.99
In sum m ary, three great m o u n ta in peaks stand out in the histo ry o f research concern
ing Paul and apocalyptic: Schweitzer, Kasemann and Beker. Schweitzer raised the awareness
o f scholars o f the im p o rta n t place eschatology occupies in Pauls thought, b u t h is ideas were
n ot w idely accepted in his day. Kasemann broug ht an awareness of the apocalyptic dim en
sions o f Pauls thoughts to the m ainstream o f NT scholarship. Beker carried th is agenda
fu rth e r by show ing how close apocalyptic is to the heart o f P auls theology, although h is Haim
th a t the coherent core o f Pauls th o u g h t lies in apocalyptic is undoubtedly overstated.
These studies over the la st century have shown th a t the influence o f Jew ish apocalyptic
98D eB oer, 181.
" Ib id ., 182, 184.
124
on Pauls theology m ust be taken seriously. C ertainly Paul m odified m any apocalyptic ideas in
j th e lig h t of C h rists death and R esurrection, and h is w ritin g s contain m any non-apocalyptic
Ii
! aspects. Furtherm ore, Paul b u ild s on apocalyptic theology w ith o u t using apocalyptic lite ra tu re
| as a lite ra ry genre. A lthough the question o f the "center" o f Pauls though t is s till subject to
scholarly debate, the im portance o f apocalyptic theology in Pauls w ritin g s has become widely
|
accepted in m odem NT studies.
D . The A pocalyptic Dim ensions o f Romans 8 :1 9 -2 2
In the late 19th century, Theodore Zahn contended th a t Pauls ideas in Rom. 8:19-22
are taken e n tire ly from the OT S crip tures.100 H is argum ent answered From m anns charge
th a t th is passage introduced some strange ideas w ith no parallel in any know n Jew ish or
C h ristia n te x t.101 One reason 19th century exegetes did not explore a possible Jew ish
apocalyptic background fo r Rom. 8 was th e ir relatively lim ite d knowledge about such texts. It
w ould be d iffic u lt today, however, to m ake From m anns claim in lig h t o f the greater availa bility
o f in form ation about Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s available today.102
A round the tu rn o f the century the picture changed, along w ith a growing in terest in
100T. Zahn, "Die seufzende Creatur. Rom 8,18-23 m it R ucksicht a u f neuere Auffassungen,"
JDT 10 (1865): 515.
l01K. From m ann, "Uber die seufzende K reatur, R5m. 8,19-23," JD T 8 (1863): 31, 49, cited
by Olle Christoffersson, Earnest Expectation o f the Creature. The Flood-Tradition A s M atrix o f
Romans 8:18-27, Coniectanea B iblica New Testam ent Series, no. 23 (Stockholm : A lm qvist &
W iksell, 1990), 39-40. From m ann took the unusual position th a t the passage speaks of a
n a tu ra l revelation o f God in w hich creation can be observed to be groaning and longing for
Gods revelation o f the sons o f God. He takes th is revelation through nature to be evidence of
the tru th o f the C h ristia n fa ith .
1 There was also a tendency durin g th is period to disparage apocalyptic as an in fe rio r form
o f Judaism . T his view point was form ulated m ost precisely by George Foot Moore, who argued
th a t even p rio r to A D . 70 there was a "norm ative Judaism ." Apocalyptic represented a
deviation th a t had little influence and q u ickly died o u t (George Foot Moore, Judaism in the
F irs t Centuries o f the C hristian Era, Judaism in the F irst Centuries o f the C hristian Era
(Cambridge: H arvard U niversity Press, 1927), 3:18).
125
the relatio nship of the NT to Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re raised b y scholars such as Weiss,
Kabisch and Schweitzer. One o f the m ost im portant contribu tions o f th is era was the Romans
com m entary o f W illiam Sanday and A rth u r C. Headlam (original edition 1895). In addition to
frequent cross references to Jew ish lite ra tu re in the discussion of Rom. 8:19-22, they included
a s till useful three page excursus on "the renovation of nature" in Judaism .103 They claim
th a t Paul w ill be m isunderstood if he is removed from the Jewish "m ental surroundings in
w hich he moved." In Jew ish w ritin g s o f the tim e, "th is idea o f a renovation of Nature, the
creation o f new heavens and a new earth is common, as p art of the M essianic expecta
tio n ."104 They note num erous parallels in 1 En., 4 Ez., 2 B ar., Pss. Sol. and Sib. Ora. th a t
develop concepts found in th e OT prophets, p a rtic u la rly Isaiah. Paul, however, has a greater
sym pathy fo r nature in itse lf, and is not sim ply concerned fo r the g lorification of Israe l.105
A s im ila r approach was taken by H enry St. Jo h n Thackeray, who also noted the
s im ila rity o f Rom. 8 to the Jew ish Pseudepigrapha. Paul "sym pathizes w ith nature its e lf' in
contrast w ith the Pseudepigrapha in w hich the renovation o f nature is typ ica lly fo r the benefit
o f the Jews alone.106
W illia m F. W hitehouse took quite a different view in h is 1905 m onograph on Rom.
8:18-23, w hich was the m ost detailed exegesis o f the passage up to th a t tim e. He acknowl
edged th a t the idea o f the regeneration o f creation was common in Jew ish apocalypses, b u t he
did not believe th a t Paul refers to th is theme, since inanim ate things cannot have fa ith and so
are not subject to eternal blessedness. Paul is concerned only about hum an redem ption.107
103Sanday and Headlam, 210-2.
104Ib id ., 207, 210.
105They also allude to the Talm ud, p. 211.
106H em y St. John Thackeray, The Relation o f Paul to Contemporary Jew ish Thought
(London: M acm illan, 1900), 40.
107W. F. W hitehouse, 22-3.
126
U ___________________________ ... . . . .
In the 1920s, H erm ann S track and Paul B illerbeck pointed out num erous parallels
between Rom. 8:19-22 and Jew ish lite ra tu re . Rom. 8 :19ff, they argued, b u ild s on a clu ste r of
ideas developed from th e story of the F a ll in Gen. 3. Since h u m a n ity was created to be Lord of
C reation, the creation its e lf was corrupted when Adam and Eve sinned.108 There are num er
ous apocalyptic and ra b b in ic texts th a t develop Gen. 3 in a s im ila r m anner to Rom. 8 :19ff.
4 Ez. 7:1 I f is p a rtic u la rly close.109 A lthough S track and B illerbeck tended to lum p apocalyp
tic and la te r rabbinic lite ra tu re together, they made an im portant co n trib u tio n to the under
standing o f the environm ent o f Pauls th o u g h t - a co n trib u tio n th a t generations o f C h ristian
scholars have b u ilt on.
In a 1940 m onograph on the redem ption o f creation, H. M. Biederm ann sought to fin d
the source o f Pauls idea th a t the creation w ill share eschatological redem ption w ith hum anity.
He found several close, though not exact, parallels in the OT prophets.110 He also notes the
s im ila rity to num erous passages in 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra and 2 B a ruch .111 Yet even afte r th is
extensive lis tin g o f sim ila ritie s to apocalyptic texts, he denies any connection between Rom.
8 :18f and these passages. Paul drew e n tire ly on the sto ry o f the F all in Gen. 3 and prophetic
passages about eschatological redem ption when he wrote Rom. 8:18-27.112
C onsistent w ith his view about how Paul has reinterpreted the apocalyptic tra d itio n ,
B u ltm a n n acknowledges th a t Rom. 8 :18f is rooted in the Jew ish belie f in transcendent glory as
108H erm ann Strack and Paul B illerbeck, vol. 3, Kommentar zum Neuen Testam ent aus
Talm ud undM idrasch (M unchen: C. H. Beck, 1922-1928), 247.
109Ib id ., 3:247-250. They discuss the b irth pangs o f the Messiah in 1:950.
110Especially Is. 11:6-9; 24, b u t also Is. 2:6-9; 13:9-11; Jer. 4:24f; Joel 2:10; 4:15; Amos
5:18f; 8:9; 9:5; Hag. 3:6-11; Ez. 2:10; Nah. 1:5; Os. 2:20. Herm enegild M. Biederm ann, Die
Erldsung der Schdpjung beim Apostel Pavlus. Ein Bettrag zu r K ldrung der reUgionsgeschicht-
lichen SteUung d e r paulinischen Erldsungslehre (W urzburg: St. R ita, 1940), 29-30.
lu E.g. 1 En. 71; 80; 91:14. 16; 4 Ez. 3:14; 4:26-29; 5:45; 6:16, 39; 7:1-113; 8:1, 5; 2 Bar.
3:7; 4:4; 14:13; 15:7; 30:10; 32:6; 40:3; 44:13; 48:50; 51:3, 8-11; 57:2; 74:2.
m B iederm ann, 40-1, 49, 88-9.
127
a com pensation fo r present suffering, b u t he argues th a t th is has "lost its m otive power" for
P aul.113 He believes th a t Paul used the language o f Gnostic m ythology to express h is mess
age about the F all of creation, even though he did not believe in G nostic dua lism .114
The approach o f G w ilym G riffith (1945) sharply contrasts w ith B u ltm an ns view and
re tu rn s to the w o rk o f Sanday and Headlam , S track and B illerbeck, and others w ho looked to
early Jew ish w ritin g s as a background fo r Rom. 8:19-22. He argues th a t the concept th a t a ll
creation w ill be redeemed and share in the glory o f God is in keeping w ith the OT prophetic
w ritin g s (e.g. Is. 40, 65) and Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re (e.g. 1 En. 45, 51). To understand
Pauls ideas in Rom. 8 :19f properly, one m u st understand the m essianic and eschatological
ideas in Jew ish apocalypticism . The redem ption o f creation is n o t sim ply a holdover fro m an
outdated Jew ish apocalyptic view , b u t an essential aspect o f early C h ristian fa ith .115
E ric R ust took a s im ila r approach in h is 1953 study of the theology o f nature in b ib lica l
lite ra tu re . A fte r a lengthy chap ter on n a ture in "late Jew ish though t," he concludes th a t Paul
was in lin e w ith the Jew ish view. U nfortunately, he tends to view the teachings o f various
w ritin g s as m onolithic, ra th e r th a n exam ining the differences o f various strands o f
th o u g h t.116 A sim ila r approach is taken b y W. D. Stacey in an a rticle on Rom. 8:22-23.
Pauls view o f the present depraved state o f a ll creation and h is hope fo r its release through
Gods redem ptive effort is based on h is Jew ish heritage as w ell as h is personal C h ristia n
experience of a new order.117
A lla n G alloway argues th a t P aul was perfectly a t home w ith the stru ctu re s o f Jew ish
113B ultm ann, Prim itive C hristianity, 178, 184, 186.
114B ultm ann, Theology, 174, 178.
115G riffith , "Apocalyptic," 154-5.
116R ust, 124-60.
117Stacey, "Pauls C ertainties," 178-81.
128
apocalyptic and shares the term inology of apocalyptic, such as the world-age term inology and
the idea th a t the w orld is corrupted and under demonic influence, yet reflects the goodness of
God.118 P aul also draws on Greek ideas fo r hom iletical purposes, b u t the roots of m uch of
h is theology are in Jew ish apocalyptic.119 The idea o f a cosm ic redem ption is not peripheral
to Pauls central idea o f the redeeming w ork o f C hrist, b u t flow s out o f the Jewish apocalyptic
ideas of dualism and the redem ption o f the universe.120
In h is 1956 book on NT theology, E thelbert S tauffer lis ts num erous Jew ish apocalyptic
passages th a t discuss th e co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. A lthough these apocalyptic
them es are found in m uch o f the NT, Paul gives the fu lle s t treatm ent in Rom. 8:19-22. W hen
Paul says "we know" (Rom. 8:22) he appeals to a w ell know n apocalyptic and b ib lica l tra d itio n .
No one fa m ilia r w ith apocalyptic lite ra tu re has d iffic u lty understanding th is passage.121
The Jew ish scholar H. J . Schoeps believes th a t in general Paul drew from h is Hellen
is tic Jew ish background, w hich included apocalyptic lite ra tu re , although the m ajor influence
on h is tho u g h t was his conversion experience. Nevertheless, he agrees w ith B u ltm an n th a t
Paul uses G nostic m ythological sym bols in Rom. 8:19f.122
Heinz Schwantes 1963 study of the Resurrection in Paul stresses the apocalyptic
parallels to Rom. 8:18-27 th a t had been noted by S track and B illerbeck. 4 Ez. 7:11 was
p a rtic u la rly im portant.123 Nevertheless, Schwantes did n o t believe th a t Paul was an
118Galloway, 41-3.
119Ib id ., 47.
120Ib id ., 55.
12lS tauffer, 73-4.
122H. J. Schoeps, Paul: The Theology o f the Apostle in the Light o f Jew ish Religious History,
trans. H arold K night (Philadelphia: W estm inster Press, 1961), 47-8, 53-5.
1 Heinz Schwantes, Schopfung der E n dzeit E in Beitrag zum Verstandis der Auferweckung
beiP aulus (S tuttgart: Calwer, 1963), 44.
129
apocalypticist him self. He uses apocalyptic m aterial to make kerygm atlc statem ents, b u t Paul
has no Interest In apocalyptic cosmology per se. Believers should place th e ir present suffer
ings under the lig h t of the cosm ic act o f God.124
In Joseph Nelsons 1969 dissertation on Rom. 8:18-27, he argues th a t the roots o f
Pauls eschatology in th is passage are In the "Jewish Eschatological Literature." He notes th a t
these w orks stress the goodness o f creation and the redem ption o f the n a tu ra l order. His
treatm ent o f the subject, however, is lim ite d to a b rie f and u n c ritic a l discussion of seven short
apocalyptic passages.125
Several studies in th e 1970s recognized th e apocalyptic background to Rom. 8:19-22.
John Gibbs tre a ts Rom. 8:19-22 as one of the central passages in his im portant 1971 mono
graph on creation and redem ption in Paul. He recognizes the apocalyptic background to th is
passage, b u t he does not develop a detailed com parison o f Pauls ideas to other lite ra tu re .126
Charles G ib lin argues th a t Rom. 8 has a strongly apocalyptic perspective, although he does
n o t offer any apocalyptic passages in support of th is claim . Nevertheless, Paul does not move
in to unrestrained apocalyptic imagery o r speculation about the changes th a t w ill take place
when creation is transform ed.127 J. L. Sharpe shows the sim ila rity o f thought between the
Adam theologies in Pauls le tters and the Apocalypse of Moses.128
In his 1971 m onograph on Rom. 8:18-39, H orst R. Balz points to m any parallels in
ra b b in ic texts, th e OT and 4 Ezra. A lthough Rom. 8:19-22 does n o t depend on specific
apocalyptic texts, apocalyptic theology is very in flu e n tia l and leads to a concern fo r a ll of
124Ib id ., 50-1.
126Gibbs, C reation and Redemption, 40-1.
127G iblin, 394-5.

r
128J. L. Sharpe in, "The Second Adam in the Apocalypse of Moses," CBQ 35 (1973): 35-46.
! 130
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creation, not sim ply hum anity. B alz notes the so lid a rity between h u m a n ity and the rest of
creation in Rom. 8 and 4 Ezra, w h ich serves as the basis o f the hope o f creation. He also finds
m any sim ila ritie s to 1 Enoch, b u t he rejects any connection to the Enoch w ritin g s because
they deal w ith the sins o f angels ra th e r th a n th e F a ll of h u m a n ity.129
U lrich W ilckens surveys a wide range o f apocalyptic w orks w ith them es sim ila r to Rom.
8:19-22 in h is Romans com m entary. He believes Pauls thought is firm ly rooted in apocalyptic,
although he cannot fin d any coherent background to the text. Paul m akes a series o f allusions
to diverse ideas found in m any apocalyptic works, p a rtic u la rly th a t the present suffering of the
people o f God is a prelude to the glory o f the m essianic kingdom and also th a t creation w ill
share w ith redeemed hum anity in eschatological glory.130
M ichael Neary notes some sim ila ritie s to Rom. 8:19-22 in the b ib lic a l Flood story. The
idea th a t redem ption involves th e cosmos is there in em bryonic form . The alliance w ith
recreated h um an ity after th e Flood also incorporated the entire m ate rial universe w ith
h u m a n ity at its center. A fte r th e Flood th e m aterial universe regained its original harm ony
and rh y th m .131 Neaiy, however, does not explore any o f the Jew ish apocalyptic w orks that
develop the Flood m o tif o r th a t use th e Flood as a type o f th e eschatological transform ation o f
creation. Instead, he locates the background to Rom. 8:19-22 entirety in Gen. 3:17.132
J . C hristiaan Beker argues strongly for the apocalyptic nature o f Rom. 8:19-22. He
sees Rom. 8:17-39 as "Pauls m ost im pressive confession o f the triu m p h o f God," w hich he
129H orst R. Balz, H eilsvertrauen und W elterfahrung: S trukturen der Paulinishen Eschatologie
rxach Romer 8.18-39, Beitrage z u r evangelische Theologie, no. 59 (M unich: C h ristian Kaiser,
1971), 41-2.
130U lrich W ilckens, Der B rie f an die Romer (Zurich: Neukirchen, 1980), 148f. He affirm s the
observation of S track and B illerbeck th a t Gen. 3:17 was interpreted by ra b b in ic w riters in a
s im ila r m anner to Paul.
131M ichael Neary, "The Cosmic Em phasis o f Paul," TTQ 48 (1981): 21.
132Ib id ., 22.
131
believes to be the coherent center o f Pauls th o u g h t.133 Rom. 8:17-30 is one o f fo u r passages
(along w ith 1 Cor. 15; P h il 3:4-11; Rom. 9-11) th a t Beker exam ines more closely as examples
o f the m ajor apocalyptic m o tifs in P aul.134 The apocalyptic focus o f the passage is clear on
each o f the m otifs th a t Beker considers central to Pauls apocalypticism . In m any ways, th is
passage is very strong on the coherent nature o f Pauls theology and contains little th a t is
contingent, so it strongly supports Bekers contention regarding the apocalyptic gospel of
P aul.135 U nfortunately, Beker w orks w ith a generalized conception of "apocalyptic" and does
not analyze specific Jew ish apocalyptic texts to establish h is thesis about w hat apocalyptic is.
Nevertheless, he has made an im portant co n trib u tio n to the understanding o f Rom. 8:19-22 as
being rooted in the theology of Jew ish apocalypticism .
Paul M inear argued th a t although Romans is n o t an apocalypse, the shape and force of
the argum ent in Rom. 8 stem from an apocalyptic conception o f the conflicts inherent in the
vocation o f Paul and h is readers. The conflicts are w ith hidden forces o f evil, over w hich C hrist
has won the victo ry (w . 38-39).136 The ideas th a t a ll creation was subjected to fu tility due to
the F a ll and th a t the whole creation looks forw ard to lib e rty are apocalyptic them es.137
Thomas M arberrys 1982 dissertation on n a ture m o tifs in Paul shows th a t the Jew ish
conception o f the n a tu ra l w orld was the p rim a ry background fo r Pauls concepts. He convinc
in gly shows th a t Pauls roots on th is them e are Jew ish ra th e r th a n H e llenistic.138 He only
lis ts a few representative apocalyptic texts, however, and does not look a t how the them es
133Beker, Paul the Apostle, 363-6; cf. J . C hristiaan Beker, "V ision of Hope fo r a Suffering
W orld: Romans 8:17-30," Princeton Sem inary B u lle tin Supplement 3 (1994): 26-32.
134Beker, Trium ph, 125-34; Beker, 'V isio n o f Hope," 26-32.
135Beker, Trium ph, 128-9.
136M inear, New Testam ent Apocalyptic, 102, 109.
137Ib id ., 108.
138M arberry, 133-250.
132
fu n c tio n in th e ir own settings.
Leander Keck shows th a t Paul uses the language o f the two ages, even though he never
states the doctrine fu lly. Pauls tw o age theology leads him to believe in the solida rity between
h u m a n ity and the rest o f creation, so a ll of creation w aits fo r redem ption.139
Bruce Longenecker argues th a t there are close sim ila ritie s in the theology o f 4 Ezra and
Rom. 1-11. He does not tre a t Rom. 8:19-22, however, p rim a rily because he is interested in
how the authors in te ra ct w ith "ethnocentric covenantalism " on the Law and the people o f God
m ore than the apocalyptic characteristics of 4 Ezra and Romans.140
H erbert U lrich w rote an extensive m onograph showing a close relationship between the
eschatology of 1 En. 9-11 and th a t o f the NT. Yet he fa ils to consider Rom. 8:19-22, because
he looks fo r lite ra ry relationships ra th e r th a n s im ila r theology.141
W alther Bindem anns m onograph on the m eaning o f Rom. 8:18-27 examines a possible
background in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re . He concludes th a t Paul uses an apocalyptic
perspective in th is passage, w ith num erous m otifs sim ila r to those found in Jewish apocalyptic
w ritin g s. Nevertheless the lite ra ry relationship is n o t very clear since there is no clear example
o f a specific apocalyptic te xt th a t Paul draws on.142
In h is 1990 dissertation O lle C hristoffersson agrees w ith the large num ber of modem
scholars who claim th a t Rom. 8:18-27 uses ideas found in Jew ish apocalyptic texts. He
argues, however, th a t a ll of the apocalyptic m otifs can be found in the Flood tra d itio n .
139Keck, 235-7.
140Bruce W. Longenecker, Eschatology and the Covenant A Comparison o f 4 Ezra and

Romans 1-11, Jo u rn a l fo r the S tudy o f the New Testam ent Supplem ent, no. 57 (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), 36.
141H erbert U lrich , Die Eschatologie von Henoch 9-11 und das Neue Testament (Kloster-
neuberg, A u stria: G sterreichisches Katholisches Bibelw erk, 1984).
142W alter Bindem ann, Die HoJJhung der Schdpjung. Romer 8,18-27 und die Frage etner
Theologie der Bejreiung von Mensch und Natur, N eukirchener Studienbucher, no. 14 (Dussel-
dorf: N eukirkener, 1983), 29-54.
133
p a rtic u la rly in Gen. 1-6 and 1 En. 6-11. So he argues th a t the background to the passage is
1 Enoch and the fa ll o f the W atchers, ra th e r th a n the Fall o f Adam. Those very m otifs th a t
often cause exegetes problem s can be explained from the background o f the Flood tra d itio n .
Paul draws on the Flood tra d itio n rather th a n on the prophets w hen he speaks o f a new
w o rld.143
M argaret B a rker also believes th a t 1 Enoch is p a rt o f the background to Rom. 8:19-22,
especially w ith respect to (1) the damage th a t creation suffered from the corru pting knowledge
the fallen W atchers gave to hum an ity, and (2) the concept o f a cosm ic covenant th a t binds the
forces o f creation (1 En. 41, 69). Since the cosmic covenant has been broken, creation has
been corrupted and cosmic evil has been unleashed.144
D. M. Russell argues th a t the apocalyptic themes o f the cosmic damage o f sin and the
expectation o f the renew al o f creation are carried in to NT passages, such as Rom. 8:18-23, Col.
1:15-20, 2 Pet. 3 and Rev. 21 and various teachings o f Jesus. He never explores, however, the
exact sim ila ritie s and differences between the NT passages and Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re
and he sim ply assumes th a t the teachings in these NT passages m ay be classified as apocalyp
tic .145
It is com monplace in recent com m entaries on Romans to note th a t Pauls concepts in
Rom. 8:19-22 are s im ila r to those found in Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs. For example,
KSsemann lis ts a num ber o f examples of cosmic theology in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re .146
Fitzm yer says th a t "Paul indulges in apocalyptic language."147 B a rre tt observes the apoca
143C hristoffersson, 116-39.
144M argaret B arker, The Lost Prophet The Book o f Enoch and Its Influence o f C hristianity
(Nashville: Abingdon, 1988), 42, 77-8.
14SD. M. Russell, 182-98.
146K&semann, Romans, 233.
147Fitzm yer, Romans, 506. He lis ts a very few texts on p. 505.
134
lyp tic language in the passage, although he says Paul "m ay owe som ething to cu rre n t
G nosticism and astrology."148 D u nn says the "language o f apocalyptic is sustained." He lists
num erous typ ica l apocalyptic m otifs, although few specific passages.149 Lam brecht says "the
vocabulary and images possess an apocalyptic character."150 Jo h n H eil, who uses a reader-
response approach to Romans, argues th a t Paul and h is original audience presupposed a
Jew ish apocalyptic w o rld view and Rom. 8 expresses an apocalyptic expectation.151 In m ost
o f these com m entaries the s im ila rity o f Pauls ideas to apocalyptic th o u g h t is stated w ith little
fu rth e r elaboration and few supporting passages from the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s
themselves.
E . Conclusions
Several general observations can be made based on th is survey o f research on the
sim ila ritie s between Romans 8:19-22 and the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s:
(1) Im po rtant advances in apocalyptic research in recent decades have come sim u lta
neously w ith a renewed appreciation o f the features o f Pauls theology th a t are sim ila r
to Jew ish apocalyptic. One o f the hindrances o f earlier researchers was the lim ited
understanding o f Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re available in th a t day. Apocalyptic
research has become an im p o rta n t and ra p id ly expanding fie ld o f study in the past few
148B a rre tt, Romans, 165-6.
149D unn, Romans, 467, 487; cf. M atthew B lack, Romans, New C entury B ible Comm entary
(Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerdmans, 1989), 116. B lack says th a t Paul bases his ideas on "the w ell
know n tra d itio n of Jew ish apocalyptic prophecy.
150Jan Lam brecht, The Wretched T and Its Liberation. Paul in Romans 7 and 8 (Louvain:
Peeters, 1992), 120. Lam brecht says expressions like "the present tim e ," "glory," "revelation,"
"groaning" o f creation, and the m essianic woes are apocalyptic.
151John Paul H eil, P auls Letter to the Romans. A Reader-Response Commentary (New York:
P aulist Press, 1987), 3-5, 20. Romans is not apocalyptic in genre b u t in view point. In
p a rtic u la r H eil notes apocalyptic them es such as (1) Gods plan fo r the "end-tim e" in w hich
God w ill u ltim a te ly prevail: (2) expectation o f a cosmic upheaval and tran sfo rm a tio n at the end
o f tim e: (3) cosmic and tem poral dualism , w ith tw o ages; and (4) aw aiting Gods fu tu re glory.
135
decades. The a va ila b ility o f c ritic a l editions, translated texts, m ajor com m entaries, and
studies o f the genre and theology of apocalyptic lite ra tu re m ushroom ed too late fo r
Nelsons 1969 w o rk on Rom. 8 to benefit.
(2) Kasem ann and Beker have had a strong influence on recent research in to the religious
background of Pauls th o u g h t. As a re su lt of th e ir w ork, an increasing num ber of NT
scholars accept the place o f Jew ish apocalyptic as at least p art o f the background of
Pauls theology. A t the same tim e, the sweeping nature o f th e ir conclusions points to
the need to examine m ore closely the apocalyptic na tu re o f Pauls theology in specific
passages. There is a tendency fo r both scholars to m ake general claim s about the
n a ture o f apocalyptic theology w ith o u t exam ining closely specific Jew ish apocalyptic
w orks.
(3) The d istin ctio n between "apocalyptic" as a lite ra ry genre and "apocalyptic" as a type of
theology has opened the door fo r new research in to the background o f Pauline theology.
It is now w idely recognized th a t m any w orks th a t are n o t apocalypses in lite ra ry genre
s till contain apocalyptic theology.
(4) A lth ough it is w idely accepted b y m odem scholars th a t Rom. 8:19-22 has a theological
perspective sim ila r to Jew ish apocalyptic, it is not always clear exactly w hat th a t
means. There is a tendency fo r m any Pauline researchers, especially com m entators, to
use the term "apocalyptic" w ith o u t a clear d e fin itio n o f its m eaning and w ith the
assum ption th a t the reader know s the characteristics o f apocalyptic theology.152 This
study, therefore, w ill seek a refined understanding o f the Jew ish apocalyptic thought
concerning the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation in order to place Pauls thoughts
m ore adequately w ith in th is context.
(5) M any previous studies o f apocalyptic thought in Paul lum ped together a ll Jew ish
152Cf. M atlocks critiq u e of Beker and other m odem studies o f apocalyptic and Paul
(M atlock, 249-50, 256).
136
apocalyptic lite ra tu re , as if the theology o f the apocalyptic w ritin g s was m o n o lith ic.153
T his was also a problem in some older w orks on apocalyptic lite ra tu re , such as D. S.
R ussells them atic studies o f apocalyptic. M odem apocalyptic researchers recognize
th a t there are m any types o f thought w ith in Jew ish apocalypticism , even w ith in a
single w ork.154 There is a need to examine each apocalyptic w o rk in d ivid u a lly to
determ ine its theology o f the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation, the fu n ctio n of
these themes in the in d ivid u a l books, and the different strands o f thought on these
them es. O nly then can Pauls thought in Rom. 8:19-22 be fa irly compared to the
Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials and placed w ith in the proper stream o f theology.
(6) There is a tendency, p a rtic u la rly in com m entaries, to sim ply use apocalyptic w orks as
proof-texts to establish the Jew ish influence on P auls thought. There has been little
detailed exegesis o f the apocalyptic texts related to the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f
creation. B a rry M atlock observes th a t the absence o f detailed exegetical treatm ent of
apocalyptic te xts is a weakness o f m ost studies o f the relationship between Paul and
Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re in general.155
In lig h t of these observations, th is study involves tw o parts: (1) The perspective o f the
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s on the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation is examined. Several
m ajor apocalyptic w orks are studied in d ivid u a lly to determ ine the m u ltip le strands o f apoca
lyp tic thought on these themes. (2) The perspective o f Rom. 8:19-22 on the co rru p tio n and
redem ption o f creation is then compared to th e Jew ish apocalyptic view to determ ine the
s im ila ritie s and differences between Pauls though t and Jew ish apocalyptic theology.
153E.g. Stauffer, Sanday and Headlam , Thackeray, Nelson, M arberry, Beker.
154E.g. C ollins, 'In tro d u c tio n ," 1-19, groups apocalypses in to different types based on where
they fa ll on tem poral and spatial axes. De Boer, 169-90, identifies both cosmological and
forensic eschatology in apocalyptic lite ra tu re . Thom pson, Responsibility, 5-82, has an
excellent survey of diffe rin g views o f Jewish w ritin g s on the origin o f evil.
155M atlock, 17.
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SECTION Hi
THE CORRUPTION AND REDEMPTION OF CREATION

IN JEWISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
CHAPTER 3:
EARLY JEWISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re is a diverse body o f w ritin g s. The Jew ish apocalyptic
m aterials originated over a period of several centuries, from the th ird century B.C. through the
late firs t or early second century A.D. A lthough m ost w orks share num erous theological and
form al features, they also contain a va rie ty o f view points on m any theological themes, even
w ith in the same w ork. It is d iffic u lt to generalize about "the apocalyptic theology," since there
are several strands of apocalyptic though t on m any topics. Thus in order to properly under
stand the conception o f th e Jewish apocalyptic m aterials concerning the co rru p tio n and
redem ption o f creation, each w ritin g should be exam ined independently to determ ine the par
tic u la r view point o f th a t w ritin g and the fu n ctio n o f these them es w ith in the w ork. O nly then
can broader patterns and strands o f though t be perceived across the body o f lite ra tu re .
The early Jew ish apocalyptic m ate rials from the th ird and second centuries B.C.
frequently discuss the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation, although they include a variety
of views o f these issues. Several im p o rta n t Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs were w ritte n during
th is period, in clud ing m ost of 1 Enoch (w ith the exception o f the Book o f Parables) and the
book of Jubilees.
The study o f 1 Enoch (E thiopic Enoch) is com plicated b y the com posite nature of the
work. Each of the five hoo ks o f 1 Enoch probably came from different sources, as did certain
sections w ith in in d ivid u a l books. The divergent o rig in o f the various sections is quite apparent
in the diverse and sometimes co n flictin g view points held regarding the n a tu ra l w orld.
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A. 1 Enoch Book 1 (ch. 1-36): The Book o f W atchers
1. Date, Provenance and U n ity o f the Book o f W atchers
Book 1 (Book o f W atchers) and Book 3 (Astronom ical Book) are th e earliest sections o f
1 Enoch, b o th dating from the 3 rd century B .C .1 M ost scholars agree th a t the Book of
W atchers (BW) consists o f three m ajor sections (ch. 1-5, 6-16, 17-36), each probably w ritte n by
different authors. These sections also appear to incorporate several sm aller pre-existing
lite ra ry u n its . The oldest section o f BW is probably 6-11, w h ich is its e lf a collection of
tra d itio n s th a t m ay date from the 4 th century B.C.2
The exact setting o f BW is uncertain. I t probably originated in Judea or perhaps even
Jerusalem .3 The Aram aic MSS o f 1 Enoch discovered in cave 4 o f Q um ran have led m ost
m odem scholars to conclude th a t BW, along w ith m ost o f the rest o f 1 Enoch, was o riginally
w ritte n in Aram aic.4
M ich a e l E. Stone, "The Book o f Enoch and Judaism in the T h ird C entury B.C.E," CBQ 40
(1978): 479-92; Jam es C. VanderKam, Enoch and the G row th o f an Apocalyptic Tradition
(W ashington, DC: The C atholic B ib lica l Association o f Am erica, 1984), 110-4; J. T. M ilik , ed..
The Books o f Enoch. Aram aic fragm ents o f Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976), 28.
M ilik argues on paleographic grounds th a t the date o f 4QEna is the firs t h a lf of th e second
century B.C., w hich establishes a term inus ad quern o f ca. 200 B.C. fo r Book I (pp. 5, 140).
2George W. E. Nickelsburg, "Enoch, Levi, and Peter: Recipients o f Revelation in Upper

Galilee," JB L 100 (1981): 575.
3E. Isaac, "1 (E thiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch," in OTP, ed. James H. C harlesw orth (Garden
C ity, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 1:8]. M ilik , Enoch, 25-6, points to the author's view th a t
Jerusalem is the center of the earth and h is detailed knowledge o f the city. Jo h n J. C ollins,
"The A pocalyptic Technique: S etting and F unction in the Book o f W atchers," CBQ 44 (1982):
97-8, notes th a t the la ck o f clear h isto rica l referents in BW m akes it d iffic u lt to determ ine the
date and place of o rig in precisely. The "essential polyvalence of apocalyptic sym bolism " and
the "typological view of history" in apocalyptic allow BW to be applied to a wide variety of
crises.
M atthew Black, Apocalypsis Henochl Graece (Leiden: E. J . B rill, 1970), 6. (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1978), The Ethiopic Book o f Enoch. A New Eklition in the Light o f the Aram aic
Dead Sea fragm ents, by M ichael A. Knibb, suggests th a t Hebrew fragm ents found at Q um ran
m ay have been among the sources used fo r 1 Enoch. M ilik , Enoch, 4, argues th a t 1 Enoch
orig in a lly consisted o f 5 Aram aic books, w ith a "Book o f G iants" as the second book. He
claim s th a t the Book o f Parables was a la te r C h ristia n ad d itio n th a t replaced the Book of
G iants. Black, however, believes th a t these fragm ents o f the Aram aic Book o f G iants were p art
140
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2. 1 Enoch 1-5
M ost scholars see ch. 1-5 as an In tro d u ctio n to the whole of 1 Enoch5 o r at least to the
firs t book.6 The them e is the F inal Judgm ent, w hich is one o f the m ajor them es o f the whole
book. These in tro d u cto ry chapters are readily broken down in to two lite ra ry u n its: ch. 1, the
im pending theophany and the F inal Judgm ent: and ch. 2-5, a nature hom ily urging disobedi
ent Israelites to re tu rn in obedience to the covenant in lig h t of the com ing judgm ent.
a. 1 Enoch 1
(1) Eschatological Cosmic Cataclysm:
1 Enoch l:3 b -9 is a theophany of Gods appearance on the earth in the F in a l Judg
m ent.7 The righteous w ill receive blessing, peace and prosperity, b u t the wicked w ill be
punished. "A ll" w ill be judged, n o t only hum ans, b u t also the "W atchers" (v. 5).8 T his in tro
duces th e im p o rta n t Enochian them e o f the W atchers, the angels who transgressed th e ir
o f the o rig in a l Book o f W atchers, w h ich ends a t 16:4 (M atthew Black, The Book o f Enoch or I
Enoch. A New English E dition W ith Commentary and Textual Notes, S tudia in V eteris Testa-
m e n ti Pseudepigrapha, no. 7 (Leiden: B rill, 1985), 9-10).
^ i l i k , Enoch, 25: G. Beer, "Das Buch Henoch," in Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen
des A lte n Testaments, ed. G. Kautzsch (Tubingen: Gerd M ohr, 1900), 224; Francois M a rtin , Le
Livre D H enoch Docum ents Pour Letude De La Bible: Les Apocryphes De LAncien Testam ent
(Paris: Letouzey etA ne, 1906), lx x v iii; R H. Charles, The Book o f Enoch (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1912), 2-3; A ugust D illm ann, Das Buch Henoch (Leipzig: Vogel, 1853), 90. However,
Vanderkam , Enoch, p. 112, observes th a t it could not have been w ritte n by the fin a l redactor,
since MSS containing these chapters antedate other parts o f the 1 Enoch.
6George W. E. Nickelsburg, Jew ish Literature Between the Bible and the M ishnah (Philadel
phia: Fortress Press, 1981), 48-9, sees ch. 1-5 as an in tro d u ctio n to ch. 6-19 or 6-36.
7Jam es C. VanderKam, "The Theophany o f Enoch 1.3b-7, 9," V T 23 (1973): 131, argues
th a t it does n o t refer to the Flood, since v. 2 says it was w ritte n fo r a la te r generation, not fo r
Enochs generation, when the Flood occurred. The E thiopic m anuscript B, renders v. 7 w ith
Flood im agery: "the earth w ill sin k." See K nibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch 146-7. Even if th is
reading is rejected, there are s till overtones o f Flood typology: "A ll th in g s on the earth w ill
p erish ," echoes Gods sentence in Gen. 6:7, 13. Cf. VanderKam, "Theophany," 146-7.
8Cf. B lack, Book o f Enoch 108; contra Charles, Book o f Enoch 7, who in correctly supplies
"m en" in v. 7: "there sh a ll be a judgem ent upon a ll (men)."
141
t
\
proper bounds and w ill be judged (cf. 10:6, 15).
W hen the Lord appears on M ount S inai9 In judgm ent, the earth w ill suffer cataclysm ic
disasters: the m ountains w ill shake and disintegrate, the h ills w ill "m elt like a honeycomb
before the flam e," the earth w ill be to m open by a te rrib le earthquake and everything on earth
w ill be destroyed (v. 6-7). T his dram atic picture o f m ountains shaking and collapsing in the
presence o f the Lord is found frequently in the OT and Second Temple Jew ish lite ra tu re 10.
This is probably a descrip tion o f the end o f th is w orld, since it is followed by the universal
ju d g m e n t.11 There is no in d ica tio n , however, o f w hether a new heaven and earth w ill be
established.
(2) The Personification o f Creation:
Isaac tran slates w . 4b-6a in term s o f a personification of nature: "And everyone shall
be afraid, and W atchers sh a ll quiver. And great fear and trem bling shall seize them unto the
ends o f the earth. M ountains and high places sh a ll fa ll dow n and be frightened."12 This
suggests th a t the "everyone" th a t is afraid (v. 4b) includes the "m ountains and high places" as
w ell as hum ans and W atchers. I f th is personification is correct, then th is passage ascribes an
em otional state to the n a tu ra l w orld.
M any com m entators, however, do n o t translate v. 6a w ith such a personification.
Black, H artm an and Isaac a ll base th e ir rendering of v. 6a on the Greek text (OEtoBi'povtoa Kal
neooovxoa m l S iatoS i'jaovtai optj o\|fqX<x). Yet B lack translates SiaXuSifcovTai as "shall be
9D illm a nn, Henoch, 90.
10E.g. M ic. 1:4 (m ountains m elt "like w ax before the fire ," valleys split); Nah. 1:5 (m ountains
m elt, h ills quake); Ps. 97(96):5 (m ountains m elt lik e wax); Is. 64:1,3; Hab. 3:6; J u d ith 16:15;
Ass. Mos. 10:4; S ir. 16:19; 1 En. 102:2f; 2 Pet. 3:7-10; cf. 1 En. 52:6 (the m etaphor of
i m ountains m elting lik e w ax is sym bolic of the nations quaking w ith fear at the Judgm ent).
i
| nVanderKam , "Theophany," 146-7. However, Charles, Book o f Enoch, 6-7, believes it goes
i no fu rth e r th a n OT theophanies th a t denote Gods a u th o rity over His creation.
12Isaac, "1 Enoch," 13. Ita lic s m ine.
142
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disintegrated" and H artm an uses "w ill be dissolved" in place o f Isaacs freer rendering "w ill be
frightened." Charles and K nibb base th e ir tra n sla tio n on the b riefer E thiopic text, w hich does
n o t have the w ord. The A ram aic MSS from Q um ran are incom plete at th is poin t. M ilik s
tra n sla tio n of the A ram aic supplies 'be dissolved," evidently based on the Greek text.
Personification is consistent w ith the universal fear o f v. 5. B lack notes th a t "the panic,
like the judgm ent, is to be universal (cf. w . 7, 9) and cosm ic."13 In th is case the shaking o f
the m ountains is a sign o f fear, and n o t sim ply a n a tu ra l earthquake - even as the W atchers
shake in fear (v. 5).14 A s im ila r concept is found in 102:2: "A ll the lum inaries shall fa in t w ith
great fear; the whole earth shall fa in t and trem ble and panic" (Isaac translation).
On the other hand, w hile the idea o f fear is consistent w ith the context, th is tra n sla tio n
introduces a personification th a t is not required b y the m eaning of either the E thiopic o r Greek
texts. It is perfectly sensible to understand the shaking o f the earth as due to an earthquake.
Isaac apparently takes "sh a ll be frightened" from the Greek, w hich lite ra lly says "shall be
shaken and fa ll down and dissolve" (ceurS^crovxoa Koa neoouvrai Kca Sio&uQifcjovtai) ra th e r th a n
the E thiopic, w hich sim ply has "shall be shaken." M ilik has established the general su p e rio r
ity of the Aram aic te xt of BW from Q um ran, even though it is fragm entary and n o t com pletely
uniform . H is w o rk also confirm s th a t the Greek version, especially the Gizeh MS, is relative ly
reliable and generally preferable to the E th io p ic.15 Nevertheless, SiaXiko means "to dissolve"
o r "to p u t an end to" ra th e r th a n "to fear." Thus Isaacs tra n sla tio n is an in te rp re ta tio n based
on the sense o f the context (universal fear) m ore th a n the exact words o f the text.
13Black, Book o f Enoch, 106.
14The E thiopic sim ply has "shake." The Greek, 'believe" (jnoxcoooumv), is probably a
corruption, w hich is not consistent w ith the rest o f 1 Enoch in w hich the W atchers are fa lle n
angels. Cf. Knibb, E thiopic Book o f Enoch, 59; Black, Book o f Enoch, 107.
15M ilik , Enoch, 71-2.
143
b. 1 Enoch 2-5
(1) The Corruption o f Creation:
Ch. 2-5 have a quite different in terest in the n a tu ra l w orld th a n chapter 1. W hereas
ch. 1 focuses on the cataclysm ic d estruction o f the n a tu ra l w orld at the F in a l Judgm ent,
2:1-5:3 consists of a nature hom ily in w hich the consistent day-to-day operation o f nature is a
paradigm fo r hum an obedience to Gods commandments.
The a u th o r describes various aspects o f the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld and shows
the re g u la rity o f nature: the heavenly lu m inaries (2:1), the earth (2:2), th e changing o f seasons
(2:3), the w ater cycle (2:3), deciduous trees th a t consistently lose and regain th e ir leaves,
evergreen trees th a t re ta in th e ir leaves (3:1), the consistent re tu rn o f heat o f sum m er (4:1), the
green trees and fru it in S pring (5:1) and the perfect operation o f the seas and rivers (5:3). The
p icture is one o f nature as consistent and w ell behaved in its operation year by year. The
n a tu ra l w orld operates according to the patterns th a t God designed and does not change (5:1-
2). The a u th o r repeatedly urges the reader to "examine" (Isaac), "observe" (Black) o r "contem
plate" (Knibb) a ll of these aspects o f nature.
The a u th o r of chapters 2-5 apparently does not conceive of the n a tu ra l w orld as either
corrupted o r fallen. A lthough m any hum ans (5:4) and the fallen W atchers (1:4-5) are
disobedient to God, the n a tu ra l w orld continues to fu n ctio n as God intended.
1 Enoch 2-5 uses h ig h ly personified language to describe the re g u la rity o f nature:
H is w ork proceeds and progresses from year to year. A ll h is w ork prospers and obeys him ,
and it does not change; b u t everything functions in the way in w hich God has ordered it.
A nd look at the seas: They do n o t p a rt; they fu lfil a ll th e ir duties. (5:2b-3, Isaac translation)
The Aram aic is not as long, b u t s till preserves the personification: 'Y ear [in year and o u t they
do n o t change th e ir works] b u t they a ll do h is W ord."16 The E thiopic te xt is shorter th a n the
16Ib id 147.
144
. _
Greek, b u t it has an im p o rta n t varian t. Instead o f "a ll h is w ork prospers," it has "a ll h is w orks
serve h im ."17 B la ck argues th a t th is is the better reading, since it preserves the parallel w ith
5a, w h ich he tra n sla te s "and a ll h is w orks w hich he has made fo r ever attend on h im year by
year." T his is an even stronger pictu re o f creation as an obedient servant in the presence o f
h is m aster.18 Nonetheless, regardless o f the specific language, the overall picture represents
inanim ate created th in g s as in d iv id u a l personalities w ho obey and serve th e ir creator and fu lfil
the com m andm ents th a t he has given them .
T his p ictu re o f an obedient n a tu ra l w orld is in sharp contrast to BW 17-36, w hich says
th a t some o f the stars "transgressed the com m andm ents of God from the beginning o f th e ir
ris in g because th e y d id not arrive p u n ctu a lly" (18:15; cf. 21:1-6). This la tte r section also
personifies n a tu ra l objects, b u t some created thing s are disobedient to Gods design fo r them .
The fu n c tio n o f th is portrayed o f the order o f nature is paraenetic. The properly
fu n ctio n in g n a tu ra l order is a paradigm fo r the people of God, who should obey Gods
com m ands, ju s t as nature does. The n a tu ra l w orlds order and obedience to Gods design is in
sharp contrast to the disorder and disobedience o f s in fu l people: "B ut you have changed yo u r
w orks, and have n o t been steadfast n o r done according to h is com mandm ents, b u t you have
transgressed against h im . . . ." (5:4). The inanim ate creation has not changed its w orks (5:2),
"b u t you have changed yo u r w orks. The "sinners" here are not the G entiles (contra e.g. 1 En.
90:16-18 (AA); 91:12 (AW); J u b . 23:23-24; 1 Macc. 2:44; Pss. Sol. 1:1; 2:1), b u t the people of
God w ho have transgressed o r le ft the covenant (5:4a; cf. e.g. 1 En. 82:4 (AB); Pss. Sol. 17:11-
20).19 In the im m inent F inal Judgm ent, the w icked w ill be cursed and punished, b u t the
17B lack, Book o f Enoch, 113; cf. K nibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 65.
18B lack, Book o f Enoch, 112.
19Lars H artm an. Asking fo r a Meaning. A Study o f 1 Enoch 1-5, Coniectanea B iblica New
Testam ent Series, no. 12 (Lund Sweden: CWK G leerup, 1979), 137-8, discusses the kin ds of
sins th e y m ight have com m itted.
145
righteous w ill receive "lig h t and jo y and peace and they shall in h e rit the earth" (5:7) .20
S im ilar na tu re hom ilies about the obedience of nature are used In other Jewish
lite ra tu re (e.g. T. Naph. 2:9; 3:2-3. Pss. Sol. 18:12-14, Sir. 16:26-28; 2 Bar. 48:9-10; 43; 16:26-
28).21 Nevertheless, 1 Enoch 2 -5 is the earliest place in w hich nature is used as a basis fo r a
com m and to obedience.22 M ichael Stone observes th a t even though the OT often personifies
the n a tu ra l w o rld (e.g. D eut. 4:26; 30:19; 32:1; Is. 1:2; Ps. 19:1; 148), the various n a tu ra l
forces are not separate personalities endowed w ith consciousness o r w ill. B y the tim e of
Second Temple Judaism , however, the re g u la rity o f the n a tu ra l order was being spoken about
as though the powers o f n a ture were independent personalities th a t obey th e w ill of God.23
20H artm an, A sking, 51-71, dem onstrates th a t using the order o f nature to urge obedience
o r ca llin g nature as a w itness against sinners is frequently a p a rt of denouncem ent passages
in Second Temple Jew ish lite ra tu re th a t follow th e OT rib p a tte rn (cf. 1:9, w hich says God
denounces the Israelites). Heaven and earth are generally m entioned in these passages,
however the fu n c tio n is different. In the OT rib passages, freq uently heaven and earth are
called as witnesses to the covenantal obligations (D t. 4:26; 30:19; 31:28). In OT passages
other th a n rib texts, natures order is p rim a rily used to show the m ajesty o f God (e.g. Ps. 19).
However, in the Second Tem ple rib passages, na tu re is often strongly personified as an
exam ple o f obedience. O ut o f th e 15 p o st-b ib lica l rib texts th a t H artm an examines, six use
n a tu re as an example o f follow ing th e ir intended p attern (1 En. l:9 -5 :9 (2:1-5:3); 1 En. 101-
104(101:1-8); T. Naph. 3-4(3:2); Ass. Mos. 12:9-13(9); 1 Q 34bis II(lf); S. D t. 32:1(306 332:4-
15)), w hile another five c a ll n a ture as a w itness, m uch like the p attern in Deuteronom y (1 En.
100:4-13; Ps-Philo 19:2-5(4); 2 Bar. 84:1-8(2); 1 Q D M I-II (1.5); 4 Ez. 7:33-42 (39-42?)). The
form c ritic a l category of rib fo r a denouncem ent te x t was introduced by B. Gemser, "The Rib or
C ontroversy-Pattem in Hebrew M entality," in Supplement to Vetus Testamentum (Leiden: B rill,
1955), 3: 120-38.
Z1T. Naph. 3:2-3 is the closest verbal and fu n ctio n a l parallel, since it also urges hum ans to
obey God even as inanim ate th in g s obey H im . See Charles, Book o f Enoch, 8-9, fo r an
extensive discussion o f p arallel passages.
22VanderKam , Enoch, 120-1.
23E.g. Sir. 16:26-28; T. Naph. 3:2. The stars keep an oath: 1 En. 41:5; 69:20-21, 24. S p irits
guide the lu m inaries: 2 En. 40:3; Jub. 2. M ichael E. Stone, "The Parabolic Use o f N atural
O rder in Judaism o f the Second Temple Age," in Selected Studies in Pseudepigrapha and
Apocrypha. W ith Special Reference to the Arm enian Tradition, ed. M ichael E. Stone (Leiden: E.J.
B rill, 1991), 458.
146
(3) The Redemption o f Creation:
1 Enoch 2-5 Im plies th a t the righteous w ill enjoy a utopian eschatological life on the
present earth.24 The elect "sh a ll in h e rit the earth" (5:7) and they sh a ll live out th e ir assigned
num ber of days in peace, jo y and freedom from suffering (5:9-10; cf. Is. 65:17-25).
Nevertheless there is no discussion o f the redem ption of the n a tu ra l w orld, since the n a tu ra l
w orld has not been corrupted by sin.
3 .1 Enoch 6-16
M ost scholars see 1 Enoch 6-11 as an expansion o f Gen 6:1-2, 4, w hich refers to the
m arriage of "the sons of God and the daughters o f m en.25 This section discusses the fa ll of
the W atchers, a group o f angels who m arried hum an women, taught forbidden arts to hum ans
(such as m aking in stru m e n ts o f war, using cosmetics, and practicing astrology) and corrupted
the earth w ith th e ir acts o f violence, m urder and adultery. In th is p o rtio n o f 1 Enoch the
problem s o f a co rru p t and vio len t w o rld are blam ed on the fa ll o f the angels, ra th e r th a n on
the F all o f Adam and Eve (Gen. 3) or ongoing hum an wickedness (Gen 6).
W hile there is no consensus on the exact division o f sources, m ost scholars agree th a t
at least two strands o f m ate rial are interwoven in to one story: (1) a longer source in w hich
Semyaza is the leader o f a 200 m ember group o f W atchers who m a rry hum an women and
com m it a va rie ty o f sins; and (2) a shorter source in w hich Azazel is the angelic teacher of
heavenly secrets who leads hum ankind in to sin.26 Charles argues th a t ch. 6-11 derive from a
24Cf. C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 38.
25Paul D. Hanson, "Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel, and Euhem eristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6-11,"
JB L 96 (1977): 197 (an "expository narrative"); P. S. Alexander, "The Targum im and E arly
Exegesis o f "Sons o f God" in Gen 6," JJS 23 (1977): 60 ("an elaborate m idrash"); Charles, Book
o f Enoch, 14; C hristoffersson, 49, and m ost other scholars. However, M ilik , Enoch, 31
(followed cautiously by Black, Book o f Enoch, 124-5), argues th a t Gen 6:1-4 is based on
1 Enoch 6-11.
26Carol A. Newsom, 'The Development o f 1 Enoch 6-19: Cosmology and Judgm ent," CBQ 42
(1980): 313. The tw o interw oven cycles were firs t noticed by A ugust D illm ann, 'Pseudepi-
147
hypothetical "Book o f Noah," since the hum an protagonist is Noah not Enoch (10: l) .27
Ch. 12-16 contain a vision o f Enoch in w hich he intercedes fo r the W atchers. It is an
elaboration o f the story o f the W atchers in ch. 6-11 and the firs t place in w hich Enoch is
brought in to the W atcher story.28
a. 1 Enoch 6-9
There are several im p o rta n t references to the co rru p tio n o f the n a tu ra l w orld in 1 En.
6-9. The G iants, w ho are the offspring o f the u n io n o f the W atchers and hum an women,
com m it variou s acts o f violence, in clud ing cannibalism (7:4-5), m urder (9:9, cf. 9:1) and
oppression o f the people (9:9, cf. 9:1). T he ir hunger is unsatisfied even though they eat as
m uch produce as the people can grow. As a result, they begin to eat the people themselves
and "to s in against b ird s, w ild beasts, reptiles, and fish " (7:5a, Isaac). Both the E thiopic and
the Greek have "sin against" (Gr. dpaprdveiv). B lack believes th a t the Greek is a m istransla
tio n o f the Aram aic (4Q Ena 1 iii 19-20), from w hich means "to harm " or "to do
graphen des A lte n Testam ents," in Realencyklopadie J u r protestantische Theologie und Ktrche,
A. H auck and J. J. Herzog, eds. (Leipzig: H inrichs, 1883), 352. W hile the existence o f the two
sources is w idely accepted, the exact division between sources is highly disputed. Charles,
Book o f Enoch, 13-4, follow s D illm a nn, Henoch 352, in assigning 6:1-2; 7:1-6; 8:4; 9:1-6; 10:1-
10, 12-22 and 11:1-2 to the Azazel cycle. George W. E. N ickelsbuig, "Apocalyptic and M yth in
1 Enoch 6-11," J B L 9 6 (1977): 383-405, claim s only 8:1-2; 9:6 and 10:4-8 belong to the Azazel
m aterial, w hile 7: ld e ; 8:3; 9:8c and 10:7 are "secondary contam ination" from the Azazel story.
Hanson, "Rebellion," claim s the Azazel m aterial is in 7: lde; 8:1-3; 9:6, 8c and 10:4-10.
VanderKam , E noch 123-4, sees the Azazel m aterial a t 8:1-2; 9:6; 10:4-6, 8. Beer, Henoch
225, claim s the Azazel m ate rial is in 7:1b; 8:1-3; 9:6-8 and 10:1-3, w ith 6:1-2 and 7:1a, 2 in
com m on between the tw o. T h is study w ill consider th e m eaning o f the BW in its fin a l form
w ith the tw o tra d itio n s merged. T his was essentially the state o f BW by the firs t h a lf o f the
2 nd century B.C. Cf. C ollins, "Apocalyptic Technique," 95.
27Charles, Book o f Enoch x lv i-x lv ii, who argues th a t 1 En. 54-55:2; 60; 65-69:25 and 106-
107 also are p a rt o f th e Book o f Noah. The existence o f such a book is im plied by Ju b 10:13
and 21:10. However, David W inston Suter, T radition and Composition in the Parables o f
Enoch SBL D issertation Series, no. 47 (M issoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979), 32-3 argues th a t
the Noah sections are too diverse to have o rig in a lly been one source.
28VanderKam, Enoch 129-35.
148
I
violence to ." He claim s th a t th e G reek tra n sla to r understood it w ith the Hebrew m eaning o f
w hich m eans "to act w ickedly" o r "to sin." Hence B lack translates it 'began to do violence
to ."29
Regardless w hether "sin against" o r "do violence to" best represents the o rig in a l wording
in 7:5a, th is verse speaks about ecological sin and im plies a violent assault on the anim al
kingdom . Hanson notes th a t the harm done to 'b ird s , w ild beasts, reptiles, and fish " is a
m etaphor describing "the collapse o f the order o f creation, w ith pugnacious forces unleashed
in a vicio u s process o f degeneration and decay. H ie "alm ost in vo lu n ta ry response" o f the
defiled earth is to cry o u t fo r release fro m the oppression (7:6).30
The defilem ent o f the earth due to sin echoes the b ib lic a l concept o f the prom ised land
its e lf being defiled by s in (e.g. Lev. 18:25-28; Num . 35:33-34; D eut. 24:4; Jer. 2:7).31 Num.
35:33 is a p a rtic u la rly relevant parallel, since it speaks o f the defilem ent o f the land b y
shedding blood, w h ich was one of the sins of the G iants. One difference in 1 Enoch is th a t the
defilem ent is extended from the prom ised land to the entire earth32 and hence a Flood is
29B lack, Book o f Enoch, 126.
30Hanson, "R ebellion," 199-200. A n im p o rta n t parallel to 1 En. 7 is found in the Q um ran
Book of G iants (4QEnG iantsa 8.11). T h is passage also describes the co rru p tio n o f th e earth
broug ht b y the fa lle n W atchers and represents eithe r another version o f th is tra d itio n or
perhaps even another m anuscript of 1 En. 7. The Aram aic w ord (line 11) describes the
c o rru p tio n of the w orld due to the W atcherss sins. I f M ilik s reconstruction is correct, the
earth com plains against the W atchers because o f th e ir "p ro stitu tio n o f the earth" (line 9) and
com plains and accuses them o f "the co rru p tio n b y w hich you have corrupted it" (i.e. the earth,
lin e 11). See M ilik , Enoch, 315.
3A d o lf B uchler, Studies In Sin a n d Atonement in the Rabbinic Literature o f the F irst Century,
Jew s College P ublications, no. 11 (London: O xford U niversity Press, 1928), 212-26, thoroughly
studies num erous b ib lic a l passages th a t refer to the defilem ent o f the land due to sin. In pp.
270-369 he explores the them e in intertestam ental and Rabbinic lite ra tu re w ith s im ila r
thoroughness. B uchler dem onstrates th a t the uncleanness in the b ib lic a l passages is not
sim p ly cerem onial, b u t m oral contam ination (pp. 216, 219-221). Cerem onial sins, such as
to uching a leper (Lev. 14:34-53), do n o t defile the land, b u t serious m oral vio latio ns do.
Furtherm ore, the solu tio n to the defilem ent is often radical, such as rem oving the offending
persons from th e la nd (e.g. Lev. 18:25).
32This extension is also often found in the prophets. Cf. Is. 7:23-25; 8:21-22; 9:18-21;
149
. U ____________________________ _____________ -
necessary to cleanse the entire earth from the defilem ent of the W atchers.
The offense o f the G iants, however, is m ore th a n m erely eating anim als, w hich was not
o f its e lf s in fu l to m ost Jews. The context suggests th a t th e ir sin was an excessive and violent
assault against the anim als. The G iants ate everything in sight and could not be satisfied:
They ate crops, anim als, hum ans and eventually each other (v. 5b). B lack has an alternative
understanding. He sees the s in against the anim als as d rin kin g the blood o f the anim als,
w hich was a vio la tio n o f the divine law (Gen 9:4; J u b 7:28-29; 21:6, 18; 1 En. 98:11; cf. Acts
15:20). T his is based on reading "th e ir flesh" in v. 5b (Aramaic in 4Q Ena 1 iii 2) as a
reference to the anim als flesh.33 There is no firm te xtu a l evidence fo r th is in terpretation,
however, since the pronoun "th e ir" is m issing in the fragm entary Aram aic text. Isaac and
K nibb base th e ir tra n sla tio n on the E thiopic, w h ich says th a t they ate each others flesh and
d ra n k each others blood.34 T h is suggests th a t v. 5b refers to the cannibalism o f the G iants
who ate the flesh and d ra n k the blood of fellow G iants.
As a re su lt o f the violence and sins o f the fa lle n angels and the G iants, the earth its e lf
cries out to God fo r release (7:6; 9:2). T his idea is expressed in 7:6: "The earth brought an
accusation against the oppressors." The Greek evruvxdvw means "to converse w ith o r "meet,"
often "to m ake a com plaint, p e titio n o r appeal." There are examples from the 2nd ce n tu ry B.C.
pap yri where the w ord is used w ith r o ta (as here) m eaning to m ake a com plaint against
someone.35 This is the same w ord as in 9:3: "the souls o f people are putting their case before
13:9-13; 24:4-6; 33:7-9; 32:9-14; 34:8-17; Jer. 4:23-26; Amos. 4:7-9; Hos. 4:1-3.
34Cf. Knibb, E thiopic Book o f Enoch, 33, who says they tu rn e d from m ankin d , to anim als
and then against one another. D rin kin g the blood made th e ir crim e a ll the worse. Black, Book
o f Enoch, 126, also acknowledges th a t the E thiopic te xt refers to cannibalism .
35O tto B auem feind, 'Tvyxavoj." TDNT, 8:242-3.
150
you," though In th is instance the sense o f a p e titio n is clearer. W hile no specific object o f the
earths p e titio n is specified, the im plicatio n is th a t it is directed either to God (cf. 9:10) o r to
the good angels (cf. 9:1-2). In th is personification o f the earth, the earth is seen as a v ic tim o f
the oppression o f the evil W atchers and G iants and cries out fo r release. In some sense the
sin of the G iants against people and anim als also harm s the earth.
A n other verse in w hich the earth cries out fo r release from oppression is 9:2. B oth the
text and th e m eaning o f th is verse are less clear th a n 7:6. Isaacs tra n sla tio n (based on the
Ethiopic) sounds like the personified earth cries o u t about the oppression and devastation
wreaked upon it: "The earth (from) her em pty (foundation), has brought the cry o f th e ir voice
unto the gates o f heaven."36 S im ila rly, Charles translates it: "The earth made w ith o u t in h a b i
ta n t cries the voice of th e ir crying up to the gates o f heaven."37 The E thiopic is translated by
Knibb: "Let the devastated earth cry out w ith the sound o f th e ir cries u nto the gates o f
heaven."38 In a ll these translations, the earth is personified and cries o u t to heaven about
the s in fu l oppression against its e lf and its in habita nts. The image m ay be sim ila r to the blood
o f Abel cryin g o u t from the ground after h is m urder.39 The emptiness o f the earth probably
refers to th e fewer num ber of hum ans and other creatures due to the violence and cannibalism
o f the G iants (7:4-5).
In the Greek version o f 9:2, however, w hich B lack and M a rtin favor, the hum ans cry
out ra th e r th a n the earth: {Iocovkdv em xtfe yqq pexpi nuWav xov otipavofi. B lack translates
the verse: "The voice and cry o f the ch ild re n o f earth are ascending to the gates o f heaven."40
36Isaac, "1 Enoch," 16.
37Charles, Book o f Enoch, 20.
38K nibb, Ethiopic Bock o f Enoch, 85.
39Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and M yth, 387.
40Black, Book o f Enoch, 130; cf. M artin , H&noch, 18.
151
M ilik , who also favors the Greek text, argues th a t "the devastated earth cries" in the E thiopic is
a shortened form o f "on account o f the destruction of the sons o f earth."41 W hereas in 9:3,
"the souls o f m en" com plain, in 7:5 the earth its e lf brings the com plaint on beh alf of the
devastated creatures. Yet although the personification in 9:2 is n o t as clear as in 7:5, it
appears th a t the earth participates in the oppression o f the anim als and hum ans (cf. 9:9-10)
and jo in s w ith suffering hum ans to cry out to heaven fo r ju stice .
Throughout chapters 7-9, there is a strikin g s im ila rity between the cry o f the oppressed
earth and th a t o f the oppressed hum ans:
7:6 The earth b rin g s an accusation against the oppressors.

8:4 The people c ry out to heaven.
9:2 The earth b rin g s the c ry o f the oppressed people to heaven.
9:3 The souls o f oppressed hum ans plead w ith the angels to intercede fo r them .
9:10 The hum ans w ho died under the oppression of the G iants groan and b rin g th e ir
com plaint to heaven.
Thus both hum ans42 and nature are victim s and cry o u t fo r deliverance from heaven. The
ecological sins and co rru p tio n o f the w o rld are the fa u lt o f the fa lle n W atchers, n o t o f hum an
beings.43 T his is a sig n ifica n tly different perspective th a n Gen 6, w hich sees the Flood as
punishm ent fo r the wickedness o f hum anity.
b. 1 Enoch 10-11
1 En. 10-11 describes Gods ju dgm ent on the w o rld through the Flood and prom ises a
restored w orld o f blessing a fte r the judgm ent. Gods message is evidently a response to the
intercession o f the angels (ch 9) as a re s u lt o f the cry o f the oppressed hum ans and earth (7:6;
42Newsom, 313, believes th a t in the Semyaza layer o f tra d itio n , the hum ans are victim s,
w hile in the Azazel version the hum ans collaborate w ith the W atchers in sin. However, the
value of th is judgm ent is lim ite d by the uncertain d ivision sources in BW. Furtherm ore, even
in the Azazel stratum , the W atchers originate sin and lead the hum ans astray in to sin.
43Barker. 2-3, 38.
152
9:2-3, 10). T h is is an im p o rta n t passage, w hich includes clear elements o f both the corru ption
and redem ption o f creation.
The Flood is a pun ishm ent fo r the sins o f the W atchers (10:7-8), not fo r hum an sins as
in Gen. 6. The earth has been "corrupted" (v. 7; o r "ruined") and "devastated" (v. 8) by the
s in fu l actions and teachings o f the fallen angels (10:7-8; cf. 20). The im plicatio n is th a t the
w o rld is not as God o rig in a lly created it and is in need o f "healing" (v. 7). The concept o f the
earth being defiled thro ugh s in is rooted in b ib lic a l references to the defilem ent o f the la nd o f
prom ise due to the sins o f its in h a b ita n ts (e.g. Lev. 18:25-28; Jer. 2:7; Num. 35:33-34; Deut.
24:4).44
The ju dgm ent th a t God pronounces through angelic messengers involves several
elements: (1) A flood w ill cover the entire w orld and destroy the earth and eveiything on it,
except fo r the "son o f Lam ech," i.e. Noah (10:2-4). (2) The W atchers who rebelled w ill be bound
and cast in to a d a rk hole in th e desert (10:4-6, 11-12). They are to be kept there u n til they are
sent in to eternal fire on th e "great day o f ju dgm ent." T his is described twice, once w ith Azazel
as the leader o f the W atchers (10:4-6) and once w ith Semyaza as th e ir leader (10:11-12).
(3) The ch ild re n o f the W atchers w ill be destroyed fo r th e ir in ju stice to hum anity (10:9-10, 15).
(4) A t the consum m ation, a fte r the fa lle n W atchers have been bound fo r m any years, the
W atchers and those who collaborated w ith them w ill be locked in prison forever and torm ented
w ith fire (10:13-14).
(2) The Redemption o f Creation:
Even though the Flood is said to destroy the earth (10:2), the ultim ate purpose o f the
Flood is not th e destruction o f the w orld, b u t its p u rific a tio n and restoration. In 10:7 God
com m ands the angel Raphael to "give life to the earth w hich the angels have corrupted" (Isaac).
44B uchler, 279.
153
"Give life " is looped and HS1, w hich m ean "heal."45 This is spelled out m ore fu lly in 10:16-
11:2, where the eschatological blessings fo r the w orld after the judgm ent are described in
elaborate language: The earth w ill be cleansed from a ll in ju stice , in iq u ity and oppression and
a ll people w ill w orship God (16, 20-22). God w ill p o u r out blessings on the earth and all
people w ill live long lives in peace, w ith m any offspring (10:17; 11:1-2). N ature its e lf w ill be
transform ed and become abundantly productive, w ith every p la n t producing a thousand-fold
in fru it (19). The whole earth w ill be covered w ith num erous trees (18), w hich is an evidence of
prosperity (cf. Is. 41:19; Ez. 47:7; 1 En. 26:1; 27:1; 28:1-3).46 The earth w ill be cleansed fro m
a ll p o llu tio n 47 and plagues (22), w hich w ill never again come on the earth. B oth sin and the
co rru p tin g effects o f sin on hum anity and the n a tu ra l w orld w ill be removed. Removing th e
damage caused by s in brings a re sto ra tio n o f cosm ic order, harm ony and fru itfu ln e ss.48 Y et
God also w ill transcend the prim o rd ia l cosm ic harm ony to transform the m aterial w orld in to
an even more glorious state.
The a u th o r sees a close rela tio n sh ip between the Flood and the F inal Judgm ent. The
punishm ent on the fallen angels begins w ith th e ir consignm ent to the p it and it continues a t
the consum m ation when they w ill be sent in to fie ry eternal torm ent. The description weaves
back and fo rth between the Flood, the F in a l Judgm ent and the blessings follow ing each o f
these judgm ents. A t tim es it is d iffic u lt to determ ine w hich judgm ent is in view. S im ila rly it is
n o t always clear w hether the blessings described are those afte r the Flood o r in the new age
after the consum m ation. B lack and C o llins argue th a t 10:16-23 refers to the post-Flood
blessings,49 w hile Charles, Schodde and D. M. Russell believe the passage refers to the
48Ib id ., 139.
47"P ollution" (Isaacs translation) refers to m oral defilem ent, n o t environm ental damage.
48Hanson, "Rebellion," 201.
49Black, Book o f Enoch, 139-40; Jo h n J. C ollins, "M ethodological Issues in the Study o f
154
M essianic age.50
In part, th is com plexity m ay be due to the m u ltip le sources com bined in the passage,
such as the Azazel cycle (e.g. w . 4-6) and the Semyaza cycle (e.g. w . 11-12). More im por
ta n tly , the author views the tw o judgm ents as two phases of one com plex judgm ent. The
judgm ent on the fa lle n angels begins w ith the Flood and is completed at the consum m ation.
Hence the Flood becomes a type o f the F inal Judgm ent (cf. 91:5-9; 93:4).S1
S im ila rly the blessings follow ing the elim ina tion of the W atchers and th e ir offspring
through the Flood anticipate the eschatological blessings o f the new age. The language of
blessing in 10:16-11:2 is fa r too extravagant to encompass m erely the post-Flood w orld.
Nature is described as radica lly transform ed in its p rodu ctivity, in language sim ila r to the
prophetic descriptions o f the blessings to come in the new age52. Furtherm ore, the tra n s
form ation is a perm anent one: peace and blessings w ill la st "a ll the generations o f the w orld"
(11:2). The w orld w ill never experience suffering and plagues again (10:22). W hile parts of th is
section m ay refer to the deliverance of Noah and h is righteous fa m ily (e.g. v. 17)53, it is clear
th a t the picture is m uch larger th a n th is . It q uickly moves from the type, i.e. the Flood, to the
antitype, i.e. the eschatological blessings bestowed on the righteous after the Judgm ent54.
1 Enoch: Reflections on the A rticle s o f P. D. Hanson and G. W. N ickelsburg," Society o f Biblical

Literature 1978 Seminar Papers, Paul J. Achtem eier, ed. (M issoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1978),
317-9.
Charles, Book o f Enoch, 25; George H. Schodde, The Book o f Enoch: Translated From the
Ethiopic, w ith Introduction and Notes (Andover: W arren F. Draper, 1911), 77; D. M. Russell,
105-6.
51Christoffersson, 60, 87; Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and M yth," 288 and Nickelsburg,
Jew ish Literature, 51.
E.g. Amos 9:13-15; Hos. 2:21-23; Is. 5:10; 30:23-25; Ez. 34:26-27; 36:8, 29-30; Zech.
8:12; Jer. 31:12; Ps. 72:16. Schodde, 77, sees th is passage as an im ita tio n o f Is. 5:10.
Black, Book o f Enoch, 139.
^C f. Charles, Book o f Enoch, 25; Knibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 38. Hanson, "Rebellion,"
201-2, believes the tim e between the Flood and the Noahic covenant (Gen. 9:8-17) is extended
155
In the stru ctu re o f the passage there is a close relatio nship between the Flood and the
F inal Judgm ent, as w ell as between the post-Flood blessing and the blessings o f the eschatol
ogical age. The follow ing table shows th is relationship:
Table 13: Relationship Between Judgment and Blessings of the Flood and Eschatological Eras
Passage Theme Flood Final Post-Flood Eschatological

Judgment Blessing Blessing
10:2-3 The Flood X

10:4-6 Bind Watchers until the day of judgment (Azazel cycle) X v. 6
10:7 Give life to the earth which the angels corrupted X ?
10:8 The corruption caused by the angels (cause)
10:9-10 Destroy the children of the Watchers X
10:11-12 Bind Watchers until day of judgment (Semyaza cycle) X v. 12
10:13-14 Final Judgment and eternal torment of the Watchers X
10:15 Destroy the children of the Watchers X
10:16-11:2 Period of justice, righleousness and blessing w. 16-17? X
As th is c h a rt shows, the passage moves easily from the Flood to the F in a l Judgm ent and from
the cleansing o f the w orld b roug ht by the Flood to the eschatological age o f blessing th a t w ill
tra n sfo rm the w hole w orld. Since the Flood is described as a fu tu re event from the perspective
o f the supposed a u th o r Enoch, the whole passage fu n ctio n s as prophecy. It provides assur
ance th a t ju s tic e w ill fin a lly be established, blessings w ill come to the righteous and the w orld
w ill be restored to a new, righteous paradise.55
c. 1 Enoch 12-16
(1) The C orruption o f Creation:
1 En. 12-16 is a com m entary on the story o f the W atchers. L ittle is specifically said
to a ll o f h is to ry from the Flood to the eschaton. Thus the blessings described are s till the
blessings o f the Noahic covenant (Gen 8:17, 22; 9:1), b u t delayed 70 generations (10:12)
because o f the continued evil on earth.
C hristoffersson, 59-60; Lars Hartm an, "An E a rly Exam ple o f Jew ish Exegesis: 1 Enoch
10:16-11:2," Neotestamentum 17 (1983): 22.
156
about the Im pact o f the W atchers sin on nature. The general picture, however, is th a t the sin
o f the W atchers involves a vio la tio n of the order o f the universe (15:4-8; 12:4; cf. lS ^ ).56 The
W atchers have stepped outside the bounds o f the purpose fo r w h ich they were made. They
were n o t created to live outside o f heaven o r to procreate. Furtherm ore, th e y have im parted
revelation th a t was forbidden to hum ans (cf. 8:3). W hile the effect o f the W atchers sin on
nature is not spelled out in d e ta il as in ch. 7-10, ye t the sins o f th e W atchers cle arly have
disru p te d the orderly operation o f creation and "com pletely ru in e d the earth (12:4).57
4 . 1 Enoch 17-36
a. The C orruption o f Creation
1 En. 17-36 describes tw o jo urn eys (ch. 17-19, 20-36)58 o f Enoch w ith an angelic
guide, who shows h im how the n a tu ra l w o rld w o rks and takes h im on a to u r o f heaven and the
places o f fin a l rew ard and punishm ent. T his section is quite different in character than ch. 6-
16. since it has no h is to ric a l overview. The descriptions o f the design o f the earth and the
nether w o rld are heavily influenced by G reek and B abylonian m ythology as w e ll as by b ib lic a l
tra d itio n s .59
N ature plays a large role in th is section and is described in considerable detail.
S6Newsom, 315.
57K nibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 92. The w ord fo r "ruined" (aâviô) can also m ean "to
destroy u tte rly ," "disfigure" (Liddell and Scott, 286) o r "corrupt" (Black, Book o f Enoch, 143).
The E th io p ic says the W atchers "have become com pletely co rru p t on the earth." The Greek
version better connects to the sentence stru ctu re o f v. 5 in both Greek and E th io p ic (Charles.
Book o f Enoch, 28-9; K nibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 92).
C harles, Book o f Enoch, 46 claim s there are tw o journeys, b u t B lack, Book o f Enoch, 15-6,
argues th a t these are tw o accounts o f th e same visio n .
59Bousset, Religion des Judentum s, 498; Beer, Henoch, 248; B lack, Book o f Enoch, 15;
C harles, Book o f Enoch, 38-42, 46, 49; VanderKam , Enoch, 137-40. P. G relot, "La geographic
m ythique dHenoch et ses sources orientals," Review Biblique 65 (1958): 181-220, aigues th a t
m any o f the apparently G reek geographical m o tifs are B abylonian and some sire b ib lica l. For a
broader treatm ent o f the to p ic see M a rtin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism , tra n s. Jo h n Bowden
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), 1:210-8.
157
1 Enoch is interested in both how the n a tu ra l w o rld cu rre n tly fu nctions as w e ll as how it w ill
fu n ctio n as the environm ent fo r the ultim ate b liss and suffering of hum ans and angels.
A bout h a lf o f the firs t jo u rn e y (17:1-18:4) and a large p a rt o f the second jo u rn e y (23;
33:1-36:3) are devoted to a m ythological description of how the n a tu ra l w orld presently
functions. Enoch leam s the sources of lig h tn in g , w ater and w ind. He discovers how the sun
and stars move and he v is its the foundation o f the earth. In the second h a lf of the firs t
jo u rn e y (18:5-19:3) he v is its "the end of heaven and earth," where he sees the place of
punishm ent fo r the Fallen angels (19:1) and the stars th a t transgressed Gods com mandm ents.
M uch o f the second jo u rn e y (ch. 21-32) fu rth e r expands on th is description o f the place of
eternal punishm ent and adds descriptions of Gods throne, heaven and Paradise.
C ollins notes th a t th is picture o f the hidden operation o f the cosmos, p a rticu la rly
juxtaposed to the story of th e W atchers, provides a fram e fo r viewing hum an problem s: It
provides a spatia l fram e assuring th a t "whatever crisis pollutes the earth, the foundations of
th e cosmos, its outer regions, and the places o f ju dgm ent rem ain in ta ct."60 It also provides a
tem poral fram e, assuring th a t the place o f ju dgm ent is already present in a hidden place and
th u s the damage th a t the earth suffered w ill be relieved in the Judgm ent. Thus the
transcendent perspective o f BW dim inishes e a rth ly crises and provides assurance th a t the
basic operation o f the w orld continues as God designed.61
B oth visions refer to seven stars th a t have transgressed the com m andm ents of God by
n o t appearing a t th e ir appointed tim e. They w ill suffer eternal punishm ent in a fie ry p it
(18:11-16; 21:1-6, bound fo r 10 m illio n years). The fact th a t the w andering stars w ill be
C ollins, "Apocalyptic Technique," 109.
61Ibid. Cf. R andall A A rgali, 1 Enoch and Strach. A Comparative Lite ra ry and Conceptual
A nalysis o f the Themes o f Revelation, Creation and Judgment, SBL E a rly Judaism and Its
Literature, no. 8, ed. W illia m A dler (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 118, who says th a t th is
passage shows th a t order exists in heaven despite th e fact th a t some stars and angels have
rebelled.
158
punished along w ith the fa lle n W atchers provides assurance th a t God Is s till In control o f h is
creation, despite the disorder brought by these disobedient parts o f creation.
Like the depiction In 1 En. 1-5, n a tu ra l objects in 1 En. 17-36 are personified and given
the power o f m oral choice (cf. Ps. 103:20f; Job 38:7; S ir. 16:27). In ch. 1-5, however, nature is
consistently obedient to Gods com mandm ents, w hile here in ch. 17-36 some parts o f nature
do n o t operate according to Gods design. Although m ost of the cosmos s till operates as God
intends, a t least p a rt o f the n a tu ra l w orld is fallen and disobedient and w ill face eternal
punishm ent. T his view point also differs from th a t of ch. 6-10, where the earth is seen as a
victim and is corrupted due to the disobedience o f fa lle n angels. Here in ch. 17-36, parts of
nature its e lf are disobedient to Gods design and so are held m ora lly accountable. For
example, the w andering stars (probably the planets) "wandered" in an irregular course in the
heavens in contrast to the fixed stars.62 Some scholars consider the stars of ch. 17-36 to be
the fallen W atchers, as in the Dream Visions63. B u t in 17-36, the wandering stars are
distinguished from the fallen angels (18:14-15; 19:1; 21:6, 10)64. Although they share a
sim ila r fie ry eternal fate, the place of punishm ent of th e angels is "even more terrib le" th a n the
place of punishm ent fo r the wandering stars (21:7).
b. The Redem ption o f Creation
M any o f th e references to nature in ch. 17-36 are sym bolic o f s p iritu a l reality. The
dw elling-place o f God has a m o untain o f fire and in cred ibly fragrant trees, whose leaves and
flowers never w ith e r (ch. 24-25). The throne of God is symbolized b y seven "dignified"
m ountains (24:3; 25:3). S im ilarly, the places of eternal punishm ent and blessing are
62W andering stars were frequently used as a sym bol fo r apostates (e.g. Jude 13; Rev. 1:20;
cf. Theophilus, A dA utolycum 2.15).
E.g. H erbert B raun, TTXavd," TDNT, 6:238, 241.
Cf. Black, Book o f Enoch, 160.
159
described in the language of nature. A 'blessed place" w ith a h igh and ho ly m ountain,
abundant stream s and num erous trees (26:1-4; 27:1) symbolizes Paradise (the prototype is the
e a rth ly Jerusalem ). T his place has vast forests o f large, b ea utifu l, fragrant trees, w hich
produce abundant fru it (ch. 30-32). In contrast, H ell is symbolized by a narrow "accursed"
va lle y form ed o f hard rock, devoid o f w a ter and any growing thing s (26:5-6; 27:2-3).65 These
passages use very sensual images o f nature to describe the places o f eternal blessing and
punishm ent. T hu s Paradise is fu ll o f the pleasant aspects of nature and is a place of abun
dance, w h ile H ell is devoid of such blessings and is a desolate place containing only unpleas
a n t aspects of nature.
1 E n. 17-36, therefore, does n o t have the view of the tran sform ation o f nature th a t is
fo u n d in ch. 6-16. In 6-16 nature is a v ictim o f the sins of angels and hum ans and w ill be
transform ed in to a glorious, fu tu re new w orld (ch 10). In 17-36, however, w hile Paradise w ill
have va rio u s features o f n a tu re th a t are fru itfu l and pleasant (such as the frag ran t trees), there
is no suggestion o f a new o r even enhanced heaven or earth. Rather, 1 En. 17-36 depicts a
c o n tin u ity between the o rig in a l Eden and the fu tu re Paradise, w hich rem ains hidden on earth.
The Tree o f W isdom is the same tree th a t Adam and Eve ate fro m in the Garden of Eden (32:2-
6) and the "garden o f righteousness" (32:3) is the same as the o riginal garden o f Eden.66 The
Tree o f Life also continues to exist, though God tran spla nts it to h is holy dw elling in the seven
m ountains (24:4-25:6).67 Those parts o f nature th a t were disobedient to God (such as the
Isaacs tra n sla tio n o f 29:1-2, based on E th. A, refers to "a tree of judgm ent w hich sm ells
o f ru b b ish ." This w ould m ake the passage an add ition al description of H ell, rem iniscent of the
V alley of H innom , a frequent sym bol o f the place o f punishm ent. The Greek is sim ilar, xpioeco^
5ev5pa. M any com m entators, however, reject th is text as co rru p t and translate it as "arom atic
trees exhaling the fragrance o f frankincense and m yrrh " (Charles, Book ojE noch, 58; Isaac, "1
E noch," 27, footnote a). B lack, Book o f Enoch, 176, discusses in detail the suggestion of
Pr&torius about how the co rru p tio n arose from a m isreading o f the Aram aic; cf. M ilik, Enoch,
233-4; K nibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 2:119-20.
; G relot, "Geographic," 63; Black, Book o f Enoch, 179; Joachim Jerem ias, "IlapdSaoog,"
, TDNT, 5:766-8.
|
67There is an apparent discrepancy o f the location o f Paradise in these passages. In ch. 24-
160
w andering stars) are punished In a place o f torm ent (ch. 18,21) and w ill pla y no p a rt in the
fin a l dw elling place o f the righteous.
5 . Sum m ary of th e Book o f th e W atchers
A ll three m a jo r sections o f Book 1 o f 1 Enoch (ch. 1-5, 6-16 and ch. 17-36) personify
nature and are concerned w ith th e co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation to varying degrees.
Yet each passage has a different perspective on nature. This ch a rt sum m arizes the
differences:
Table 14: Summary of the Book of Watchers
Passage Corruption of Nature Redemption of Nature j Personification of Nature
1 Not mentioned. Cataclysmic end of the world. No refer Mountains have fear in God's presence.
ence to a new earth.
2-5 Nature continues in obedience to God, No need for cosmic redemption. The Natural elements have conscious moral
operating as God intended. righteous will "inherit* the earth. choice to obey God.
6-16 1. The earth has been corrupted by the After the judgment, nature will be trans The earth cries out for release from
sin of the Watchers. formed into a glorious, super-productive oppression of the Watchers and
2. Nature is a victim of the sin of human dwelling place. humans.
Watchers and humans.
17-36 1. Most of creation operates consistently. 1. Disobedient parts of nature will be Natural elements have conscious moral
2. Parts of nature (some stars) choose to punished. choice to obey God.
wander from God's design. 2. Continuity between old and new Para
3. Eden is uncorrupted. dise and nature.
25 it is In the northw est (cf. 70:3, northw est: 77:3, north), w hile in ch. 32 it Is In the east, like
Eden in Genesis. B lack, Book o f Enoch, 179, attrib u te s th e discrepancy to the co n fla tio n of an
oriental tra d itio n th a t places Paradise In the east and a H ellenistic tra d itio n th a t places
E lysium In the west. G relot, "Geographic," 46, argues th a t there are tw o Paradises. W hile
apocalyptic visions often lack geographic precision, there are differences between th e tw o
locations. Ch. 24-25 refers to th e dw elling place o f God a fte r the judgm ent w hen he brings an
age of blessing to th e earth, w hile ch. 32 refers to Eden (32:6). Notice th a t In ch. 25 the Tree
o f Life has been moved, presum ably from Eden, to th is location in the northw est and u ltim a te
ly to th is holy place.
161
B. 1 Enoch Book 3 (ch. 72-82): The Astronom ical Book
1. Date and Provenance o f the Astronom ical Book
The Astronom ical Book (AB) Is one o f the oldest Jew ish docum ents a ttrib u te d to Enoch.
| M ost scholars date it in the th ird century, B.C.68 The E thioplc text of AB Is undoubtedly an
J abridgem ent o f a very lengthy Aram aic o riginal.69 Ch. 80-81 are generally considered la te r
j additions, since th e ir interest is more e thica l th a n scie ntific and astronom ical. In addition, the
I
t
| strong em phasis on the re g u la rity o f nature in the m ain p art o f the book is replaced in ch. 80-
81 w ith a n a tu ra l order th a t is in disarray due to sin.70 Nevertheless, since Jub. 4:18 alludes
I to th is section,71 ch. 80-81 m ust have been w ritte n no la te r than late second century B.C.
2 .1 Enoch 72:1-80:1; 82:1-20
a. The Corruption o f Creation
The larger p o rtion o f AB (72:1-80:1; 82:1-20) is a quasi-scientific description of the
m ovements o f the sun, moon and stars. The angel U riel revealed these secrets to Enoch, who
68VanderKam, EXwch, 76, 84-8; Stone, "Enoch and Judaism ," 479-92. Since M ilik , Enoch,
273, dates Enastr MS ca. 200 B.C. on paleographical grounds, th is is a term inw n ad quern, fo r
the book. The book is also alluded to in Pseudo-Eupolem uss book on the Jews (ca. 200 B.C.).
Hence M ilik dates it in the late Persian period, largely based on an h is claim th a t Gen 5:23
alludes to the A B (p. 8). W hile VanderKam , Enoch, 84-8, shows th a t M ilik s evidence is n o t
convincing, the po ssib ility o f p re -th ird century date rem ains open.
69M ilik , Enoch, 7, believes th a t the o rig in a l Enochic astronom ical m aterial fille d several
large Aram aic scrolls. The E thiopic version om its several significant sections. M ilik believes
the E thiopic "freely adapted" and "abridged the "volum inous, p ro lix, and te rrib ly m onotonous
original" (p. 19). Cf. Knibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 2:13: Black, Book o f Enoch, 10.
70O tto Neugebauer, 'The A stronom ical C hapters o f the E thiopic Book o f Enoch (72-82)," in
Appendix A to The Book o f Enoch or 1 Enoch. A New E nglish Edition, ed. M atthew B lack
(Leiden: E.J. B rill, 1985), 386-9, sees 80:2-82:3 as an "apocalyptic in tru sio n " w ith non-
astronom ical m aterial. Charles, Book o f Enoch, 147-8, claim s th a t the original AB consisted o f
ch. 72-78, 82, 79, in th a t order. The redactor added 80:2-8 to give an ethical tw is t to th is
scie ntific section and 81 was added as a lin k to 91-108. However, Nickelsburg, Jew ish
Literature, 150-1, believes th a t a t an early stage 81-82, 91 were a narrative bridge between 1-
36 and 92-105, in to w hich the AB was la te r inserted.
71M ilik , Enoch, 11.
162
th e n teaches them to his son M ethuselah. The title to the book sets fo rth the purpose: "The
Book o f the Itin e ra ry o f the Lum inaries o f Heaven" (72:1). The a u thor gives a painstakingly
detailed description o f the cycles o f the sun, m oon and stars in order to defend a 364-day year.
The divine a u th o rity for th is calendar is based on a revelation th a t Enoch received from U riel.
There is little ethica l concern, however, or polem ic about the religious significance o f the
calendar (except in 82:4-6, where those who e rr about the calendar are called "sinners"). This
is in sharp contrast to Jubilees, w hich uses the same 364-day calendar to establish the proper
feast days.
AB emphasizes the consistency o f the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld. There are
num erous references to the constant patterns o f the movements o f the sun, moon and stars.
The opening verse (72:1) indicates th a t the laws o f the movements o f the lum inaries w ill
continue u n til the new creation comes. These unchanging patterns are "completed w ith
precision" (74:17; 78:13) as the lum inaries occupy specific "fixed positions" in the sky (74:1-2;
75:1-2). The m athem atical detail describing the patterns of the heavenly bodies also stresses
th is constancy. N ickelsburg notes th a t w hile the m ovement and phases o f the moon m ay be
e m pirically based (ch. 73), the patterns o f the sun (ch. 72) and twelve w inds (ch. 76) were
designed to achieve a complex m athem atical sym m etry th a t dem onstrates u n ifo rm ity in Gods
universe.72 For example, the choice o f a 364-day year m ay be based on the fact th a t 364
divided by 7 is exactly 52 weeks.73
A lthough AB agrees w ith BW 2-5 th a t the n a tu ra l w orld contin ually operates as God
designed it, AB is m uch more concerned than BW about the tim in g of the movements o f the
lu m inaries. AB focuses on the patterns o f the lum inaries, except fo r a b rie f discussion o f the
w in d s and w eather in ch. 76, w hile in BW 2-5 the consistent operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld
72N ickelsburg, Jew ish Ltteratw e, 47.
163
applies to a greater variety o f phenomena, in c lu d in g the grow th of trees, the production of fru it
and the seasons. So a frequent them e is th a t the cyclical movements o f the heavenly lu m in a r
ies follow the law s of God. The precise, detailed movements o f the sun, m oon and stars follow
"rules" (73:1; 74:1; 79:1-2) and "com m andm ents" (72:2, 36; 79:2; cf. 82:8) la id down by God.
For example, the sun "m anifests its e lf in its appearance as God has commanded th a t it shall
come o u t and go in " (72:36).
T his constant, perfect p attern of nature im plies th a t creation has not been corrupted by
the sin o f hum ans or fallen angels, in contrast to BW 6-36 and AB 81:2-8. R ather th a n
disobeying God, angels oversee the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld in accordance w ith Gods
com m andm ents (e.g. 75:1, 3; 80:1; 82:7-20). Everything continues to operate as God has
designed it and th is perfect, consistent operation o f nature w ill continue u n til the end of the
w o rld, when God w ill b rin g about a new creation (72: l) .74
b. T h e Redem ption o f Creation
In 72:1 there is an incidental reference to a new creation at the end o f the w orld. U rie l
shows Enoch the operation of the present w o rld th a t w ill continue "unto eternity, t ill the new
creation w hich abides forever is created." T h is new creation w ill be created b y God and w ill be
eternal. The im p lica tio n is th a t at the end o f th is w orld there w ill be some changes in the way
th e present universe operates, since laws governing the operation o f the present universe w ill
continue u n til the new creation. No details are given about th is new creation, however. The
expectation o f a new creation is a theological assum ption of the author,75 not a doctrine th a t
74D. M. Russell, 107, suggests th a t one fu n c tio n of m entioning these patterns m ay be to

urge rig h t conduct, even as the cosmos perfectly obeys God (cf. 1 En. 2-5). Jam es C. Vander-
Kam , "The 364-Day Calendar in the Enochic L iterature," in Society o f B ib lica l Literature 1983
Sem inar Papers, ed. Kent H arold Richards (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983), 157-65, argues
th a t AB does n o t aggressively advocate the calendar, so it is u n like ly to point to a sectarian
bias.
75The idea is probably based on Is. 65:17; 66:22, in w hich God prom ises to create "new
heavens and a new earth" (cf. 1 Pet. 3:10-13; Rev. 21:1). M atthew Black, "The New Creation in
164
he expands upon. The a u th o r is p rim a rily interested in a description o f the operation of the
present creation, n o t theological speculation about the fu tu re w orld. So the reference here to a
new creation fu nctions p rim a rily to indicate th a t the laws governing the heavenly lu m in a rie s
w ill be unchanging as long as the present creation endures.76 S till, th e reference suggests
th a t an eschatological new creation was a p a rt o f th e au th o rs theological worldview .
In the b rie f geographical account o f chapter 77, there is an a llu sio n to the existence of
"the garden o f righteousness" (77:3). A lth ough its exact location is not stated (in co n tra st to
BW 24:4-25:6; 32:2-6),77 th e a u th o r assum es th a t the garden o f Eden continues to exist,
evidently aw aiting its eschatological hum an in h a b ita n ts. This concept is spelled o u t in more
d e ta il in other portion s o f 1 Enoch (e.g. 24:4-25:6; 32:2-6). T his b rie f a llu sio n in 77:3 shows
th a t the a u th o r o f AB also held the com m on apocalyptic belie f in the c o n tin u ity o f Paradise.78
c. The Personification o f Creation
M uch as in BW 2-5, AB teaches th a t th e n a tu ra l w orld operates as God designed it.
Yet the personification o f n a ture th a t em phasizes th is perfect operation of nature in BW 2-5 is
generally la cking in AB. A n exception is the m ild personification in 75:2, w hich says the
I Enoch," in Creation, C hrist and Culture. Studies in Honour ofT.F. Torrance, ed. R W A
M cKinney (E dinburgh: T & T C lark, 1976), 13-4, shows th a t the term "new creation" is very
rare in Jew ish apocalyptic (cf. J u b . 1:29), though the concept is frequently expressed in other
term s (e.g. 91:6: "new heavens"; 45:4: "tran sform the heavens . . . [and] earth"). A close
p a ra lle l is in 1 QS iv.22f, though B lack believes th is refers to a "new creation" in th e w o rld o f
m ankin d (M atthew Black, The Scrolls a n d C hristian Origins. Studies in the Jew ish Background
o f the New Testam ent (1961; re p rin t, Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983), 133). The a u th o r of AB
apparently is th in k in g p rim a rily in astronom ical term s. A sim ila r passage in the Z oroastrian
Yasts, xiii.5 7 -5 8 focuses on astronom ical changes to the cosmos and m ay have influenced the
apocalyptic idea: "the stars, the m oon, the sun and endless lig h ts . . . move around in th e ir
far-revolving circle fo r ever u n til they come to the tim e o f the good restoration o f the w o rld"
(Charles, Book o f Enoch, 151).
76Cf. VanderKam , Enoch, 78.
^Neugebauer, "Astronom ical," 407-8; M ilik , Enoch, 16.
78Cf. Jerem ias, "ITapdSeioo^," TDNT, 5:766-8.
165
"lum inaries scrupulously render service" (Isaac). O n the whole, however, the personal
obedience o f n a tu ra l th in g s as in BW is replaced in AB by thousands o f angels who oversee the
operation o f the lu m in a rie s and co n tro l the seasons (e.g. 75:1, 3; 80:1; 82:7-20). In AB these
unseen personal powers ca rry o u t Gods com m andm ents by properly operating the universe,
ra th e r th a n the n a tu ra l phenom ena themselves obeying God, as in BW 2-5.
3 .1 Enoch 80:2-81:10
M ost scholars agree th a t tw o fragm ents, w hich appear as 80:2-8 and 81:1-10 in 1
Enoch, come from a diffe re n t source th a n the rest o f AB.79 B oth passages have a strong
ethical interest, in co n tra st to the quasi-scientiflc descriptions o f nature in 72-79, 82. In fact,
ch. 81 has no discussion o f n a tu ra l phenomena at all. R ather it speaks o f heavenly tablets
from w hich Enoch learns a ll the deeds o f hum anity and it focuses on Enoch's responsibility to
teach w hat he learned and to exhort people to righteousness.
a. The Corruption o f C reation
Ch. 80 has a strong in terest in the n a tu ra l w orld, b u t it has a very different perspective
th a n ch. 72-79 and 8 2 .80 In the m ain p a rt o f AB the cycles o f nature are consistent and
unchanging, being ordained by God to continue u n til the new creation comes. By contrast, ch.
80 describes an eschatological tim e in w hich the norm al operation o f nature w ill radica lly
change. A t th a t tim e there w ill be a shortened year (v. 2), changes o f seasonal patterns (v. 2),
79A rgall, 129, notes the sim ila ritie s o f 80:6-8 to BW 18:15-19:1 and argues th a t both share
a com mon tra d itio n .
E. Rau argues th a t the eschatological changes in nature described in 80:2-8 are a n tic i
pated in 72:1 (E. Rau, "Kosmologie, Eschatologie u n d die LehrautoritS t Henochs: T raditions-
und form geschichtliche U ntersuchungen zum &th. Henochbuch und zu verwandten Schriften"
(PhD D issertation, U n ive rsity o f Ham burg, 1974), 279-305; cited by VanderKam, Enoch,
106-7). The firs t p a rt o f 71:2 sum m arizes the norm al operation o f nature in 72:2-79:6, w hile
the end o f the verse ("u n til the new creation") points to the tra n sitio n tim e when the laws w ill
change. However, VanderKam , Enoch, 107, notes th a t the new creation has not come yet in
80:2-8, even though the operation o f nature has changed.
166
massive crop fa ilu re s (w . 2-3), droughts (v. 2) and alterations In the movements o f the
heavenly lum inaries (w . 4-7). S im ila rly, whereas In the rest o f AB angels control the lu m in a r
ies and the seasons obey perfectly, in ch. 80 they m ake errors In carrying o u t th e ir orders and
cause deviations in the movements o f the lu m in a rie s and the tim in g o f the seasons (v. 6-7).
W hereas in th e rest o f AB, there is no m oral in te re st and n a tu ra l law is rig id , in ch. 80
deviations In th e operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld are connected w ith the Increase of "sinners"
(w . 2, 7-9).
The w rite r o f 80:2-8 does not argue th a t these deviations in nature presently exist, but
ra th e r th a t nature w ill be corrupted at an undefined fu tu re tim e referred to as "the days of the
sinners" (v. 2, Black). A t th a t tim e, the stars w ill "m odify th e ir courses" (v. 7), the m oon w ill
"shine m ore b rig h tly " (v. 5)81 and the angels w ill com m it errors and fa il to follow the patterns
"prescribed fo r them " (v. 7). These fu tu re deviations are strikin g when set against the back
ground o f the clockw ork-like operation o f nature in ch. 72-79, w hich the a u thor apparently
assumes to be the norm al way the n a tu ra l w orld operates.
These eschatological changes in the n a tu ra l order are connected w ith sin, fo r "sinners"
w ill increase (v. 2) and w ill w orship the stars as gods (v. 7), and the angels who control the
stars w ill "stra y from the com m andm ents" (v. 6, Black). It is not entirely clear, however,
w hether the changes in nature w ill be the re su lt o f sin o r a punishm ent fo r sin. Most
tra n sla to rs agree w ith B lacks rendering o f v. 2a: "And in the days of the sinners years shall
become shortened."82 T his apparently m akes the changes in nature a co rru p tio n o f nature
due to th e Increase In sin. Isaacs tra n sla tio n is less clear: "In respect to th e ir days, the
81K nibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 185, and m ost m odem com m entators see v. 5 as a
reference to th e m oon, b u t Charles, Book o f Enoch, 171, sees th is as a reference to the sun.
82B lack, Book o f Enoch, 69; cf. Knibb, E thiopic Book o f Enoch, 185 and Charles, Book o f
Enoch 171.
167
sinners and the w in te r are cu t short."83 T his could suggest th a t both the destruction of the
sinners and the changes to the n a tu ra l order are a divine punishm ent fo r sin.
It Is probably best to see w . 2-7 as p rin cip a lly a description o f the cosm ic results of
hum an and angelic sin.84 The changes In the patterns o f the stars are due to the "errors"
(Isaac) or "transgressions" (Charles) o f the lum inaries In not carrying out the orders given them
(w . 6-7). So the changes are not due to a divine com mand b u t due to the disobedience o f the
stars themselves. Nevertheless, the passage also describes cosmic punishm ents fo r sin, fo r
v. 8 refers to punishm ents such as plagues (Isaac) th a t w ill destroy th e sinners. Thus 80:2-8
shows the delicate relatio nship th a t exists between m o ra l obedience and the cosm ic order.
W hen sin Increases am ong hum ans and angels, even th e balance o f nature is upset.
There is a considerably different view of the cycles of nature In 80:2-8 th a n Is to be
found in m ost of AB, perhaps because th is passage came from a different source. Yet the
redactor who p u t th is passage in its present context has created a pow erful p icture o f the
eschatological damage th a t sin w ill b rin g to creation by ju xtap osin g th is passage w ith a
description o f the perfectly consistent, norm al operation o f nature. The p o in t is n o t th a t
n a tu ra l law is fickle , b u t th a t the norm ally structured order o f nature w ill be seriously
corrupted b y sin. T his adds an ethical message to AB about the cosm ic consequences o f sin.
b. P ersonification o f C reation
A lthough there is no tru e personification of the n a tu ra l w orld in AB 80, the passage
teaches th a t angels co n tro l the heavenly lum inaries, the seasons, and other aspects o f nature.
As a re su lt, when these angels make errors in carrying out Gods w ill in the last days, there
were w ill be deviations in the movements o f the lum inaries, the tim in g o f the seasons and
Isaac, "1 Enoch," 58.
Black, Book o f Enoch, 69 and C harles, Book o f Enoch, 171 refer to the "perversion" of
nature.
168
other cosm ic disasters (v. 6-7). Thus the reference to angels behind the operation of the
n a tu ra l w orld supports the m oral significance o f the eschatological cosm ic disasters.
4 . Sum m ary o f th e A stronom ical Book
Book 3 o f 1 Enoch has a great interest in the n a tu ra l w orld, p a rtic u la rly the regular
operation o f the heavenly lum inaries. The relatively sm all am ount o f eschatological m aterial in
AB, however, does n o t generally b rin g the redem ption o f creation to the forefront, although it is
assumed (72:1). The difference in perspective o f the m a jo r sources on the co rru p tio n of
creation is profound: In m ost o f AB, na tu re follow s perfectly the divine ly ordained pattern; b u t
in 80:2-8, nature is seriously corrupted due to sin. The follow ing table sum m arizes these
differences:
Table 15: Summary of the Astronomical Booh
Passage Corruption of Nature Redemption of Nature Personification of Nature
Ch. 72-79, Not corrupted: Nature perfectly follows the The new creation (72:1) is alluded to Angels control the movements of the
82 laws of God. but it is not a major point. sun, moon and stars.
Ch. 80:2- Normal patterns of nature are corrupted due Not mentioned. Angels control the movements of the
8 to eschatological increase in sinners and sun, moon and stars.
'errors' of angels controlling the luminaries.
C. 1 Enoch Book 4 (ch. 83-90): The Book o f Dream s
1. D ate and Provenance o f th e Book o f Dream s
The Book o f Dream s (BD) contains two apocalyptic dream visions o f Enoch. The firs t
(ch. 83-84) is a descrip tion o f cosm ic destruction, probably due to the Flood. The second (ch.
85-90), the so-called A n im al Apocalypse (AA), is a vatictniurn ex eventu prophecy o f b ib lic a l
h isto ry in the form of an elaborate allegory where anim als represent people and nations.
AA is re la tive ly easy to date on in te rn a l grounds since it switches from h isto rica l events
i
l
i
169
to eschatological prophecy w hen Judas Maccabaeus is s till fig h tin g the G entile nations
(9 0 :17).85 It is, therefore, u n ive rsa lly agreed th a t it was w ritte n between 165-160 B.C., by a
Judean Jew who supported the Maccabaean revolt.86 The firs t dream visio n is also o f Sem itic
orig in , probably s lig h tly earlier th a n AA.87
2 . The F irs t Dream V ision (Ch. 83-84)
a. The C orruption o f C reation
The firs t Dream V ision (ch. 83-84) is a prediction of a great catastrophe th a t w ill
destroy the earth. The destruction is massive: the earth is swallowed up in a great abyss,
m ountains crash down, and trees are uprooted and s in k in to the abyss (83:3-7). M ost
scholars believe th is refers to the Flood o f Noah.88 For example, "sinking in the abyss" is
probably a m etaphorical description o f the damage o f the Flood. The sins o f the angels (84:4)
probably are the sins o f the W atchers th a t precipitated the Flood according to BW (ch. 6-16).
C ollins, however, in te rp re ts the references somewhat differently. He argues th a t the
visio n does not refer to any p a rtic u la r crisis, b u t is "a paradigm o f judgm ent, a rem inder th a t
the w hole w orld could be destroyed. It im plies th e contingency o f the w orld, its dependence
Some older com m entators argued th a t the great hom (90:9-16) refers to John Hyrcanus,
the fo u rth Maccabaean leader (e.g. Beer, Henoch, 296, and D illm ann, Henoch, 277-9). Most
m odem scholars, however, follow Charles, Book o f Enoch, 208, in id entifying the great hom as
Juda s Maccabaeus. Charles notes th a t i f the great h o m were John H yrcanus, there w ould be
no reference at a ll to Judas, the greatest o f the Maccabees. Cf. VanderKam, Enoch, 161-2;
M ilik , Enoch, 43-4; B lack, Book o f Enoch, 276; C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 55.
M ilik , Enoch, 44 (164 B.C.); VanderKam , Enoch, 161-3 (late 160s, before Judas death in
161 B.C.); Black, Book o f Enoch, 20 (165 B.C.); Nickelsburg, Jew ish Literature, 93 (164-169
B.C.).
87B lack, Book o f Enoch, 20. W hile the firs t dream vision is not represented in the MSS from
Q um ran, th is is o f little significance since the fragm entary texts only contain a quarter o f the
text o f BD. Cf. M ilik , Enoch, 41-2.
E.g. Black, Book o f Enoch, 19; Charles, Book o f Enoch, 181; VanderKam , Enoch, 160;
N ickelsburg, Jew ish Literature, 90.
170
upon its m aker."89 A lthough C ollins probably overstates the generality of the w arning, the
description of the cosm ic disaster is vague enough to serve as a tim eless w a rning fo r the
cosmic consequences o f sin. W hile the typology between the Flood and the F in a l Judgm ent is
not as clear here In the firs t Dream V ision as in BW (ch. 10), sim ila r parallels between the two
events m ay be im plied (cf. 84:4).90
God w ill b rin g about th is cosm ic judgm ent because of sin. U nlike BW, however, w hich
blames the problem s o f th e w o rld com pletely on the fallen W atchers, th is firs t Dream Vision
bases the com ing cosm ic judgm ent on both hum an and angelic sin.91 For example, in his
intercessory prayer Enoch presupposes angelic sin (84:4a), b u t th is does n o t occupy the
central role th a t it does in BW 6-16.92 Rather Gods w rath is p rin cip a lly upon s in fu l hum an
beings who are accountable fo r th e ir own sin (83:7; 84:4b, 6). Thus although th e im m ediate
setting m ay be the Flood, the message is th a t God w ill b rin g destruction to the w orld fo r
hum an sin.
In 83:11 Enoch praises God fo r the regularity o f nature. A fte r his te rrify in g dream, he
is greatly relieved to see th a t the sun s till rises in the east, the m oon sets in the west, the stars
appear at th e ir norm al tim e and place, and generally the earth operates according to Gods
plan. The author assumes th a t a t present nature operates consistently as God designed it,
m uch like AB (ch. 72-79), although BD does not have the detail th a t AB has about the
89C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 53-4.
So VanderKam , Enoch, 160; cf. M axwell J. Davidson, Angels A t Qumran. A Comparative

Study o f 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and Sectarian W ritings From Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1992), 96.
91Charles, Book o f Enoch, 181, however, says it is only the sin o f the angels who corrupted
the earth. T his is tru e in the second vision (86-87), b u t not the firs t, w hich places responsibil
ity on both hum ans and angels.
Stephen Breck Reid, Enoch and D a n ie l A Form C ritical and Sociological Study o f H istorical
Apocalypses, B ib ica l M onograph Series, no. 2, ed. Duane C hristiansen and John C. Endres
(Berkeley: B ibal Press, 1989), 56, suggests th a t the "fa ll of heaven to earth" in 83:3-4 refers to
the fa ll of the W atchers.
171
operation of the lu m inaries. The coining tim e o f cosm ic disaster does n o t negate the fact th a t
God designed the n a tu ra l w orld to w o rk in a consistent and predictable m anner.
b. The Redem ption o f C reation
The firs t Dream V ision has no discussion o f the w orld after the eschatological cosmic
disaster. It sim ply says th a t God w ill preserve a righteous rem nant of Enochs descendants
from the com ing d estruction (83:8, 10; 84:5-6).
3. The A nim al Apocalypse (Ch. 85-90)
The second dream vision, the A n im al Apocalypse (ch. 85-90), is a com plex allegory o f
Jewish h isto ry in w h ich variou s types o f anim als represent people and nations. M ost of the
vision is a vatictnium ex eventu prophecy from Adam thro ugh Judas Maccabaeus deliverance
o f the Jew ish people from the oppressive H ellenizing cam paign o f A ntiochus IV. A fte r Judas
delivers the nation and is at w ar w ith the surro unding G entile nations, the s to iy ju m p s to the
fin a l eschatological b a ttle , followed by the F in a l Judgm ent and eternal Kingdom of God
(90:17f).
A large p o rtio n o f the visio n is devoted to the Flood. A lthough AA uses sym bolic
language, m any concepts associated w ith th e Flood are s im ila r to those found in ch. 6-11 of
BW. The fa ll of the W atchers, b irth of the G iants, bin d in g of the W atchers, destruction o f the
G iants and the Flood are a ll sym bolically described (ch. 86-89). As in BW, the Flood is a
ju dgm ent fo r the sins o f the W atchers. In AA as in the firs t Dream V ision, however, the
hum ans are also responsible (e.g. 87:4). M any hum ans are violent to each other, even as the
offspring of the W atchers (the G iants) are vio le n t to each other (86:5; 87:1; 88:2).
A A uses the same m o tif found in BW th a t nature is a victim o f the W atchers sin (7:5-6;
172
- - ... -
9:2), although it is more subdued. As the offspring93 of the u n io n o f th e W atchers and
hum an women atta ck and devour each other, "the earth began to c iy aloud" (87:1). T his
suggests th a t the earth its e lf suffered harm due to the violence o f the w icked G iants. The
earth is personified as crying o u t w ith pain and fear.94 In 88:2 th is is described in more
lite ra l language: As the G iants k ille d each other, "the whole earth quaked because o f them ."
W hile th is probably refers to earthquakes, there m ay be the double m eaning of "quake w ith
fear" (cf. 86:6; 1:5-6). As in BW (8:4; 9:3, 10), AA draws a parallel between the fear o f hum ans
from the violence o f the G iants and the "fear" o f nature (cf. 86:6, "the ch ild re n o f the earth
began to trem ble and quake"). B oth hum ans and the n a tu ra l w orld are victim s o f angelic sin.
Even as BW had an idealized conception o f the fu tu re on earth (e.g. ch. 10; 25-26;
29-32), AA also concludes w ith the Kingdom being established on earth. Ch. 10 moves easily
between the two judgm ents o f the Flood and the F inal Judgm ent and between the era of
blessings after the Flood and the eschatological Kingdom . In AA, however, the tw o judgm ents
are clearly separated by centuries o f h isto ry and the Kingdom o f God closely follow s the
victoriou s battles o f Judas Maccabaeus. The h istorica l description ends w ith 90:16, w hile
Judas is s till a t b a ttle w ith the G entile nations, and the apocalyptic eschatology begins at
90:17. In addition, there is no idealized period o f blessing after the Flood, b u t ra th e r strife and
oppression come shortly on the heels o f the Flood (89:11,13, 15, etc.).95
93The offspring are represented b y "elephants and camels and asses" (86:4).
Â ccording to P atrick A. T ille r, A Commentary on the A nim al Apocalypse o f 1 Enoch, SBL

E a rly Judaism and Its Literature, no. 4 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993), 241, "children o f the
earth" in 86:6 refers to anim als, in contrast to hum ans w ho are sym bolized b y a n im a ls in the
allegory. I f th is is so, then th is verse also refers to the trem bling o f the anim als in fear o f the
G iants. Charles, Book o f Enoch, 188, however, believes the a u thor abandons sym bolic
language at th is point, so it sim ply refers to hum ans.
95M ilik , Enoch, 45; VanderKam, Enoch, 162-3.
173
The Kingdom of God is described in ch. 90 in very e arthly term s. God comes to earth
to intervene d ire ctly in the fin a l battle th a t delivers the Jew ish people (90:18). The earth splits
open and swallows the attacking G entiles. Then Gods throne is set up in "the pleasant land,"
a reference to Palestine, probably Jerusalem (v. 20; cf. 89:40).96 From th is throne he w ill
personally judge both angels and hum ans, and th e n he w ill ru le on earth. The fie ry p it in to
w h ich the W atchers and th e G entile enemies o f Israel are cast (w . 21-27) is "on th e south side"
o f Jerusalem , probably refe rring to Gehenna (v. 26).97 The e arthly Jerusalem ("the old
house," v. 28) is replaced w ith the glorious New Jerusalem , w hich is brought by God from
heaven ("a new house greater and lo ftie r th a n the firs t," v. 29).98 Thus at least p a rt of the
environm ent is transform ed when the perfect New Jerusalem comes from heaven to become a
hum an dw elling on earth. The chapter, however, does not have a strong concern fo r the
tran sform ation o f the n a tu ra l w orld, such as is found in BW (e.g. 10:18-22).
The Lord h im self w ill dw ell in th is New Jerusalem on earth (90:29). The G entiles who
were n o t cast in to the fire w ill pay homage to the Jew ish people (w . 30, 33). The dead Jews
are resurrected and the dispersed ones are gathered to live in th is earthly New Jerusalem (v.
33). Then the M essiah ("a w h ite b u ll. . . w ith large horns") comes and a ll Jews and G entiles
fear and revere h im (v. 3 7 )." In m any ways, conditions are restored to the p rim o rd ia l earthly
"C h a rle s, Book o f Enoch, 212; C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 55.
"T h e concept o f the New Jerusalem is derived from OT prophecy (e.g. Ez. 40-48; Is. 54:11-
12; 60; Hag. 2:7-9: Zech. 2:6-13). O ther Apocalypses also have the concept, in clud ing 4 Ez.
7:26; 13:36: 2 Bar. 32:2; Rev. 21:2, 10.
"T h e "w hite b u ll" (90:37) has tra d itio n a lly been interpreted as the M essiah (e.g. Charles,
Book o f Enoch, 215). He is n o t a Davidic king, however, and he apparently plays no p a rt in the
m ilita ry deliverance o f the Jews, since he does n o t appear u n til afte r the Judgm ent and resur
rection. God acts directly, ra th e r th a n through a M essiah, to w in the fin a l battle (90:18) and
ru le on earth (90:20f). M ilik , Enoch, 45, argues th a t the w hite b u ll is a m ore glorious "second
Adam ," corresponding to the firs t Adam, w hich was also represented as a w h ite b u ll (85:3).
W hile th is theory has some value, m any o f the P atriarchs are represented b y w hite b u lls.
B lack, Book o f Enoch, 20-1, 280, correctly notes th a t th is second Adam theory does n o t rule
174
ideal th a t was in Eden.100 The M essiah-figure (90:37) is a second Adam, who is even more
glorious th a n the firs t m an (Adam also is represented as a "w hite b u ll" in 85:3, b u t th is second
Adam has "large horns"). The Jews and righteous G entiles are then transform ed in to w hite
I
j b u lls (90:38), in d ica tin g th e ir resto ratio n to the righteousness of Adam and the Patriarchs (who
i
i
j also are represented as w hite b u lls , ch. 85). The eternal kingdom is an earthly one. B oth
I people and the environm ent (the New Jerusalem ) are transform ed in to an ideal state and m any
I
! o f the p rim o rd ia l conditions re tu rn , though w ith God ru lin g directly on earth in the m idst of
hum an ity. There is, however, no depiction o f a transform ation of the n a tu ra l w orld in ch. 90,
i
u n like th e detailed descriptions of nature in Paradise found in BW 17-36.
c. The P erso n ificatio n o f C reation
A lth o u g h personification of the n a tu ra l w orld is not frequent in A A there is an
im p o rta n t exam ple in 87:1. The earth cries aloud in p a in and fear due to the violence o f the
w icked G iants. This emphasizes b oth th a t nature suffers harm due to sin and th a t nature is
its e lf a v ic tim o f sin.
4 . Sum m ary o f th e Book o f Dreams
The firs t dream vision has no references to the corru ption o f nature due to sin and no
picture o f a fin a l redem ption o f creation. The perspective o f the regularity o f nature in the firs t
dream v is io n is very s im ila r to the AB, though w ith o u t the extrem ely detailed description of
nature.
out a m essianic significance, even as Paul uses the second Adam m o tif as a picture of the
M essiah (cf. Rom. 5:12-21). The G entiles fear h im m uch as they fear the tra d itio n a l Davidic
M essiah-King. Charles, Book o f Enoch, 215-6, says th a t m essianic hope was practically dead
j at th is tim e , since Judas was such a pow erful and victoriou s figure. I t is probably more
j correct to say, however, th a t the concept o f the Davidic Messiah W arrior-K ing does not fu lly
| evolve u n til th e next ce n tu ry (cf. Pss. Sol. 17-18, ca. 60-40 B.C.).
100D a hl, 426, classifies ch. 90 as a restitu tion of the original perfect order of creation; cf.
Black, "New C reation," 19-20; M ilik , Enoch, 45; Nickelsburg, Jew ish Literature, 93.
175
. * * .
The second dream v isio n (AA) contains m ost of the concepts of th e n a tu ra l w orld found
in BW (ch. 6-16), though th e y are m ore subdued. References to nature are more d iffic u lt to
fin d since the form of the section is h ig h ly allegorical and the focus is on th e key figures of
b ib lic a l history. AA agrees w ith BW about the negative effect th a t the s in o f the W atchers had
on nature and the em otional cry o f the earth fo r deliverance. There is in AA, however,
generally m uch less in terest in the tran sform ation o f nature th a n in BW.
The follow ing table sum m arizes these key points:
Table 16: Summary of the Book of Dreams
Passage Corruption of Nature: Redemption of Nature: Personification of Nature:
Ch. 83-84 Not corrupted: Nature perfectly No mention of a new creation. None.
follows the laws of God.
Ch. 85-90 Nature is a victim of the sin of the 1. The Kingdom will be in the New Jerusalem, which The earth cries out in fear
(Animal Watchers and the Giants. is brought to earth by God. and pain because of the sin
Apocalypse) 2. God will dwell on earth in the Kingdom. of the Giants.
3. Restoration of primordial state of humans on earth.
D . 1 Enoch Book 5 (ch. 9 1 -1 0 8 ): The E p istle o f Enoch
1. D ate, Provenance and U n ity o f 1 Enoch Book 5
The fifth book o f 1 Enoch contains several sections from different sources: (1) The
largest section is the E pistle o f E noch,101 w hich covers 91:1-10, 18-19; 92; 93:1-2, 11-14;
94-105.102 (2) A d is tin c t section know n as the Apocalypse of Weeks (AW) is imbedded w ith in
the Epistle. M ost scholars believe th a t the o rig in a l order o f AW was 93:3-10 before 91:11-17,
101T his title is found in the G reek Chester Beatty-M ichigan papyrus and in 100:6. M ilik ,
Enoch, 47; Campbell Bonner, The L a st Chapters o f Enoch in Creek in Studies and Documents
(London: C hristophers, 1937), 50-1, 86-7.
102W hile earlier scholars believed ch. 91 to follow ch. 92 (e.g. Charles, Book o f Enoch, 224),
4QEng has the ch. 91 before ch. 92, as in the E thiopic. M ilik , Enoch, 200.
176
w hich is confirm ed b y the Aram aic fragm ents from Q um ran.103 (3) Ch. 106-107 are probably
from an earlier "Book o f Noah,104" and (4) ch. 108 is a separate E nochian w ritin g th a t was
added la te r.105
M ost scholars agree th a t AW predates the E pistle and was incorporated by the a u th o r
o f the E pistle. AW was probably w ritte n s h o rtly before o r early in the Maccabaean revolt (ca.
167-165 B.C .),106 though VanderKam dates it 175-167 B .C .107 The ra th e r tim eless parae-
netic m ate rial in the E pistle m akes it m ore d iffic u lt to date precisely. The E pistle is generally
dated from the late second century to early firs t ce n tu ry B.C .,108 though some date it earlier
in the second ce n tu ry.109 M ilik claim s th a t b o th AW and the Epistle were w ritte n by the
same person durin g the late second to early firs t century B.C .110
103Ib id ., 48, 247, 265-7; B lack, Book o f Enoch, 287-8. In 4QEng (m id -first century B.C.),
91:11-17 follow s 93:9-10 directly.
104Charles, Book o f Enoch, x lv i-x M i, 264; M ilik , Enoch, 55-7; M a rtin , Henoch, lxxxviii, xcviii;
Beer, Henoch, 229. T h is section became a p a rt o f the E pistle of Enoch quite early, since it is
in the Aram aic 4QEnc. Ch. 106, however, is separated from ch. 105 by one and a h a lf b la n k
lines. M ilik , Enoch, 206-10.
10SBlack, Book o f Enoch, 323; Charles, Book o f Enoch, li; M ilik, Enoch, 57.
106Charles, Book o f Enoch, 218, 221-7; Beer, Henoch, 230-1; Ferdinand Dexinger, Henochs
Zehnwochenapokalypse und Offene Probleme der Apokalyptikforschung, S tudia Post-Biblica,
no. 29 (Leiden: B rill, 1977), 136-40.
107James C. VanderKam , "Studies in the Apocalypse o f Weeks (1 Enoch 93:1-10; 91:11-17),"

CBQ 46 (1984): 511-23; VanderKam , Enoch, 142-9. M a rtin , H&noch, xciv, xcvi-xcvii, also dates
it before 170 B.C.
l08M a rtin , Henoch, xciv, xcvi-xcvii (95-78 B.C.); Beer, Henoch, 230-1 (104-78 B.C.); Charles,
Book o f Enoch, 222, is undecided between 104-95 B.C. 95-79 B.C. and 70-64 B.C.
109VanderKam, Enoch, 171, suggests th a t a pre-Maccabaean date is "quite possible and

indeed probable" and C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 49, argues fo r a date p rio r to 160 B.C.
177
2 . The Apocalypse o f Weeks (93:3-10; 91:11 -17 )
AW reports a visio n in w hich Enoch sees a schematized overview o f h isto ry, w hich is
; divided in to ten periods called "weeks." The periodization o f histo ry creates the im pression of
an ordered universe un d e r supe rn atu ral control, in w h ich everything proceeds according to a
t
divine ly ordained p la n .111 The ce rta in ty th a t histo ry w ill end in eternal punishm ent fo r the
j
wicked and eternal blessing fo r the "chosen righteous" encourages the righteous to persevere
I
in th e ir righteous lifestyle.
i
! A s in other Enochian w ritin gs, the Flood occupies a prom inent place in the pattern of
i
h isto ry (week two). M uch lik e in BW 10, there is a close connection between the Flood and the
j
F in a l Judgm ent. The a u th o r calls the Flood "the form er End" (93:4), w hich im plies th a t he
th in k s o f "the great judgm ent" (91:15) as the la tte r E n d.112 Yet there are several im portant
differences between the description o f th e Flood in AW and BW: (1) AW does not in tertw in e
descriptions of the Flood and the Final Judgm ent as BW 10 does. The Flood occurs in Week 2
and the F in a l Judgm ent occurs in Week 10. (2) In AW the Flood is not, as in BW 10, a divine
ju dgm ent fo r the s in o f the fa lle n W atchers b u t ra th e r a divine judgm ent fo r hum an sin. W hile
sin existed in the w o rld durin g the F irst Week, even p rio r to Enochs tim e, "justice was
delayed" (93:3) u n til the Flood o f the Second Week.113 So w hile there is an allu sio n in AW to
the sin o f the W atchers when they are fin a lly judged a t the F inal Judgm ent (91:15), th is plays
no p a rt in its Flood story. B y contrast, hum an sin is m entioned in v irtu a lly every verse o f AW,
1UJ. L ich t, "Time and Eschatology in Apocalyptic Literature and in Q um ran," JUS 16 (1965):
! 181; C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 50.
j
| 112Isaac, "1 Enoch," 74, translates it "firs t consum m ation." Black, Book o f Enoch, 289,
notes th a t 'Q lp ("former") also can mean "ancient," in the sense th a t th is "end" occurred
d u rin g th e days of the "ancient ones."
n3Ib id ., 85, translates 93:3c " til m y tim e ju s tic e was delayed." Cf. D illm ann, Henoch, 67,
294; Charles, Book o f Enoch, 229, and the alternate tra n sla tio n o f Knibb, Ethiopic Book o f
i Enoch, 224: "w hile ju dgm ent and righteousness held back."
178
' i . ______________________ _ __
in keeping w ith the ethica l focus o f AW and the rest o f the Epistle of Enoch. (3) The effects of
s in on the n a tu ra l w o rld are n o t clearly described in AW, in contrast to BW 7-9 where the
suffering of th e earth and anim als at the hands o f the G iants is emphasized.
There is, however, a relevant fragm entary verse th a t follow s 91:17 in the Aram aic MS
lQ E n g 1 ii 13-17. Lines 13-14 have been reconstructed w ith fa ir certa inty as a reference to
th e resurrectio n of th e righteous, probably fro m 91:10a.114 Lines 15-17, however, are more
d iffic u lt, since only a sm all fra ctio n of the lin e s rem ain. B lack reconstructs these lines to read:
"and unrighteousness shall altogether cease, A nd the earth w ill be at re st from oppression, for
a ll generations fo r ever."115 In place of "oppression," M ilik in serts "the sword" (or alternative
ly "im piety").116 I f B lacks recreation o f the o rig in a l text is correct (or M ilik s alternate read
ing), th is w ould im p ly th a t the earth in some sense suffers from evil actions and th a t the earth
w ill no longer suffer when evil people are judged and removed. This perspective w ould be
consistent w ith the view o f the relationship between sin and the n a tu ra l w orld in BW (esp. ch.
10) and BD (esp. ch. 80), though it is somewhat su rp risin g th a t there is no other reference to
th is view in AW. Nevertheless, since B lacks reconstruction o f the te xt is somewhat specula
tive, th is verse offers only tentative support fo r the view th a t sin damages the n a tu ra l world.
b . The R edem ption o f C reation
The eschatological section com prises the E ighth thro ugh the Tenth Weeks (91:12-17).
There is a fin a l eschatological b a ttle in w hich the righteous defeat the w icked (91:12).117 The
righteous enjoy an extended period of m aterial blessing on earth w ith a restored and more
glorious tem ple (91:13). The F in a l Judgm ent results in punishm ent fo r the wicked hum ans
114Black, Book o f Enoch, 294-5; M ilik, Enoch, 260-1.
| nsB\ack, Book o f Enoch, 87.
j 116M ilik , Enoch, 260-1.
117The em phasis is on th e ir m oral evil as opposed to th e ir oppression as in AA.
179
and the W atchers as w e ll, as rew ard fo r the righteous (91:14-15); Then new heavens appear
(91:16) and the righteous enter in to an eternal heavenly existence o f goodness and righteous
ness (91:16).
A fte r the judgm ent, "the firs t heaven w ill pass away, and a new heaven shall appear"
(91:16). The appearance o f a new heaven introduces eternity, described as "m any weeks
w ith o u t num ber forever" (Isaac). T his agrees w ith the concept of a new creation found In other
sections o f 1 Enoch (cf. 72:1; 45:4) and is probably based on the prom ise o f a new heaven and
new earth found in Is. 65:17 and 66:22. It is sig n ifica n t, however, th a t there is no m ention of
a new earth In th is passage. The p ictu re o f the eternal state o f the righteous In AW is th a t of a
very s p iritu a l existence.118 This is a sharp contrast to the earthly, m ate rial eternal state o f
the righteous portrayed in BW (10:16-11:2; ch. 24-27; 30-32) and BD (90:20-38). BW
describes Paradise in very physical language, fu ll o f ric h pictures of the beauty and super
abundant p ro d u ctivity o f a transform ed nature. B y contrast AW describes the eternal venue o f
the righteous as heaven, not earth, and emphasizes the righteousness and glory o f those who
dwell there (91:16-17). The only aspect of the m ate rial w orld m entioned in AW is the greater
glory o f the heavenly lum inaries: "The powers o f heaven w ill shine and rise fo r ever and ever
w ith seven-fold lig h t" (91:16; cf. Is 30:26; Is. 60:19-20). This is a reference to cosmic tra n sfo r
m ation.119 Nevertheless, when AW deals w ith the eschatological transform ation o f creation,
118Cf. Black, "New Creation," 17-8; Russell, M ethod and Message, 291-2. C ontrast D. M.
Russell, 115-6, who believes th a t a new earth is assumed, based on th e earthly descriptions in
w . 12-13. However, he blends th e description o f the tem porary earthly kingdom in the eighth
week (w . 12-13) w ith the eternal state du rin g and a fte r the tenth week (w . 15-19). It Is
d iffic u lt to see how Russells argum ent from silence ("a new earth . . . is nevertheless
assumed") can be elevated to "a clear concern f o r . . . the entire created order." A sim ilar
approach Is taken by Dexlnger, 141-3, 185. He says th a t it w ould be redundant to m ention
the new earth in v. 16, since it was dealt w ith previously In v. 14. He sees a two stage purging
process: (1) judgm ent on earth (v. 12), w ith new tem ple (v. 13) and a new universal order (v.
14); (2) ju dgm ent in the heavenly realm (v. 15) w ith a new heaven (v. 16) and a new heavenly
order (v. 17).
119Cf. Black, "New Creation," 17 ; Black, Book o f Enoch, 294.
180
the em phasis is p rim a rily on the s p iritu a l, cosmic and heavenly dom ains, n o t on the n a tu ra l
w orld o f the earth.
The E th io p ic te xt o f 91:14 goes fu rth e r th a n the Aram aic to indicate th a t th is w orld w ill
come to an end: "the earth w ill be w ritte n down fo r destruction" (Knibb). The Aram aic,
however, is probably tru e r to the eth ica l concerns o f the context: "a ll the w orkers [of im pietyl
sh a ll entirely pass away from the whole earth."120
W hile the eternal state o f the righteous in AW is p rim a rily s p iritu a l in character, there
is a m aterial reference to a kingdom on earth. In the Eighth Week (91:13) there is a tem porary
e arthly kingdom fo r the righteous, w h ich occurs afte r the Israelites have destroyed th e ir
unrighteous enemies in battle (91:12).121 W hile the text says th a t the tem ple la sts "for a ll
generations forever" (91:13), it appears th a t th is e arthly state ends w ith the F in a l Judgm ent
(Weeks Nine and Ten, 91:14-15). W hile it is not precise to ca ll th is a "M essianic kin g
dom ,"122 since no M essiah is e xp licitly m entioned, it is clearly an eschatological tim e of
blessing on earth fo r the righteous. The kingdom involves m aterial prosperity fo r the righteous
and the construction o f a glorious new tem ple in Jerusalem (93:13).123 Nevertheless, the
description o f th is tem porary e a rth ly kingdom in AW lacks the rich nature im agery and the
em phasis on the physical prosperity o f nature found in BW.
I20M ilik , Enoch, 267.
121I f the "perverse generation" o f Week Seven (93:9-10) and the ba ttle a t the s ta rt o f Week
E ight (91:12) refer to the tim e o f the Maccabaean revolt, the a u thor m ay have expected th is
kingdom to be ushered in by the Maccabaean heros (cf. 90:19; 1 Macc 3:3). B lack, Book o f
Enoch, 292-3; Dexlnger, 138.
122C ontra Charles, Book o f Enoch, 220. Black, Book o f Enoch, 292-3, however, notes th a t
"the royal house o f the G reat One" m ay be an allusion to the prom ised eternal house of David
in 2 Sam. 7.
123Charles, Book o f Enoch, 232; B lack, Book o f Enoch, 293.
181
3 . A N ature Poem (Ch. 9 3 :1 1 '1 4 )
A fte r th e Seventh week o f AW, there appears in the E thiopic te xt a b rie f n a ture poem
(93:11-14). In the A ram aic, an apparently m uch longer version (not fu lly preserved) appears
a fte r the com pletion o f AW (before ch. 94).124 T h is piece o f wisdom lite ra tu re says th a t
hum ans cannot know the secrets o f God in heaven or understand the dim ensions and
operation o f th e heavens and earth (cf. Job 38:33f; Is 40:12-13: Prov 30:4). In the E thiopic, it
is linked to its context in AW w ith the add ition o f "concerning a ll his creation" in 93:10, so th a t
the "wisdom and knowledge" th a t God gives h is elect at the close o f the Seventh week are
focused on the creation .125
Yet despite th e concern of th is passage fo r the operation of nature, it contains no
reference to th e present c o rru p tio n or fu tu re state o f the n a tu ra l w orld. It p rim a rily highlights
the value o f the secret knowledge th a t Enoch has gained about the universe through revela
tio n . It does n o t fit w e ll in to the context o f eithe r AW or the Epistle. The perspective is closer
to the revelation given to Enoch about the in n e r w orkings o f heaven and earth in BW 17-36
and the operation o f the heavenly lum inaries in AB 72-79.126
4 . The E p istle o f Enoch (91:1-1 0, 18-19; 92; 9 3 :1 -2 , 11-14; 94-10 5)
The b u lk o f Book V is the "E pistle of Enoch," a repetitious paraenesis, th a t urges
righteous liv in g and prom ises a blessed reward fo r the righteous and eternal condem nation fo r
"sinners." The purpose is to encourage the righteous to persevere in the face of in ju stice ,
125D illm a n n , Henoch, 299, argues th a t the nature poem illu stra te d the w isdom o f 91:10.
M odem com m entators, however, tend to believe th a t "concerning h is creation" was added to
m ake the inserted poem f it the context (cf. Black, Book o f Enoch, 286).
126Cf. M ilik , ISnoch, 270-1, who believes it is a eulogy fo r Enoch (delivered by him self!) about
h is accom plishm ents in learning thing s o rdin ary m ortals could never know, especially in the
journeys o f ch. 1-36.
182
.. J ____________________________________________ __________________
oppression and violence, since one day they w ill be rewarded and the w icked w ill be p u n
ished.127 A lthough the genre o f th e section is a le tte r or alm ost a testam ent,128 there is
m uch in the ou tlo o k and eschatology th a t is apocalyptic, p a rtic u la rly in passages on the
eternal condem nation o f the w icked and the eternal blessings o f the righteous.129
a. T he C orruption o f C reation
As in AW and BW, th e Flood and the F in a l Judgm ent are closely connected in the
E pistle. In the in tro d u c tio n to the E pistle, where Enoch addresses h is children, Enoch twice
refers to "a great chastisem ent" (91:5, 7). The firs t is a reference to the Flood (91:5), w hich w ill
b rin g an end to oppression and w rong-doing th a t had become so strong on earth. Im m ediately
in th e next verse, however, he says "oppression sh a ll again reach its peak upon the earth"
(91:6). Thus som etim e after the Flood, oppression, in ju stice and in iq u ity w ill infect the w orld
m ore severely th a n before the Flood. As evil and apostasy continue to increase on earth, God
fin a lly brings another "great chastisem ent," the F in a l Judgm ent. As in BW (ch. 10), here also
the firs t judgm ent is a type o f the second judgm ent. S im ila r language, such as evil being
"uprooted from its foundations," is used of both judgm ents. Yet though th e two judgm ents are
described side-by-side, they are cle a rly distinguished. In th e Final Judgm ent, God personally
appears in a theophany to p ou r o u t h is w rath and execute judgm ent (91:7; c f AA: 90:18, 20).
Fire, n o t w ater, destroys the evil-doers and th e ir id ols (91:9). Then the righteous are resurrect
ed (91:10).
127George W. E. Nickelsburg, "The Apocalyptic Message o f 1 Enoch 92-105," CBQ 39 (1977):

325-6. In a la te r a rticle , N ickelsburg also recognizes th a t th e Epistle exhorts sinners to
repentance. See George W. E. N ickelsburg, "The E pistle o f Enoch and the Q um ran Literature,"
JJS 33 (1982): 344.
128C ollins, A pocalyptic Im agination, 95; Davidson, 112.
129Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic Message," 325-6, dem onstrates th a t the message in the Epistle
o f Enoch is p rim a rily apocalyptic, n o t ethical; cf. Davidson, 115.
183
A n im portant difference between the E pistle of Enoch and BW (ch. 10) is th a t the
source o f the evil is n o t blam ed on the W atchers. A lthough the a u th o r states th a t w rong-doing
w ill increase (91:5-7), the im p lica tio n is th a t the evil is done b y hum ans. P rior to the descrip
tio n o f the increase o f evil, he w arns h is listeners to w a lk in righteousness (v. 4) W hen he
speaks about the judgm ent, he focuses on idolaters and other hum an evil-doers (v. 9).
C onsistently throughout the E pistle, s in is a hum an responsibility. In fact, in the body o f the
le tte r it e xp licitly says, "sin was not sent on the earth, b u t m an o f him self created it, and those
who com m it it w ill be subject to a great curse" (98:4, Knibb). T his m ay be as M ilik argues an
in te n tio n a l polem ic against the p rin cip a l them e o f the Book o f W atchers.130
One possible reference to the s in o f the W atchers is 100:4. In the E thiopic, th e angels
are those who go down to assist God in the F inal Judgm ent, b y exposing hum ans who aid in
oppressing the Jew ish sinners.131 The Greek version, however, appears to refer to the fallen
angels (Watchers) who aided in s in and so were hurle d down in to a p it u n til Judgm ent Day,
w hich w ould be a clear reference to th e W atcher story.132 Nevertheless, two points are
significant: (1) M uch like AW, the reference to the fa lle n angels is confined to a passage th a t
deals w ith the F in a l judgm ent, not w ith the Flood story; and (2) the angels are not the m ajor
cause o f sin, as in BW, b u t only "assist" o r "give aid to" (fJoT\0ea))133 hum an sinners. Thus the
role of the W atchers is reduced from being the prim ary cause fo r the o rig in o f evil on earth to
being only a subsidiary factor in hum an sin. The prim a ry interest o f the E pistle is w ith
hum an m orality.
A nother difference from BW is th a t the discussion o f the Flood in the E pistle does not
130M ilik , Enoch, 52-3. M ilik also believes th a t in 100:1-3 the a u th o r borrows phrases from
the m u tu a l massacre o f the G iants (10:9-12; 12:6; 14:6; 16:1), b u t applies them to hum an sin.
132M ilik , Enoch, 52; cf. Charles, Book o f Enoch, 249.
133Liddell and Scott, 320.
184
m ention any effect th a t sin had on the n a tu ra l w o rld.134 S im ila rly, the physical w orld after
the Flood and the w orld a fte r the Final Judgm ent are not described. There is also no dis
cussion o f either the destruction or tran sform ation o f the w orld. The only concerns o f the
E pistle are the m oral state o f hum ans before and afte r the two judgm ents and th e punishm ent
o f the wicked. T his p attern is consistent in a ll the passages th a t refer to the F in a l Judgm ent
in the E pistle (e.g. 100:4-5).
b. The R edem ption o f C reation
The general picture of the fu tu re existence of the righteous is heavenly and s p iritu a l in
character, ra th e r th a n earthly and m a te ria l.135 The s p irits (not the bodies) o f the righteous
dead w ill have eternal jo y (103:3-5). The righteous w ill dw ell in heaven and shine w ith the
glory o f the heavenly lum inaries (104:2; cf. 4 Ez 7:97, 125). This picture is consistent w ith
AW, b u t it is in sharp contrast to BW, w ith its em phasis on the transform ed earth and a
glorious e arthly life fo r th e righteous.
c. The P ersonification o f C reation
Several personified references to the n a tu ra l w o rld reinforce th e ethica l focus of the
E pistle o f Enoch. In 100:10-13 God calls the powers o f nature to te stify against the wicked.
Since the sun, m oon and stars are above the earth, they can observe hum an sin. The clouds
are also above the earth and provide ju dgm ent against the wicked by w ith holding rain, m ist
and dew. A ll o f these parts o f nature are personified. They are "w atchful" over hum an sins
and can "testify" against th e wicked (v. 11). The n a tu ra l w orld is im p lic itly obedient to God, for
134N ickelsburg, "Apocalyptic Message," 311, however, notes th a t the general picture is th a t
the w o rld in the a u thors tim e is out o f k ilte r. Justice appears upside down, sin goes u n p u n
ished and the righteous are oppressed b y the wicked. W hile th is is tru e , the a u thor has little
concern fo r the im plications of th is im balance on the n a tu ra l w orld. H is picture o f the n a tu ra l
w orld in fact is th a t it rem ains perfectly obedient to God in contrast to hum an sinners (ch.
101- 102).
13SCf. Black, "New Creation." 17-8; Charles. Book o f Enoch, 220-1.
185
when God sum m ons the various p a rts o f nature, they respond in sta n tly (v. 11). These n a tu ra l
objects are concerned fo r hum an righteousness and act as agents o f Gods judgm ent by
b rin g in g a fflictio n s such as cold, snowy w eather and drought on the wicked (v. 12-13). The
a u th o r even sarcastically m ocks136 th e wicked b y urging them to bribe the elements so they
w ill n o t b rin g a judgm ent o f oppressive w eather on them (v. 12).
Ch. 101 continues th is em phasis on Gods use of nature as an instrum ent o f judgm ent
(101:1-3). God created the n a tu ra l w orld, w h ich continues to fear and obey H im (w . 6-7), b u t
the w icked do n o t fear o r obey God (v. 1, 7, 9). The sea acts in obedience to God and stays
w ith in the bounds th a t God has appointed fo r it. W hen God rebukes it, the sea is afra id and
dries up. Again, nature is personified. I t is obedient to God and has fear when God rebukes
it. T h is is s im ila r to the nature h o m ily in BW 2-5, though the stress is different.137 For BW
2-5 em phasize the consistent d aily operation o f nature as God has designed it, w hile ch. 101
stresses the in s ta n t obedience of nature when God issues a command. Nature fears God and
obeys h im , b u t sinners do not. The references to nature in ch. 101, therefore, fit the
paraenetical em phasis o f the E pistle o f Enoch.
The personification o f n a ture is continued in ch. 102. On the Day of Judgm ent,
heaven, earth and the heavenly lu m in a rie s w ill trem ble in fear as God brings the fires o f
ju dgm ent to the earth (w . 1 ,3 ). According to the Greek text, heaven and the lu m inaries w ill
seek to hide from the glory of God (w . 2-3).138 A t th a t tim e the wicked w ill trem ble w ith
136Cf. Charles, Book o f Enoch, 251, who says it is "spoken ironically."
137B oth passages use the rib p a tte rn discussed b y H artm an, Asking, 51-71. See the
discussion o f ch. 2-5 in footnote 20 above.
138The E th io p ic text o f 102:3 has the angels w ho assist in the judgm ent seeking to hide
from God (cf. Knibb, E thiopic Book o f Enoch, 237). The Greek text has heaven and the
lu m in a rie s shaking and trem bling and no reference to anyone hidin g from God (cf. Bonner, 59,
92). C harles, Book o f Enoch, 253, argues th a t the E thiopic te xt is corru pt, since the good
angels w o u ld n o t seek to hide and th u s the te x t loses the parallelism . G. Zuntz, "Enoch on the
Last Judgm ent (Ch. C ii.1-3)," JTS 45 (1944): 167, notes th a t if the angels go into hiding, they
cannot also carry out th e ir tasks. The Greek te xt, however, has been disrupted in w . 2-3
186
te rro r, despite th e ir b o a stfu l rebellion against God and th e ir refusal to show a n y fear o f God up
to th a t p o in t (w . 1-3). The righteous, however, need not fear, because though they w ill die
w ith the wicked, they w ill rise from the dead and they w ill not be punished w ith the wicked
(v. 8). Throughout th is section, the powers o f n a tu re are clearly personified. The trem bling o f
the earth is due to fear, n o t sim ply an earthquake. The "great alarm " th a t describes the
response o f nature is equivalent to the fear shown b y hum ans (cf. v. 3).
5 . The B irth o f Noah (Ch. 106-107)
1 Enoch 106-107, w hich describes the b irth o f Noah, is possibly taken from a pre
existing Book o f Noah.139 In response to Lamechs fear th a t h is son is the offspring o f an
angel, Enoch prophesies about the fa lle n W atchers, the Flood and Noahs role in preserving a
rem nant o f hum anity.
In Enochs discussion o f the W atcher sto ry and the Flood, he says th a t afte r the Flood
"the earth sh a ll rest and be cleansed o f great co rru p tio n " (106:17c, Black).140 T h is suggests
some m otifs th a t have been seen elsewhere in the W atcher stories, p a rticu la rly in BW: (1) The
earth was corrupted by the sins o f the W atchers. Verse 18 p a rticu la rly emphasizes th a t sins
and in ju stice b rin g co rru p tio n to the w orld. The fa ct th a t the earth w ill "rest" a fte r the Flood
(v. 17c) suggests th a t the earth was in a state o f tu rm o il because o f the sins o f th e W atchers.
The ecological harm caused b y the W atchers is m ore fu lly developed in BW (7:5-6; 9:2; 10:7-8),
(Knibb, Ethiopia Book o f Enoch, 237). B lack, Book o f Enoch, 311, believes th a t th e reference to
h id in g in the E thiopic is dislocated. It should follow the reference to heaven and the lu m in
aries shaking and trem bling, so th a t it is the heavens th a t seek to hide from th e presence o f
God. B u t the fact th a t th is phrase is n o t in the G reek weakens th is case.
139See footnote 104 above.
14<>rh e Aram aic and CM Greek show verse 106:17 to be out o f place in the E thiopic. Part a
should follow v. 14; p a rt c is in the proper position afte r v. 16; p a rt b is not in th e Aram aic or
Greek. See M ilik , Enoch, 210-1, 213; Bonner, 82.
187
b u t is im plied here as w ell. (2) The problem s th a t precipitated the Flood are the sins o f the
W atchers, not hum ans. The W atchers transgressed the law and violated the covenant of
heaven (106:13-14, 17a). (3) The Flood w ould n o t sim ply b rin g destruction to the w orld (v. 16),
b u t also the cleansing o f the w orld. The Flood w ould remove the damaging effects o f the
W atchers and b rin g a tim e of re st to the trou ble d earth (cf. 10:7, 17-18, 22; 11:1-2).
b. The R edem ption o f C reation
T his passage does not describe the post-Flood w orld in idealized term s, as BW does.
O n the contrary, there w ill be even greater unrighteousness after the Flood (106:19; cf. 91:6-
7).141 A fte r m any generations o f unrighteousness, however, a righteous generation w ill arise.
Then evil and in ju stice w ill end on the earth and blessings w ill come upon the earth (107:1).
T his period is s im ila r to the E ighth Week in AW (91:13). U nlike BW 10, however, th is fin a l age
o f blessedness on earth in the Noah m aterial is clearly separated from the post-Flood era by
m any generations (cf. BD 90). There is also no detailed discussion of arty changes to the
earth, in clu d in g any increase in the p ro d u ctivity o f nature (unlike BW 10).
6 . Sum m ary o f Book 5 o f 1 Enoch
AW does not m ention the effects o f sin on the n a tu ra l w orld, even though it emphasizes
the ju dgm ent o f the Flood on sin. Yet there is in AW a period of blessedness and m aterial
prosperity on earth after the fin a l eschatological battle, b u t before the F inal Judgm ent. A fter
the judgm ent, there w ill be a new heaven, b u t no new earth is m entioned. The righteous
apparently live in a state o f s p iritu a l righteousness in heaven fo r eternity. The ric h physical
description of Paradise found in BW is com pletely lacking in AW.
The Epistle o f Enoch also emphasizes the s p iritu a l blessings of th e righteous in the
t
I
141The p attern is the same as ch. 91: sin - judgm ent o f Flood - greater sin - fin a l ju d gment
VanderKam , "Apocalypse of Weeks," 514-5, notes th a t chapter 91 and chapter 106 create an
in clu sio around the Epistle.
188
heavenly kingdom . There is no concern in the E pistle fo r the co rru p tio n o f the w orld due to
sin (even sin before the Flood) and no m ention o f a fin a l transform ation o f the w orld. The only
concern is fo r hum an righteousness, the ju d g m e n t o f wicked and the fin a l blessing o f the
righteous. The purpose is paraenetic, to urge the righteous to persevere in th e ir righteous
path.
j The few references to nature in the E pistle serve th is ethical purpose. The n a tu ra l
i
! w orld is stron gly personified and called to w itness against the sins o f the wicked. N ature is
I
presented as an example o f obedience to God in contrast to unrighteous hum ans. A t the F inal
1 Judgm ent, the earth, heavens and the heavenly lum inaries w ill be fe a rfu l in th e presence o f
Gods glory.
The B irth o f Noah section (ch. 106-107) alludes to the W atcher tra d itio n th a t speaks o f
the co rru p tio n o f the earth b y the sins o f the W atchers. The Flood w ill b rin g cleansing to the
w orld. According to ch. 106-107, however, the fin a l period o f blessing on earth w ill only come
m any generations la te r, w hen a righteous generation arises.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the key points concerning the co rru p tio n and redem p
tio n o f creation:
Table 17: Summary of 1 Enoch Book 5
Passage Corruption of Nature Redemption of Nature Personification of Nature

Apocalypse of Weeks (93:3- Not mentioned. 1. A temporary period of material None.
10; 91:11-17) prosperity on earth after the final battle.
2. A new heaven, but no new earth.
3. Righteous will live in a spiritual state in
heaven.
Epistle of Enoch (91:1-10, IB- Not corrupted. Nature is 1. New heaven and earth not mentioned. 1. Nature obeys God.
19; 92; 93:1-2,11-14; 94-105) obedient to God. 2. Righteous will dwell eternally in heaven. 2. Nature fears God.
Birth of Noah (106-107) The earth was corrupted by the 1. A period of blessing on earth, when a None.
sin of the Watchers. righteous generation arises.
2. New heaven and earth not mentioned.
189
.. . __
B. The Book o f Jubilees
1. D ate, Provenance and G enre o f Jubilees
It is w e ll established th a t the book o f Jubilees was o rig in a lly w ritte n in Hebrew. T his is
confirm ed b y the Hebrew fragm ents o f th e book found at Q um ran.142 Later G reek and Syriac
fragm ents are also extant, along w ith a q u a rte r o f the w o rk in La tin . The earliest complete
texts are in E th io p ic.143
It is w idely accepted th a t Jubilees was w ritte n b y a Palestinian Jew. Charles believed
th a t it was w ritte n by a Pharisee in the tim e o f Jo h n Hyrcanus, probably between 109-105
B .C .144 M ost recent scholars, however, date it in the Maccabean era between 161-140 B.C.,
before the establishm ent o f the Hasm onean high priesthood and before the form ation of the
Q um ran com m u nity.145 The m ost thorough defense o f th is view has been w ritte n by Vander-
Kam, w ho argues th a t it was composed between 161-152 B.C. before Jonathan w as High
P rie st.146 D avenport uses redaction c ritic is m to argue fo r three stages o f development
between 200 and 104 B .C .,147 b u t the evidence he presents fo r h is theory has n o t convinced
142Jam es C. VanderKam , Textual and H isto rical Studies in the Book o f Jubilees, Harvard
Sem itic M onographs, no. 14 (M issoula, M T: Scholars Press, 1977), 1-6, 255-82.
143Ib id ., 1-18.
144R H. C harles, The Book o f Jubilees o r the L ittle Genesis, T ranslations of E a rly Docu
m ents (London: Society fo r Prom oting C h ristia n Knowledge, 1927), Iv iii-lx v i; R H. Charles, ed,
APOT (O xford: Clarendon, 1913), 2:6; cf. M . Testuz, Les Idees Religieuses Du U vre Des Jubiles
(Geneva: D roz, 1960), 12 (110 BC) and O tto Eissfeldt, The Old Testam ent A n Introduction
(Oxford: B lackw ell, 1965), 607 (end o f 2 n d C. BC).
145VanderKam , Textual and H istorical Studies, 214-85 (161-152 B.C.); O. S. W interm ute,
"Jubilees," in OTP, ed. James H. C harlesw orth (Garden C ity, NY: Doubleday, 1985), 2:44
(161-140 B.C.); K laus Berger, Das Buch d e r Jubilaen, Judische S chriften aus h e lle n is tis c h -
rfim isch e r Z eit, no. 2.3, ed. W em er Georg Kum m el, et al. (G utersloh: Gerd M ohn, 1981), 300
(145-140 B.C.); George W. E. N ickelsburg, "The B ible R ew ritten and Expanded. The Books o f
Adam and Eve," in Jew ish W ritings o f the Second Temple Period, ed. M ichael E. Stone,
Com pendia Rem m Iudaicarum Ad Novum Testam entum (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 2 .ii:
103 (168 B.C.); C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 67 (160 B.C.).
146VanderKam , Textual and H istorical Studies, 214-85.
147Gene L. Davenport, The Eschatology o f the Book o f Jubilees (Leiden: B rill, 1971), 10-8.
190
m ost scholars.148
There are m any sim ila ritie s between Jubilees and the w ritin g s o f Q um ran in theology,
ritu a l, law , piety and calendar. B u t Jubilees is concerned about the whole o f Israel, n o t a
separate com m unity and does not view the priesthood as co rru p t.149 It is lik e ly th a t Jubilees
originated w ith the H asidim , before the Essenes broke o ff from the movem ent and established
the Q um ran com m unity.150
The genre of Jubilees is com posite, com bining features typ ica l o f h is to ric a l w ritin g ,
ritu a l law , chronology, apocalypse, testam ent,151 and m id ra sh .152 Jubilees has num erous
apocalyptic characteristics, in clu d in g (1) angelic revelation; (2) pseudonym ity; (3) exeventu
prophecy; (4) cosmic and ethical dualism ; (5) frequent h isto rica l involvem ent o f angels and
demons (including the fallen W atchers); (6) periodisation o f history; and (7) the judgm ent and
destruction o f the w icked.153 Ch. 23 is certa inly an apocalypse and ch. 1-2 is very s im ila r to
Davenport sees three stages of com position; (1) the basic docum ent was created about 200
B.C. ( l:l- 4 a , 29a; 2:1-50:4, except fo r 4:26; 23:14-31; 31:14); (2) the docum ent was updated
about 160 B.C., to refer to A ntiochus persecution o f the Jews; (3) the fin a l "sanctuary-oriented
redaction" was developed at Q um ran between 140 and 104 B.C. Testuz, 175-7, believes ch. 23
was added at Q um ran.
148See Jam es C. VanderKam , "The Book o f Jubilees," in Outside the O ld Testament, ed. M.
de Jonge, Cambridge Com m entaries of W ritings o f the Jew ish and C h ristia n W orld 200 BC to
AD 200 (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press, 1985), 116; VanderKam , Textual and
H istorical Studies, 253. For example, the difference between the angel w ritin g the message
(1:27) and Moses w ritin g w hat the angel dictates (2:1) m ay be due to a m istra n sla tio n in the
Greek version, w hich was carried in to the E thiopic. It translates the causative (hiphifl, "make
Moses w rite ," as if it were the non-causative gal, "w rite fo r Moses." Thus it is n o t clear th a t
there is a change in source at 2:1 (James C. VanderKam , "The Putative A u th o r o f the Book of
Jubilees," JSS 36 (1981): 216).
149For a discussion o f sim ila ritie s and differences between Jubilees and the Q um ran
w ritin gs, see B. Noack, "Q um ran and the Book o f Jubilees," SEA 22-23 (1957-1958): 191-207;
W interm ute, "Jubilees," 44; Berger, 295-6.
1S0VanderKam, Textual and H istorical Studies, 280-3; C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 67.
151Testuz, 12.
152W interm ute, "Jubilees," 39-40.
153C ollins, "Jew ish Apocalypses," 28, 32; W interm ute, "Jubilees," 37. Stegemann, 509 and
191
-- - - ______________
an apocalypse. There are m any sim ila ritie s between Jubilees and 1 Enoch and it is generally
agreed th a t Jubilees is dependent on parts of 1 Enoch.154 O n the other hand. Jubilees has
little apocalyptic im agery and lacks a preoccupation w ith apocalyptic eschatology, except in
certa in sections. Even though only ch. 23 and possibly 1-2 can form ally be called apocalyps
es, C ollins correctly notes th a t an apocalyptic worldview and eschatology are presupposed
th ro u g h o u t the book.155
2 . The C orruption o f C reation
a. C onsistent O peration o f Nature
Jubilees emphasizes th a t the cosmos follow s consistent, divinely appointed cycles of
tim e. H isto ry is divided in to 49 jubilees of years from the creation to the giving o f the Law.
Each Jubilee consists o f 7 "weeks" o f 7 years each. God appointed these periods (1:29; 2:8-10;
4:17-21) and established the exact num ber of years from creation to the new creation (1:29).
The length o f the year is w ritte n on heavenly tablets, suggesting its im m u ta b ility and divine
o rig in (6:29-38). The cycles o f days, m onths and years follow precise, consistent patterns
(4:16-19). Jubilees affirm s the tra d itio n from the Enoch lite ra tu re about Enochs knowledge o f
Jo h n C. Endres, B ib lica l Interpretation in the Book o f Jubilees, C atholic B ib lica l Q uarterly

M onograph Series, no. 18 (W ashington, D.C.: C atholic B ib lic a l Association o f Am erica, 1987),
4, 201, bo th stress th a t the revelatory m ethod (by an angel to an honored person o f the past)
indicates th a t the book is apocalyptic, even though only 23:18-32 is an actual apocalypse.
D avenport, 74-5, sees apocalyptic eschatology in the o rig in a l document and apocalyptic
herm eneutic and eschatology in the sections produced by the tw o redactors he believes revised
the book.
154M ilik , Enoch, shows th a t Jubilees depended on the A stronom ical Book (p. 11), Book o f
W atchers (p. 24) and th e Book o f Dreams (p. 45). M ilik believes th a t the Epistle o f Enoch
depended on Jubilees (p. 255). B u t James C. VanderKam , "Enoch T raditions in Jubilees and
O ther Second-Century Sources," in Society o f B iblical Literature 1978 Seminar Papers (Mis
soula, M ont.: Society o f B ib lica l Literature, 1978), 229-51, shows th a t Jubilees draws on
1 Enoch even there.
155C ollins, "Jewish Apocalypses," 32, although elsewhere he calls Jubilees a "borderline
case fo r the apocalyptic genre" (Collins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 63); cf. B arr, "Jewish
A pocalyptic," 17.
192
these cosm ic patterns (4:16-19). The proper day fo r various festivals and holy days are
determ ined b y these cycles and It Is a serious sin to follow any other calendar (6:32-38). Adam
passed dow n to h is descendants the knowledge o f the proper calendar (6:18; 7:38; 10:14).
This was rediscovered by Abraham in the books o f Enoch and Noah (21:10) and was revealed
to Moses on M t. S inai (1:4, 26).156 The covenant God made w ith Noah after the Flood also
stresses th e co n tin u ity o f the cosmic cycles and th e patterns o f nature (6:4). These cosmic
cycles are unaffected b y the F all o f Adam and Eve, other hum an sins and the w icked actions of
Satan and demons.
The n a tu ra l w orld is under the direction and control o f God. God sends the ra in and
dew at th e proper tim es and uses them fo r blessings (12:4, 18; 20:9; 26:23; 26:23). He
appointed the movements o f the stars, sun and m oon (12:17). God created certa in angels to
manage th e operation of the weather (fire, w inds, clouds, darkness, snow, h a il, fro st, thunder,
lig h tn in g , cold, and heat) and the seasons (w inter, spring, autum n, and sum m er; 2:2). These
teachings a ffirm th a t the n a tu ra l w o rld is largely fu nctioning as God intends.
b. The E ffects o f Sin on the N atu ral W orld
Jubilees nevertheless refers to a variety of effects o f s in on the n a tu ra l w orld. Three
types of sin s have physical consequences: (1) the F all; (2) ongoing hum an sins; and (3) the sins
o f fa lle n angels.
The F a ll o f Adam and Eve affected the n a tu ra l w orld. M ost o f these re su lts are taken
from Gen. 3:16-19: (1) Women experience great pain in childbearing (3:24). (2) The ground is
cursed, re q u irin g hard la bor to grow crops (3:25; 4:28). (3) Hum ans die as a re su lt o f the Fall
(4:3). Jubilees in terprets the prom ise th a t Adam w ould die in the day he sinned p rim a rily in
term s o f physical death, ra th e r than s p iritu a l death. Since a thousand years are as one day in
156For an extensive discussion o f the calendar in Jubilees, see J. Van Goudoever, B iblical
Calendars, 2nd ed. (Leiden: B rill, 1961), 62-70.
193
the eyes o f God, w hen Adam died 70 years sh o rt o f 1000 years of age, he effectively died in the
same "day" in w hich he sinned (4:30).
Jubilees also says th a t anim als lo st the a b ility to speak after the F a ll of h um an ity
(3:28). P rior to th e F a ll, a ll anim als and hum ans spoke a com m on language (3:28), apparently
Hebrew (12:25-26).157
Jubilees does n o t m ake a clear connection between the Fall and th e sinfulness of
hum an ity. A lthough one of the m ost im p o rta n t them es of the book is hum an sin . Jubilees
does n o t stress th a t h u m a n ity has a s in fu l in n e r nature (contrast 4 Ezra 3:20-25; 4:4; 7:48,
92; Ap. Mos. 13:5). A lth ough the evil o f h u m a n ity is great (e.g. 10:7-8, 18; 21:21), th is is not
due to an in herited weakness re su ltin g fro m original s in .158 A fte r the Flood, God gave
h u m a n ity a righteous new n a ture (5:12) th a t overcame the effects of the hum an F a ll and the
pre-Flood co rru p tin g influence o f the W atchers.159 T his new nature gives people the poten
tia l fo r righteousness, although m any w ill choose wickedness (5:12-14). Satan and demons
lead people, p a rtic u la rly the G entiles (15:31-32; 48:9-12), astray in to sin (7:27; 10:1-5; 11:4-5,
7-8; 1 5 :3 1 -3 2 :4 8 :9 -1 2 , 15-18). A lthough people have a tendency tow ard wickedness, Jubilees
is n o t pessim istic about the a b ility o f people to follow the righteous path, p a rtic u la rly among
the Jew ish people (contrast 4 Ezra). The greatest pessim ism is about the G entiles, who are
viewed as basically evil, under the influence o f dem ons and n o t to be em ulated (15:31-32;
22:12-18; 21:21-24). S in is largely a consequence of an in d ivid u a ls choices and m any people
157Cf. Josephus, A ntiquities, 1.1.4, 50; Philo Quaestiones et Solutiones In Genesin 1.32. Ap.
Mos. 10-12 s till has anim als speaking la te r in Adam s life. W. R M o rfill, The Books o f the
Secrets o f Enoch, ed. R. H. Charles (O xford: Clarendon, 1896), 73-4, shows th a t m any Greek
w rite rs ascribed ra tio n a l th o u g h t to anim als. A ncient Jew ish w rite rs generally believed the
language o f creation to be Hebrew (e.g. T aigum on Gen. 11:1; Ber. Rabba 18, 31; Cedrenus
1:22). Cf. Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 28.
158Davenport, 35, notes th a t the a u th o r is not interested in arguing fo r o r against original

sin. Cf. Endres, 53.
159A pparently e vil began anew afte r the Flood, w ith o u t any influence from w hat occurred
p rio r to the Flood. Thom pson, R esponsibility, 11, 40.
194
M ________________________________________________ . ~
are very righteous, p a rtic u la rly pa tria rch s such as Abraham (11:17; 17:17-18; 18:16; 19:3-4,
8-9), Enoch (10:17) and Noah (5:19; 10:11). There are tim es in h is to ry w hen sin is great (such
as p rio r to the Flood) and tim es when it is m uch less (such as the tim e of Joseph). W hen a
person sins, the sin pollutes th a t person as w e ll as other people, leading to fu rth e r s in (e.g.
4:22; 16:5; 33:10-14).
"C orruption" in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re has both a m oral and a physical compo
n e n t.160 In Jubilees, however, co rru p tio n p rim a rily refers to m oral fa ilu re and disobedience
to the Law (e.g. 5:2, 10; 10:5, 8; 25:10). C orruption defiles both the in d iv id u a l who sins and
other people, leading to fu rth e r co rru p tio n (e.g. 33:10, 13). The term is not used to refer to
death and the in e v ita b ility o f death and decay, as in some other apocalyptic w ritin g s (e.g. 4
Ezra, 2 B aruch, 2 Enoch). Nevertheless, co rru p tio n tends to spread and defiles the earth,
shorten the hum an lifespan and leads to a wide range o f suffering, disease and sorrow (e.g.
23:12-15). In the la st days, the widespread evil w ill co rru p t the land, re su ltin g in reduced crop
p ro d u ctivity (23:18). Thus even though co rru p tio n is p rim a rily m oral fa ilu re . It has physical
consequences.
A re cu rre n t theme is th a t sin pollu tes and defiles the earth its e lf (4:2-3, 26; 5:3; 6:2;
7:33; 16:5-6; 20:19; 23:16-21; 50:5). In Noahs day, the earth was corrupted due to the evil of
hum ans and the W atchers (5:3). The la nd o f Sodom and G om orrah was burned and destroyed
because o f the p o llu tin g effects o f the sins o f the in h a b ita n ts (16:5-6). The land is defiled by
m urder and cannot be cleansed except by the execution o f the m urd ere r (7:33; 21:19). Thus
the earth cried o u t to heaven w hen Abel was kille d by Cain (4:2-3; cf. Gen. 4:10). The concept
th a t the earth is defiled by m urd er and other sins is probably derived from Lev. 18:26-28 and
Num. 35:33-34.161 A fte r the Flood, Noah offered a sacrifice to make atonem ent fo r the land.
160M oral corru ption: 4 Ez. 7:48, 111-113; 9:19; 2 Bar. 21:19; 44:9. Death and decay: 1 En.
10:7; 69:28; 2 En. 8:5, 9; 65:8-10; 4 Ez. 7:15, 48, 61-63, 96, 115; 2 B ar. 42:7; 43:2; 44:9.
161Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 49.
195
because it had been polluted by the sins o f h um an ity and the W atchers (6:2; cf. 5:3). In the
tim e o f eschatological tria ls , the damage to the n a tu ra l w orld because o f hum an sin w ill
become acute: "The la n d w ill be corrupted on account o f a ll th e ir deeds" (23:18).162 As a
re su lt even the p ro d u ctivity o f crops w ill be reduced: "There w ill be no seed of the vine, and
there w ill be no o il because th e ir w orks are entirely faithless" (23:18).
Ju b . 23:18 refers to the destruction o f anim als, birds and fish on account of hum an
sins (23:18). Charles translates 23:18 "the earth w ill be destroyed on account o f a ll th e ir
w orks." On the surface th is appears to suggest th a t the earth w ill be destroyed in the last
days p rio r to the new creation. B u t th is does not fit the context and is not consistent w ith the
rest of the book, w hich places the new age on the present earth. Endres believes th is alludes
to the Flood as a p rim o rd ia l example o f the effects o f s in .163 The im m ediate context, how
ever, deals w ith the damage to the earth due to eschatological sin, not the Flood. The context
suggests th a t the "destruction" of the earth refers to the extensive damage to the crops and the
widespread death of "beast, cattle, b ird s, and a ll o f the fis h o f the sea" (v. 18) due to the great
sin o f people in the la st days.
J u s t as sin defiles the land, the land its e lf benefits when people are righteous. Plants
become more productive when people follow the rules of growing crops and offering a sacrifice
o f th e ir fru it, wine and o il (7:34-37, v. 37, "you sh a ll be righteous and a ll th a t you plant w ill
prosper" (Charles)). In the new creation, sin w ill be removed and the earth w ill be cleansed
and sanctified from the p o llu tio n o f sin (4:26; 50:5).
This strong connection between hum an s in and the defilem ent o f the land points to a
so lid a rity between hum anity and the n a tu ra l w orld. T his so lid a rity also im plies th a t when
hum anity is livin g as God intends, the land its e lf benefits.
S in also has negative physical effects on hum an life . Because o f hum an sin, th is life is
Q uotations are taken from W interm ute, unless otherwise specified.
163Endres, 54.
196
m arked b y a fflictio n (23:12-15). The suffering includes plagues, physical in jurie s, sickness,
unpleasant w eather (e.g. sleet, h a ll, h a ll, frost), fevers, c h ills , stupor and fam ine. There is a
clear connection between s in and physical a fflictio n : "A ll o f th is w ill come in the evil generation
w hich sins in the land" (v. 14). T his suffering appears to be a general characteristic o f the age
from the tim e o f Abraham u n til th e F inal Judgm ent, due to the general sinfulness of th a t era
(23:11). S in and the resultin g a ffliction s, however, w ill Increase in the tim e o f eschatological
tria ls (23:14-16).164
A n oth er consequence of s in is th a t people now live shorter lives. This Is related to
death, w hich is the punishm ent fo r sin. The earliest people lived ju s t short o f 1000 years (4:9;
23:9). As sin took a greater hold on hum an ity, th is lifespan was shortened. Due to th e
widespread evil of h um an ity in Noahs day, God lim ite d the lifespan of a ll who live after the
Flood to no m ore th a n 110 years (5:8). This shortened lifespan is clearly connected w ith evil
(5:8; 23:9) and is a divine judgm ent fo r sin (5:8). It is also associated w ith the great suffering
o f life in th is age (23:9). The increase in s in in the la st days w ill re su lt In a d ra stica lly reduced
lifespan. In the tim e o f eschatological tria ls , even children w ill appear to be aged (23:25). The
damage to the hum an lifespan w ill be reversed in the eschatological golden age, when people
w ill again live nearly a thousand years, m uch lik e the earliest people (29:27-29).
A n in d ivid u a ls personal m oral behavior can affect th is general tendency fo r people to
live sh o rte r lives due to sin. People who are p a rtic u la rly w icked, such as the Am orites, live
short lives as a divine judgm ent (29:11). A lo ng life and a long lin e o f descendants is prom ised
as a rew ard fo r righteousness (e.g. 32:18-19; 35:20; 36;6, 8). O nly a few p a rticu la rly righteous
164The tra n s itio n from the suffering of the whole age to th e tim e of eschatological tria ls is
not clear and there appears to be some overlap in the description. Vv. 11-13 clearly refers to
the whole age (cf. VanderKam, "Book o f Jubilees," 132; Davenport, 33). Vv. 16-21 clearly refer
to the eschatological generation, probably the tim e o f the origin o f the H asidim (Charles, Book
o f Jubilees, 146). It is less clear to w hich period w . 14-15 refers or if they apply to both.
Davenport, 41, believes th a t these verses refer to the "perennial cond ition of m an." B u t the
reference to the "evil generation" suggests th a t they apply to an eschatological period.
197
people achieve a longer life. For exam ple, Abraham lived 175 years (23:8, 10). Yet even
Abraham did n o t live as long as th e pre-Flood patriarchs, due to the general sinfulness of
people in h is day (23:10). Thus, the overall sinfulness o f h um an ity has re su lte d in a shortened
lifespan. A n in d iv id u a ls personal righteousness can only p a rtia lly overcome th is damaging
effect o f s in on the hum an race.
The pun ishm ent for sin is death, w hich Jubilees generally in te rp re ts in a lite ra l
physical and tem poral sense and o n ly ra re ly in the sense o f eternal judgm ent. Death as the
punishm ent fo r sin is interpreted in several ways, often in the same passage: (1) divine
destruction and death, often in an unspecified m anner (7:28: 21:22; 22:21-22; 29:11; 31:17,
20; 33:19; 35:14; 36:8-9; 49:9; 50:13 (?)); (2) execution by a hum an judge, p a rtic u la rly fo r
m ore serious sins such as m urder, adultery, incest and rape (30:6-9; 33:10-14, 17; 41:25-26;
50:13 (?)); (3) a shortened lifespan, w ith o u t a necessarily tragic end (5:8; 23:9-10; 29:11);
(4) destruction o f a w icked race by the Israelite arm y as an in strum ent o f divine judgm ent
(24:28-32; cf. 23:30);165 (5) rem oval from the la nd o f prom ise, generally b y being destroyed
(26:34; 30:22, "rooted o u t o f the land"; 36:9); (6) the end o f the fam ily lin e o f the sinner by the
destruction of a ll h is descendants (21:22; 22:21; 24:30; 35:14; 36:9, "his seed w ill be destroyed
from u n d e r heaven); (7) less frequently, eternal torm ent fo r the sinner and removal o f his
name from the book o f life (7:29; 30:22; 22:22; 36:10).166 In each category except the last,
the punishm ent is physical death, often described as being "uprooted." E ndres shows th a t the
stress is on a D euteronom istic p a tte rn o f re trib u tive ju stice : brevity of life and fu tu re disaster
165Testuz, 170-1, argues th a t 24:29 refers to the eschatological battle. B y contrast, v. 28

refers to a general curse on the P h ilistin e s thro ugho ut history.
166Franqois M a rtin , "Le Livre des Jubiles: b u t et precedes de lauteurses doctrines," RB

n.s. 8 (1911): 523-4 and Testuz, 170, argue th a t in 9:15 the reference to "fire " refers to eternal
torm ent. The verse says God w ill ju dge them w ith a sword and w ith fire. The sword refers to
death, perhaps in an eschatological b a ttle . I f the fire is judgm ent fire, the concept is sim ply
assum ed and n o t developed. Testuz overemphasizes the im portance of e ternal torm ent and
m isses the sig nifica nt role o f death and tem poral punishm ent.
198
re s u lt d ire ctly from a fa ilu re to obey the term s o f the covenant.167 Yet even w hen eternal
pun ishm ent is m entioned, tem poral punishm ent is also usu a lly included (e.g. 30:22; 36:9).
W hen a persons nam e is removed from the heavenly tablets, he w ill be uprooted from the
earth a t the day o f ju dgm ent (24:33). In th is case, the punishm ent is s till physical death, even
though it is deferred u n til the day o f judgm ent.
c. Cosm ic Consequences o f th e Sins o f th e W atchers
The tim e ju s t p rio r to the Flood was a tim e o f widespread evil and in ju stice on the earth
(5:1-4). The Flood was a divine punishm ent fo r the s in o f the fallen W atchers (7:21), hum ans
(7:22-25, 29, 31-33) and even anim als (5:2-3, cf. 20). The prim ary sin of the W atchers was
m ating w ith hum an wom en (5:1; 7:21). The W atchers corrupted both hum ans and anim als
and broug ht about widespread hum an evil and in ju stice (5:2). The hum an sins included
widespread in ju stice (5:2; 7:23), m urder (7:22-25; cf. 29, 31-33), cannibalism (5:2; 7:28) and
evil and va in though ts (7:24). People also "sinned against beasts, and bird s and everything
w h ich moves o r w alked on the earth" (7:24). This reference is very sim ila r to 1 En. 7:5, w hich
says the G iants (offspring o f the union o f the W atchers and hum an women) 'began to sin
against birds, w ild beasts, reptiles, and fis h ."168 1 En. 7:5 refers to an excessive and violent
assault against the anim als, since the G iants were eating everything in sight and could not be
satisfied. The context o f Ju b . 7:24 supports a sim ila r interpretation, since it says "they poured
o u t m uch blood upon the earth." Jubilees extends th is violence to include hum ans as w ell as
the G iants (cf. v. 23). It is also possible th a t th is refers to eating the blood o f the animals,
w h ich was a s in under the Law and an offense against anim als (cf. v. 32; 6:7-14).169
167Endres, 231-3.
l68C hristoffersson, 63-4, believes Ju b . 7:24 is based on 1 En. 7:5. The Flood and W atcher
stories in Ju b . 5-7 are derived from Gen. 6-8 and 1 Enoch 6-10, although the stories are
reworked and the Genesis version dom inates.
169Cf. B lacks in te rp re ta tio n o f 1 En. 7:5. Black, Book o f IZnoch, 126.
199
The sins o f the W atchers even led to the co rru p tio n o f anim als (5:2): "A ll flesh corrupted
its way." "A ll flesh" is interpreted to refer to "m an and cattle and beasts and bird s and
everything, w hich w alks on the earth" (5:2). The passage says the anim als "corrupted th e ir
way and th e ir ordinances," w hich suggests th a t th e ir n a tu ra l way of life was perverted. The
exact change in the anim als is n o t clear. Charles believes th a t they began to mate between
species.170 The passage also says th a t "they began to eat one another" (5:2). T his refers not
only to hum an cannibalism , b u t also to anim als eating others o f th e ir own species or possibly
to anim als becoming carnivorous. Regardless o f the exact reference, it is clear th a t there was
a profound change in the anim al w orld as a re su lt o f the sin o f the W atchers. Since anim als
sinned, God wiped out the anim als along w ith the hum ans and G iants in the Flood (5:4, 20).
A fter the Flood, God gave the anim als a new nature, so they could behave as God
intended (5:12). In th is verse, "a ll h is w orks" refers not only to hum ans b u t also to anim als.
The co rru p tin g damage o f the W atchers (5:1-3) was reversed. U nlike hum ans who often
choose to sin despite th is new nature (5:13-19), apparently anim als did not re tu rn to the
corrupted ways caused by the W atchers. To some extent they can s till be influenced and used
by demons (e.g. 11:1-12), although they have never been corrupted as thoroughly as they were
before the Flood.
Jubilees emphasizes the sin o f the fallen angels and th e ir profound influence on
hum anity. O rigina lly the W atchers came to earth to teach hum ans, and perform righteous
deeds (4:15).171 The W atchers sinned by fo rn ica tin g w ith hum an women (4:22; 5:1) and
teaching people about astrology (8:38). The sin o f the W atchers corrupted hum anity and led to
widespread sin, so th a t God sent the Flood to destroy the wicked (5:1-3). In addition to the
teachings about the im pact o f the W atchers, Jubilees has a strong emphasis on Satan (often
170Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 43.
171T h is contrasts w ith 1 En. 6; 86:1 and 2 En. 7; 18; 31:3-7, w hich say th a t the W atchers
came to earth in rebellion against God.
200
called Mastema) and the demons whom he leads. Num erous passages stress th a t they lead
people astray and Influence them to sin (10:1-5; 11:4-5, 7-8; 15:31-32; 48:9-12, 15-18). This
is p a rticu la rly tru e o f the G entiles who are seen as strongly under demonic influence. The
eschatological hope is fo r a tim e when there w ill be no influence from Satan or demons (23:29;
50:5). A lthough Jubilees has little to say about the im pact th a t the F all o f Adam and Eve had
on the hum an tendency to sin, it has m uch to say about th e influence o f Satan and demons.
The sin o f the W atchers and the co rru p tin g influence of demons also have a negative
im pact on the n a tu ra l w orld. The sin o f the W atchers led to the widespread corru ption o f
anim als and even the earth its e lf (5:1-3). Demons cause physical illness (10:11-12). Satan
sends b ird s to eat the seed th a t people p la n t so they have a reduced crop (11:10-12). In p art
th is reflects the curse on the earth, b u t it also shows the influence o f the evil demonic powers
on n a tu re .172 B y contrast Abraham is so righteous, th a t the birds flee the fields in his pres
ence, reversing the im pact o f the evil s p irits on nature, at least tem porarily (11:18-21). Both
sin and righteousness influence th e n a tu ra l w orld.
d. Eschatological Cosm ic E ffects o f Sin
In the im p o rta n t apocalyptic section in chapter 23, Jubilees describes a tim e of
eschatological tria ls (23:16-25). The period of suffering is sim ila r to th a t found in m any other
apocalyptic w orks.173 I t is n o t precisely correct, however, to call th is the period o f "Messianic
woes" as Charles does,174 since th e follow ing age of blessing is not associated w ith a M essi
a h .175 A ll of the damaging effects o f sin w ill clim a x in th is tim e o f eschatological tria ls. This
172For a discussion o f the dem onic influence o f nature, see Thompson, Responsibility, 40-2.
173E.g. 2 Bar. 25-27; 28:31-37; 48:31-37; 120:2-10; 4 Ez. 4:52-5:13; 6:14-18, 21-24; 1 En.
80; Sib. Or. 3:632-650, 796-807; cf. M t. 24:6-29 and synoptic parallels.
174Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 146-7.
I75Cf. Davenport, 37, n. 1.
201
is a tim e o f greatly increasing evil, in ju stice and abandonm ent of the la w (23:16-23).176 As a
re su lt of th is increase in evil, the n a tu ra l w o rld w ill suffe r extensive damage: (1) The land w ill
be corrupted "on account o f a ll th e ir deeds" (23:18). (2) Crops w ill become less productive
'because th e ir w orks are entirely faithless" (23:18). (3) Num erous anim als, b ird s and fis h w ill
be destroyed "on account o f the sons o f m an" (23:18). (4) The physical condition o f people w ill
deteriorate: People w ill have reduced statu re (23:24). C hildren w ill have grey h a ir and appear
as old m en and people w ill die young (23:24).177 (5) There w ill be a great plague as a divine
judgm ent on those sinners (23:22). These physical d iffic u ltie s are specifically associated w ith
the increasing eschatological sin and w ill on ly be reversed when people re tu rn to the Law
(23:26-31).
3 . The R edem ption o f C reation
a. The R enew al o f C reation
Even though Jubilees stresses a n a tio n a listic eschatology th a t benefits the righteous of
Israel, its hope fo r the fu tu re has im p o rta n t cosm ic dim ensions. W hen the people o f Israel
re tu rn to obedience to the Law, th e whole e arth w ill be affected positively.
Jubile es looks forw ard to a new creation (1:29; 4:26). This new creation was planned
from the beginn ing and there are a divine ly ordered num ber of years between the o riginal
creation a nd the new creation (1:29, "fu ll num ber o f ju b ile e s").178 As w ill be shown, the "new
176It probably refers to the m id-second ce n tu ry era o f Jew ish H ellenization, w hich led to the
rise o f the C hasidim (Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 146, n. 16).
1^D avenport, 37-8, suggests th a t th is is a description o f massive starvation, re su ltin g in

baldness, w rin kle d sk in and m uscle deterioration.
178M ichael Stone, "Apocryphal Notes and Readings," Isra e l O riental Studies 1 (1971): 125,
proposes a so lu tio n to the te xt o f th is verse th a t m akes sense o f a puzzling reading. The te xt
reads "thro ugho ut the fu ll num ber o f ju bilees, from the day o f the new creation." Stone
suggests th a t the o rig in a l text was "thro ugho ut the fu ll num ber of ju b ile e s, from [the day o f
creation u n til] the day o f the new creation." The brackets indicate a section skipped by
hom oeoteleuton, where the scribes eye skipped from the firs t "the day" to th e second, o m ittin g
p a rt o f the sentence.
202
creation" is n o t the creation o f a new heavens and earth, b u t a renewal, perfection and
sanctifica tion o f the existing creation (4:26).
The com prehensive renew al of creation w ill include both s p iritu a l and m aterial
dim ensions, anim ate and inanim ate objects. The s p iritu a l renewal is fundam ental. A ll sin w ill
be removed and people w ill w a lk in righteousness in obedience to the Law (1:15-18; 23:26;
50:5). A new tem ple w ill be b u ilt on M t. Z ion.179 God him self w ill dw ell among the righteous
and rule on earth from H is sanctuary forever (1:17-18,26-27, 29). Even though there is a
s p iritu a l hope th a t the righteous w ill dw ell w ith God, it is not sim ply a hope th a t the righteous
w ill dw ell in heaven, b u t th a t God w ill dw ell on earth. Demons and Satan w ill be banished
from earth so th a t they can no longer tem pt and m islead people (23:29; 50:5).
"Heaven and earth and a ll o f th e ir creatures shall be renewed" (1:29). The sun, moon
and stars (heavenly "lights") w ill be renewed (1:29; 19:25). They w ill be changed in some
m anner th a t w ill produce blessing fo r the elect o f Israel, including healing and peace (1:29).
Not only hum ans b u t also other creatures w ill be renewed. The renewal includes "heaven and
earth and a ll th e ir creatures" (1:29), w hich suggests th a t creatures dw elling in both heaven
and earth w ill be transform ed. O n earth, th is w ould include anim als as w e ll as hum an beings.
There are at least two ways to understand the changes to creatures in heaven: (1) The
heavenly bodies are transform ed. It specifically says in 1:29 th a t "the lig h ts w ill be renewed"
(cf. 19:25). (2) I t m ight suggest some k in d of change in the angels. W hile Jubilees does not
refer to any renewal o f good angels, it does say th a t Satan and demons w ill no longer be on
earth to tem pt and lead people astray (23:29; 50:5). This is a profound change in the
operation o f the cosmos, since demons frequently lead people in to sin in th is age. A lthough
th is sort of change does not benefit the demons, the point o f 1:29 is th a t the renewal of
creation is fo r the benefit o f the righteous o f Israel: The renewal is "fo r healing and peace and
179The present tem ple has been defiled by s in (e.g. 23:21). Davenport, 29-31.
203
blessing for all the elect of Israel."
The earth its e lf w ill be renewed and p u rifie d (1:29; 4:26; 50:5). The earth w ill be
sanctified from a ll sin , and the p o llu tio n and damage th a t sin caused to the land w ill be
removed (4:26; 50:5). The renewal o f the earth w ill be eternal (4:26, "throughout a ll genera
tions"; 1:27-29; cf. 23:30). There are fo u r sacred places on earth: Eden, M t. Sinai, M t. Zion
(4:25-26; 8:19) and "the m ountain o f the east" (4:26 only).180 These are sacred because on
each of these m ountains people came face to face w ith God.181 M t. Zion is p a rticu la rly
im p o rta n t, since God H im self w ill reign on earth from Zion and the sanctuary o f the Lord w ill
be there in the new age (1:26, 29). W hen M t. Z ion is sanctified, the whole earth w ill benefit
and be sanctifie d as w ell (4:26).
The renewal o f heaven and earth w ill be "according to powers o f heaven" (1:29). This
indicates th a t the transform ation w ill be by divine power, not hum an effort. The renewal w ill
also be "according to the whole nature o f earth" (1:29). This im plies a comprehensive
tran sform ation o f the w orld and suggests a physical dim ension to the changes. It also im plies
th a t the type o f changes o f each object w ill be in accordance w ith its basic nature. Thus the
tran sform ation o f the earth w ill be different than the transform ation o f the stars, yet a ll things
180W interm ute, "Jubilees," 63, suggests the "m ountain of the east" is M t. Qater, where
Enoch offered incense to God. T his is supported by the previous verse (4:25). The Syriac uses
Q ater in 4:26 instead o f "east." A less lik e ly solution is offered b y H erm ann R8nsch, Das Buch
der Jubilaen oder die kleine Genesis (Leipzig: Fues, 1874; re p rin t, Am sterdam : Rodopi, 1970),
505-6. He believes it refers to M t. Lubar, a m ountain in Ararat, on w hich Noah sacrificed after
the ark came to rest. This associates the fo u r holy m ountains w ith Adam, Noah, Moses and
David. See Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 39. n. 26 and W interm ute, "Jubilees," 63, n. n fo r other
suggestions.
181Charles notes th a t three o f these are connected w ith decisive tu rn in g points in history:
Eden was the firs t dw elling place o f hum an beings, M t. S inai is where the Law was given and
Zion is th e center o f the Theocracy (Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 39, n. 26). A better explanation
is th a t these are places where a hum an m et God face to face: Adam and Eve walked w ith God
in Eden (cf. 8:19, "the dw elling o f God"), Moses m et God on M t. S inai and God w ill dwell on M t.
Zion in th e new age, 1:26, 29). If "the m ountain o f the east" is associated w ith Enoch (Mt.
Qater), it also fits the idea th a t a person m et God on each holy m ountain, since Enoch was
know n as one who "walked w ith God."
i 204
w ill undergo profound renewal.
b . An E te rn a l G olden Age on E a rth
The tran sform ation o f heaven and earth In stitu te s an eternal golden age fo r hum an ity
on earth. There w ill be perfect righteousness and obedience to the Law (1:15-18; 23:26).
Satan and demons w ill no longer tem pt and lead people astray (23:29; 50:5). The righteous
w ill dw ell in th e land o f Israel (50:5). A ll the enemies of Israel w ill be judged (23:30). The
righteous w ill enjoy abundant peace, jo y and blessings (1:15-18, 22-25; 23:26).
T h is is an eternal age of blessing on earth. "Time" is m easured in a fixed num ber o f
Jubilees o f years from the o rig in a l creation u n til the new creation (1:29). From then on there
is an eternal age th a t w ill la s t "a ll the days o f the earth" (1:29; cf. 4:26: "throughout eternal
generations"; 50:5: "from th a t tim e and forever").182
The eschatological hope fo r the righteous is alm ost e n tire ly focused on earthly blessings
in the la n d o f prom ise, ra th e r th a n on a transcendental existence in heaven. The presence of
God w ill come to earth, ra th e r th a n the righteous going to heaven (1:26-29). God w ill ru le on
the earth from h is sanctuary on M t. Zion (1:28-29; cf. 4:26; 8:19). A possible exception is in
23:31: "th e ir bones w ill rest in the earth, and th e ir s p irits w ill increase jo y." C ollins believes
th is to be an a llu sio n to an afte rlife fo r the disem bodied s p irits o f the righteous.183 W inter-
m utes suggestion is more like ly . He believes it to be poetic hyperbole in d ica tin g th a t the
righteous w ill have assurance th a t th e ir enemies w ill be destroyed and th a t God w ill vindicate
182Charles in correctly assumes th a t the kingdom w ould be a tem porary m essianic kingdom
(R H. Charles, Eschatology. The Doctrine o f a Future L ife in Is ra e l Judaism and C hristianity.
2nd ed. (1913; re p rin t. New York: Schocken Books, 1963), 237-8; Charles, Book o f Jubilees,
150). Since the kingdom w ill come gradually he assumes th a t the Final Judgm ent could not
be f it in p rio r to the kingdom . He concludes, therefore, th a t the ju dgm ent m ust come after the
kingdom and the kingdom m u st be tem porary. T his, however, contradicts the e xp licit
statem ents th a t the kingdom is eternal (1:27-29; 4:26; 23:30). It is more lik e ly th a t the author
sim ply d id n o t concern h im self w ith these details o f eschatological chronology.
183C ollins, "Jew ish Apocalypses," 32; cf. Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 151.
205
the righteous.184
Since the fu tu re dw elling o f the righteous w ill be on earth, there are num erous physical
benefits fo r the righteous In th e golden age. A ll w ill be healed and henceforth enjoy perfect
hea lth (1:25; 23:30). The hum an lifespan w ill grow longer and approach the perfect ideal o f
1000 years (23:27). Even the elderly w ill appear y o u th fu l (23:28).185 The la nd its e lf w ill be
p u rifie d from the damage caused by sin (50:5). These physical benefits are the re su lt o f the
s p iritu a l tran sform ation o f Gods people.
A lthough the s p iritu a l and physical blessings in the eschatological golden age resemble
those found in other apocalyptic w orks, no Messiah w ill bring about the changes o r reign in
the golden age.186 Instead o f a Messiah, God him se lf w ill reign d ire ctly on earth (1:26-29).
The enemies of Israel w ill be judged and destroyed in a great eschatological b a ttle fought by
the Israelites (23:30).187
c. A Progressive Renew al o f C reation
The new creation and the eschatological golden age come about thro ugh a gradual
process (23:26-28; 50:5). By contrast, in m ost other Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s, the new
creation comes instantaneously and clim a ctica lly a fte r the Judgm ent (e.g. 4 Ez. 7:31-33, 75,
113; 2 Bar. 32:1-6; 57:2; 1 En. 10:16-11:2; 45:4-6; 69:26-29; 72:1; 91:16; 2 En. 33; 65:6-10;
cf. 2 Pet. 3:13; Rev. 20:1). In those apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t refe r to a golden age on earth, the
184W interm ute, "Jubilees," 102, says th a t eithe r in te rp re ta tio n is possible. Davenport, 40,
says th a t the fa ith fu l are n o t prom ised im m o rta lity, b u t th a t ju s tic e w ill come, even if a fte r
th e ir death. The stress is n o t on the rejoicing o f the dead, b u t on w hat they celebrate.
185Endres, 59, believes th is is based on Is. 65:20.
186Charles says there is a m essianic reference to a son of Judah in 31:18-19 Charles

Eschatology, 237. No role, however, is assigned to th is figure in the establishm ent and ru le of
th e earthly eschatological kingdom (1:29; 23:26-30). The Maccabean princes are m entioned in
th e blessing of Levi in 31:15 (Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 187).
f;
i 1S7It is n o t clear if 29:30 refers to a single battle o r the defeat o f the enemies over a period of
f tim e (cf. Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 151).
206
* 1 _ _ _ . . ___
golden age is u su a lly in s titu te d after Israels enemies are defeated in the fin a l battle of history,
led eithe r by th e Messiah (e.g. 2 B ar. 29:3-8; 39:7-40:3; 48:37b-41; 70:9; 72-74; 4 Ez. 7:26-28;
13:26-40) or b y God him self (e.g. 1 En. 90:12-18). In Jubilees, however, the righteousness
th a t is required o f Israel to b rin g about th e eschatological golden age w ill come about gradual
ly: "Jubilees w ill pass u n til Israel is p u rifie d from a ll the sin o f fornication, and defilem ent, and
uncleanness, and sin and error" (50:5). The tran sform ation does not even happen ra p id ly in
the la s t days; it w ill require "jubilees" o f years. A fte r people re tu rn to the Law, the lifespan of
people w ill gradu ally grow longer, u n til it approaches the ideal o f 1000 years (23:26). The
lifespan w ill "begin to increase and grow longer . . . generation by generation."
On the surface, the "new creation" referred to in 1:29 could appear to come about by an
instantaneous event. Yet a m ore consistent in te rp re ta tio n is th a t the "new creation" refers to
the cu lm in a tio n o f the process described in m ore detail in other passages (4:26; 23:26-28:
50:5).188 The language of 1:29, in fact, accommodates th is gradual renewal:189 "Heaven
and earth and a ll o f th e ir creatures sh a ll be renewed . . . u n til the sanctuary o f the Lord is
created in Jerusalem ." This suggests th a t the renew al o f creation is a process th a t w ill
continue u n til the tem ple is re b u ilt.190 The creation o f the new tem ple m arks the sta rt o f the
new creation, w h ich w ill la st "a ll the days o f the earth." This agrees w ith 23:27-30, w hich
describes a gradual increase in the typ ica l hum an lifespan as people begin to re tu rn to the
Law (v. 26). T h is renewal process culm inates in 23:29 where the people live In peace and
blessing and there are no m ore attacks from Satan o r dem ons.191
188Russell, M ethod and Message, 280: Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 9.
189Cf. Charles Eschatology, 236.
190Davenport, 30, n. 1, says th a t the a u th o r o f 1:29 expected the establishm ent o f th e new
tem ple to follow the eschatological events o f 23:14-31.
191The defeat o f Israels enemies in v. 30 m ay be one o f the fin a l stages o f the renewal
process th a t begins w ith the re tu rn o f th e Israelites to the Law. Presum ably the establishm ent
o f the tem ple (1:27, 29) w ould follow the m ilita ry victory. I f th is is so, v. 30 m ay be out o f
207
Jubilees lis ts several stages in the progressive renewal o f creation through h isto ry:192
(1) In the Flood, God destroyed a ll th a t was co rru p t and gave to a ll creatures a new and
righteous nature" (5:11-12). M uch of hum an ity q u ickly returned to s in fu l ways, b u t apparent
ly th e anim als never again had a period o f such co rru p tio n as they did under the influence o f
the fallen W atchers (5:1-3). Charles believes th a t th is te xt is co rru p t and refers to the fin a l
ju dgm ent and new creation, ra th e r than to the post-Flood period.193 O ther Jew ish apocalyp
tic m aterials, however, use the Flood as a type o f the F in a l Judgm ent (e.g. BW: 1 En. 10:16-
11:2; BP: 1 En. 54:1-3. 7-10; 55:3; Ep. En.: 1 En. 91:5-9, 15; 2 En. 70:10). Thus it is not
su rp risin g to see a discussion o f the Flood and F inal Judgm ent in the same passage. O ther
apocalyptic w ritin g s indicate th a t hum an ity had a fresh sta rt after the Flood (e.g. BW: 1 En.
10:7, 17-18, 22; 11:1-2; BP: 1 En. 67:7-10; Ep. En.: 1 E n 9 1 :5 ; Book o f Noah: 1 En. 106:17).
(2) The second phase o f the redem ption o f creation occurred w ith the establishm ent o f the
Jew ish people (19:25). The descendants o f Jacob were to "establish heaven and strengthen the
earth and to renew a ll o f the lig h ts w hich are above the firm am ent" (19:25). Thus the
righteousness o f the people o f God was to have a positive effect on heaven, earth, the heavenly
lu m in a rie s and a ll o f creation. (3) The fin a l renew al o f creation w ill take place a t the end o f
tim e, at "the new creation when heaven and earth and a ll o f th e ir creatures shall be renewed"
(1:29). A t th a t tim e, th e earth w ill be sanctified from a ll sin (4:26) and a glorious, eternal age
o f blessing w ill begin on earth (23:26-31). The other phases o f the renewal o f creation are only
chronological sequence, since the age of blessing is already established in v. 29. Davenport,
33 says w . 30-31 expand the description o f 24-29 and may have come from a different source
(cf. p. 39). The various elements occur at roughly the same tim e, ra th e r th a n sequentially. A
s im ila r so lu tio n is suggested b y Paul Volz, Die Eschatologie derjudischen Gemeinde tm
neutes tam entllchen Zeitalter nach den Q uellen der rabbischen, apokakjptischen vend apokryphen
Literatur (Tiibingen: J.C .B . M ohr, 1934), 29, although he does not suggest th a t the passages
came from different sources. However, Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 151, believes the defeat o f
the enemies w ill occur over a period o f tim e.
192Charles, Book o j Jubilees, 19.
193Ib id ., 10, 44-5.
208
anticipatory o f and pale in com parison to th is fin a l great tran sform ation o f creation. The
p o te n tia l o f righteousness given to h um an ity follow ing the Flood (5:12) and the potential fo r
renew ing creation th ro u g h the righteous obedience o f the Israelites (19:25) is fin a lly brought to
com pletion at th is tim e.
The renew al of the physical universe in Jubilees is always associated w ith the sp iritu a l
renewal of hum an ity, p a rtic u la rly Israel. As each Israelite lives a righteous life , heaven and
earth are strengthened, and the stars, sun and m oon are renewed (19:25). W hen people
re tu rn to the Law in the la st days, the hum an lifespan w ill lengthen, and a golden age of
blessing, health and peace w ill come (23:26-28). A fte r Israel is p u rifie d o f all sin they w ill
dw ell in the la nd in confidence and the land its e lf w ill be p u rifie d from the damage caused by
sin (50:5). Even as sin causes damage to creation, righteousness has a healing effect on
creation.
Eden is only m entioned in a few places (4:23, 25; 8:19-21) and the references contrib
u te little to an understanding of the fu tu re state o f th e righteous. Eden is a blessed place on
earth (8:21). The righteous w ill be able to go there, b u t it is sim ply p a rt o f the larger earthly
te rrito ry th a t Israel is to in h e rit (8:21). A lthough God dwells in E den (8:19), there is no
sp iritu a liza tio n o f Eden as a heavenly Paradise. Enoch w ent to E den (4:23; cf. 1 En. 70:1-3)
and he is apparently there now, recording the evil deeds o f h u m a n ity in preparation fo r the
Judgm ent (4:23; cf. 10:17; 2 En. 67:2). The references to Eden f it the emphasis on an earthly
fu tu re fo r the righteous.
The F in a l Judgm ent is frequently m entioned (e.g. 4:24; 5:13-16; 9:15; 10:13-16, 22;
16:9; 23:11; 24:33), although there is no undisputed reference to a universal Resurrec
tio n .194 A t the F in a l Judgm ent, God w ill judge every creature in heaven and earth (10:13-
194Charles, Book o f Jubiless, 150, believes th a t "they w ill rise u p " in 23:30 does n o t refer to
the R esurrection, b u t m eans th a t God w ill heal h is servants. T h is avoids the d iffic u lty th a t
since the kingdom arrives gradually, there is no place fo r a R esurrection in th is gradual
process. However, even if 23:30 does refer to the Resurrection, it is possible th a t the verse is
209
14). The evil W atchers and fa lle n angels w ill face eternal punishm ent, bound in the depths o f
the earth (10:5, 8-11: cf. 20:5). As was shown earlier, th e prim ary punishm ent fo r sin fu l
hum ans is destruction and rem oval from the la nd (21:22; 22:21-22; 29:11; 31:17, 20; 33:19;
35:14; 36:8-9; 49:9; 50:13; 26:34; 30:22; 36:9),195 even as the p rim a ry rew ard fo r the rig h
teous is a long life o f peace and blessing in a fu tu re golden age on earth. In a few passages
eternal punishm ent o f the wicked Is m entioned (36:10; 22:22; cf. 30:22). In th e m ost e xp licit
passage describing eternal punishm ent (36:10), there is a strong em phasis on physical
discom fort, such as torm ent, plagues and disease. Even as the righteous w ill dw ell In the land
in blessing and health, the wicked w ill be cast o u t o f the land and suffe r curses, torm ent,
disease and plagues.
The relatio nship between the F inal Judgm ent and the golden age Is unclear.196 Since
the golden age is eternal (1:27-29; 4:26; 23:30), the judgm ent could n o t occur afte r the golden
age. B u t since the golden age evolves slowly, it is hard to fit such a clim a ctic event as the
Judgm ent in to a gradually Im proving new w orld. Several solutions have been proposed:
(1) Charles believes th a t the kingdom is tem porary and the Judgm ent occurs after the
kingdom . No passage, however, e xp licitly says th a t the judgm ent w ill occur a fte r the kingdom
and, in fact, several passages state d ire ctly th a t the golden age w ill be eternal.197 (2) Daven-
n o t in chronological sequence. N ickelsburg argues th a t th is is p art o f the D euteronom istic

re trib u tio n pattern , ra th e r th a n a reference to the R esurrection (George W. E. Nickelsburg,
Resurrection, Im m ortality, and E ternal Life in Intertestam ental Judaism , H arvard Theological
Studies, no. 26 (Cambridge, Mass.: H arvard U niversity Press, 1972), 22). VanderKam , "Book
o f Jubilees," 135, believes it m ay refer to the Israelite arm y being raised up to defeat th e ir
enemies.
19SThe em phasis is on a D euteronom istic p a tte rn of re trib u tive ju stice : b re vity o f life and
disasters due to a fa ilu re to obey the term s o f the covenant (Endres, 231-3).
j 196M a rtin , "Le Livre des Jubiles," 529.

I
\ 197Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 150, says th a t the gradual transform ation o f the w orld does
I n o t allow the Judgm ent to occur p rio r to the kingdom . He observes, however, th a t I f 23:11 Is
I taken lite ra lly , the Judgm ent m ust occur before th e kingdom , since people live short lives u n til
the Judgm ent b u t In the kingdom they live up to 1000 years. Even though Charles solution is
210
p o rt says th a t the "day o f ju d g m e n t is a ctu a lly a period o f tim e in w hich the unrighteous are
defeated and destroyed.198 T h is is p a rtia lly true , since Jubilees sees the death o f the wicked
as a divine ju dgm ent fo r th e ir sin. (3) A be tte r solution is th a t the fin a l Judgm ent occurs after
the golden age has p a rtia lly developed.199 The "new creation" (1:29) m ay also come about at
th is tim e, afte r a su fficie n t change has occurred in the w orld to view it as a fundam entally new
order. One o f the p ivo ta l events th a t m arks the tra n sitio n to the new creation is the establish
m ent o f the new tem ple (1:29). The Judgm ent could occur a t approxim ately th is tim e. Of
course, Jubilees m akes no attem pt to w o rk out a precise chronology o f events, since it is more
concerned w ith the type o f tran sform ation th a t w ill take place.200
4 . The P ersonification o f C reation
Jubilees has very little personification o f the n a tu ra l w orld. The m ajor exception is th a t
after C ain m urders Abel, the blood o f Abel cries out from the ground, com plaining to God
about the m urd er (4:3). T his is largely taken from Gen. 4:10. Jubilees also says th a t p rio r to
the F all, a ll anim als spoke a com mon language (3:28), w hich suggests a fa ir degree o f ra tio n a l
consciousness in anim als.
Angels w o rk behind the scenes to control the operation o f n a tu ra l phenomena,
p a rtic u la rly various aspects o f the weather.201 There are angels o f fire , w inds, clouds, dark-
logical, it requires the rejection o f several clear statem ents in the book (including 23:11).
198Davenport, 36.
199M a rtin , "Le Livre des Ju b ile s," 529.
200Davenport, 3-5, believes these d ifficu ltie s are best explained b y m u ltip le levels of
redaction. Even if th is is tru e , it does not explain w hy the fin a l redactor was com fortable
leaving these apparently contradictory ideas in place. It is not unusual in apocalyptic fo r
details like these not to be fu lly integrated.
201A pparently these angels are in fe rio r to the angels o f the presence and the angels of
sanctification. The T alm ud says th a t the angels th a t control nature are in fe rio r to righteous
Israelites (Sanh. 93a; cf. Ber. Rabba 8: Tanch. 14. Cf. Charles, Book o f Jubilees, 12).
211
ness, snow, h a ll, fro s t, thunde r, lig h tn in g , cold, heat, w in te r, spring, autum n, and sum m er
(2:2). The Enoch apocalypses also refer to th is concept (BP: 1 En. 60:12-21; AB: 1 En. 75; 80;
82:7-20; 2 En. 19:1-4; cf. Rev. 14:18).202 W hile the theology of nature In these passages Is
sim ila r, the presentation o f the angelic operation of nature is quite different In Jubilees th a n In
th e Enoch lite ra tu re . In 1 and 2 Enoch, the angelic w orkings are "hidden things" (1 En.
60:11), w hich Enoch sees In h is heavenly journeys. In Jubilees, however, angels are discussed
in the context o f the creation story, when the angels th a t operate n a tu ra l phenomena were
created on th e firs t day along w ith the earth and the w aters.203 The existence of angels who
co n tro l nature Is sim ply taken fo r granted. T h is knowledge Is not p art o f the hidden secrets of
the universe, even tho u g h it Is revealed to Moses by an angel (2:1).
5 . Sum m ary o f Jubilees
Jubilees em phasizes th a t h isto ry and the cosmos follow divinely appointed cycles of
tim e. The cosm ic cycles and calendar are not affected by th e sins of people or fallen angels.
God controls the operation of the n a tu ra l w o rld and angels ensure its regularity. Nevertheless,
s in has other physical consequences. The curse o f the F a ll Included pain in childbearing, a
curse on the ground, and physical death. H um an lifespans have gradually become shorter
due to sin. S in defiles the earth, b u t when people are righteous, even the land benefits. P rior
to the Flood the sin o f the W atchers led to widespread hum an evil and even the s in of animals
These sins resulted In the co rru p tio n o f the earth. In the tim e of eschatological tria ls there w ill
be an increase in the physical deterioration o f creation due to hum an sin: Crops w ill become
less productive, people w ill age v e iy quickly, there w ill be plagues and m any anim als w ill die.
From the beginning, God planned fo r a new creation and appointed the tim e when it
i -
I
2021 En. 17 takes a m ore m echanistic view o f nature. The Bible tends to a ttrib u te such
n a tu ra l phenom ena d ire ctly to the w o rk o f God, ra th e r th a n angels (e.g. Ps. 77:18; 104:4, 7;
Job 37:4).
203In Jerusalem Targum Gen. 1, 26, the angels are created on the second day.
212
w ould come. Even though Jubilees refers to a "new" creation, the changes a ctu a lly Involve the
transform ation o f the existing creation, ra th e r th a n the destruction and recreation of the
universe. The renew al of creation w ill in clud e both s p iritu a l and m aterial dim ensions, anim ate
and inanim ate objects. Heavenly lu m in a rie s w ill be transform ed, the earth w ill be purified,
and even anim als w ill be renewed. There w ill be an eternal golden age on earth, w ith a longer
hum an lifespan, perfect health, and b o th s p iritu a l and physical blessings. The eschatological
! reward fo r the righteous focuses on th is renewed earth. The renewal comes through a gradual
process through history, ra th e r than as a clim actic event at the end o f tim e. Once people
i
re tu rn to the Law, the hum an lifespan w ill gradu ally grow longer through m any generations,
u n til it approaches the hum an ideal o f 1000 years. The renewal of the m ate rial w orld is
always dependant upon hum an righteousness.
There is little personification of nature, except th a t the blood o f the m urdered Abel cries
o u t to God from the ground. Angels w o rk behind the scenes to regulate the operation o f the
m aterial w orld.
The follow ing chart sum m arizes th e key points concerning the co rru p tio n and redem p
tio n o f creation in Jubilees:
Table 18: Summary of Jubilees
Corruption of Nature Redemption of Nature Personification of Nature
1. History and the cosmos are governed by regular, 1. The 'new creation' is a transformation of Angels operate the physical
divinely appointed cycles. the existing world. universe.
2. The fall resulted in death, pain in childbearing, and 2. The renewal is a gradual process, once
a curse on the ground. people return to the Law.
3. Sin defiles the earth. 3. The heavenly luminaries, the earth and
4. Human lifespan gradually grows shorter due to sin. even animals will be changed.
5. Sins of Watchers, humans and even animals cor 4. An eternal earthly golden age of righteous
rupted the earth prior to the Rood. ness will include a longer lifespan, health and
6. In the time of eschatological trials, the physical other physical blessings.
deterioration of creation will increase. 5. The future reward of the righteous focuses
on the renewed earth.
213
_____________________________
I CHAPTER 4:
I
!
iI 2 ENOCH (SLAVONIC ENOCH)
A . D ate, Provenance and Recensions o f 2 Enoch
2 Enoch (Slavonic Enoch) is one of the m ost Im po rtant extant Jewish apocalypses from
the Diaspora. It Is more d iffic u lt to date than m any apocalyptic w orks, since there is little
in d ica tio n th a t the book is a response to a p a rticu la r h isto rica l cris is and it deals w ith general
hum an sinfulness, id o la try and Injustice (e.g. 33-35)1 Proposed dates range from pre-C hris
tia n tim es to the late M iddle Ages! M aunder argues th a t it is a Bogom il creation from the 12th
to 15th centuries.2 M ilik believes th a t it is a C h ristia n w ork, w ith th e longer recension dating
from th e seventh century and the shorter recension dating from the n in th or te n th centuries.3
Nevertheless, a m a jo rity of scholars believe th a t at least the core is a Jew ish w ork
dating from between the firs t century B.C. to the firs t century A D ., although the extant MSS
include some m edieval glosses.4 The dualism is quite different th a n Bogom il dualism .5 The
'C o llin s, Apocalyptic Im agination, 197.
2A. S. D. M aunder, "The Date and Place of W riting o f the Slavonic Book o f Enoch," The
Observatory 41 (1918): 309-16. Her m ost significant evidences are: (1) the use of the J u lia n
calendar, w ith lu n a r epacts and a 532 day solar cycle; (2) dualism , in clud ing m ention of
"S atanil." Some accept her argum ents, b u t argue fo r a seventh ce n tu ry date: J. K. Fothering-
ham , 'The Date and Place o f W ritin g o f the Slavonic Enoch," JTS 20 (1919): 252 and "The
E aster Calendar and the Slavonic Enoch," JTS 23 (1922): 49, 54-5; K. Lake, "The Date o f the
Slavonic Enoch," HTR 16 (1923): 398; A V aillant, Le U vre Des Secrets D'H&noch, 2nd ed.,
Textes Publies Par LIn s titu t D Etudes Slaves (Paris: In s titu t dTStudes Slaves, 1976), v iii-x iii.
3M ilik , Enoch, 109, 112.
4R. H. Charles, "The Date and Place o f W riting o f the Slavonic Enoch," JTS 22 (1921):
161-4, refutes the argum ents o f M aunder and Fothertagham . He dates it between A D . 1-50,
w ith parts from 1-2 C. B.C. (Nevill Forbes and R. H. Charles, "2 Enoch, o r the Books o f the
Secrets o f Enoch," in Pseudepigrapha, ed. R. H. Charles, APOT Testam ent (Oxford: Clarendon,
1913), 2:429). Cf. Jam es H. Charlesw orth, The Pseudepigrapha and Modem Research. With, a
214
sh o rte r recension defends a solar calendar, w hich is typ ica l o f Second Temple Judaism and
co n tra ry to m edieval dualism .6 Odeberg and Alexander have shown a p a tte rn o f development
in Jew ish m ysticism from 1 Enoch to the M arkabah texts, w hich places 2 Enoch around the
firs t o r second century B.C. on th e trajectory.7 There is some evidence th a t 2 Enoch was
w ritte n w h ile the Jerusalem tem ple was standing,8 although some o f the sa crificia l practices
d iffe r fro m th e le v itica l practices.9 The evidence leans tow ard a firs t century date, b u t it is
d iffic u lt to be dogm atic in lig h t o f the te xtu a l unce rtainties.10
The question of provenance is closely related to the date. V a illa n t believes th a t
2 Enoch is a C h ristia n revision o f 1 Enoch,11 b u t there is too little in common between the
Supplement, Society of B ib lica l Lite ra tu re Septuagint and Cognate Studies, ed. H arry M.
O rlin sky (Chico, Ca.: Scholars Press, 1981), 104 (decades p rio r to destruction of the temple);
Jonas C. G reenfield, "Prolegomenon," in 3 Enoch or the Hebrew Book o f Enoch, ed. Hugo
Odeberg (New York: Ktav, 1973), x i (1 C. A D .) Hugo Odeberg, 3 Enoch o r the Hebrew Book o f
Enoch (New York: Ktav, 1973), 60-3 (1-2 C. B.C.). O rigen probably refers to 2 Enoch in De
P rtncipiis 1.3.2.
5The Bogom ils a ttrib u te d the creation o f Gen. 1 to th e w o rk of Satan, b u t 2 Enoch says
everything was created b y God. They also said Moses and the Law were from Satan. For
fu rth e r differences, see Charles, "Date and Place," 162-3; George G iacum akis, J r., "Bogomiles,"
NIDCC, J. D. Douglas, ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974), 162-3; Jam es H. C harlesw orth,
The O ld Testam ent Pseudepigrapha and the New Testam ent Prolegomena fo r the Study o f
C h ristian O rigins, SNTS M onograph Series, no. 54 (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press,
1985), 32-5, 150-1 n. 14.
6C harlesw orth, OT Pseudepigrapha and the NT, 34, follow s M eshcherskys Russian w ritin gs.
A solar calendar is also found in 1 Enoch and Jubilees.
7Odeberg, 60-3; P. Alexander, "3 (Hebrew Apocalypse of) Enoch," in OTP, ed. James H.
C harlesw orth (Garden C ity, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 1:247-8.
8E.g. 51:4 says it is good to go to "the Lords tem ple."
^ .g . the requirem ent to tie the legs o f a sacrificial anim al. A. R ubinstein, "Observations on
th e Slavonic Book o f Enoch," JJS 13 (1962): 13-4.
10C harlesw orth w isely cautions th a t b ib lic a l scholars w ill require more expertise in Slavonic
and m edieval dualism before m any o f these issues w ill be resolved satisfactorily. Furtherm ore,
some of the best research is only available in Russian. Charlesw orth, OT Pseudepigrapha and
the NT, 32-5
1Vaillant, iv-viii
215
tw o w orks to support th is theory. 2 Enoch has nothing th a t is d istin ctive ly C h ristia n , other
th a n some easily separated m edieval glosses. There is no C h ristia n savior or scheme o f
salvation and Enoch is exalted as Gods chosen.12 Scholem argues th a t nothing in 2 Enoch
could n o t have been w ritte n b y a firs t ce n tu ry Jew .13 Some believe the em phasis on
M elchizedek supports a C h ristia n com position.14 These sections, however, do n o t draw any
m essianic parallels to M elchizedek, and there are fundam ental differences between th is
p o rtra it o f M elchizedek and the one in Hebrews.15 M ost scholars now believe th a t 2 Enoch
was a produ ct o f D iaspora Judaism . I t was m ost lik e ly composed in Egypt, in view o f the
a llusions to E gyptian m ythology and the sim ila ritie s to P hilos theology.16 The general ethical
n ature o f the w ork shows it probably is not the product o f a conventicle o r closed circle .17
12See the critiq u e o f V a illa n t b y F. I. Anderson, "2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch," in OTP,
ed. Jam es H. C harlesw orth (Garden C ity, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 1:96.
13G. Scholem, 'D ie Lehre vom G erechten in der Judischen M ystik," ErJb 27 (1958): 251.
14V a illa n t, xi; R ubinstein, 14-5.
15E.g. in 2 Enoch M elchizedek has a m other, w hich contradicts the central p o in t o f the
m essianic type in Hebrews 7:3. See Anderson, "2 Enoch, 105. Sappington suggests th a t the
M elchizedek sections could be a polem ic against Hebrews (Thomas J. Sappington, Revelation
and Redemption A t Colossae, Jo u rn a l fo r the S tudy o f the New Testam ent Supplem ent, no. 53
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academ ic Press, 1991), 36, n. 5). The Q um ran lite ra tu re shows th a t
M elchizedek was im p o rta n t in some Jew ish circles.
16Forbes and Charles, 425-6; M. Philonenko, "La cosmologie du Livre des Secrets dHen-
och, in Religions en Egypte H ellenistique et Romaine. Colloque de Strasbourg 16-18 M ai 1967
(Paris: Presses U niversitaires de France, 1969), 109-16; M artha Him m elfarb, Ascent to Heaven
in Jew ish a nd C hristian Apocalypses (New Y o rk: O xford U niversity Press, 1993), 87; C ollins,
Apocalyptic Im agination, 195; N ickelsburg, Jew ish Literature. U lrich Fischer, Eschatologie und
Jenseitserw artung im hellenistischen Diasporajudentum , Z e itsch rift fu r die neutestam entliche
W issenschaft und die Kunde der Slteren K irche, no. 44 (B erlin: de G ruyter, 1978), 57-8, shows
how P hilonic and P latonic ideas about the visib le and noetic w orlds influenced 2 Enochs
eschatology. Cf. H im m elfarb, 85-6. N. S chm idt, "The Two Recensions o f Slavonic Enoch,"
I JAOS 41 (1921): 107-12, believes there is some evidence th a t the shorter recension is
i P alestinian.
i
17C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 198. However, Van Goudoever, 115, believes the
calendar in the short recension is "sectarian," due to the position o f the feasto f weeks. The
j long recension harm onized it w ith o fficia l Judaism .
216
The p rim a ry practice unique to a special group is the requirem ent to tie the legs o f a sacrificial
anim al before slaughtering it, a practice th a t was com mon in Egypt, though it is contrary to
the M ishnah.18
2 Enoch is only extant in Slavonic, w ith no m anuscripts e arlier th a n the 14th century.
M ost scholars believe it was o rig in a lly w ritte n in Greek.19 Broadly speaking there are two
recensions: a longer and a shorter. E a rlie r scholars tended to agree w ith Charles th a t the
longer recension is closer to the original and the shorter is an incom plete resume.20 Yet even
Charles acknowledges th a t the longer recension is sometimes co rru p t and has interpola
tions 21 T his has led m any recent scholars to argue th a t the shorter te x t is superior, since it
lacks these la te r expansions and C h ristian in terpo lation s.22 Anderson correctly notes th a t
th is tw o-fold division is too sim ple. The "longer" and "shorter" classifications are based on the
character o f the text, since m any MSS are fragm entary and both recensions have been
reworked by la te r scribes.23 Even MSS th a t are in the same fa m ily frequently have different
l8C ollins, A pocalyptic Im agination, 198.
1T h e re are traces o f Greek w ords and expressions. R ubinstein, 1-21; Anderson, "2 Enoch,"
94; C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 195. The Russian scholars Sokolov and M eshchersky
have argued th a t it was composed in a Sem itic language. See the sum m ary in Anderson, "2
Enoch," 94. M aunders claim th a t 2 Enoch is a late m edieval w o rk composed in Slavonic is
u n like ly (M aunder, 309-16).
20M o rfill, xv-xvi (intro duction by Charles); Forbes and Charles, 425; G. N. Bonwetsch, Die
Bucher der Geheimnisse Henochs: Das sogenannte slavische Henochbuch, Texte und U nter-
suchungen, no. 44 (Leipzig: J.C . H inrichs, 1922), x iii.
21Charles in tro d u ctio n to M o rfill, xv.
22N. Schm idt, 'Tw o Recensions," 307-12; V a illa n t, iv -v iii; M ilik , Enoch, 107-8; R ubinstein,
1; Van Goudoever, 112; C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 195; N ickelsburg, Jew ish Literature,
185.
23Anderson, "2 Enoch," 93-4; cf. C harlesw orth, (XT Pseudepigrapha and the IVT, 104, for a
sum m ary o f Andersons presentation at the 1977 SNTS Pseudepigrapha Seminar. The last 5
chapters (69-73) deal w ith Enochs descendants, p a rticu la rly M ethuselah and Melchizedek.
M o rfill, Bonwetsch and V a illa n t see th is section as a d is tin c t w o rk and include them in an
appendix. Charles dropped it from APOT. However, there is no MS evidence th a t it is a
d is tin c t w o rk (Anderson, "2 Enoch," 196, n. 69a.). In addition, the changes in the cycles of
217
readings. M any readings on ly found in the longer MSS are probably original. The longer
recension preserves ancient m ythologies, such as the "phoenixes" and "khalkedras," not found
In the shorter recension. In some cases, such as the section on creation (ch. 24-33), Anderson
says "the shorter account is so Incom plete and so disjointed th a t it seems more like the debris
le ft a fte r drastic revision th a n an o riginal succinct account."24 Some im portant MSS have
only been published recently and the te xtu a l c ritic is m o f 2 Enoch is at an elem entary stage o f
development. Fortunately, the them es th a t are im p o rta n t fo r th is study are generally found in
b oth the longer and shorter recensions.25
B. The C orruption o f C reation
1. The C onsistent O peration o f th e N atu ral W orld
2 Enoch stresses th a t creation operates in an orderly m anner as designed b y God. In
Enochs heavenly journey, he sees the secrets beh ind the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld (ch. 3-
7; 11-17; 24-32). He learns about the m ovem ents o f the stars, sun and m oon, and he discov
ers how the clouds, snow, ice, ra in and dew operate.
The overall picture is th a t the n a tu ra l w o rld operates very consistently, according to the
precise design o f God (e.g. 11-17; 40:3; 47:3-8; 48:7). Each cycle o f the sun and m oon follow s
an exact p a tte rn fo r a specific num ber o f days (ch. 13-16; 48 L) according to "the m ost precise
m easurem ent o f the hours" (48:4 L; cf. 65:3 L: "m easured exactly"). The stars, sun and m oon
move in a "peaceful order" (19:1 S). "The su n comes o u t according to the appointm ent o f the
seasons and according to the phases o f th e m oon" (13:1 L). These patterns are fixed and u n -
nature in th is section only m ake sense against the background o f the regularity o f nature
presented in the rest of the book.
24Ib id ., 94.
25For sim p licity, the term s "long" and "short" are used here. "Long" refers to J and "short"
to A, except as noted. Verse num bering and quotations are taken from Anderson. References
apply to both recensions, except where long ("L") o r sh o rt ("S") is specified.
218
changeable (48:1, 4 L). The celestial cycles are divinely appointed according to Gods wisdom
(33:3; 48:1, 4 L). God keeps everything stable (33:4 S) and w ith o u t Gods care, everything
w ould perish (33:4). God com m ands how the universe should function, and everything obeys
and subm its its e lf to Gods ru le (33:7, 12; 12:2 L; 15:1). Every creature, visible and Invisible,
w orks to b rin g glory to God (51:5 L).
Angels w o rk beh ind the scenes to guide the m ovem ent of the celestial bodies, the
changing o f the seasons, and the operation of the dew, clouds, snow and ice (e.g. ch. 3-6; 11-
17; 19:2). If there is the slightest deviation from the divinely-appointed pattern, angels make
th e necessary adjustm ents to restore the proper cosmic order (19:2-3).26
The orderliness o f the operation of the n a tu ra l w orld is a consequence o f the fa ct th a t
God created everything (ch. 24-32). He planned and created everything according to H is
wisdom (33:3), established the orderly patterns of the celestial bodies and seasons (48:4-5 L),
and brought everything to perfection (24:2). Since the universe operates according to Gods
design, its operation is perfect and consistent. Even after th e F all o f Adam and Eve, God
blessed a ll H is creatures, visible and invisible (32:1 L).
There is a m ora l fu n c tio n to calculating these cycles of nature. C ollins observes,
"Cosmology and eschatology are com plem entary factors w hich support the ethical message o f
the book."27 The longer recension says th a t God established the re g u la rity o f the seasons,
hours and days to encourage people to th in k about th e ir own life and death, in clud ing th e ir
good and bad deeds. The re g u la rity o f the cycles of the n a tu ra l w o rld should rem ind people
th a t th e ir life w ill come to an end in its norm al cycle and th a t they w ill be accountable fo r th e ir
deeds w hen th e y face the Judgm ent (65:4 L).
26In 19:3, the context (v.2) suggests "any evil activity" refers to a movement o f the celestial
objects th a t are not according to th e ir divinely appointed order.
27C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 197.
219
2. Aspects o f the Corruption o f Creation
There are a few exceptions to th is positive view of th e present state o f the w orld in
2 Enoch. The a u th o r refers to "th is va in w orld" (42:10 L, "the path o f change" in S). This is
not, however, a pessim istic statem ent about the fu tility o f life in th is age as is found in 4 Ezra.
The verse refers to th e va n ity o f follow ing the p ath o f sin, in th e context o f a series o f m oral
beatitudes and curses (42:5-14). B y contrast to a person w ho follows vanity, whoever "w alks
in the rig h t paths w ill in h e rit eternal life (42:10 L). "V anity is used in a s im ila r way in 70:1,
where the m oral choice to follow "vanity" is equivalent to tu rn in g away fro m the Lord.
2 Enoch also has a few references to th e suffering and darkness o f th is present age
(65:9-10; 66:6-8; 68:4). Every person experiences "the darkness o f th is present life " (68:4, "a
d a rk existence," M o rfill). The cu rre n t age is called "th is age o f suffering," in w hich the
righteous experience a fflictio n , distress and weakness (66:6). T his is contrasted to the "never-
ending age" in w hich th e righteous w ill enjoy m agnified blessings (66:6-8 L). In th is age,
people experience weariness, sickness, a fflictio n , d e b ilita tio n and darkness (65:9-10).
2 Enoch, however, never makes an explicit connection between the suffering o f th is age and
the hum an F all or the fa ll o f the W atchers. S uffering Is p a rt o f the lo t o f the righteous in th is
age, w hich they are to bear w ith d ig n ity so th a t they m ay in h e rit the fu tu re age o f blessing
(66:6L).
2 Enoch has a few references to the co rru p tio n o f th is age (65:8-10; cf. 8:5). In the new
age, "everything co rru p tib le w ill pass away, and the in co rru p tib le w ill come in to being" (65:10).
The context suggests th a t "corruptible" refers to weariness, sickness, a fflictio n , w orry and
d e b ilita tio n (v. 9). C o rru p tio n also is contrasted to "eternal life ," suggesting th a t corruption
involves decay and death (65:10, Forbes and Charles). T his w orld can be referred to as "the
corru p tib le " (8:9), probably because c o rru p tib ility characterizes life here.28 C orruption is not
28Paradise lies 'betw een the co rru p tib le and the in co rru p tib le " (8:5). T his probably refers to
the fact th a t Paradise has tw o parts: a p a rt on earth "in the east" and a p a rt in the th ird
220
interpreted in m oral term s as m uch as the suffering and death in th is age.
Despite these few references to suffering and corruption in th is age, the overall picture
is th a t the n a tu ra l w orld w orks as God designed it and has not been corrupted b y the sin of
hum ans or fa lle n angels.
There is little in 2 Enoch th a t w ould suggest th a t either hum an or angelic s in caused
damage to creation. The longer recension e xp licitly says th a t God d id not curse the creation
due to the F all o f Adam and Eve: "N either m ankind I cursed, nor the earth, n o r any other
creature, b u t only m ankinds evil fruitb earing " (31:7 L). The Fall did n o t re su lt in a curse on
th e earth, in contrast to Gen. 3:17-19. It also did not re su lt in a curse on the anim als.29
T his verse fits the m echanistic view of the cosmos in 2 Enoch, w hich says th a t the cosmos is
cu rre n tly as God designed, despite the F a ll o f hum anity. A fter the F all, God "blessed a ll m y
creatures, visible and invisible" (32:1 L). A pparently God only cursed the devil fo r rebelling
and leading Adam and Eve astray (31:3-7).30
The hum an race is n o t cursed due to the Fall. O nly the sin and ignorance o f hum an ity
are cursed (31:7 L).31 The F a ll did not co rru p t hum anity as a whole o r re su lt in an irrevers
ible inherited depravity. In 2 Enoch, some people are righteous and some are wicked, depend
in g on th e ir deeds (e.g. 42-47; 52). "The w orks o f m ankind - some are good b u t some are evil"
(42:14). There are even some tim es in h isto ry (such as the tim e of M ethuselah) w hen a ll
people lived in obedience to God (70: l) .32 W hile th is was a tem porary period, it shows th a t
heaven (w . 5-6). T his is discussed fu rth e r below.
29This sharply contrasts w ith Ap. Mos. 10:2-3; 11:2-3; 24:4; 26:1-4 and Jub. 3:28, w hich
refer to a profound change in the anim als due to the Fall.
30Cf. M o rfill, 45, who translates v. 7a, 'h u t I cursed h im for his ignorance," w hich he
in te rp re ts as a reference to Satan (see note 7). This is m ore consistent th a n Andersons
tra n sla tio n '1 cursed them ," w h ich contradicts the last h a lf of the verse, "m ankind I did n o t
curse" (Anderson, "2 Enoch," 154).
31Forbes and Charles, 451.
According to the long recension, "there was not found one single person tu rn in g h im self
221
2 Enoch does not assume th a t th e F a ll led to the Inherent sinfulness of a ll hum ans.
A n apparent exception is ch. 41. In the longer recension, Enoch weeps over the sin o f
Adam , hum an depravity and the "incapacity" o f Enochs ancestors (41:1 L). In the shorter
recension, however, he only weeps fo r the im pious (41:1 S). "Blessed is the person who has
n ot been bom , o r who having been bom , has n o t sinned before the face o f the Lord, so th a t he
w ill not come in to th is place n o r ca rry the yoke o f th is place" (41:2, both recensions). "This
place" probably refers to the place o f punishm ent th a t Enoch has ju s t visited (40:13).33 Yet
even in th is pessim istic outcry, th e a u th o r allow s fo r a person who "has n o t sinned before the
face of the Lord." People w ill suffe r forever even fo r sm all sins (42:2), b u t th e ir judgm ent w ill
be based purely on th e ir personal lives, n o t on the fact th a t they are descended from Adam
and Eve. Those who live lives th a t please God, w ill experience eternal blessing (42:5-14).
3 . The Cosm ic Im p act o f Sin P rio r to the Flood
The fallen 'W atcher" tra d itio n th a t is so im p o rta n t in 1 Enoch (6-16; 19; 86) only plays
a m in o r role in 2 Enoch. The book refers to ce rta in angels called "G rigori,"34 who rebelled
and sinned follow ing the leadership o f "Satanal" (7; 18: 31:3-7). They rebelled against God and
m arried hum an women, giving b irth to giants and m onsters. They fille d the earth w ith great
evil and "the earth was defiled by th e ir deeds" (18:4 L). Because of th e ir sins, they were judged
by God and are now im prisoned in darkness in the second and fifth heavens. In contrast to
1 Enoch (e.g. 7:5-6; 9:2), 2 Enoch does n o t say th a t the earth or nature were corrupted or
harm ed b y the sins of the watchers. The reference to the "defiling o f the earth" (18:4 L)
probably refers to the m oral co rru p tio n o f h u m a n ity (cf. v. 5) ra th e r th a n any damage to the
away in va n ity from the Lord" (70:1). In the sh o rte r recension, when people turned away from
the Lord, M ethuselah corrected them and led them to repentance.
33A pparently the forebears o f Enoch, in clu d in g Adam and Eve, were in Hades. Cf. M o rfill,
56-7, n. XLI. 1, X L II. 5.
34G rigori is a Slavonic tra n s lite ra tio n o f eypffropoi, th e Greek w ord fo r "W atchers."
222
n a tu ra l w orld.
S in had a profound effect on the n a tu ra l w o rld at the tim e p rio r to the Flood, when
hum an s in Increased u nco ntrollab ly. In 2 Enoch, the Flood was a judgm ent of God on the
sins o f h u m a n ity (34:1-3; 70:4-6; 71:27-28). A lthough the sins of the W atchers (Grigori) are
alluded to (7:3), 2 Enoch does n o t blam e the evils o f th e w o rld p rio r to the Flood on the
W atchers.35 Enoch pre d icts th a t p rio r to the Flood, th e regular cycles of nature w ould break
down (70:7). The precisely ordered seasons w ill change, w hich is a fundam ental change in the
d ivine ly appointed operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld. The nature o f trees and fru its w ill change.
The precise change in the trees and fru its differs in various MSS: In R (a long MS), each fru it
changes its "seed" (semena), b u t in the shorter MSS (such as A), the fru it changes its tim e
(vremena).36 Both readings re fe r to profound changes in the n a tu ra l w orld: E ith e r the nature
of p la n t life or the tim in g o f the life cycles o f p la n ts w ill change. A ll MSS agree th a t these
profound changes in na tu re "anticipate the tim e o f destruction" (70:7).
There is a close re la tio n sh ip between the m oral deterioration of h um an ity p rio r to the
Flood and the fu n ctio n a l deterioration o f the n a tu ra l w orld. B oth are described as a "very
great breakdown on the earth" (70:5) th a t w ill precede the ju dgm ent o f the Flood. The
"change" to the earth and th e hum an race are parallel: "the earth w ill change its order" and
"the n a tio n s w ill change on th e earth" (70:7 S). A lth ough there is no exp licit cause-effect
re la tio n sh ip between increasing sin and th e cosm ic breakdow n, b oth are related elements of
the collapse of the w orld p rio r to the Flood.
2 Enoch draw s a p a ra lle l between the conditions o f th e w o rld p rio r to the Flood and the
35One verse refers to the w o rk o f the devil in connection w ith the evils o f the pre-Flood era:
"the adversary w ill m ake h im s e lf great and w ill be delighted w ith h is deeds" (70:6). However,
th is appears to refer to the d e vils encouragem ent o f th e evil deeds o f hum an ity (w . 4-6), not
the deeds o f the W atchers.
36Anderson, "2 Enoch, 201, n. k. The whole clause about the trees is m issing in J , an
im p o rta n t long MS.
223
conditions o f the w orld p rio r to the end o f the w o rld and fin a l Judgm ent (70:10). In both cases
there w ill be a ra d ica l increase in hum an sin p rio r to the end. The e xp licit p a ra lle l to the
changes in the n a tu ra l w orld is n o t draw n. Yet the fa ct th a t th e tim e o f the Flood is a pa tte rn
fo r th e end o f the w orld suggests th a t the changes in nature th a t accompanied the m oral
breakdow n p rio r to the Flood m ay also be expected to be re cu r a t the tim e of the end.
4 . A cco u n tab ility fo r T reatm en t o f N ature
In a few places, hum ans are held accountable fo r th e ir treatm ent o f the n a tu ra l w orld
(58:3-6: 59:1, 4-5; 52:5-6). The clearest passage is 58:3-59:5. God made hum an beings to be
lo rd over the m ate rial creation (58:3). As a re su lt, hum an beings are accountable fo r th e ir
treatm ent o f nature. A t the fin a l Judgm ent, God w ill ju dge people according to how they have
treated anim als (58:4, 6). The souls o f anim als w ill accuse the people who have m istreated
them (58:6). Inadequately feeding an anim al (59:4) and im properly preparing an a n im a l before
k illin g it fo r sacrifice (58:6)37 both in c u r Gods ju d g m e n t (59:4). Even harm done to a n
anim al in secret w ill be judged (59:5). M o rfill suggests th a t th is secret s in against an anim al
refers to b e stia lity.38 Sin against an anim al does harm to a persons soul (59:1, 4-5), even as
harm ing o r m urdering a hum an does (60:1). Anyone who "despises any o f the Lords crea
tures" is cursed (52:6 L, shorter has "insults").
C. The R edem ption o f C reation
1. The Com ing New Age
2 Enoch teaches th a t th is w o rld and th is age w ill come to an end and a new age w ill
come. A t the end o f the age, heaven and earth w ill come to an end (18:7). "The w hole o f
creation, visible and in visible, w hich the Lord has created, sh a ll come to an end" (65:6). Even
37Forbes and Charles, 465, n. 1, suggests th is refers to strangling the anim al.
38M o rfill, 75, followed by Anderson, "2 Enoch," 184-5, n. 59a.
224
tim e its e lf w ill come to an end and the regular cosmic cycles w ill cease (65:7). The present
"age o f suffering" (66:6) w ill end (47:2) and a glorious new age w ill come (32; 33; 50:2, 5; 51:2;
65:8-10; 66:6).
The sequence o f eschatological events is clearly described in 65:6-10: (1) the end o f
creation and th is age (v. 6); (2) the fin a l Judgm ent (w . 6, 8); (3) tim e w ill end (v. 7); (4) the
eternal new age w ill begin (w . 7-8); (5) a ll th a t is corruptible w ill pass away (w . 9-10); and
(6) the righteous w ill experience eternal blessings in Paradise (w . 9-10). A lthough th is
sequence is generally consistent w ith other Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs, 2 Enoch has no clear
reference to the resurrection o f the body.39 The fin a l Judgm ent is frequently m entioned as
the tra n s itio n to the new age. Judgm ent is based purely on an in d ivid u a l's ethical behavior in
th is life and determ ines w hether the person w ill experience either eternal blessing o r suffering
(e.g. 39:5; 44:5; 46:3; 48:8-9; 50:2; 51:3; 52:15; 53; 58:3-6; 65:4-8; 66:3-7).
The "coining age" (50:2 L; 32 title L) is also called the "fin a l age" (33:11; 50:2; 51:2), the
"never-ending age" (66:6 L), the "endless age" (50:2 S) and the "fin a l endless age" (50:2 L). A ll
o f these term s indicate th a t the new age is eternal (cf. 65:8, 10). Time w ill come to an end and
there w ill be no reckoning o f tim es and seasons (33 title L; 33:2; 65:7-8). T his is in sharp
contrast to the precisely calculated tim es and cycles o f nature in the present age (e.g. 65:3).
The new age is called the "great age" (58:5; 61:2; 65:8), because o f the greatness o f the
blessings the righteous w ill enjoy. The righteous w ill dw ell in 'blessed dw ellings" (61:2-3; cf.
65:10) and w ill enjoy great treasures and rewards (50:5; 51:2; 61:2). A ll suffering w ill come to
an end fo r the righteous (66:6 L). Every good th in g in the present age w ill be m agnified in the
age to come (66:7-8 L). The righteous w ill shine seven tim es as b rig h t as the sun (66:7).
Light, food, enjoym ent and the pleasures of Paradise w ill be m u ltip lie d sevenfold (66:8).
"Sevenfold sym bolizes the perfection o f these blessings. Paradise w ill be a place of incredible
jo y and riches (42:3-5). By contrast, the sufferings o f the wicked w ill be m u ltip lie d sevenfold in
39Forbes and Charles, 467.
225
the new age (66:8). They w ill experience m agnified darkness, m isery and physical tortures,
such as fire and fro st. The w icked w ill experience endless punishm ent and suffering In h e ll
(40:13: 41:2; 42:2).
The righteous w ill enjoy m any physical blessings In the new age. There w ill be no
sickness, weariness o r a fflictio n s (65:8-10). There w ill be "a great indestructible lig h t" and no
darkness (66:9-10). Everything co rru ptible w ill pass away (65:10). "C orruptible" here
p rim a rily refers to th in g s th a t are subject to decay and destruction. Everything the righteous
w ill experience in the new age w ill be indestructible: "great indestructible lig h t," in corrup tible
Paradise and eternal dw ellings (65:10). Since 2 Enoch does not stress the co rru p tio n o f th is
age o r the damage o f o rig in a l sin, the end o f co rru p tio n is not a m a jo r theme.
2 . C haracteristics o f Paradise
The righteous w ill dw ell fo r eternity In Paradise (66:10). There are two aspects to
Paradise: the e a rth ly Paradise in Eden40 (31:1 L; 42:3-5), and the heavenly Paradise In the
th ird heaven (8-9). The heavenly Paradise is located In the th ird o f seven heavens (8-9). The
earthly Paradise is a garden in Eden (31:1), In an am biguous location "in the East" (31:1 L;
42:3). Even though it is earthly, it is closed o ff from th e rest of "th is world" (42:3). T his idea is
derived from Gen. 3:23-24, w hich describes the banishm ent of Adam and Eve from Eden.
B oth Paradises are already In existence, aw aiting the righteous who w ill go there after
the Judgm ent. In 2 Enoch, the sharp division between the present w orld and the transcen
dental w orld is largely spatial. A lthough the tem poral division is less pronounced than In
some apocalyptic w ritin gs, it is s till present In 2 Enoch, since it says the righteous w ill not
enter th is other w o rld u n til afte r the Judgm ent.41 There is no need, however, fo r a radical
re stru ctu rin g of a damaged creation, since th is perfect w orld already exists, ready fo r the
402 Enoch consistent uses "Edem."
4C ollins, A pocalyptic Im agination, 198.
226
righteous to in h a b it it.
The longer recension says there Is an open lin k between the earthly Paradise and the
heavenly Paradise (8:4-6 L; 31:1-2 L; 42:3 L; 71:28 L). There Is an e xit fro m the heavenly
Paradise to the earthly Paradise o f Eden (8:4 L). A lthough the tree o f Life is in th e Paradise In
the th ird heaven, its root is a t th is e xit to the earth (8:4 L). The stream s in the heavenly
Paradise flo w o u t into the Paradise o f Eden (8:6 L). S im ila rly, the earthly Paradise is open to
heaven (42:3 L; 71:28). W hen Adam and Eve were in Eden, they could see angels since
Paradise w as open to heaven (31:1-2 L). The statem ent th a t "Paradise is in between the
co rru p tib le and the in co rru p tib le " (8:5 L) m ay suggest th is d u a l nature o f Paradise. Several
in te rp re ta tio n s have been proposed fo r th is verse: (1) Anderson suggests th a t the Paradise in
the th ird heaven lies between th e regions o f change (firs t and second heavens) and the
changeless fo u rth through seventh heavens.42 (2) M o rfill m akes the u n lik e ly suggestion th a t
Paradise is a place of probation th a t m ig h t re s u lt in eithe r c o rru p tib ility o r in c o rru p tib ility .43
T h is w ould on ly apply, however, w h ile Adam and Eve were in Paradise, not in the new age.
(3) Forbes and Charles believe it m eans th a t Paradise is at th e earths end (cf. 1 E n. 3 3 :l) .44
(4) A fu lle r explanation is th a t Paradise consists o f tw o parts: a n earthly p a rt and a heavenly
p a rt. The heavenly part is in the in co rru p tib le heavens, b u t the earthly p a rt is associated w ith
the co rru p tib le earth, yet is in some sense d is tin c t from the earth. T his in te rp re ta tio n is
supported b y 8:6, w hich says th a t the stream s o f Paradise ru n 'between the co rru ptible and
the in co rru p tib le ." The stream s s ta rt in the heavenly Paradise (v. 5), go through the exit to the
earth (v. 5) and "come out in to th e Paradise o f Eden" (v. 6). Thus 2 Enoch merges the tw o
earlier conceptions of Paradise in to one:45 Paradise is both heavenly and earthly, w ith an
42Anderson, "2 Enoch," 116, n . 1.
43M o rfill, 8.
44Forbes and Charles, 434. M o rfill, 8, suggests th is as an alternate possibility.
45Cf. Forbes and Charles, 434. The earthly Paradise is found in Gen. 2:8-17; 1 En. 32:3-6;
227
open connection between the tw o sections.
There is some am biguity w hether the fu tu re dw elling place o f the righteous w ill be
heavenly o r earthly. A lthough the righteous w ill dw ell in Paradise (8-9: 42:3), the location o f
the 'blessed dwellings" o f the righteous is sometimes am biguous (61:5).46 In some instances
the righteous are prom ised the Paradise of Eden (e.g. 42:3), w hile in others they are prom ised
the Paradise in the th ird heaven (e.g. 8-9). The so lu tio n lie s in the d u a l nature o f Paradise and
the close lin k between the earthly Eden and the heavenly Paradise. Since the earthly and
heavenly Paradises are lin ke d together, in some sense they constitute a single Paradise, w ith
e a rth ly and heavenly dim ensions. The righteous are allowed free access to both the heavenly
and earthly Paradise.
3 . N ature in th e New Age
B oth the earthly and heavenly Paradises have m aterial dim ensions and aspects o f
nature. T his is expected o f the earthly Paradise, since Eden is called a "garden" (31:1),
suggesting an abundance o f b e a u tifu l p la n t life . The concept th a t Paradise is a garden is also
extended to the Paradise in the th ird heaven (8). The description of the heavenly Paradise is
h ig h ly sensual. Pleasant fragrances f ill the a ir (8:2-3). N ature is not m erely present in
Paradise, it reaches its fu ll perfection and fe rtility there. Every p la n t is abundantly fru itfu l, fa r
beyond anything in th is w orld. Every tree is in flow er, every fru it is ripe, every p la n t produces
fru it profusely (8:2, 7). Every k in d o f good edible p la n t grows in the garden (8:3 S). It has the
Tree o f Life, w hich is m ore b e a u tifu l th a n any other p la n t and has an indescribably pleasant
fragrance (8:3-4). There are fo u r rivers flow ing w ith gentle movement (8:2 S). Two stream s
I flow w ith honey and m ilk and others produce o il and wine (8:5). This suggests an abundant
, provision fo r every physical need of the righteous. Gods interest in the n a tu ra l w orld is
l
f
76:3. The heavenly Paradise is found in 1 En. 60:8; 61:12; 70:3.
46Anderson, "2 Enoch," 186, n. f.
I 228
affirm ed by the fact th a t God frequently47 takes a rest in th is garden in Paradise (8 :3 )48
Not only w ill there be perfected p la n t life in the new age, b u t there is a strong indica
tio n th a t anim als w ill be there as w ell. Anim als have souls (58:4-6) and animals w ill appear at
the fin a l Judgm ent (58:6). A lthough anim als w ill not be judged (cf. 58:4 L), they w ill testify
against hum ans who have m istreated them (58:6, cf. v. 4). The longer recension is ambiguous
about w hether anim als w ill rem ain alive after the Judgm ent or w hether they are sim ply
preserved u n til the Judgm ent to give testim ony against wicked hum ans.49 The shorter
recension clearly indicates th a t anim als w ill have a special place in the new age: "For a ll the
souls o f the beasts there is in the great age a single place and a single paddock and a single
pasture" (58:5 S). The "pasture" indicates th a t anim als w ill have th e ir needs m et in eternity.
The reference to "paddock" m ay indicate th a t only domesticated anim als are in view or it m ay
indicate th a t there is a special place reserved fo r a ll anim als in eternity.50
In general, the fu tu re hope in 2 Enoch is fo r a restoration o f the pre-Fall conditions,
ra th e r th a n a new heavens and earth or a renovation o f the existing world. Since the present
creation was not corrupted by sin, there is no need fo r a radical renovation o f creation. The
righteous w ill once again live in Eden (42:3). The concept of Paradise, however, is extended to
include n o t only the o riginal e arthly Eden, b u t also the heavenly Paradise, w hich is linked to
the earthly Paradise.
47Ib id ., 115, n. f.
48Cf. Gen. 3:8. Ez. 28:13 and Gen. 13:10 refer to Eden as "the garden of God."
49M o rfill, 73, believes anim als w ill only live long enough in the new age to b ring an
indictm ent against hum ans who m istreated them . Some MSS in the longer recension could be
interpreted th is way, b u t the shorter recension says anim als w ill live in the new age (58:5).
Some o f these ideas are sim ila r to those found in Zoroastrianism : E.g. A person who
m urders a dog w ill be severely punished and the soul o f a dog w ill live after death (Zend-Avesta
Vendidad Fargard 13). Cf. M idrash Koheleth 329.1 w hich refers to the judgm ent o f wolves and
u n fru itfu l trees. M o rfill, 73-4, refers to other w ritin g s th a t refer to the fu tu re life of anim als
229
u ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -
D . The Personification o f Creation
A lthough the personification o f th e n a tu ra l w orld is n o t common in 2 Enoch, it
fu n ctio n s to stress the re g u la rity o f the operation o f the cosmos.
In m ost cases, inanim ate objects in nature are n o t personified as ra tio n a l beings.
Instead angels are said to control th e ir operation (4-6; 11; 19). There are angels th a t govern
th e stars, sun, m oon, snow, ice, clouds, dew, rivers, ocean, fru its o f the earth, grass and
variou s o th e r aspects o f nature. These angels "harm onize all existence, heavenly and earthly"
(19:3 L). They ensure "the w ell-being of th e cosmos" (19:2 L) and cause the n a tu ra l w orld to
fu n c tio n in an orderly m anner according to Gods w ill. "W hen they see any evil activity" (i.e.
som ething n o t fu n ctio n in g as God intended), "they p u t the com mandm ents and in stru ctio n s in
order (19:3 L).
There is one im portant instance where an inanim ate object is described as a m ythologi
cal anim ate being. In the longer recension, the solar elements are called "phoenixes"51 and
"khalkedras"52 (12:1-2 L; 15:1 L).53 These are a type o f huge celestial b ird , described as
"flyin g s p irits "54 w ith the form o f a lio n and the head of a crocodile. They are m ulticolored
lik e a rainbow and have 12 w ings, s im ila r to an angels wings (12:1-2 L).55 They ru n w ith the
51T his is the only know n place where the phoenix is n o t one of a kin d (Anderson, "2 Enoch,"
122, n. c; M o rfill, 12).
Khalkedras are norm ally brass serpents, so these m ay be some type o f flyin g , heavenly
serpent. M orp hil believes they m ay be Seraphim (M orfill, 13). Anderson, "2 Enoch," 122,
suggests th a t in these passages "phoenixes" and "khalkedras" m ay refer to the same creatures,
since they share the same description and function.
There is considerable va ria tio n between MSS. In the shorter recension, angels p u ll the
ch a rio ts o f the sun and carry the heat and dew (11:4-12:2). Even the long MSS differ: R says
th a t the solar elements are lik e these m ythological creatures, b u t J and P id e n tify them w ith
these creatures. See Anderson, "2 Enoch," 122, n. 12a.
MIn 19:6 the phoenixes are associated w ith angels. In 1 En. 20:7, the khalkedras are
classed w ith the Cherubim .
55The description o f these creatures does n o t p arallel other ancient lite ra tu re . M o rfill, 12-4,
has an extensive survey o f other ancient legends about these creatures. Anderson, "2 Enoch,"
230
sun, carrying heat and dew to th e earth (12:3 L). They sing w ith jo y as they produce the lig h t
o f the su n and tra n sp o rt its heat to earth (15:1 L). They are com pletely obedient to God, doing
w hatever He commands (12:3 L).
A ll types o f creatures praise and g lo rify God. The longer recension says th a t "every
k in d o f s p irit glorifies h im and every k in d o f creature, visible and in visib le , praises him " (51:5
L; cf. Ps. 150:6).56 The creation rejoices at the proper operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld. B ird s
fla p th e ir w ings and sing w ith jo y a t the sig ht o f the sun (15:1-2 L). The birds show em otion
(Joy) and have some language a b ility , as shown in the m eaning o f th e ir m orning song (v. 2).57
Even th e inanim ate creation expresses emotions. W hen the su n comes dose to the earth in
sum m er, "the earth is m erry and m akes its fru it grow" (48:3). B y contrast, the earth lam ents
when the sun moves away from the earth in w inter, an the trees do n o t produce fru it (48:3).
God com m ands various p a rts o f nature, w hich obey H im . He com m ands the seasons
(33:12 L), the sun (12:2 L) and th e b ird s (15:1), A ll creation is obedient to God (33:7). The
obedience o f these aspects o f n a ture shows a degree of intelligence and a m oral w ill th a t
subm its to God.
A nim als have some degree o f ra tio n a l intelligence, consciousness and speaking
a b ility .58 They have souls (58:4-6) and the shorter recension says they w ill live in th e new
age (58:5 S). A nim als w ill appear a t the Judgm ent to give testim ony against those w ho m is-
122, n. f, suggests th a t the a u th o r m ay only have been fa m ilia r w ith th e names.
O nly P has "praises him ," w h ich is the strongest personification. A ll long MSS have the
rest o f the verse, w hich indicates th a t a ll o f Gods creatures g lo rify God.
57M o rfill, 17 believes th is song was sung b y the phoenixes and khalkedras ra th e r th a n
e arthly birds. The song o f the b ird s, however, is distinguished from th e song of the phoenixes
and khalkedras (Forbes and Charles, 437). The b ird s rejoice at the "giver of light," w hich
refers to "the solar elements, called phoenixes and khalkedras" (15:1). H im m elfarb notes th a t
the e a rth ly b ird s echo the song o f the heavenly b ird s " in praise o f God (Him m elfarb, 83).
Cf. Jub. 3:25; Josephus A n t i. 1.4, w hich suggest th a t anim als had spoken before the fa ll
and th u s had some ra tio n a lity. See M o rfill, 73-4, fo r a discussion of th e ra tio n a lity o f a n im a ls
in ancient Greek and Jew ish lite ra tu re .
231
treated them (58:6). There is no in dica tion, however, th a t anim als w ill be judged concerning
th e ir m oral behavior.59
i
I
B. Sum m ary o f 2 Enoch
I
There is little in 2 Enoch to suggest th a t creation has been corrupted by th e F a ll o f
! hum an ity o r the s in o f the W atchers. The n a tu ra l w orld operates very consistently, according
to the precise design o f God. A n exception occurs ju s t p rio r to the Flood, when the norm al
cycles o f nature are disrupted. The d isru p tio n o f nature is closely connected w ith the radical
increase o f hum an sin a t th a t tim e. A few passages refer to the suffering, darkness and
co rru p tio n o f th is present age, in w hich people experience weariness, disease, afflictio n s and
w orry. T his suffering, however, is n o t said to be a consequence of the Fall o r the deterioration
of the w orld. God d id n o t curse the earth o r anim als due to the Fall o f Adam and Eve. The
hum an race is n o t cursed due to the F all, b u t in d ivid u a ls are cursed fo r th e ir own sins,
in clu d in g the m istreatm ent o f anim als.
T his w orld and a ll o f creation w ill come to an end and an eternal new age w ill come.
The blessings of the righteous in the com ing age w ill include physical benefits such as the end
o f sickness, weariness and affliction . A ll co rru p tio n w ill cease. The new age involves a
restoration o f the pre-F ail conditions so th a t the righteous again dwell in Paradise. Paradise
includes both earthly and heavenly com ponents, w hich are closely linked. The righteous can
freely trave l between the earthly Eden and the Paradise in the th ird heaven. B oth the earthly
and heavenly Paradise w ill include a perfected n a tu ra l w orld, w ith abundantly fru itfu l plants.
A nim als w ill live in the new age and w ill te stify in the judgm ent about the hum ans who abused
' them .
1
I The personification of the n a tu ra l w orld stresses the regularity of the cosmos. Angels
59lh is contrasts w ith the M ishnah, w hich has rules fo r the tria l o f accused a n im a ls (Sanh
ch. 1). Gen. 9:5; Ex. 21:28-32 also established the accountability o f anim als fo r th e ir crim es,
a t least in th is life. Cf. Anderson, "2 Enoch," 184, n. c.
232
ensure the orderly operation o f nature. A ll creation, in clud ing anim als, the seasons and the
sun, praise and g lo rify God and obey Gods commands. Even inanim ate creatures express
em otions, such as the jo y o f the earth and the singing o f the b ird s when the sun comes out.
A nim als have a least a degree o f ra tio n a l intelligence, since they w ill te stify at the Judgm ent.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the key points concerning the co rru p tio n and redemp
tio n of creation in 2 Enoch:
Table 19: Summary of 2 Enoch
1. The Fail did not disrupt the orderly operation of 1. This world and age will come to an end. 1. Personification stresses the regu
the natural world. Neither the world nor animals 2. A new age is coming with a restoration of larity of nature.
were cursed because of Adam and Eve's sin. the pre-Fail conditions, in which the righteous 2. All creation obeys God's com
2. The cosmos and the cycles of nature operate will dwell in Paradise. mands and praises God.
predictably according to God's design. 3. The righteous will be greatly blessed, with 3. Animals and the earth have emo
3. The regular cycles of nature were disrupted when no sickness, weariness or affliction. tions such as joy.
human sin radically increased prior to the Flood. 4. All corruption will cease. 4. Animals have some rationality,
4. This age is one of darkness and corruption, al 5. Paradise has earthly and heavenly dimen since they will testify in the Judg
though each person is responsble for his own sin. sions, which are closely linked. Both include ment about humans who abused
5. People who mistreat animals will be judged. perfected nature, such as super fruitful plants. them.
5. Animals will live in the new age.
233
. , ... ---------
CHAPTER 5:
JEWISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

FROM THE FIRST CENTURY A D .
The co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation are im p o rta n t them es in m any Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s from the firs t century A.D. 4 Ezra and 2 B aruch were w ritte n sh o rtly after
the destruction of Jerusalem . The date o f the Book o f Parables (1 Enoch Book 2) is less
certain, b u t the w o rk also probably comes from the firs t century. A lthough the form of
Apocalypse o f Moses is s tric tly speaking eithe r a testam ent or a m idrash on Gen. 1-4, the w ork
has num erous characteristics in form and content th a t are sim ila r to the Jew ish apocalypses.
A. 1 Enoch Book 2 (ch. 37-71): The Book o f Parables
1. D ate and Provenance o f th e Book o f Parables
The Book o f Parables (BP) in 1 Enoch consists o f three "parables" o r "revelatory
discourses"1 (ch. 38-44; 45-57; 58-69), plu s an in tro d u ctio n (ch. 37) and double epilogue
about Enochs ascension (ch. 70-71). The them es emphasized include the F inal Judgm ent by
the Son of M an or E lect One, the Flood, w h ich is a type o f the F in a l Judgm ent, and Enochs
journeys to see heaven, the place o f punishm ent and the secrets of n a tu ra l phenomena.
The date of th is m a te ria l is highly disputed. M ilik argues th a t BP is a C hristian w ork of
ca. A.D. 270,2 though few have accepted h is argum ents.3 The cu rre n t consensus is th a t it is
'C f. Nickelsburg, Je w ish Literature, 214.
2M ilik , Enoch, 89-98. M ilik s m ajor argum ents have found little acceptance: (1) The fact
th a t BP is m issing from Q um ran proves little , since the lib ra ry did n o t include a ll w orks from
the period. Furtherm ore, BP m ay have been unacceptable because the sun and moon are of
nearly equal im portance in ch. 41, instead o f the sun being superior (Jonas C. Greenfield and
M ichael E. Stone, "The Enochic Pentateuch and the Date o f the S im ilitudes," HTR 70 (1977):
51-6, 63). (2) M ilik s claim th a t a Book o f G iants was o rig in a lly p a rt o f the Enoch pentateuch
234
a firs t century A.D . Jew ish w o rk.4 W hile K nibb believes the section was w ritte n in the late
firs t century and H indley the early second century.5 m ost m odem scholars believe th a t it was
w ritte n before A.D . 70, due p rin c ip a lly to the absence o f a llusions to the destruction of
Jerusalem .7 The o rig in a l language was probably Aram aic or possibly Hebrew, even though
has no m a nuscrip t evidence. (3) M ilik claim s th a t 1 En. 56:5-7 refers to the m id -th ird century
w ars between the P arthians and the Romans. However, the dating o f such h isto rica l refer
ences is uncertain. It m ay w e ll refer to the P arthian th re a t to Jerusalem in B.C. 40 (E rik
Sjdberg, D er Menschensohn im athiopischen Henoschbuch (Lund: G leerup, 1946), 38-9; Black,
Book o f Enoch, 183, 221-2). D avid W inston Suter, 'W eighed in the Balance: The S im ilitudes of
Enoch in Recent D iscussion," RelSRev 7 (1981): 218, notes th a t th is m ay sim ply be apocalyptic
sym bolism , ra th e r th a n an h is to ric a l reference. (4) M ilik s observed sim ila ritie s to the S ibylline
Oracles are supe rficial, since the genre is d iffe re n t and the oracles la ck th e visionary elem ent
(George W. E. N ickelsburg, review o f The Books o f Enoch: Aram aic Fragments o f Cave 4, by J .
T. M ilik , in CBQ 40 (1978): 418). The evidence fo r lite ra ry dependence is also weak (Suter,
W eighed," 218).
3M atthew Black, "The Parables o f Enoch (1 E n 37-71) and the Son o f M an," ExpTtm 88
(1976): 5-8, earlier argued fo r the m edieval origins of BP. He now believes the book to be from
the early Roman period, probably p rio r to A.D . 70 (Black, Book o f Enoch, 188).
4In lig h t of the em phasis o f BP on the Son o f M an, the la ck o f references to Jesus death
and resurrection m ake it u n lik e ly to be a C h ristia n w ork. By contrast, the C h ristian in terpo la
tio n s in the Testam ents o f the Twelve P atriarchs and the Ascension o f Isaiah are clear. Cf.
M ichael A. K nibb, "The Date o f the Parables o f Enoch: A C ritic a l Review," NTS 25 (1979): 350.
Suter, W eighed," 218, also notes th a t the "life w orld" o f the parables is m ore Jew ish th a n
C h ristian.
5K nibb, "Date o f the Parables," 345-59. The parallels to 4 Ezra and 2 B aruch, however, are
o f little value fo r datin g since the concerns o f the books are so d iffe re n t from BP. J. C.
H indley, 'Tow ard a Date fo r th e S im ilitudes o f Enoch: A n H isto rica l Approach," NTS 14
(1967-1968): 551-65, dates BP around A.D. 115-117.
Black, Book o f Enoch, 188 (early Roman, p rio r to A.D. 70); C h ristopher L. M eam s, "D ating
the S im ilitu des o f Enoch," JVTS 25 (1979): 360-69 (A.D. 40-50); Suter, Tradition and Composi
tion, 29, 32 (probably m id -firs t century); C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 143 (early o r m id
firs t century); SjOberg, Menschensohn, 38; Jam es C. VanderKam , "Some M ajor Issues in the
Contem porary S tudy o f 1 Enoch: Reflections on J.T . M ilik s The Books o f Enoch: Aram aic
Fragm ents o f Qumr&n Cave 4," M aarav 3 (1982): 93; Nickelsburg, Je w ish Literature, 223 (prior
to A.D. 70, "around the tu rn o f the era"). Jam es H. C harlesw orth, "The SNTS Pseudepigrapha
j Sem inars A t Tubingen and P aris on the Books o f Enoch," NTS 25 (1979): 320-23, reports th a t
i the consensus o f the 1978 SNTS sem inar a t Paris was th a t the parables are a firs t century
! A.D. Jew ish w ork. In order fo r Jerusalem to be a hindrance to invading horsem en (1 En. 56:5-
| 6), it m u st s till be standing (Sjdberg, Menschensohn, 38; Black, Book o f Enoch, 187, 222).
i 7Sj6berg, Menschensohn, 38; contra K nibb, "Date o f th e Parables," 358.
235
the only extant MSS are In Ethiopic.8
2 . F irs t Parable (ch. 38-44)
The firs t parable (ch. 38-44) begins w ith a description o f the Final Judgm ent and the
punishm ent o f the w icked (ch. 38). Then Enoch is transported to heaven where he sees the
fin a l resting place o f the righteous (ch. 39) and Gods throne room (ch. 40). In ch. 41, 43-44
Enoch learns the secrets o f the operation of the cosmos. This is in te rru p te d b y a b rie f wisdom
poem (ch. 42) th a t parodies S irach 24.9 Since wisdom could n o t fin d a resting place on earth,
it returned to heaven and dw ells w ith the angels, w hile in iq u ity found a com fortable dw elling
among hum anity.
The firs t parable contains considerable m aterial devoted to n a tu ra l phenomena (41:3-8;
43:1-2; 44). Enoch is shown the "secrets" (41:3) of the operation o f the lig h tn in g , thunder,
w ind, clouds, dew, h a il, sun and m oon. Nature operates w ith perfect consistency, exactly as
God designed. W hile the descrip tion is not as detailed as th a t in AB, the movements o f the
sun and m oon are consistent and follow Gods com mands precisely (41:5-7).
In th is firs t parable there is no suggestion th a t the n a tu ra l order has been corrupted,
either due to the sins o f the W atchers o r hum ans. A lthough there is an allu sio n to the fa ll of
th e W atchers (39:1-2),10 it contains no reference to the effects of the sins o f the W atchers (in
8N. Schm idt, "The O riginal Language o f the Parables o f Enoch," in Old Testament and
Semitic Studies in Memory o f W illiam Rainey H arper (Chicago: U niversity o f Chicago Press,
1980), 329-249; K nibb, E thiopic Book o f Enoch, 38-42; Black, Book o f Enoch, 187; Collins,
Apocalyptic Im agination, 143. M ilik , Enoch, 92, argues fo r a Greek original. Knibb, Ethiopic
Book o f Enoch, 37-46 shows evidence in the E thiopic o f tra n sla tio n from a Sem itic language.
9John J. C ollins, "Cosmos and Salvation: Jew ish W isdom and Apocalyptic in the H ellenistic
Age," HR 17 (1977): 140.
10Charles, Book o f Enoch, 74 and M artin , H&noch, 82, believe 39:1-2 to be an interpolation,
since it seems out o f place in the context. However, Black, Book o f Enoch, 196, aigues th a t
th e passage is in the correct place. It could be a reference to a second descent o f the W atchers
236
contrast to BW 7-10). In BW the W atchers harm ed the created order (7:5-6; 9:2; 10:7-8) and
some "wandering stars" w ill be eternally punished because they failed in th e ir purpose (18:11-
16; 21:1-6). By contrast, the firs t parable says th a t "no angel hinders and no power is able to
hinder" th is perfect operation of nature. Not even the W atchers sin, w h ich w ill be judged (cf.
41:9), is able to d is ru p t the perfect operation of creation.11
b. The P ersonificatio n o f C reation
The a u th o r uses personification to describe th is perfect operation o f nature, even more
th a n is used in ch. 2-5. N atural objects "obey" Gods commandment (41:6; 43:1). The sun
and moon "give th a n ks and sing praises" to God (41:7). God has made a covenant w ith the
n a tu ra l w o rld (41:5; cf. ch. 69), w hich abides by th is covenant and "keeps fa ith " (41:5-6;
43:2).12 T hu s the n a tu ra l order glorifies God in its entire operation.
In personifying nature, n a tu ra l objects are described as in d ivid u a l personalities. This
in d ivid u a liza tio n o f nature is stronger here in ch. 38-44 th a n in AB 5:2-3. God even calls the
flashes o f lig h tn in g and a ll the stars by name, and they respond to h im (43:1). Each p a rt of
th e n a tu ra l w o rld is judged to verify its proper operation: Each s ta r is "weighed in a righteous
balance" to determ ine w hether it moves in its assigned path a t the assigned tim e and produces
the proper am ount o f lig h t (43:2; 61:8; cf. Job 31:6). N atural objects are held m orally
accountable and they are found to 'keep the fa ith (43:2).
The view o f the m oral accountability o f nature is sim ila r to th a t found in AB 5:2-3, and
BW 18:11-16 and 21:1-6. In 18:11-16 and 21:1-6, however, parts of nature face eternal
a t the end tim e, when they w ill assume a different form and torm ent hum ans. Cf. 19:1, w hich
indicates th a t the s p irits o f the W atchers continue to assault hum ans u n til the F inal Judg
m ent, even w hile th e ir bodies are im prisoned in the p it.
nThis view m akes 41:9 f it the context and elim inates the need to see it as an interpolation
th a t fits a fte r v. 2, as claim ed by Charles, Book o f Enoch, 81 and Black, Book o f Enoch, 203.
12Barker, 77-90. See footnotes 24 and 28 fo r fu rth e r discussion o f the cosmic covenant
th a t binds the n a tu ra l order in 1 Enoch and other ancient lite ra tu re .
237
punishm ent fo r fa ilin g at th e ir assigned duty. So nature is not a clockw ork th a t God set in
m otion, b u t a collection of in d iv id u a l conscious personalities w ith the power o f choice13 who
obey the Lord perfectly and operate in com plete harm ony w ith each other. It is also im plied
th a t angels are assigned to each aspect o f nature to ensure th a t it operates properly (43:2; cf.
BP 60:12-21; A B 75:1, 3; 80:1; 82:7-20).14
The perfect operation o f nature depicted in ch. 38-44 serves as an ideal sym bol of the
holy people o f God on earth (43:3-4). Like the stars, they are obedient to Gods w ill and he
knows them in d iv id u a lly by nam e.15
c. The R edem ption o f C reation
There is no m ention in the firs t parable of a new heaven or earth, o r of a transform
a tio n of creation, or o f a glorified e a rth ly existence fo r the righteous. The a u thor consistently
indicates th a t the eternal dw elling-place o f the righteous w ill be in heaven (39:4-5; 41:1-2),
m uch lik e AW (91:16) and the E pistle o f Enoch (103:3-5; 104:2). He e xp licitly says th a t the
righteous w ill have "dw ellings w ith the angels (39:5) and w ill enjoy the very presence o f God,
"beneath the w ings o f the Lord of s p irits " (39:7).16 In contrast to BW (10:16-11:2; 24-25; 30-
32), there is no detailed description o f th e ir b liss in m aterial term s or in the language o f a
super-productive renewed n a tu ra l order. Rather, th e em phasis is on the righteousness and
13It often seems th a t the language moves beyond m etaphor to indicate th a t the stars are
actual conscious beings w ith a conscience. Cf. B lack, Book o f Enoch, 203-4. Charles, Book o f
Enoch 80, notes th a t in Persian religio n stars were considered embodied existences divided
in to troops, each under it own leader (cf. 82:9-20).
14Cf. Black, Book o f Enoch, 204.
15This is the opposite of using th e "w andering stars" (planets) as an image o f apostates (e.g.
Jude 13; Rev. 1:20; cf. Theophilus, A d Autolycum 2.15).
l6Charles, Book o f Enoch, 75, says th a t th is does n o t refer to heaven, since the history o f
hum an ity is n o t yet complete. This requires, however, a s tric t tem poral sequence o f events
th a t is not always found in apocalyptic visions. Enoch was snatched up b y a w indstorm and
set down at "the ends o f heaven" to see th is visio n o f the fu tu re heavenly resting-place o f the
righteous.
238
g lo iy o f the elect and th e ir co n tin u a l w orship o f God. W hile th e parable begins w ith a prom ise
th a t sinners w ill be driven fro m the earth (38:1), there is no corresponding prom ise th a t the
righteous w ill in h e rit the earth. This is quite different th a n the second parable, w hich begins
w ith a sim ila r prom ise concerning the wicked and then says th a t the righteous w ill dw ell on
the transform ed earth (45:2-6).
3 . Second Parable (ch. 45-57)
M uch o f the second parable (ch. 45-57) is devoted to ju dgm ent executed by the Elect
One and the punishm ent of th e wicked. The Son o f M an is enthroned as the judge (45-47).
He is the Elect One in whom wisdom dwells and hence is suited to be the fin a l judge (48-49).
Enoch learns the destiny o f the righteous and the w icked (45. 50-51). He also sees the places
and m ethods o f punishm ent, a ll o f w hich are already prepared (53-57).
The second parable has no discussion o f the effects of hum an or angelic sin on nature.
O n the other hand, it does n o t stress the perfect operation o f nature as does the firs t parable.
The fa ll of the W atchers is referred to (54:5-6),17 b u t th e effects of th e ir sins on antmqls and
the earth Is not m entioned (contra BW 7-10). The W atchers punishm ent consists o f two parts:
(1) the Flood (54:7-10), and (2) being bound in a deep valley b u rn in g w ith fire (54:1-3; 55:3).
As in BW, th e Flood serves as a paradigm o r type o f th e F inal Judgm ent and is the firs t o f a
tw o-part judgm ent on the W atchers. Furtherm ore, the severity of Gods judgm ent on the
W atchers serves as a w arning to the w icked about how seriously he takes s in and is a picture
17In the second parable, th e W atchers sins were (1) becoming subject to Satan (cf. 40:7;
53:3), and (2) leading hum an beings astray. This suggests th a t an evil s p irit w orld pre-existed
the F a ll of the W atchers, a view not found in the rest o f 1 Enoch. The W atchers sins in BW,
m ating w ith hum an women and teaching forbidden knowledge to hum ans, are not m entioned.
See Charles, Book o f Enoch, 66, 78.
239
of the judgment they are about to face themselves (55:3-4).18
b . The Redem ption o f C reation
U nlike the firs t parable, the second parable stresses the transform ation o f both heaven
and earth. In 45:4b-5a the author says, "I w ill transform the heaven and m ake it an eternal
blessing and lig h t; and I w ill transform the earth and make it a blessing." (Black) There is no
in d ica tio n th a t the present earth w ill be destroyed, b u t ra th e r th a t God w ill tran sform the
present earth in to a place o f greater glory. U n like the present earth on w hich the saints suffer
greatly, the transform ed earth w ill be a place o f blessing and peace fo r the righteous (45:5-6).
There are, however, no details of the changes in the operation of nature o r elaborate descrip
tio n s o f the supe r-productivity o f the crops as found in 1 En. 10:17-22 and such prophetic
w ritin g s as Is. 11:6-10; 60; 65-66. The righteous w ill dw ell on th is transform ed earth (45:5;
51:5) after the universal resurrection (51: l) 19 and the F inal Judgm ent (51:2-3). The Messiah
("the Elect One) w ill also dw ell in the presence of the righteous. By contrast, sinners w ill be
banished from both heaven and the renewed earth (45:2, 6; 46:4-7; 51:2; 53:2) and w ill suffer
eternally (45:3; 51:3-5). The banning o f sinners from the renewed earth is iro n ic since they are
described as those who now "tread upon the earth and occupy it" (46:7; 48:8; cf. 62:6; 63:1,
12, "possess the earth").
The righteous w ill also have access to heaven. In 45:6 the author says th a t God w ill
"have caused them to dwell before me." It is possible th a t th is means th a t the righteous w ill
dw ell in the presence o f God, presum ably in heaven (cf. firs t parable: 39:5, 7). It is more
probable th a t the a u th o r means th a t God w ill dw ell w ith the righteous on the renewed earth
18Cf. Ibid., 108.
19Charles, Book o f Enoch, 98-9, refuses to accept th a t th is verse teaches a universal

R esurrection, since "the whole h isto ry o f Jew ish thought points in an opposite direction."
However, 51:2 refutes th is a p rio ri argum ent, since it indicates th a t those who are resurrected
are judged to separate the righteous and ho ly fro m the wicked (cf. 4 Ez. 7:32, 37; T. Benj.
10:6-8). Cf. Black, Book o f Enoch 214.
240
(cf. BD 90:18-20), since the same verse continues to speak about dw elling on the earth (cf.
45:6d). The d iffic u lt statem ent in 51:4 th a t "a ll w ill become angels In heaven" m ay also
indicate th a t the righteous w ill become like angels both in glory and In th e ir heavenly
dw elling.20 B u t the dom inant view in the second parable is th a t the righteous w ill p rim a rily
dw ell on a transform ed earth, although they w ill have access to God in a transform ed heaven.
The perspective here is different than in the firs t parable, w hich stresses the eternal heavenly
dw elling of the righteous.
c . The P ersonification o f C reation
W hile the personification of nature in the second parable (ch. 45-57) is u su a lly not as
pronounced as in the firs t parable (ch. 38-44),21 there is an im portant exception to th is
p a tte rn in 51:4-5. In these verses, the n a tu ra l w orld is depicted as rejoicing when the Elect
One comes to perform ju dgm ent and the righteous dw ell on the transform ed earth: "In those
days sh a ll the m ountains leap like ram s, and the h ills also shall skip like lam bs satisfied w ith
m ilk " (cf. Ps. 114:4, 6) and "the earth sh a ll rejoice." Here nature rejoices w hen it is tra n s
form ed and restored to a righteous balance, when s in has been removed and judged, when the
M essiah rules and when the righteous dwell in th e ir proper place in the renewed earth.22
Using anthropopathic language, th is passage describes the restored balance o f the whole
creation in the eschaton.
20Cf. Black, Scrolls, 139; Black, Book o f Enoch, 214; S track and B illerbeck, 1:891. A sim ila r
idea is found in 1QH 3:19-23; 6:13; Lk. 20:35. There is no need to see it as "w anting in sense"
as Charles believed (Book o f Enoch, p. 101).
21Since the m ountains th a t "m elt lik e wax" before the Elect One in ch. 52 are sym bolic o f
th e kingdom s o f the w orld who subm it to the Messiah (Black, Book o f Enoch, 215-6), they
cannot be included as examples o f the personification o f nature.
22The b ib lica l prom ise th a t the righteous shall in h e rit the land and dw ell in it forever (e.g.
Ps. 37:3, 9, 11, 29, 34), is extended to the entire earth. Cf. Charles, Book o f E noch 101.
Black, Book o f E noch 214, believes th a t the phrase "the elect shall go and w a lk thereon"
indicates th a t the righteous sh a ll w a lk the length and breadth o f the land as the Israelites did
in the land o f prom ise.
241
4 . T h ird Parable (ch. 58-71)
The th ird parable (ch. 58-69. followed by an epilogue In ch. 70-71) begins and ends
w ith the blessed destiny o f the righteous (ch. 58; 69:26-29). M ost o f ch. 59-60 and 69:16-21,
25 are devoted to the secrets o f the operation o f th e cosmos. Several chapters focus on the
Elect O ne/Son o f M an fig u re and the F inal Judgm ent (59:1-8; 61-64). A section o f a Noah
Apocalypse is adapted to the context as a paradigm o f the F in a l Judgm ent (ch. 65-67). Then
there is a long discussion o f the ju dgm ent of the fa lle n angels, w hich serves as a w arning of
how seriously God w ill take the sins o f unrighteous hum ans (ch. 68-69). The fin a l two
chapters are a double epilogue, w h ich include Enochs fin a l assum ption to heaven (ch. 70-71).
(1) Consistent Operation o f Nature:
As in m any other parts o f 1 Enoch, Enoch here leam s th e secrets o f the operation of
the cosmos (59:1-3; 60:11-23). Like those other passages, these cosmic journeys show
Enochs knowledge o f secret heavenly wisdom gained through revelation and they stress the
re g u la rity o f the operation of the universe (ch. 59-60). Enoch leam s about th e operation of
lig h tn in g , thunde r, stars, sun, m oon, w ind, storm clouds, ra in , dew and the sea. God
determ ines w hen the w in d blows, th u n d e r peals and lig h tn in g strikes (60:12-13, 15).
Everything happens at "the appointed tim e" (60:15) and "never fa ils" (60:18), since the angels
in s ta n tly obey Gods commands. Even such n a tu ra l events as th u n d e r and ligh tn in g , w hich
seem to be random from a hum an perspective, happen at the exact tim e determ ined b y God.
T hus the pictu re in ch. 59-60 is o f a n a tu ra l w o rld th a t has n o t been corrupted b y sin b u t
operates com pletely according to Gods design.
The consistent operation of the cosmos is also discussed in 69:16-25. The structure o f
w . 16-21, 25 is poetic w ith evident parallelism , and m ay have been incorporated b y the a u thor
242
. . . . . . . . . .
from an earlier poem on the divine creation oath.23 In content, the passage focuses on the
oath o r cosmic covenant th a t God pronounced when he created the universe. Through th is
oath, God created the heavens, the earth and the heavenly lu m inaries. The oath binds the sea
w ith in fixed boundaries, w hich it does n o t pass (w . 18-19). It keeps the sun, m oon and stars
on th e ir courses, from w hich they do not deviate (w . 20-21). The w aters, w inds and s p irits of
the re st o f nature are also bound b y th is same oath (w . 22, 25). So th is oath or cosm ic
covenant keeps a ll o f creation operating fo r a ll tim e as God designed (v. 25; cf. 41:5-6).24 The
poem concludes w ith a prom ise th a t the operation o f creation shall n o t be spoiled (v. 25). This
poem is an apparent re fu ta tio n o f the W atcher tra d itio n about the damage th a t the W atchers
d id to the created order. Yet th is perspective does not f it very w ell in the im m ediate context in
the th ird parable, w hich focuses on the sin o f the W atchers.
(2) The Cosmic Effects o f the W atchers Sins:
A significant portion o f the th ird parable is devoted to the W atchers and the Flood
tra d itio n , probably taken from a Noah Apocalypse (65:1-69:15).25 Throughout m ost of th is
B arker, 77-8; Black, Book o f Enoch, 248. However, Knibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 163,
believes w . 15-25 to be a secondary addition.
24Cf. Job 38:8-10, 31 (God bound the sea and the stars in creation); Jer. 33:20 (an
unbreakable covenant fo r day and night); Prayer of Manasseh 2-3 (God confined the sea w ith a
w ord o f command using his "fearful and glorious name"). This concept o f creation involves
setting lim its to the created bodies and bin d in g the forces o f chaos. B arker. 81-3, notes th a t
in ancient m ythology, the sea often represented chaos and the forces o f evil, w hich threaten
the order o f creation (cf. 1 En. 60:16). The cosm ic covenant emphasizes th a t God set bounds
to the sea (1 En. 69:17-19; cf. Ps. 104:9; also Gods control of Leviathan, the great sea
m onster, symbolizes b inding the sea: 1 En. 60:7, 9; cf. Job 41). B arker, pp. 78, 81, argues
th a t the oath th a t bound creation is based on the ancient concept o f a royal covenant (cf. Ps.
89, w h ich includes the control of nature among divine and kin g ly powers; Ps. 72, w hich lin k
the k in g s ju stice to the fe rtility o f th e land). The prophets also refer to an eschatological
covenant w ith creation, w hich w ill guarantee the perfect operation o f the renewed creation:
Hos. 2:18 (God w ill m ake a new covenant in the la st days w ith the anim als to guarantee th e ir
safety and peace); Ez. 34:25 (a covenant o f peace w ith the people, to ensure safety and
fru itfu ln e s s of nature and elim inate h a rm fu l animals).
25These chapters often refer to Noah in th e firs t person and Enoch as "m y great-grandfa
th e r." Cf. Charles, Book ojEnoch, 129, b u t contrast Suter, Tradition and Composition, 32-3,
243
section, both hum an and W atcher sins are reasons fo r the judgm ent o f the Flood, b u t in 65:6-
10 the em phasis is on hum an sin alone. The perspective in the th ird parable is different from
o th e r W atcher passages, w hich emphasize the W atchers sin in leading hum ans astray by
teaching them forbidden knowledge (e.g. ch. 7-10). Here, however, hum ans are blamed
because they "learned a ll the secrets o f the angels" (65:6). Furtherm ore, the hum ans not only
learned sorceries from the angels, they invented new ones o f th e ir own (v. 10)26 This empha
sis on hum an accountability fo r sins, even if m isled b y the W atchers (cf. 67:6), better fits the
em phasis on the ju dgm ent th a t is so im p o rta n t to BP. O nly as an afterthought does the
a u th o r o f the th ird parable condem n the W atchers fo r teaching hidden knowledge to hum anity
(67:11; although the W atchers s in is discussed in m ore detail in ch. 69).
In 69:1-15 the sin s o f the W atchers are discussed. In w . 1-2, the leader is Semyaza (as
in one o f th e tra d itio n s behind BW); in w . 3 ff, however, the leader is Yeqon, who led astray the
other angels and convinced them to go down to earth and m ate w ith hum an women (v. 4).
S u ter m akes a good case th a t 69:4-12 is not based on ch. 6-11, b u t probably comes from an
e arlier independent version o f the W atcher tra d itio n .27 The passage names specific arch
angels and the sin th a t each one originated. For example, one taught people to m urder and
how to co n stru ct in strum ents o f w ar (v. 6), w hile another taught s k ill in sophistry (v. 8; cf. Is.
5:20). More sig nifica ntly, however, one of the angels (Gadreel) "led Eve astray" (v. 6), w hich
125-56, who argues fo r the use o f o ra l Noah tra d itio n s ra th e r th a n a w ritte n Book of Noah as a
source.
26The E th io p ic has "because o f the m onths they have invented and learned," w hich maVps
little sense. It is probable th a t the E thiopic tra n sla to r m isread to mean "m onths"
instead o f the m ore lik e ly "sorceries." This confusion is possible in bo th Hebrew and Aram aic.
Cf. Black, Book o f Enoch, 186-7; K nibb, Ethiopic Book o f Enoch, 155: Charles, Book o f Enoch,
I 130-1.
1
j 27Suter, T radition and Composition, 73-90. He argues th a t 1 En. 54:1-56:4 and 64:1-68:1
are based on a tra d itio n a l in te rp re ta tio n o f Is. 24:17-23 th a t is not dependent on 1 En. 6-11
(pp. 37, 45-61).
244
suggests th a t the fa ll of the W atchers was considered to be m uch earlier th a n Enochs tim e, in
fact from the tim e o f the original hum an couple. T his is the only reference in 1 Enoch to the
entrance o f s in in the hum an race thro ugh the o rig in a l couple. A lthough it occupies only an
in cid e n ta l place, it p o in ts to an im p o rta n t difference between the th ird parable and the prim ary
W atcher tra d itio n s in 1 Enoch: In the th ird parable, the W atchers sin extended throughout
hum an h is to ry u n til the Flood, n o t from a la te r tim e when hum ans had already m u ltip lie d on
earth, as in BW 6:1-2 (cf. Gen 6:1-2).
In ch. 69 the sin s o f the W atchers profoundly corrupted creation. O riginally hum an
beings were created to live forever lik e the angels, b u t because they learned the W atchers
secrets and started sinning, death consumes them (v. 11). The W atchers introduced demon
possession, disease, m iscarriages, b irth defects and psychological disorders to the w orld (v.
12). The overall p ictu re is o f a creation th a t has gone awry, corrupted by evil powers and no
longer fu n ctio n in g as God o rig in a lly designed it.
One o f th e W atchers even tric k e d the angel M ichael in to revealing the secret name of
God, w hich God used in the oath b y w hich he created the universe (w . 14-15). T his very oath
th a t God used to create the orderly universe was th e n abused by these evil angels to d isto rt
the fa b ric o f creation. The poem o f 69:16-25, w hich shows th a t God created the universe w ith
an oath th a t b in d s its operation in to perfect order, seems somewhat in conflict w ith the overall
p ictu re in th is parable th a t creation was damaged by the W atchers. The com bined result,
however, h ig h lig h ts th e damage caused by the W atchers w ho broke the cosmic covenant.28
28B arker, 84, notes the parallel to Is. 24:4-6, where the earth m ourns, w ithers and is
p ollu ted because the in h a b ita n ts have broke the everlasting covenant. Then in Is. 24:21-22
the "hosts o f heaven" are bound in prison and punished, a s im ila r picture to the binding o f the
W atchers, so com m on in 1 Enoch (e.g. 10:4-5, 12-13; 67:4-7). Barker, p. 78, draws a parallel
between the cosm ic covenant concept and ancient concepts o f magic. Creation involved
b in d in g the forces o f chaos. B reaking the cosm ic covenant, w hich kept a ll thing s in harm ony,
w ould unleash forces th a t could destroy creation. B arkers argum ents have m erit fo r 1 En. 45
and 69. She cites several b ib lica l passages th a t show the relationship between sin and the
co rru p tio n o f nature (e.g. Joel 1:17; 2:2; Is. 24:4-6; 33:7-9). However, m any o f these passages
probably do n o t refer to the breaking o f a cosm ic covenant, b u t the law of Moses.
245
The creation is subject to the disease, dem on-possession, death and decay th a t the W atchers
introduced. Yet the perfect created order is n o t com pletely destroyed, since the heavenly
lum inaries and the w o rlds w eather s till operate according to Gods command (cf. ch. 59-
60).29 Despite the co rru p tio n of creation b y the W atchers, God s till rem ains in control and
the creation has not been com pletely destroyed by these evil angels.
(1) The Flood as a Type o f the New Creation:
A s in other W atcher passages (e.g. ch 10), so here in the th ird parable the Flood serves
as a type o f the F inal Judgm ent. A fter describing the Flood and punishm ent o f the W atchers
(67:4-7), the author switches to the Final Judgm ent o f the w icked kings and m ig h ty m en o f the
earth (w . 8-13). The angel M ichael e xp licitly says, "This punishm ent w herew ith the angels are
punished is a w arning fo r the kings and m ig h ty who possess the earth" (v. 12).
The Flood also serves as a p ictu re o f the re b irth o f the w orld.30 Several phrases in
67:1-3 reflect the image o f a new creation: God w ill place in the a rk "the seed o f life , and a
tran sform ation shall take place so th a t th e earth w ill n o t be void o f in habita nts." The Flood,
therefore, is not sim ply a m eans o f judgm ent, b u t it is also a way o f tran sform ing the w orld, a
re-creation o f the cosmos. Several phrases echo the story o f the o riginal creation: The
reference to "void" echoes Gen 1:1, where the w o rld was "form less and void" a fte r creation,
before God brought life to the earth.31 Gods blessing o f Adam and Eve and h is com mand to
"be fru itfu l and m u ltip ly and f ill the earth (Gen 1:28) are also echoed here in h is prom ise to
29This m ay explain w hy the redactor o f BP inserted verses 23-24 in the m iddle of the
creation oath poem: These verses are a synopsis o f other p a rts of BP th a t rem ind the reader o f
the orderliness o f the n a tu ra l w orld and its continued obedience to Gods command.
30Cf. Suter, Tradition and Composition, 61, 183, n. 57. A s im ila r concept is in 10:7 and Is.
24:17-23, a tra d itio n th a t form s the background fo r 1 En. 54:1-56:4 and 64:1-69:12 in S uter's
view.
31"Void" means devoid of in h abita nts. Cf. Charles, Book o f Enoch 133.
246
Noah th a t his offspring "sh a ll be blessed and m u ltip ly upon the earth" (67:3) and th a t he shall
spread h is offspring over the earth. So afte r the Flood there is a new creation, w ith a re su lta n t
tran sform ation o f the w o rld (cf. 45:5, where God w ill tra n sfo rm " the earth after the F inal
Judgm ent: 72:1). Hence although the "new heavens and earth" are n o t e xp licitly m entioned,
the Flood typology in the th ird parable is com patible w ith such a view (as it is e xp licitly taught
in the second parable).
(2) The E ternal D w elling Place o f the righteous:
The parable describes the blessed destiny o f the righteous (ch 58; 62:13-16: 69:26-29):
They w ill live eternally, in glory, righteousness, jo y and peace. U nlike the other tw o parables,
however, th is parable does not e xp licitly state w hether the righteous w ill dw ell in heaven or on
a transform ed earth. There is no detailed description o f a renewed earth (although 69:27-29
alludes to it). W hile 62:14 says th a t God and the Son of M an w ill abide w ith them , it does not
say w hether God w ill come to dw ell on the earth w ith h is people, as in AA and the second
parable (90:20, 28-38; 45:4; cf. Is. 60:19-20; Zeph. 3:15-17), o r w hether the righteous w ill
dw ell in the presence o f God in heaven as in the firs t parable (39:5-7). There is a possible
in dica tion o f a m aterial existence fo r the righteous in 62:14, since th e ir life in eternity involves
the ra th e r m undane a ctivities o f eating and sleeping. Yet th is m ay sim ply be a m etaphor fo r
security (cf. Zech. 3 :13)32 or fo r the fellow ship th a t they w ill enjoy w ith God and the Son of
Man.
There are also several references to the "G arden o f Life" or the "G arden o f the righteous"
in the th ird parable (60:8, 23; 61:12). Apparently, Eden was considered to be an actual
physical location th a t has continued to exist since the beginning o f creation. BW and AB also
assume th a t Eden continues to exist (32:3; 77:3), b u t only th is th ird parable says th a t the
righteous dead already dw ell in Paradise (60:8; 61:12; cf. 70:3-4). A lthough it is d iffic u lt to
Black, Book o f Enoch, 236.
247
I
determ ine w hether the a u th o r considered th is G arden to be on earth (as in BW) or In heaven,
there is some evidence th a t he considered it to be a heavenly Paradise.33 For the reference to
the G arden in 61:12 is in the context o f s p iritu a l beings who dwell in heaven, w hich m ay im ply
th a t the Garden its e lf is also heavenly. The Garden also seems to be in some transcendent
location in ch. 60, since the "storehouse" o f the ra in s is located near it (w . 21-23) and Enoch
ascended to th is Paradise (v. 8; cf. 70:3-4). The references to the Garden suggest th a t there
w ill be an earthly or earth-like eternal dw elling fo r th e righteous, w hich the righteous dead
have already begun to enjoy even before the R esurrection.34 B ut u n like BW (ch. 25-27; 32;
10:17-22), there are no detailed descriptions o f th is environm ent in the th ird parable.
(3) Eschatological Reversal o f the C orruption o f Creation:
The conclusion o f the th ird parable (69:26-29) prom ises th a t in the eschaton God w ill
reverse th e damage th a t the W atchers caused to creation. W hen the Son of M an appears, he
w ill s it on h is thro ne of glory and judge the hum an sinners and fallen W atchers (v. 27-28).
They w ill be banished from earth and im prisoned, and so a ll evil w ill cease. Regarding the
W atchers ('those w ho have led the w o rld astray"),35 th e author says "a ll th e ir deeds shall
vanish from the face o f the earth and fro m henceforth there shall be nothing corruptible" (w .
28c-29a). The co rru p tio n of creation caused by the W atchers, such as death, disease, demon-
possession and the vio latio n o f the cosm ic covenant, w ill a ll be brought to an end.
T his is a pow erful description o f the transform ed earth, free from sin and the co rru p t
ing effects of sin (cf. 45:3-5). It also resolves the am biguity about the eventual location in
C harles, Book o f Enoch 59, apparently believes th e paradise in BW is earthly and the
paradise in BP is heavenly.
34I t is possible th a t th is is a tem porary paradise fo r the righteous dead and th a t the
righteous w ill be transferred to the renewed earth a fte r the Resurrection w hen the Son o f M an
comes (cf. 69:26-28).
35B lack, Book o f Enoch 249.
248
w hich the righteous w ill dwell. For since the passage refers e xp licitly to the rem oval of
sinners, the W atchers damage and a ll co rru p tio n from the earth, the im plicatio n is th a t the
Son o f M an and the righteous (cf. v. 26) w ill dw ell on a transform ed earth.
c. The P ersonification o f C reation
Enoch leam s th a t angels o r s p irits w o rk behind the scenes to make each aspect of
n a ture operate (60:12-21), m uch as in p a rts of AB (75:1, 3; 80:1; 82:7-20; cf. BP: 43:2). For
example, a s p irit m akes the th u n d e r peal a t the appointed tim e and fo r the proper length of
tim e (60:15). These angels perform th e ir tasks in sta n tly, as God commands them (60:13).
Thus personification emphasizes th a t the n a tu ra l w o rld operates according to Gods design. In
contrast to m any other parts of 1 Enoch, in the th ird parable the elements o f nature are not
generally personified o r given the power o f choice (the one exception is in ch. 69). A lthough
there is a personal dim ension to the n a tu ra l w orld, it is only a ttrib u te d to the angels th a t
co n tro l the operation o f nature.
The m ajor exception to the pattern o f personification is the cosmic poem in 69:16-21
and 25, w hich personifies parts o f creation in a fashion sim ila r to other passages in 1 Enoch
such as BP and AB. God calls the stars b y name and they answer h im (v. 21; cf. 43:1-2).
Furtherm ore, there is a h in t th a t s p irits operate behind each p a rt o f nature (w . 22; cf. BP:
43:2; 60:12-21; AB: 75:1, 3; 80:1; 82:7-20). The a u th o r of BP m ay have added w . 23-24 to
th is poem, since they break the poetic parallelism and they use language s im ila r to ch. 41 and
60.36 These added verses fu rth e r enhance the personification, since not sim ply the stars, b u t
also thunde r, lig h tn in g , h a il, fro st, storm -clouds, ra in and dew are personified as in d ivid u a l
personalities. They a ll give th a n ks and praise to God and glo rify h im as they ca n y out th e ir
tasks (cf. 41:7). Furtherm ore, they w ill continue to w orship God by fu lfillin g th e ir divinely
assigned purposes thro ugho ut a ll tim e (v. 25).
249
S. Summary of the Book of Parables
The three parables o f 1 En. 38-69 agree at m any points about the n a tu ra l w orld, b u t
they have slig h tly different views on some m atters. The firs t parable (ch. 38-44) emphasizes
the consistent operation o f nature, w hich functions perfectly according to a cosm ic covenant.
N atural phenomena are personified as in d ivid u a l conscious beings th a t obey and w orship God.
j The fu tu re dw elling place o f the righteous is entirely heavenly, w ith neith er a new or trans-
i form ed earth m entioned.
The second parable (ch. 45-57) does not refer to any effect o f sin, eithe r angelic or
hum an, on nature. A t the same tim e, it does not emphasize the perfection o f creation as m uch
i
as the firs t parable. W hat it stresses is the transform ation of heaven and earth. The earth w ill
become a place o f blessing and gloiy, and the righteous w ill dw ell on earth along w ith the
Messiah ("Elect One"). Yet the righteous also w ill have access to a renewed heaven and the
presence o f God. Then the n a tu ra l w orld w ill rejoice when the E lect One comes and the
righteous dw ell on the renewed earth.
The th ird parable (ch. 58-69) has large sections describing the perfect operation o f the
cosmos. God has bound the creation w ith an oath th a t controls its operation. Angels operate
various aspects of nature and obey Gods commands. Various p a rts o f nature are personified
as being obedient to God. Nevertheless, the sin o f th e W atchers has corrupted m any parts of
creation, thereby in trodu cing disease, demon-possession, death and decay in to the w orld. B ut
when the Son o f M an comes and sits on h is throne, God w ill reverse the damage done by the
W atchers to creation. A ll corru ption and sin w ill th e n be removed from the earth. This new
creation is sym bolized by the Flood o f Noah, w hich anticipates a sim ila r transform ation o f the
w orld after the F inal Judgm ent.

i
The follow ing table sum marizes the key points concerning the co rru p tio n and redemp
tio n o f creation in BP:

(
I
250
** . ____
Table 20: Summary of the Book of Parables
Parable Corruption of Nature Redemption of Nature Personification of Nature
Par.1 Nature operates consistently, as 1. No mention of new heavens or earth. 1. Natural objects are individual per
(38-44) God designed in obedience to the 2. Righteous will dwell in heaven. sonalities who obey God, sing
cosmic covenant. praises and give him thanks.
2. Angels operate aspects of nature.
I Par. 2 No discussion of the effect of human 1. Heaven and earth will be transformed. The natural world will rejoice when
(45-57) or Watcher sin on nature. 2. The righteous will dwell on the transformed the Elect One comes and the right
earth and have access to heaven. eous dwell on the transformed earth.
Par. 3 1. God created the cosmos with an 1. The dead righteous already dwell in a heavenly 1. Angels operate aspects of nature.
(58-69) oath that binds it in perfect oper Garden of Life. 2. Various parts of nature obey God
ation. 2. God will reverse the damage caused by the and praise him.
2. The sin of the Watchers corrupted Watchers to creation and eliminate all corruption.
creation introducing death, disease, 3. The righteous will enjoy a blessed life on the
decay and demonism. earth freed from corruption.
B. 4 E zra
1. D ate, Provenance and U n ity o f 4 E zra
It is generally accepted th a t 4 Ezra 3-1437 is a Jew ish apocalypse o rig in a lly w ritte n in
Hebrew.38 The Hebrew o riginal and a presupposed Greek tra n sla tio n are n o t extant. The
m ost im p o rta n t extant version is In L a tin , although Syriac, E thiopic, A rm enian and A rabic ver
sions are sometimes h e lp fu l. The consensus is th a t the book was w ritte n around A.D. 100 in
37The discussion here applies only to ch. 3-14, the portion generally accepted as Jewish.
Ch. 1-2 and 15-16 are la te r C h ristia n additions, w hich w ill not be discussed.
38M ichael E. Stone, A Commentary on the Book o f Fourth Ezra, Hermeneia: A C ritica l and
H isto rica l Com m entary on the Bible, ed. F ra n k Moore Cross (M inneapolis: Fortress Press,
1990), 1; Jacob M. M yers, I &n Esdras, The A nchor Bible (Garden C ity, NY: Doubleday, 1974),
115-9; B. M. Metzger, "The Fourth Book o f Ezra," in OTP, ed. Jam es H. Charlesw orth (Garden
C ity, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1983), 1:519-20; J . Schreiner, eds., Judische Schriften aus hellen-
istisch-rdm ischer Zeit, ed. W. G. Kum m el et a l vol. 5 /4 , Das 4. Buch E sra (Gutersloh: M ohn,
1973), 294-5; C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 156; G. H. Box, The Apocalypse o f Ezra,
i T ranslations o f E arly Docum ents, Series 1 (London: Society fo r Prom oting C h ristian Knowl-
[ edge, 1917), xiv-xviii. M yers discussion o f Hebrew idiom s reflected in the L a tin version is
j especially h elpful fo r establishing a Hebrew original. A few scholars, such as Leon G ry, Les
i Dires proph6ttqu.es d Esdras (IV. Esdras) (Paris: G uenthner, 1936), x x iii-lx x v i, argue fo r an
i Aram aic original.
f 251
. _
Palestine.39 Some factors p o in tin g to th is date Include: (1) the preoccupation w ith the
destruction o f Jerusalem : (2) the claim In 3:1 th a t the book was w ritte n 30 years after the
destruction o f Jerusalem ;40 (3) the sym bolic references to firs t century Roman em perors In
the Eagle vision;41 and (4) the early adoption of the w o rk Into C h ristian circles, probably
before the B ar Kochba revolt.42
In 1889 Kabisch argued th a t 4 Ezra consisted o f several sources, each w ith
considerably different eschatological views. T his source theory was popularized and developed
fu rth e r by Box and C harles.43 Box distinguishes 5 sources th a t were woven together by a
redactor w ho added h is own m aterial: (1) a S alathiel apocalypse, w hich includes m ost o f ch. 3-
10; (2) an Ezra apocalypse (4:5 2-5 :13a; 6:13-29; 7:26-44; 8:63-9:12); (3) the Eagle vision (ch.
11-12); (4) the visio n o f the m an from the sea (ch. 13); and (5) another Ezra apocalypse
containing m ost o f ch 14. There is m in im a l lite ra iy evidence to separate these layers.44 The
39M ost date it in the la s t decade o f the firs t century (e.g. Stone, Fourth Ezra, 8-9; Collins,
Apocalyptic Im agination, 156; W. O. E. Oesterley, E Esdras (The Ezra Apocalypse) (London:
M ethuen, 1933), xliv-xlv), though a few date it A D . 100-120 (Box, Apocalypse o f Ezra, 552-3;
Metzger, "4 Ezra," 520). Those who argue fo r a fragm ented view o f the book (Box, Apocalypse
o f Ezra, 552-3; O esterley, IT Esdras, xliv-xlv), date the Eagle V isio n slig h tly earlier, perhaps
A.D. 69-79 (reign o f Vespasian) o r A D . 81-96 (reign o f D om itian). Ch. 1-2 and 15-16 were
added In the second o r th ird century (Metzger, "4 Ezra," 520; Oesterley, U Esdras, xliv). See
Schreiner, 5 /4 :5 0 2 , fo r a survey o f views on the provenance o f the book.
40The reference to Babylon In 3:1 is p a rt o f the pseudonymous setting.
41Myers, I & E Esdras, 299-302, has an excellent survey and evaluation o f various attem pt
to id e n tify the exact em perors sym bolically described. The evidence strongly points to the
reign o f D om itian (A D . 81-96), p a rtic u la rly late in h is reign when his cru e lty and oppression
peaked (Stone, F ourth Ezra, 9-10).
42Metzger, "4 Ezra," 520, notes th a t it is u n lik e ly th a t the book w ould have been adopted
in to C h ristia n circles after th e Bar-Kochba revolt, when the C hurch and Synagogue became
hopelessly alienated. 4 Ezra is cited in the late second century by Clement o f A lexandrias
Strom ateis (Stone, Fourth Ezra, 9).
43R ichard Kabisch, Das vierte Buch E sra (GQttingen: Vandenhoeck and R uprecht, 1889),
331:401; Box, Apocalypse o f Ezra, v ii-v iii; G. H. Box, "4 Ezra," in APOT, ed. R. H. Charles
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1913), 2:549-52; R. H. Charles, A C ritical H istory o f the Doctrine o f the
Future Life (London: Black, 1899), 283-97.
44The m a in evidence is the reference to "I Salathiel, who am also Ezra" (3:1). This cryptic
252
J
p rim a ry argum ent is the supposed in co m p a tib ility o f eschatological conceptions in various
parts o f the book. Passages w ith a natio nal-ea rthly eschatology, w hich focuses on Israel and
the m essianic kingdom , come from a different source th a n passages w ith a universal-transcen
dental eschatology, w hich focuses on a ll o f h um an ity and th e fu tu re state o f the righteous in
heaven.45 Even Oesterley, however, who divides 4 Ezra in to several sources, recognizes th a t
apocalyptic w ritin g s frequently la c k logical consistency.46 Stone shows th a t both national
and transcendental eschatology are frequently in tim a te ly interwoven, som etim es even in the
same sentence. O nly a presupposition of th e in c o m p a tib ility of these tw o views w ould require
th a t th e y come from different sources.47 There is a recent tre n d to recognize the compo
sitio n a l in te g rity o f 4 Ezra 3-14, even if oral o r w ritte n sources were u tilize d .48
reference, however, is weak evidence o f a separate source. See C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agin
ation, 157 fo r other explanations fo r the reference.
4SB o x , "4 Ezra," 550-1; Kabisch, Vierte Buch Esra, 67-70, 75, 96; Joseph Keulers, Die
eschatologische Lehre des vierten Esrabuches (Berlin: H erder, 1922), 143.
Oesterley, U Esdras, x ii. W. Sanday m akes th is c ritiq u e of Box in h is "Prefatory Note" to

Box, Apocalypse o f Ezra, 6. Vielhauer, 594, lis ts "lack o f u n ifo rm ity as a basic characteristic
o f apocalypses.
47Cf. M ichael E. Stone, Features o f the Eschatology o f IV Ezra, H arvard Sem itic Studies, no.
35, ed. F ra n k Moore Cross (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 12-21, 136-8, 222-3, fo r a
thorough critiq u e o f the eschatological argum ents of Box a n d Kabisch. Stone, Fourth E ztcl,
102-5, suggests alternative ways to view the apparent eschatological inconsistencies.
48Stone, Features, 12-21; E. Breech, "These Fragm ents I Have Shored A gainst My R uins:
The Form and F un ctio n o f 4 Ezra," JBL 92 (1973): 267-8; A. P. Hayman, "The Problem of
Pseudonym ity in the Ezra Apocalypse," JS J 6 (1975): 48; G iy , l:x c iv -x c v iii; Thompson,
R esponsibility, 107-8; Herm ann G unkel, "Das vierte Buch Esra," in Die Apokryphen und
Pseudeptgraphen des A lie n Testaments, ed. G. Kautzsch (Tubingen: Gerd M ohr, 1900),
2:335-48. W olfgang H am isch, "D er Prophet als W iderpart u n d Zeuge der O fferibarung:
Erwagungen z u r Interdependenz von Form u n d Sache im 4. Buch E sra," in Apocalypticism in
the M editerranean W orld and the Near East, ed. D. H ellholm (Tubingen: M ohr, 1983), 470,
recognizes th is trend, though he rejects it and argues th a t visions 5 and 6 were added later.
Egon Brandenburger, Die Verborgenheit Gottes im Weltgeschehen. Das literarische und
theologische Problem des 4. Esrabuches, Abhandlungen z u r Theologie des A lte n und Neuen
Testam ents, no. 68 (Zurich: Theologischer Verlag, 1981), 92-104, successfully refutes
H am ischs claim .
253
I
A closely related issue is w hether the authors voice is to be found in the words o f
Ezra49 o r U rie l the angel.50 H am isch, who b u ild s on Brandenburger and M undle, aigues
th a t Ezra represents a skeptical, gnosticizing view point, w hich the author refutes thro ugh the
angels w ords.51 A gainst th is view, Hayman rig h tly objects th a t (1) the prophet Ezra is a poor
representative fo r an heretical view point; (2) there is m uch in com mon between the angels and
Ezras views; (3) Ezras view is perfectly orthodox; and (4) Ezra never repents o f h is ideas.52
It is m ore lik e ly th a t the central message flow s from the dialog between Ezra and U riel.
One of the earliest proponents o f th is view was G unkel, who argued th a t the dialog between
Ezra and the angel represented the authors in te rn a l em otional and m ental struggle.53
Breech shows th a t the stru ctu re of 4 Ezra is b u ilt on a pattern o f consolation, in w hich Ezra
moves from distress to consolation in successive visions.54 S im ilarly, Stone shows th a t Ezra
moves from doubt to acceptance of the ideas o f the angel. He aigues th a t Ezras th in k in g
begins to undergo changes even in the firs t 3 visions, so th a t by visio n 4 the change is
complete and Ezra can com fort the woman.55 W hile th e eschatological revelation gives a
49E.g. R.H. Pfeiffer, H istory o f New Testament Times. W ith an Introduction to the Apocrypha
(New York: H arper and Row, 1949), 85-6.
' E.g. Egon Brandenburger, Adam und Christus: Exegetisch-religiongeschicW iche Under-
suchung zu Rom. 5:12-21 (Neukurchen: Neukirchener, 1962), 30.
51W olfgang H am isch, Verhangnis und Verheissung der Ceschichte. Untersuckungen zum
Zeit- und Geschichtsverstandis im 4. Buch E sra und in der syr. Baruchapokalypse (Gdttingen:
Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1969), 63-6, 87, 142-3; H am isch, Der Prophet, 472-8. H am isch
bu ild s on W ilhelm M undle, "Das religidse Problem des IV. Esrabuches," ZAW 6 (1929): 222-49,
although M undle believed both Ezra and the angel represented acceptable views w ith in
Judaism .
52Hayman, 50-3.
G unkel, vierte Buch Esra, 335-48.
Breech, 269-71; cf. Hayman, 49, 55-6, who notes the tra d itio n a l nature of Ezras doubt
and despair.
Stone, Fourth Ezra, 24-30, 32-7. Stone overstates the level o f Ezras acceptance o f the
divine view in visions 1-3.
254
p a rtia l solution to Ezras concerns, the m a in message of the book is in Ezras em otional
acceptance of the ju s tic e o f Gods ways, even though he does not receive fu ll answers to his
questions.56
The book is stru ctu re d in 7 sections, each w ith a vision and dialog between Ezra and
the angelic m ediator. It is a theodicy th a t struggles w ith the ju stice of God in lig h t of the
recent destruction o f Jerusalem and the broader problem th a t m ost people w ill face divine
punishm ent due to the depth o f hum an sin.
2 . The C orruption o f C reation
a. U niversal Hum an Sin
4 Ezra frequently refers to the co rru p tio n o f creation,57 p a rticu la rly in the firs t three
sections, w hich stress the sinfulness o f hum anity.
A m ajor recurren t them e is th a t a ll hum an beings sin. S tarting w ith Adam s sin (3:7,
Cf. C ollins, Apocalyptic Im agination, 160, 168; Breech, 270-1; M ichael E. Stone, "Reac
tio n s to D estructions o f the Second Temple. Theology, Perception and Conversion," Journal o f
Studies in Judaism 12 (1982): 203; Haym an, 49, 55-6; U. Luck, "Das W eltverstSndnis in der
ju d isch e n A pokalyptik, dargestellt am Sthiopischen Henoch und am 4 Esra," ZTK 73 (1976):
283-305. Thom pson also emphasizes the dynam ic between the angel and Ezra. The angel
represents a narrow er, more unyielding position th a n Ezra. Even though U rie ls views
eventually triu m p h , Ezras questions are not fu lly answered. A ra tio n a l theodicy eludes the
author, b u t h is experience s till enables h im to ju s tify God (Thompson, Responsibility, 157-256,
340).
57The L a tin creatura can be used in several ways in 4 Ezra: (1) the m ate rial w orld (5:44, 45,
55, 56; 7:75 (possibly creation as a whole); 8:45; (2) an in d ivid u a l creature (e.g. 7:62; 11:6); (3)
people: the people o f God (8:47; 13:26), a baby (8:8); and (4) the verbal sense of act o f creating
(6:38). O ther e llip tic a l expressions such as "th a t w hich was made" (e.g. 7:11) are also used to
refer to the creation. The m ost com m on te rm fo r the m aterial creation is "w orld," saeculum
(3:9, 18, 34; 4:2, 11, 24; 5:24, 44, 49; 6:1, 25, 55; 7:11, 12, 13, 21, 30, 31, 47, 50, 70, 74.
112, 132, 137, 8:1, 2, 5, 41, 50; 9:2, 3. 5, 18, 19, 20, 10:8; 45; 11:32, 39. 40; 13:20; 14:17,
20, 22). The fa ct th a t the "w orld" is used as a synonym fo r the m aterial creation is shown by
the parallelism w ith other term s such as "th a t w hich was made" (e.g. 7:11) and "earth" (e.g.
9:20; 11:32, 40). In these passages, "w orld" generally refers to m aterial creation o r perhaps
the whole created order. It is sig n ifica n t th a t the te rm "creation" is used in several o f the
instances th a t speak o f the decay o f th is w o rld (5:55, 56) and the fu tu re renewal of the w orld
(7:75; 8:45). As w ill be shown la te r, the L a tin saeculum sometimes has an am biguity between
the m eanings "w orld" and "age" (e.g. 7:47, 50).
255
. . . . .. . _
21), every n a tio n has gone its own w ay and disobeyed God (3:8). A fte r the Flood, w hich was a
ju dgm ent on sin , the s in o f a ll h um an ity m u ltip lie d even more (3:12). The a u th o r frequently
stresses th a t no one is exem pt from sin (3:8, 12, 21-22 Adam and "a ll h is descendants,58" 26,
35; 4:38; 7:46, 68: "sin n e r through and through," 72: "w ith conscious knowledge . . . the
people of th is w o rld sinned": 8:18, 31-35). This awareness o f universal hum an sinfulness
form s a m ajor com ponent o f the theodicy o f 4 Ezra. It causes Ezra to despair th a t anyone w ill
be saved and leads h im to question the ju stice o f God (e.g. 7:67-68, 120). "W hat good is the
prom ise of im m o rta lity to us, when we have com m itted m o rta l sins? (7:120)
There are a few passages th a t seem to m oderate th is pessim istic view o f hum anity.
"Alm ost a ll"59 s in (7:48) and "only a few" are righteous (7:51). The angel tells Ezra th a t he
should not coun t h im s e lf among the sinners (6:32). Two perspectives even coexist in the same
passage: (1) a ll are sinners; and (2) only a few w ill be saved (e.g. 7:46-48; 8:31-36). Branden
b urge r claim s th a t the statem ents about universal sin are set in the m outh o f Ezra in order to
be refuted b y the angel, who represents God's perspective (e.g. 7:76).60 B u t th is approach
forces the book to be m ore system atic th a n it is intended to be. The em phasis on hum an
sinfulness o r the few w ho w ill be saved depends on the purpose of each passage.61 Ezra
h im se lf occasionally refers to the "few" who w ill be saved. The salvation of the few who
atte m pt to please God and keep th e Law is more due to Gods m ercy th a n th e ir m oral
perfection (7:26-36, 137).62 Thus Ezra pleads w ith God to overlook the offenses o f h is people
T ranslations o f 4 Ezra are from the New E nglish B ible, unless otherwise stated.
S9The L a tin and probably the Syriac read "alm ost a ll," w hile the other versions read "a ll."
The reading "a ll" alm ost certa inly is a m odification o f the text fo r theological reasons.
Thom pson, R esponsibility, 300-1, 309-10, 344 n. 8.
B randenburger, Verborgenheit, 176-9.

i
I
J 61Cf. Stone, Fourth Ezra, 233.
62Cf. Tom W. W ille tt, Eschatology in the Theodicies o f 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra, Jo u rn a l fo r the
S tudy o f the Pseudepigrapha Supplem ent Series, no. 4 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989), 75.
256
who "have served thee fa ith fu lly " (7:20), since even those who "feared thee from th e heart"
(7:28) and "put u n fa ilin g tru s t in th y glory" (7:30) are "sinners, who have no ju s t deeds to our
credit" (7:32).
4 Ezra frequently refers to the evil h e a rt w ith in each hum an as the source o f sin (3:20-
25; 4:4; 7:48, 92). Adam h im se lf "was burdened w ith a wicked heart" th a t was the source o f
h is own disobedience against Gods com m and (3:21). This evil heart continues to grow w ith in
hum anity. It leads to sin, death and co rru p tio n , and estranges people from God (7:4s).83
Even the Jew ish people have th is evil heart (3:22, 25). It is an "evil root" (Metzger), w hich
prevented the Law from achieving the good it was designed to accom plish (3:22), and w hich
w ill lead to Gods people eventually being judged at the hands of th e ir enemies (3:25). Even
those few who are able to adhere to Gods ways have fought w ith these "in born im pulses to
evil" a ll th e ir lives (7:92). This view has m uch in com m on w ith the ra b b in ic doctrine of the evil
yetzer (inw ard in c lin a tio n or im pulse).64 Thom pson, however, has shown th a n m any
elements o f rabbinic teaching are m issing, such as the good yetzer as a balance o f the evil
yetzer and the idea th a t the evil yetzer perform s useful functions.65
T his em phasis on h um an itys re sp o n sib ility fo r its own sins is in sharp contrast w ith
m ost o f 1 Enoch, w hich blam es the o rig in o f sin on the fa lle n angels. Nowhere does 4 Ezra
refer to the W atcher tra d itio n o r blam e sin on anything other than the wicked hum an heart.
Nevertheless, there is some confusion in 4 Ezra about the origin o f s in in hum anity. W hile
Adam s firs t s in is frequently described as the o rig in o f sin, the book also emphasizes the evil
63There is some am biguity in 7:48 about w hether the evil im pulse is growing (Latin) o r
sim ply present (Syriac). Myers, J & n Esdras, 235, aigues th a t the L a tin tncrevtt is more
correct, w hich suggests the evil heart has increased or been augmented.
^Stone, Fourth Ezra, 63, n. 18; Thom pson, Responsibility, 29:332-9.
65Ibid., 300, 338-9; cf. K laus Koch, "Ezras erste V ision: W eltzeiten und Weg des Hochstein,"
B Z 22 (1978): 60-1, who says the "evil heart" o f 4 Ezra is different th a n the "evil inclination" of
the Rabbis. However, Stone, Fourth Ezra, 63, 18, says Kochs d istinctions are forced.
257
heart, w hich was apparently present in Adam even before the F all. Thom pson has shown th a t
4 Ezra never com pletely reconciles these two tra d itio n s as explanations fo r the origin of hum an
evil. W hile the book nowhere says th a t God created the evil heart, it comes close when Ezra
com plains th a t God has n o t removed it.66
b. Effects o f the F a ll on the N atu ral W orld
The damaging effects o f Adam s o riginal sin were far-reaching, both fo r hum anity and
the rest of creation. As a re su lt o f the Fall, a ll hum ans became subject to death (3:7; cf. 7:15).
The disease o f sin perm anently infected the entire hum an race (3:21-22; 4:30-31; 7:118). Ezra
cries in despair, "Oh Adam, w hat have you done? For though it was you w ho sinned, the fa ll
was not yours alone, b u t ours also who are yo u r descendants" (7:118) .67
Adam s sin profoundly corrupted a ll o f creation. The m ost im p o rta n t passage is 7:11-
14: "It was fo r Israel th a t I made the w orld, and when Adam transgressed m y decrees, the
creation came under judgm ent" (v. 11). W hen Adam sinned, the created w o rld was judged.
The creation in general ("what had been made, Metzger) and n o t sim ply hum an ity was
profoundly changed from the o rig in a l good creation th a t God made.68 As a re su lt th is life is
66Thompson, Responsibility, 29:335-6. B y contrast some rabbinic sources say th a t God

created the evil in clin a tio n , b u t gave hum ans the a b ility to overcome it. See Stone, Fourth
Ezra, 64; Moore, Judaism , 1:453, 480-1.
67The phraseology is s im ila r to 2 Bar. 48:12: "O Adam, w hat did you do to a ll who were
bom after you?"; cf. 2 Bar. 23:4. However, contrast 2 Bar. 54:19, w hich denies th a t Adams
sin affected other people: "Adam is therefore not the cause, except only fo r him self, b u t each o f
us has become o u r own Adam ." Stone, Fourth Ezra, 258, believes th is m ay be an in te n tio n a l
critique o f 4 Ezra.
Box, "4 Ezra," 580, says "the w orld, afte r Adam s sin was not longer the good w orld as it
had been o rig in a lly created by th e hand of God." Cf. Oesterley, H Esdras, 65 ("the
Creation, . . . the whole physical w orld"); Stone, Fourth Ezra, 198 ("a far-reaching change o f a ll
creation fo r the worse"). C ontrast Myers, I & H Esdras, 252, who aigues th a t it was not the
w orld created by God th a t became cursed, b u t "another w orld" brought about due to Adam s
violations o f Gods commands. As a re su lt salvation was removed from th is w orld and
transferred to the fu tu re coining age.
258
fu ll o f hardship, suffering, sorrow and vain experiences (w . 12-13; cf. v. 96).89 This probably
alludes to Gen. 3:17-19, w hich describes the hardship o f th is life th a t was p a rt o f the curse fo r
the F all.70 By contrast the fu tu re w orld w ill be safe and fu ll of blessing (v. 13; cf. v. 96). The
righteous can o n ly a tta in the blessings of th is fu tu re w orld if they pass through th is present
life o f pain, suffering and va n ity (v. 14).
One reason th a t the created w orld suffers due to the Fall o f Adam is th a t God created
the w orld fo r the sake o f hum an ity (7:11), p a rtic u la rly Israel (6:55, 59).71 There is a close
so lid a rity between hum a n kin d and the w orld, in p a rt because hum an beings were created from
the dust o f the earth (7:62, 116; cf. 5:48) b u t also because of the dom inion o f hum anity over
the creation. Levison notes th a t hum an dom inion covers not sim ply the anim al w orld (6:53-
54), as in Gen. 1, b u t even the heavenly bodies (6:45-46). W hen God created the sun, moon
and stars, he commanded them "to serve m an who was about to be form ed" (6:45-46). Adam
was to be "ru le r over a ll the w orld w hich you had made" (6:54).72 Thus when hum an ity fe ll
in to sin, the creation over w hich it was responsible suffered as w e ll (7:11).
W orld" (Latin saeculunH is used tw o different ways in 7:11-14: (1) the physical
69The L a tin and Syriac say in v. 12 th a t the "entrances" o f th is w orld have become narrow
and p a in fu l (cf. v. 13 on the greater world). M ost m odem scholars prefer the E thiopic text,
w hich uses "ways." The verse does not mean th a t the entrance in to th is w orld is d iffic u lt b u t
th a t the path o f life in th is w orld is fu ll o f sorrow. The E thiopic and Syriac probably view th is
life as a path th a t m ust be traversed to enter the next life . See Box, "4 Ezra," 580; Stone,
Fourth Ezra, 198; contrast Myers, I & II Esdras, 231.
70R J. Coggins and M ichael A. Knibb, The F irst and Second Books o f Esdras, The Cam
bridge B ible Com m entary (Cambridge: Cambridge U niversity Press, 1979), 162.
71In Ezras appeal to God, he assumes th a t the w orld was created fo r the sake of Israel,
Gods chosen people (6:54-55). In h is response (7:11), the angel agrees b u t also extends the
responsibility fo r the w o rld to the whole hum an race as represented by Adam. The concept
th a t the w orld was created fo r Israel also occurs frequently In rabbinic lite ra tu re (Louis
Ginzberg, , vol. 5, The Legends o f the Jew s (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of
Am erica, 1909-1938), 67-8; e.g. B atte M idrashot I, 44; Shir. 2.2; 7.3; Tan. B. IV, 5; Tehellim
109, 465; M a kiri on Ps. 47, 262; cf. 2 Bar. 14, 17; Ass. Mos. 1:12).
raJo h n R Levison, Portraits o f Adam in E arly Judaism From Sirach to 2 Baruch (Sheffield:
JSOT Press, 1988), 120-1.
259
creation, w h ich God Intended h is people to In h e rit (7:11; cf. 6:59; 7:9), b u t w h ich was
p rofoundly corrupted due to th e F a ll (7:11); and (2) th is world-age o f suffering th a t w ill come to
an end, in co n tra st to the fu tu re eternal world-age o f blessing fo r the righteous (7:12-13). The
p a in fu l w ay o f life in th is age is a re su lt o f the Fall. Stone believes the L a tin saeculum in th is
second sense is equivalent to the Hebrew tib ia . The passage reflects a dualism o f two
co ntrasting world-ages.73
c. C o rrup tion o f C reation Due to O ngoing Sins
The c o rru p tio n o f the w o rld is also due to the co n tin u in g sin s of h u m a n ity, not only
orig in a l sin . The evil hea rt w ith in a ll people alienates them from God and leads to co rru p tio n
and death (7:48). The earth is spoiled and in p e ril because o f the w icked th o u g h ts and actions
o f hum an beings: "So I considered m y w o rld, and behold, it was lo st, and m y earth, and
behold it was in p e ril because o f the devices o f those who had come in to it" (9:20). Since
hum an m in d s are corrupted and lim ite d by the c o rru p t w o rld from w hich they sprang (7:62),
they cannot com prehend the ways o f the in co rru p tib le God (4:11). This is one reason the
angels answ ers to Ezras questions about Gods ju s tic e are lim ite d and in itia lly unsatisfying
(cf. 4:21).
The co rru p tio n o f the w o rld and h u m a n ity is a c irc u la r process. O rig in a l sin and
hum an s in s thro u g h h isto ry have co rru p te d th e w o rld and th e co rru p t w o rld o f w hich
h u m a n ity is p a rt continues to c o rru p t h u m a n ity (4:11; 7:62). No one can escape th is vicious
circle apa rt from divine m ercy. T h is connection is due to the fact th a t hum an beings are a
produ ct o f the earth (a ll people: 5:48; 7:62; Adam: 7:116). T his is based on the b ib lic a l
concept th a t Adam was created from the d u st o f the earth (Gen. 2:7). Even the hum an
m in d 74 is th e p rodu ct o f the earth (7:62). T h u s it is co rru p tib le and lim ite d in its capacity to
73Stone, F ourth Ezra, 198; Stone, Features, 167-71. See page 272f. below.
74There is m u ch debate over the exact m eaning o f the L a tin sensus in 7:62. M ost see it as
260
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understand God's ways (4:11).
d. The M eaning o f "C orruption"
4 Ezra repeatedly says th a t th is w orld and the present age are co rru p t and corruptible
(e.g. 4:11; 6:28; 7:15, 31, 48, 61-63, 96, 111, 113, 115; 9:19-20). The L a tin adjective com iptus
and the cognate nouns com iptio and corruptela occur frequently. The adjective probably
translated ^Saproq.75 The co rru p tio n o f the w orld involves tw o m ajor dim ensions:
(1) p e rish a b ility and a low q u a lity o f life ; and (2) m oral deterioration.
The m ost basic sense o f the c o rru p tib ility o f the w orld in 4 Ezra is th a t the w o rld and
everything in it is subject to death (7:15, 48, 61-63, 96, 115). B y contrast, heaven and the
com ing new w orld are in co rru p tib le (4:11; 7:113-114) and a ll who live there w ill be im m ortal
(7:13). S im ila rly, life in th is co rru p tib le w o rld involves suffering, to il, hardsh ip, sorrow and
fu tility (7:11-14, 96; 4:27) and a restricted a b ility to understand the ways o f God (4:11).
The co rru p tio n o f the w o rld also includes a m oral dim ension (7:48, 111-113; 9:19). In
th is age, "co rru p tio n has increased and unrighteousness has m u ltip lie d " (7: 111). T his verse
places co rru p tio n and unrighteousness in poetic parallelism ,76 w hich suggests th a t th e y are
closely related ideas. The co rru p tio n o f th is age is also associated w ith s in fu l indulgence and
unb elief and is contrasted w ith righteousness and tru th (7:113). "An evil h e a rt has grown up
in us. w hich has alienated us from God, and has brought us in to co rru p tio n and the ways o f
death, and has shown us the paths of perdition and removed us fa r from life " (7:48). In th is
some va ria tio n o f "m ind," "understanding" o r "intelligence." Stone, Fourth Ezra, 222, believes it
is "consciousness" and notes it is created along w ith the m ate rial aspect o f hum an beings and
th u s is n o t the soul. Oesterley, U Esdras, 80, believes it is the "heart," based on the Hebrew
concept th a t the heart is the seat o f understanding. H am isch, Verhangnts, 157, 236, suggests
it is the yetser, b u t v. 64 suggests th a t it is the p a rt of a person th a t understands the fate th a t
sin brings.
75Stone, Fourth Ezra, 85-6. The Hebrew m ight have been n*?D, since the w ord is used in
th is sense in the DSS, b u t th is is less certain.
76Cf. Ib id ., 251.
261
m oral sense the "ways of death" refer p rim a rily to sin, w hich leads to sp iritu a l death or
perdition and alienation from God (cf. 7:92).77 The co rru p t ways o f hum anity have spoiled
the good earth (9:19-20). The co rru p tio n o f the w orld also leads to fu rth e r m oral corruption In
| hum an beings (4:11; 7:62). Due to the s in fu l co rru p tio n o f the w orld by hum anity, the fu ll
t
j glory th a t God intended fo r the w orld does not reside In the present w orld, b u t is reserved fo r
j the new w orld (7:112).

i
i
e. Causes of th e C orruption o f th e W orld
j There are also two related causes fo r the present state o f the world: (1) The m ain cause
o f the corru ption o f the earth is hum an sin. As has been shown, both Adams sin (7:11-14)
and the ongoing sins o f h um an ity through histo ry (7:48, 118-121; 9:20) have contributed to
the corru p tio n o f the w orld. (2) The w orld also is deteriorating due to the advanced age of the
earth. Since the end o f the w orld is near, the creation is grow ing old and "losing its strength."
The physical deterioration o f creation results in hum an stature becoming reduced compared to
e arlier generations (5:54-55).78 The advanced age o f the w orld also results in s p iritu a l and
m oral deterioration (14:10, 16-18). The w orld becomes weaker as it ages and th u s is less able
to hold back the growing evil tendencies in the w orld. E vil Increases among the in habita nts of
the earth and especially w ill in te n sify in the period ju s t before the end (w . 14:17-18; cf. 5:10-
13). The increasing evils refer both to the woes at the end of the age (v. 16) and the
m u ltip lica tio n o f hum an sin (v. 17, the spread o f falsehood).
These tw o causes o f the co rru p tio n of the w orld are in tim atefy related in 14:10-17. The
world-age (v. 10) and the physical w orld (v. 17) are growing old and evil is increasing in the
^ C f. Ibid., 66.
I
| 78In Jub. 23:25 hum an stature w ill be reduced in the eschatological trib u la tio n ; cf. Philo,
De O piflclo M undi 49. Stone believes the roots o f the idea are in the b ib lica l concept of the
antediluvian G iants (Gen. 6:4; Num . 13:33). Rabbinic lite ra tu re also refers to a loss of hum an
stature due to sin. Adam lost both statu re and brightness o f face when he sinned (e.g. Gen. R
23:6-7; cf. Tanh, ed. Buber, I, 7a; Gen. R 12:6). Stone, Features, 146, 269-70, n. 392.
262
,. .. . - -
world. Thus Ezra is exhorted to "renounce the life th a t is corruptible" (v. 13), i.e. the life o f evil
and m o rta lity th a t is characteristic o f th is age.79 Keulers goes too fa r w hen he claim s th a t
the end o f the earth in the eschaton is e ntirely due to hum an sin.80 W hile th is is a m ajor
factor in the deterioration o f th e earth (e.g. 7:11-14, 118; 9:19-20), 4 Ezra also stresses th a t
the earth was appointed to la st fo r a specific duratio n, based on the predestined length o f th is
age and a predeterm ined tim e fo r ju d g m e n t (e.g. 6:6; 7:70; 14:10-13). 4 Ezra holds these two
factors in tension.81
The co rru p tio n of the w o rld in 4 Ezra is not due to any inherent evil o f m atter.82 The
m aterial w orld was created as a good creation o f God, b u t it has been spoiled b y the w icked
ness o f hum an beings (9:19-20). God grieves fo r the w orld th a t he created to produce
abundantly, b u t has been damaged b y hum an sins (9:19-20). The earth w ill apparently exist
in the new age (7:31-32). There is no in d ica tio n th a t the earth is bad in its e lf o r th a t the cause
o f evil is the m a te ria l n a tu re o f the w orld.
f. Eschatological Cosm ic D isasters
4 Ezra frequently says th a t the w orld and the present age are quickly passing away
(4:26-27, 44-50; 5:5-55; 6:20; 14:10-18). The end o f th is age w ill be accompanied by the end
o f the w orld.83 A fte r the Judgm ent a new age is com ing along w ith a new w orld. Since the
79Ih is is probably a reference to Ezras im m inent death (Stone, Fourth Ezra, 422; Coggins
and K nibb, 275).
Keulers, 145; cf. H am isch, Verh&ngnis, 118.
81Cf. the c ritiq u e o f Keulers by Stone, Features, 182-3.
82Ib id .; Stone, Fourth Ezra, 66, 232.
Part o f the d iffic u lty in these verses is distinguishin g between saecutum as "world-age"
and "m aterial w orld." The tw o uses are clearly closely related. Stone, Features, 147-84,
discusses the term inology in de ta il. In v. 17, it is clearly the m aterial w o rld th a t is growing old
and has become too weak to re sist the increasing evil o f the inhabitants o f the earth (Stone,
Fourth E zra 423).
263
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deterioration and passing o f th is w orld are so closely connected w ith the end o f the age, the
term s "w orld" and "age" are often used nea rly interchangeably. The end is very near; there is
m uch less tim e le ft th a n has passed in h isto ry already (4:44-50; 5:50-55; 14:10-18). The
creation is aged and about to pass away (5:50-55; 14:10, 17; cf. 2 Bar. 85:10).
The tim e ju s t before the end w ill be accom panied by cosm ic disasters and the collapse
o f the norm al order o f life (4:28-29; 5:1-12; 6:20-24; 9:2-6). The norm al orderly operation of
nature w ill fa il. There w ill be widespread earthquakes; the stars w ill fa ll from the sky; the sun
w ill shine at n ig h t; w ater w ill become poisonous; the sea w ill be fu ll of dead fis h ; women w ill
give b irth to hideously deformed babies; there w ill be chaos and te rro r among b ird s and
anim als (5:4-9; 9:2-3). There w ill be a general increase in unrighteousness am ong hum anity
(e.g. 5:10-13; 14:17-18).84 A s the w orld comes to an end the c o rru p tio n o f creation w ill grow
to alarm ing and all-encom passing proportions, w hich w ill only be resolved at the end of the
w o rld, when a new w orld and a new age of righteousness come.
a. The F uture, G reater W orld
4 Ezra shows a great interest in the fu tu re state o f the w o rld . God created the w orld to
be a possession o f h is people Israel (6:55, 59; 7:11), p a rticu la rly th e righteous (8:1; 9:13).
Sometimes it says th a t God created a ll th in g s fo r hum ankind, w h ic h was created in Gods
image (8:44; cf. 8:18). Ezra is concerned th a t Gods people have n o t yet taken possession of
th e w orld as God prom ised (6:59). Because o f the s in o f Adam and the rest o f hum anity, the
w orld has come under ju dgm ent and th e people o f God do not yet possess the w orld. Thus the
righteous m ust look ahead to the fu tu re w orld, where they w ill receive th e ir fu ll inheritance
(7:13-14, 36, 75; 8:1).
Cf. Myers in te ip re ta tio n o f 7:48 th a t the evil im pulse is grow ing (Myers, I & 17 Esdras,
235).
264
. _ _
God created tw o w orlds (7:50; 8:1). The present w orld is called the "firs t w orld"85
(6:55) and "th is w orld" (7:12; 8:1). The "w orld to come" (8:1, Metzger) is "the greater w orld"
(7:13), because o f the blessings and im m o rta lity its in habita nts w ill enjoy. The hope of the
righteous revolves around the fu tu re w orld, ra th e r th a n the present w orld o f suffering,
hardsh ip and sin. O nly a few w ill be allowed entrance in to th is greater w orld, since only a few
are tru ly righteous (8:1).
Some passages im p ly th a t God has already created the fu tu re w orld. "The M ost H igh
has created not one w orld b u t two" (7:50; cf. 8:1). In p a rticu la r. Paradise, the place o f eternal
blessing, already exists (4:7; 8:52) b u t is hidden (7:26, 36) and w ill be revealed at th e end of
the age (7:26, 36, 123).86 God created Paradise even before the earth (3:6; cf. 6:2).87 It is
possible th a t the garden th a t Adam enjoyed is the same as the eschatological Paradise. B oth
are called Paradise88 and have sim ila r features such as the Tree of Life (7:123; 8:54; cf. 7:13).
Box argues th a t afte r Adam s s in Paradise was removed from the earth and is now in heaven,
aw aiting the righteous.89 4 Ezra, however, does n o t e xp licitly refer to a tra n sfe r o f Eden to
the heavenly realm , nor o f its la te r descent from heaven. Stone argues th a t the garden o f Eden
is a type fo r the heavenly Paradise.90 W hile it is n o t certain w hether the eternal Paradise
85In 6:55, the L a tin has prtmogenUum saeculum, "firs t bom w orld and A rabic 2 has "firs t
w o rld." Syriac, E thiopic and A rabic 1 have "th is w orld."
T he place o f eternal blessing is sometimes sym bolized by a c ity (the heavenly Jerusalem ,
7:26; 8:52; 10:27, 42, 44, 54; 13:36) and sometimes by a garden o f fru itfu l la nd or Paradise
(6:3; 7:26, 36; 8:52). A t tim es the two images are com bined in one passage (7:26; 8:52; cf.
2 B ar. 4:1-3). The fact th a t they are tw o sym bols o f the same th in g is shown by the p a ra lle l
ism in 7:26: "the c ity w hich now is not seen sh a ll appear, and the land w hich now is hidden
shall be disclosed (Metzger).
87T h is view is also found in la te r rabbinic lite ra tu re (e.g. Pesachim 54a; Nedarim 39b). Box,
"4 Ezra," 562, n. 6.
It is called the garden of Eden in 3:6.
89B q x , Apocalypse o f Ezra, 197.
Stone, Features, 204.
265
should be identified w ith Eden, it is clear th a t Paradise already exists and has sim ilar
characteristics to the e a rth ly garden of Eden.
b. N ature in the Future W orld
The fu tu re w orld is described in m aterial language th a t includes various aspects of
nature. The term "Paradise" suggests a garden environm ent91 rem iniscent o f the garden of
Eden, even i f the eschatological Paradise is not id entical to Adam s o riginal dwelling place.
There are flow ers (6:2), fru it (7:123; cf. 7:13) and the Tree o f Life (8:52). "F ru it o f im m ortality"
in 7:13 refers to fru it th a t gives im m o rta lity and probably is on the Tree o f Life.92 The bodies
of the righteous w ill suffe r no disease or death (8:53-54).
The earth continues to exist in the new age (7:31-32). Several passages refer to the
"land" in the new age (7:26; 9:8). "M y land" in 9:8 probably is a reference to the land o f Israel,
w hich God sanctified and to w hich he w ill b ring salvation. "The land w hich is now hidden" in
7:26 refers to the land o f the new earth.
W hile these passages show th a t there w ill be a n a tu ra l w orld in the new age, there are
no details o f the operation o f nature, other th a n th a t death, decay and corru ption w ill cease
(6:25-28; 7:13, 113-114; 8:53-54).
Box and Keulers argue th a t the nature term inology is sym bolic o f a sp iritu a l or
transcendental reality.93 The context o f these passages, however, does not suggest th a t the
use o f n a tu ra l features is sym bolic or m etaphorical (except possibly 7:13).94 Box argues th a t
91The w ord "paradise" (0*1*12) is derived from the Persian p a irid a tza , w hich means "garden."
Coggins and Knibb, 172.
Myers, I & n Esdras, 231; Stone, Fourth Ezra, 199.
Box, Apocalypse o f Ezra, 197; Keulers, 186.
O ther passages use n a tu ra l features sym bolically, such as the visions of the Eagle (ch.
11-12) and th e M an from the Sea (ch. 13). In these passages anim als, m ountains, the sea and
other n a tu ra l objects are used to teach s p iritu a l tru th s m etaphorically.
266
since Paradise was created p rio r to the w orld, it is transcendental and heavenly.95 The
rabbinic w ritin g s, however, say th a t the o riginal garden o f Eden was pre-created, w ith o u t
im plying th a t it was non-m aterial.96 Stone correctly notes.
There is every reason to th in k th a t the apocalyptic authors a ttrib u te d at least the same
physical re a lity to the heavenly realm as they did to the earthly. It may be more m arvel
ous, b u t it is as real.97
No in fo rm a tio n is given about the location o f Paradise.98 The situ a tio n , however, is sim ila r to
th a t of th e new Jerusalem , w hich is heavenly and eventually w ill appear on earth. Thus it is
not necessary to assume th a t "transcendent" means non-m aterial o r "heavenly in contrast to
"earthly."99
c. The New Age and th e New C reation
4 Ezra freq uently speaks o f the end of the present age and the sta rt o f a new age (4:26,
31-32; 6:7, 10, 34; 7:95). The new age begins at the tim e o f the Judgm ent (7:31-33, 113). It is
the "last age" (6:34) and w ill last forever. The righteous w ill dwell in peace and blessing and
enjoy glory forever (7:95). I t is in th is new age th a t th e new w orld comes. A t tim es it is
d iffic u lt to distin g u ish between the new w orld and the new age, since they are so closely
linked. Stone shows th a t the L a tin w ord saeculum is close to "w orld age," since the idea o f a
new w o rld and a new age m e in tim a te ly connected.100
95Bqx. Apocalypse o f Ezra, 196.
Stone, Features, 201.
97Ib id ., 201-2.
Stone, however, argues th a t Paradise in 4:8 is heavenly, on the basis o f usage in la te r

; rabbinic lite ra tu re w ith a verb fo r enter (e.g. T.B. Hag. 14b). In th is instance Paradise is
d is tin c t fro m Eden. M ichael E. Stone, "Paradise in IV Ezra Iv:8 and V ii:36, V iii:5 3 ," JJS 17
(1966): 85.
| Stone, Features, 203.
100Ib id ., 180.
267
The tra n s itio n to the new age occurs broadly at the tim e o f the Judgm ent (7:113).101
The clearest sequence o f eschatological events is described in 7:26-44: (1) The hidden city
(heavenly Jerusalem ) and th e hidden la n d (Paradise) w ill appear (v. 26-27). (2) The Messiah
w ill come and in s titu te a 400 year kingdom (v. 28). A lthough the kingdom is n o t described in
d etail, it apparently w ill be on earth. (3) The M essiah and a ll hum ans w ill die (v. 29). (4) The
w o rld w ill re tu rn to a prim eval silence fo r 7 days (v. 30). (5) The world-age w ill be awakened
and a ll th a t is co rru p tib le w ill die (v. 31). T h is suggests the in s titu tio n o f a new, in co rru p tib le
w orld-age. (6) A ll hum an beings w ill be resurrected (v. 32). (7) H um anity w ill be judged b y
God (w . 33-34). (8) The righteous w ill go to th e ir rew ard in Paradise and th e w icked w ill face
the torm ent o f Gehenna (w . 35-43).
The p a tte rn o f 7 days of silence follow ed by the reawaldng o f the w orld suggests a new
creation m o tif (v. 30). V o lkm ar believes the seven years o f ju dgm ent (7:43) also correspond to
the o rig in a l 7 days of creation.102 The new creation recapitulates the o rig in a l creation,
except th a t there w ill be no s in o r co rru p tio n in the new w orld (7:31, 34).
D u rin g the Judgm ent, there w ill be no operation o f the norm al cycles o f nature, b u t
on ly the unfading g lo iy o f God (7:39-42). T his tem porary suspension o f the norm al operation
o f n a tu re causes a ll a tte n tio n to be focused on God. The suspension o f norm al seasons
alludes to Gen. 8:22: 'W hile earth rem ains, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, sum m er and
w in te r, day and n ig h t, sh a ll not cease." Zech. 14:6-7 also prom ises th a t at the com ing o f the
Lord, the seasons and cycles of day and n ig h t w ill cease (cf. Sib. O r. 3:88-92).103 The cycles
101O n the surface there appear to be tw o views o f th e tra n s itio n between the ages in 7:113
and 7:26-44 (Stone, Features, 64). In 7:113, the tra n s itio n o f the ages is viewed broadly as the
tim e o f judgem ent. In 7:26-44 the tra n s itio n between the ages is described in m ore detail and
the Judgm ent appears to be p a rt o f the new age. The difference, however, is largely due to the
greater detail in th e la tte r passage.
1 G ustav V olkm ar, H andbuch der E tnleitung In die Apokryphen, vol. 12, Das vierte Buch
E sra (Tubingen: Fues, 1934), 68.
103Stone, Fourth Ezra, 222.
268
o f nature w ill be suspended fo r 7 years (7:43, "a week of years"), then the new w orld w ill
appear and the operation o f nature w ill resume.
d. The Two-Stage R edem ption o f th e W orld
God prom ises to redeem the creation th a t has been corrupted by sin. In p a rt th is is
accom plished by the w o rk o f the Messiah. In the "M an from the Sea" visio n , God prom ises
th a t th is m essianic figure "w ill h im self deliver h is creation; and he w ill direct those who are
le ft" (13:26, Metzger). W hile it is u ltim a te ly God who redeems the creation, the M essiah is the
agent through whom God w orks (cf. 29).104 In the firs t phase o f the redem ption o f creation,
the M essiah w ill defeat the enemies o f the people o f God (13:29-40, 49) and in s titu te a
tem porary m essianic kingdom on earth (7:28; cf. 13:26b). A lthough the m essianic kingdom is
clearly on earth, 4 Ezra does n o t include the detailed description o f a transform ed n a tu ra l
w orld found in 2 Bar. 29.105 The m essianic kingdom is not as im portant in the redem ption
o f creation or in the solution to theodicy as it is in 2 Baruch. Hence there is less detail about
the m essianic age in 4 Ezra th a n in 2 B aruch.106
A fte r the 400 year m essianic kingdom is complete (7:28-29), God w ill complete the
redem ption o f the w orld by tran sform ing and recreating the w orld and b y in s titu tin g an eternal
age o f righteousness in the transform ed creation (7:30-31). The earth its e lf w ill be transform ed
a t the end o f histo ry (6:14-16). A lthough the precise nature o f th is transform ation is not
spelled out, it w ill be a sig n ifica n t and fundam ental change th a t w ill affect the earth to the
"foundations" (v. 15), since th e earth "trem bles" when it hears about it. The transform ation of
creation w ill be accompanied by a cosm ic tu rm o il th a t w ill d isru p t the norm al operation of
104Stone, Features, 265.
105Cf. Andrew J . Ferch, "The Two Aeons and the Messiah in Pseudo-Philo, 4 Ezra, and 2
B aruch." AUSS 15 (1977): 145.
106M ichael E. Stone, "The Concept of th e Messiah in IV Ezra," in Religions in A ntiquity:

Essays in Memory ojE .R . Goodemugh, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden: B rill, 1968), 312.
269
nature (6:21-24; 9:3). Infa nts w ill be able to ta lk ; prem ature babies w ill dance; there w ill be
earthquakes, massive crop failure s and droughts (6:22-24; 9:3). The Inhabitants o f the w orld
w ill be overcome by confusion and te rro r, and battle one another (6:23-24; 9:3-4).
In the "new w o rld" a ll decay and co rru p tio n w ill be removed (6:27-28; 7:31, 113-114;
8:53) and the in h a b ita n ts w ill be fu ll o f righteousness and they w ill never be sick or die (6:25-
28; 7:13, 113-114; 8:53-54). The new w orld is a kin to a fresh creation (6:30-31) and w ill be
eternal (7:113). The fu tu re w orld w ill restore the conditions o f Paradise and reverse the
damage o f the F a ll (cf. 7:96, 123; 8:52; 1 En. 24:4-25:5; T. Lev. 18:11).
This cosm ic transform ation accompanies "the end o f m y w orld" (6:25) and the in s titu
tio n o f a new w o rld order. The "end" (Latin fin is ) refers to the end o f th is age (6:16, 20) o r w hat
Stone calls "the decisive tu rn in g point of h isto ry."107 Stone shows th a t "the end" is a techni
cal term in 4 Ezra th a t can refer to (1) the fin a l Judgm ent (7:112-113: 12:32-34), (2) the
destruction o f the evil heathen kingdom (11:39-46), or (3) the destruction of the evil kingdom
and the s ta rt o f the m essianic kingdom (12:30-32; cf. 6:7-10).108 W hile sometimes the exact
eschatological event is indeterm inate (3:14; 4:26; 14:5), the term consistently refers to the
cru cia l eschatological tu rn in g p oint o f h isto ry.109 The destruction o f the m aterial w orld is
apparently not im plied b y the "end" o f the w orld in 4 Ezra (contrast 2 Pet 3:10-11).
e. A New W orld o r a Transform ed W orld?
4 Ezra has a tension between tw o views about the eschatological changes to the world:
(1) th is w orld w ill end and a new w orld w ill be created; and (2) the present creation w ill be
transform ed to become w hat God orig in a lly intended. Since the language is inconsistent and
108For a discussion o f the Esau-Jacob sym bolism o f 6:7-10 as the change from the ru le of
Rome to the ru le o f Israel, see Stone, Features, 48-52.
109M ichael E. Stone, "Coherence and Inconsistency in the Apocalypses: The Case of the
End in 4 Ezra," JB L 102 (1983): 236-9, 241; Stone, Features, 91-7.
270
at tim es am biguous, it is often d iffic u lt to determ ine w hich view is intended in a p a rtic u la r
passage. Nevertheless, th e outcom e is always th a t the damaging effects of s in and corru p tio n
w ill be removed from the w orld. The re s u lt w ill be a perfect creation fu ll o f righteousness and
free fro m co rru p tio n .
Since the tim e o f Kabisch, m any scholars have resolved th is am big uity by claim ing th a t
4 Ezra contains tw o types o f eschatology: (1) a na tio n a l-e a rth ly eschatology; and (2) a univer
sal-transcendental eschatology. The e a rth ly eschatology focuses on th e a n n ih ila tio n o f Israels
enemies and the continued existence o f the saved in Jerusalem in a m essianic kingdom on the
present earth. The transcendental eschatology looks forw ard to the dam nation o f the wicked
and th e resurrectio n o f the righteous to a blessed life on th e new earth or in heaven.110
Kabisch believes th a t these tw o views came from separate lite ra ry sources.111 The problem
o f the .sinfulness o f h u m a n ity is addressed by universal-transcendental eschatology and the
problem o f Israels suffering is addressed b y a na tio n a l-e a rth ly eschatology.112
Stone, however, shows th a t 4 Ezra does n o t consistently follow th is pattern. Transcen
dental eschatology only occurs in one passage th a t focuses on the problem o f a ll hum an ity
(7:112-113). A ll other eschatological passages deal w ith the fate and suffering o f Israel, yet
they m ay contain either an e a rth ly or transcendental eschatology.113 The tw o types o f escha
tology can also be com bined in to one eschatological pa tte rn in the same passage. For
example, in 7:26-44, the clearest chronology o f eschatological events, the follow ing sequence
occurs: (1) a 400 year e a rth ly m essianic kingdom : (2) the Judgm ent: (3) the tran sform ation o f
110Kabisch, Vierte Buch Esra, 67-70, 75; Keulers, 6-10, 36, 143: H. H. Rowley, The
Relevance o f Apocalyptic, Revised ed. (London: L u tte rw o rth Press, 1964), 116-8; Leon Vaganay,
Le Probl&me eschataologique dans le IVe liure d Esdras (Paris: Picard, 1906), 82f.
1"K a b isch , Vierte Buch Esra, 96f, 67-70, 75.
112Ib id ., 67-70, 75: Keulers. 143.
113Stone, "Coherence and Inconsistency," 235-8.
271
the earth; and (4) the fin a l rew ard o r punishm ent. B oth types o f eschatology also occur
together In 6:26-29, 9:6-12, 11:46 and 12:34. A lthough the author o f 4 Ezra does n o t fu lly
resolve the tensio n between the e a rth ly and transcendental eschatologies, it is clear th a t he
holds b oth views at the same tim e .114
One problem in determ ining w hether th e a u th o r of 4 Ezra expected a new w o rld or a
transform ed w o rld is distin g u ish in g when the w ord "w orld" means the physical earth and when
it refers to a world-age (either present o r future). G enerally "the end" refers to the end o f the
age (3:14; 6:6). Yet in some instances it appears to refer to the end o f the w orld (6:15-16, 25;
"m y w orld" suggests the physical earth as opposed to the present age; cf. v. 24, "earth"). The
exact m eaning in some passages is not easy to determ ine (e.g. 7:113).
Stone has done an extensive study o f the m eaning o f the w ords fo r "earth," "w orld" and
"age."115 He attem pts to reconstru ct the underlying Greek and Hebrew w ords th a t lie behind
the La tin , Syriac and A rm enian, b y com paring how the w ords are tran slated in these versions
o f the Bible. He dem onstrates th a t in the B ib lica l versions, the L a tin terra (Syriac f ) generally
represents yfj, w h ich u su a lly translates f (42 tim es) and or (18 tim es).116 T his
clearly suggests th a t verses using these w ords refer to the physical earth. The L a tin orbis also
clearly m eans earth and usu a lly translates oiKoupevr) and As has been shown, the
num erous references to th e earth in 4 Ezra show a concern both fo r the present and fu tu re
physical creation.
The m ore am biguous w ord is the L a tin saeculum (Syriac clm), w h ich u su a lly translates
aidjv (96 tim es) or occasionally airivoq (6 tim es) in the Vulgate. Stone shows th a t these words
114Stone, Features, 136-8, 222-3; cf. Stone, "Coherence and Inconsistency," 229-43.
115Stone, Features, 147-87.
116Ib id ., 156-8. Due to the frequency o f the w ords in th e B ible, Stone lim ite d h is study of
th is w ord to Gen. 1-6.
272
consistently tran slate o r HI?.117 The m eaning "w orld" is widespread in rabbinic
Hebrew,118 b u t it is less clear how early th is m eaning is used. Jenn l has shown th a t in
b ib lic a l Hebrew, is never used as an independent noun. W ith tw o exceptions, it is always
used adverbially o r w ith a preposition to m ean "m ost d ista n t tim e."119 Je n n i traces a devel
opm ent o f the word in e xtra -b ib lica l w ritin g s, perhaps due to the influence o f the Greek cdffiv,
to mean "period o f tim e," th e n "age," and eventually "world" b y the late firs t o r early second
century A D .120 Je n n i believes the earliest clear occurrence o f the m eaning "w orld" is in a
Palmyrene in scrip tio n o f A.D . 134.121 Stone, however, fin d s an earlier instance in Q um ran
(1QH iii:3 5 ).122 The m eaning in 1 Enoch 48:7 and 71:15 is also close to "w orld," b u t the date
o f BP is u n ce rta in .123
Stone argues th a t b y the late firs t century, when 4 Ezra was w ritte n , the s h ift in
m eaning to "w orld" was w e ll under way. He shows th a t the m eanings o f saeculum in 4 Ezra
are divided between "w orld" and "w orld age," though in some cases the d istin ctio n is d iffic u lt to
m ake. W hen the term m eans "age" in 4 Ezra, it is closer to "w orld age." Even the tem poral
usage has a spatial connotation.124 Based on the context, the vast m ajority o f occurrences
117Ibid., 167-71. Stone looked a t a ll occurrences o f the w ords in the OT.
u8Jacob Levy, Neuhebraisches und ChaMaisches W orterbuch uber die Talm udim und
M idraschim (Leipzig: B rockhaus, 1883), 3:665.
119E. Je n n i, "Das W ort olam im A lte n Testam ent," Z e its c h rftju r die cdttestamentliche
W issenschaft 65 (1953): 246.
120E. Je n n i, "Das W ort olam im A lten Testam ent," ZAW 64 (1952): 197-248; cf. H. Sasse,
"Aic6v," TDNT, 1:203-4.
121Jenni, P art I, 221.
122Stone, Features, 35:178.
123H am isch, Verhangrds, 289; cf. Frederick Jam es M urphy, The Structure and Meaning o f
Second Baruch, SBL D issertation Series, no. 78 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1985), 32.
124Stone, Features, 35:178-80.
273
in 4 Ezra refer to w orld. Stone fin d s only three places where it clearly means "age" (11:44;
14:10, 11), since in these places the w ord is connected w ith "tim es." In four other passages it
is possible (4:36 (also related to "tim es"); 7:12-13; 14:16).125 However, 7:12-13 continues the
th o u g h t of 7:11, w hich clearly refers to the creation of the w orld, so it would be better grouped
w ith the references to "w orld." Perhaps 26 other verses refer to the w o rld .126 In some
passages it is associated w ith the earth by parallelism (9:20; 11:40). Stone rates several
passages as am biguous.127 C ontextual clues, however, show th a t some o f Stones "uncer
ta in " verses refer to the physical "w orld" (4:2; 6:25; 7:137; 8:2; 9:13; 14:20; possibly 8: l) . 128
These references show th a t 4 Ezra refers both to the present and fu tu re w orld, as w ell
as the present and fu tu re ages. Even when "age" is p rim a rily in view, there is a concern fo r
the physical w orld, w hich ju s tifie s Stones tra n sla tio n o f saeculum as "world age.
Several passages suggest the transform ation o f the present creation, ra th e r th a n the
creation o f a new earth (7:30-32, 75: 9:2-8). God prom ises th a t salvation w ill be brought "to
m y land, th e coun try I have m arked o u t from eternity as m y own" (9:8). A fter the cosmic
disasters (9:2-6), God w ill b rin g salvation to the land o f Israel. It is not sim ply the people o f
God who are im portant to God, b u t also the land th a t God has sanctified for them (cf. 5:24).
In 7:75, Ezra asks w hat w ill happen between death and the tim e when God "w ill renew the
12SIb id ., 179, 274.
126Stone, Features, pp. 179, 275, rates 5:49; 6:1, 59; 7:30, 70; 8:50; 9:20; 11:40; 13:20 as
certainty "w orld"; 4:24, 26-27; 5:44; 7:34, 74; 8:41; 9:5, 182; 11:39 as probably "w orld"; and
4:11; 7:11, 31, 122-123, 132; 9:2; 14:22 as possibly "world" (though on p. 56 he says 7:31
refers to "age"). A few o f these are debatable, such as 7:113, where the day o f Judgm ent
functions as a tem poral delim iter o f the end o f the age.
1274:22; 6:20, 25; 7:47, 50, 137; 8:1-2; 9:13 (twice); 10:45; 14:20. A few are closer to the
b ib lic a l sense o f "a m ost dista n t tim e" (9:8, 18, 31). Stone, Features, p. 275.
12aIn 4:2, Ezra has failed in h is understanding o f the w orld, w hich is shown by h is in a b ility
to understand some facts of nature (4:3-11). In 6:25, God refers to "m y w orld," w hich suggests
the created w orld as opposed to an age. In 7:137; 14:20, there are references to the in h a b it
ants o f the w orld. In 8:2, earth and w orld are paralleled. Both 8:1 and 9:13 m ay refer to the
possession of the fu tu re earth by th e righteous.
274
creation" (Metzger). A lthough the NEB translates th is "create y o u r new w o rld," m ost com men
ta to rs understand th is to speak about the renewal o f creation, as in M etzger's more lite ra l
tra n sla tio n .129 W hile th e A rabic1 te x t refers to "a new creation," the Latin (creaturam
renoixire) and Syriac b o th refer to the renovation o f the creation. The L a tin and Syriac verbs
both mean "to restore" o r "to renovate." Stone believes th a t th e Hebrew B fffi lies behind these
words and has a s im ila r m eaning.130 The Urzeit-Endzeit p a tte rn , where th e new creation
re tu rn s to the conditions of the o riginal creation, m ay be im p lie d here, b u t it is not fu lly
developed.131
In 7:30, the angel predicts "the w orld sh a ll re tu rn to its original silence fo r seven days
as at the beginning o f creation." A fte r th is 7 days o f silence, th e world is "awakened" (7:31),
w hich sounds as if the w orld has slept ra th e r th a n "died" or been destroyed. A fte r it awakes,
the same earth gives u p the bodies o f the dead a t the resurrectio n (7:32). T his passage does
n o t suggest the creation o f a new w o rld as m uch as a re su scita tio n of the present w orld, w ith
its nature transform ed. Yet even here some o f th e imagery su ggests a new creation m o tif. The
concepts o f 7 days and p rim o rd ia l silence parallel the o rig in a l creation.132 The NEB suggests
th a t 7:31 refers to the change of th e ages: "A fter seven days th e age w hich is not yet awake
sh a ll be roused and the age w hich is corruptible shall die." T he change is not the creation o f a
new earth, b u t the beginning of a new age o f righteousness a n d im m ortality and the end o f the
129Metzger, "4 Ezra," 539; Stone. Fourth Ezra, 239; Oesterley, U Esdras, 85; Box, "4 Ezra,"
587; Coggins and K nibb, 182.
130Stone, Features, 35:78.
131Herm ann G unkel, Schopfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzett (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck
and R uprecht, 1895), 377f, is the classic discussion o f the Urzett-Endzeit pattern . However,
Stone. Features, 35:79, correctly notes th a t there are only trace s of the concept in 4 Ezra (cf.
7:29-31). A s has been shown it is possible th a t the eschatological Paradise is the same as the
garden o f Eden, b u t th is is n o t certain.
132Myers. I & H Esdras, 233; Stone, Fourth Ezra, 217. A s im ila r creation m o tif is in 6:30-
31, where Ezra is commanded to fast fo r "7 days," before God w ill te ll him about th is tra n s
form ation o f creation.
275
*d - .............. -
old age o f corruption. Thus it is n o t the co rru ptible w orld th a t is destroyed, b u t the c o rru p t
ible aspects o f the w orld, w hich are p art o f the old age. The original creation is renewed and
transform ed in to the perfect w orld God intended before the F a ll.133
a. P ersonification o f th e E arth
4 Ezra frequently personifies the earth. Several passages speak as if the earth has
in te lle ctu a l capacities. The earth has the a b ility to understand speech. W hen a loud,
heavenly voice speaks o f the fin a l Judgm ent and the eschatological tran sform ation o f the
w orld, the earth understands the message (6:13-16). U riel, Ezras angelic guide, urges Ezra to
ask the earth questions (7:55; 8:2; 10:9; cf. 7:62). These questions are more th a n rh e to ri
cal;134 the angel expects the earth to answer ("ask the earth and she w ill te ll you"). The
personified earth is capable o f speech to answer Ezras questions (7:55; 8:2; 10:9).135 4 Ezra
focuses on the earths knowledge o f eschatological events. The earth knows th a t it w ill be
transform ed at the end o f tim e and trem bles a t th is knowledge (6:16). I t also knows o f the
ju dgm ent and fate o f the vast num ber o f people who w ill suffer eternal punishm ent (10:9-14).
Several passages refer to the earths knowledge o f the relative am ount o f gold and other
precious m etals compared to clay and m ore common m etals (7:55-56; 8:2-3). T his illu stra te s
the relative num ber and value o f the few people who are saved com pared to the m u ltitu d e s
133Keulers, 149; J. Jervell, Imago D ei (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & R uprecht, 1960), 44;
Stone, Fourth Ezra, 218. Cf. W esterm anns in te rp re ta tio n o f the "new heavens and new earth"
as a m iraculous transform ation and renewal ra th e r th a n the destruction o f the present
creation and a second creation ex nihllo (Claus W esterm ann, Isa ia h 40-66, trans. D avid M. G.
S talker (London: SCM, 1969), 408).
134The possible exception is 7:62, in w hich Ezra addresses the earth as a rhetorical device.
Stone, Fourth Ezra, 232, notes th a t it is an apostrophe, a rh e to rica l device in w hich a person
o r th in g not present is addressed. Cf. E. W. B ullinger, Figures o f Speech Used in the B ible
(London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1898; re p rin t. G rand Rapids, M i.: Baker, 1968), 601-3.
135The speaking trees and sea in 4:13-18 are not relevant since th e passage is a parable.
276
w ho w ill suffe r perdition.
The earth also has a wide range o f em otions. The earth trem bles and shakes w ith fear
w hen it hears the heavenly announcem ent about the end o f the age and the transform ation of
th e w o rld (6:14-16). In the Eagle vision, the earth is "exceedingly te rrifie d " (Metzger) when the
"eagle" is destroyed b y God at the end of the age (12:3). Stone notes th a t te rro r typically
accom panies such cosm ic events. "It is the earth th a t is te rrifie d , ju s t as it has been the earth
th a t is th e arena o f a ction ."136 The earth also feels re lie f when it is delivered from the vio l
ence and oppression o f the Eagle (11:46), w hich sym bolizes the eschatological evil em pire th a t
w ill oppress th e w orld (probably the Roman em pire).137 The earth also looks forw ard w ith
hope to the fin a l Judgm ent, in w hich God w ill judge the w icked and show m ercy to the
righteous (11:46).138 Violence and evil b ring harm to the earth, so the earth feels "refreshed
and relieved" (11:46, Metzger) when the evil is fin a lly removed. The earth m ourns fo r the vast
num ber o f people th a t w ill go to eternal punishm ent, like a m other th a t has lost her ch ild
136Stone, Fourth Ezra, 353. In 3:18 and 10:26, the earth also shakes, b u t there is no
person ification o f the earth. In 3:18, God shakes the earth. In 10:26, the loud cry o f the
wom an shakes the earth as she is transform ed in to a c ity in the vision. The shaking o f the
earth often accom panies theophanies (cf. 1 En. 1:6; 2 Sam. 22:8; Ps. 13:13; 18:7; 68:8; Joel
3:16).
137W hile th e exact em peror and period have been debated, m ost scholars agree th a t the
Eagle refers to the Roman em pire (e.g. E. S c h u re r,. ed. G. Vermes and F. M illa r, trans. J.
M acpherson, S. Taylor and P. C hristie, The H istory o f the Je w ish People in the Age o f Jesus
C hrist (1980; re p rin t, E dinburgh: T. & T . C lark, 1986), 3:241-3; Box, "4 Ezra," 119-20; Gunkel.
vierte Buch Esra, 345; Keulers, 119-22; Oesterley, U Esdras, 144-7; Stone, Fourth Ezra, 348;
M yers, I & n Esdras, 301). The sym bol is taken from the image on th e standard of the Roman
legions (Stone, Fourth Ezra, p. 348). See the h isto ry o f in te rp re ta tio n in Stone, Fourth Ezra,
299-302.
138It is possible th a t the judgm ent refers to the ju dgm ent of the evil em pire and the m ercy
alludes to the m essianic kingdom the righteous w ill enjoy (cf. 12:33-34; Coggins and Rnibb,
246; Box, 4 Ezra, 612; Stone, Fourth Ezra, 352). The verse, however, says th a t the earth
looks forw ard to judgm ent and m ercy after the destruction o f the Eagle, even as it feels re lie f
a fte r the destruction o f the Eagle. T his sequential connection is shown by the conjunction at
th e s ta rt o f v. 46 (cf. Metzger, "4 Ezra," 549, "so th a t"; NEB "then"). The destruction of the
Eagle anticipates the fin a l Judgm ent when a ll evil w ill be judged and destroyed. It provides
hope to a suffering w o rld th a t ju stice w ill fin a lly prevail.
277
(10:8-14). The e a rth is frequently personified as the m other o f a ll hum anity (7:62, 116; 10:10-
11, 14). T h is is related to the creation story in Gen. 2:4, w h ich says th a t God created Adam
and Eve fro m th e d u st o f the earth.
b . F u n ctio n o f P ersonificatio n
The references th a t personify creation p rim a rily have an eschatological focus. The
em otions o f the e a rth focus on the fin a l tran sform ation o f th e w orld, the fin a l Judgm ent, the
punishm ent o f the w icked and the blessing o f the righteous. The terror, hope and re lie f of the
earth are m ost intense at the deliverance o f the w o rld by th e "Lion," w hich represents the
M essiah.139 The knowledge of the earth emphasizes its awareness of its fin a l transform ation.
O ther aspects o f the earths knowledge are used as a teaching vehicle about hum an eternal
punishm ent and redem ption.
W hile th e personification o f the earth in 4 Ezra resembles the personification o f nature
in 1 Enoch, there are some differences: 4 Ezra focuses on the personification o f the earth, b u t
1 Enoch personifies m any other aspects o f nature, such as heavenly lum inaries, w eather
patterns and m ountains. In addition, 4 Ezra does not use personification to emphasize m oral
choice as in 1 Enoch, w hich often describes the power o f n a tu ra l objects to obey and w orship
God, and to choose w hether to sin.
5 . Sum m ary o f 4 E zra
The c o rru p tio n o f creation is a m ajor them e in 4 Ezra, due to the books preoccupation
w ith universal hum an sin. A ll creation came under Gods judgm ent because o f the Fall of
Adam. T hus the present age is fu ll of corru ption, suffering, death and vanity. The corruption
o f the w o rld re su lts in fu rth e r co rru p tio n o f hum anity. The low qu a lity o f life in th is age is also
due to the advanced state of the w orld, w hich is growing less able to hold back risin g corrup
278
tio n and sin. The present w o rld and th is age are passing away. Cosmic disasters and
d isru p tio n o f the orderly operation of n a tu re w ill accom pany the end o f the age.
A new age is com ing in w h ich God w ill reverse the damage done b y the F all and sin.
The transform ation o f the w orld involves two stages: (1) the tem porary m essianic kingdom ; and
(2) a new w orld th a t w ill come a fte r the resurrection and Judgm ent. The new w o rld w ill b rin g
blessing and im m o rta lity to the righteous and the end o f co rru p tio n and sin. Nature w ill
continue to operate in the new w orld, b u t there are few details about w hether its fu tu re
operation w ill differ from th is age. W hile a few passages speak o f the end o f the w orld, m ost
passages refer to the end o f the present age. G enerally the "end" does not refer to the destruc
tio n o f th is world. R ather it refers to the com plex o f eschatological events th a t enable the
w orld to operate a new way, and b rin g great blessing and the end of co rru p tio n . A few
passages, nevertheless, refer to a new creation. Thus 4 E zra retains a tension between the
new creation and the tran sform ation o f creation views, although the tran sfo rm a tio n view
dom inates.
The earth is frequently personified in 4 Ezra. I t has b o th in te lle ctu a l understanding
and em otions such as fear, relief, hope and m ourning. The in te lle ct and em otions o f the earth
focus on eschatological events around the change fro m the present age to the new age.
The follow ing table sum m arizes the key points concerning the co rru p tio n and redem p
tio n o f creation in 4 Ezra:
Table 21: Summary of 4 Ezra

1. Ail creation is under judgment due to 1. The messianic kingdom is a temporary period of blessing for the Intellectual understanding
the Fall of Adam. righteous in Israel. and emotions are centered
2. Human sins also contribute to the cor 2. Nature will temporarily cease operating during the Judgment. around eschatological
ruption of the world. 3. A new world will come after the Judgment. events.
3. The present age is full of corruption 4. Nature operates in the new world, but is not described in detail.
and decay and is subject to futility. 5. The 'end of the world* generally refers to the end of the present
4. The advanced age of the earth corrupt age, not the destruction of the earth.
increases moral decay and physical 6. The new age includes the end of corruption, death and sin.
deterioration. 7. Most passages describe the transformation of the present
creation in the new age, but a few refer to a new creation.
279
... ------------------
C. 2 Baruch
1. D ate, Provenance and U n ity o f 2 Baruch
The only com plete copy o f 2 B aruch Is preserved in Syriac. The Syriac te xt is a
tra n sla tio n from the Greek edition, w hich is preserved only in a fragm ent containing parts of
ch. 12-14.140 M ost scholars believe th a t the Greek is a tra n sla tio n o f a Hebrew o rig in a l141.
Bogaert, however, argues th a t th e evidence is inconclusive, though it slig h tly favors a Greek
o rig in a l.142
The scholarly consensus is th a t 2 Baruch was w ritte n sometime in the late firs t o r early
second century A D . It was w ritte n sh o rtly a fte r the destruction o f Jerusalem in A D . 70, since
the book is a theological response to th is disaster. It was probably w ritte n before the second
Jew ish revolt o f A D . 132-135, since there is no a llu sio n to th is calam ity.143 More precise
dating is d iffic u lt due to the la ck of unam biguous h is to ric a l references in 2 B aruch and the
140Charles, APOT, 472; Pierre Bogaert, Apocalypse de Baruch, Introduction, traduction du

Syriaque et commentatre (Paris: E ditions du Cerf, 1969), 1:353-80; B runo V iolet, Die Apoca-
lypsen des E sra und des Baruch in deutscher G estalt, Die G riechischen C h ristliche n S ch rift-
steller der ersten d re i Jahrhunderte, no. 32 (Leipzig: J.C . H inrichs, 1924), bdi. The Syriac te xt
its e lf claim s to be a tra n sla tio n from Greek.
141e.g. Charles, APOT, 474-474; R ussell, M ethod a n d Message, 411; C ollins, Apocalyptic
Im agination, 170; V iolet, 2 :x iii, bodii. Zim m erm ann shows several instances where the Greek
tra n s la to r apparently m isunderstands the Hebrew root. He claim s several examples o f
w ordplay only m ake sense if the o riginal is in Hebrew (F. Zim m erm ann, 'T e xtua l Observations
on the Apocalypse o f B aruch," JTS 40 (1939): 151-6).
1 Bogaert, 1:379-80.
143Bogaert, 1:270-95 (ca. 95); A. Frederik J. K lijn , "2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) B aruch," in OTP,
ed. Jam es H. C harlesw orth (Garden C ity, NY: D oubleday & Co., 1983), 1:617 (100-120); W. O.
E. Oesterley, In tro d u ctio n to The Apocalypse o f Baruch, ed. R. H. Charles (London: Society fo r
Prom oting C h ristia n Knowledge. 1929), x ii-x iii (70-100); Gwendolyn B. Sayler, Have the
Promises Failed? A Literary A nalysis o f 2 Baruch, SBL D issertation Series, no. 72 (Chico, C A
Scholars Press. 1984), 103-18 (late 1st C.); V iolet, 2 :3 2 :xcii (115-116); C ollins, Apocalyptic
Im agination, 170 (ca. 95); N ickelsbuig, Jew ish Literature, 287 (end o f 1st C.).
280
i
la c k o f adequate Inform ation about the h isto ry o f Palestine in the late firs t ce n tu ry.144
A lth o u g h 2 B aruch and 4 Ezra have m any lite ra ry and theological sim ila ritie s, attem pts to
show th e p rio rity o f either 2 B aruch or 4 Ezra are inconclusive.145 2 Baruch was probably
w ritte n in P alestine.146 M any scholars have noted th a t the theological perspective has m uch
in com m on w ith rabbinic Judaism at the end o f the firs t century,147 although the theological
d ive rsity o f th is period m akes it d iffic u lt to id e n tify the group more specifically. B y contrast,
Sayler argues th a t the a u thors com m unity was a sect th a t viewed its e lf as a fa ith fu l m in o rity
w ith in the la rge r Jew ish com m unity and th a t viewed its leaders as scrib a l/p ro p h e tic figures in
th e post-destructio n years.148
C harles argued th a t 2 B aruch u tiliz e d at least m ajor s ix sources. He distinguished
these sources based on o p tim istic or pessim istic a ttitu d e s tow ards Israels fu tu re , the presence
o r absence o f a Messiah and the chronology o f events surro unding the fa ll o f Jerusalem .149
Source theories like th is largely have been abandoned b y recent scholars who recognize th a t
apocalyptic w ritin g s have less concern fo r logical consistency th a n such source theories
I44Sayler, 104.
I4SA. F rederik J K lijn , Die syrtsche Baruch-Apokalypse, Judische S chriften aus hellenist-
isch -rom ische r Zeit, no. 5.2 (G utersloher: Gerd M ohn, 1976), 113-4. The tw o w orks m aybe
based o n a com m on apocalyptic tra d itio n .
146K lijn , "2 Baruch," 617.
147C o llin s, Apocalyptic Im agination, 177-8; Bogaert, 1:438-48. M any ideas are sim ila r to
Joshua ben H ananiah (Bogaert, 1:443-4) and A kiba (F. Rosenthal, Vier apokryphlsche Bucher
aus Z eit und Schule R, A kibas (Leipzig: Schulze, 1885), 72-103). Charles oversim plifies the
com plex diversity o f pre-Jam nia Judaism when he sim ply classifies 2 Baruch as "Pharisaic"
(Charles. APOT, 470).
l48Sayler, 115-8.
149C harles, APOT, 474-6. Charles source theory is based on R ichard Kabisch, "Die Quellen
der Apokalypse Baruchs," JahrbuchJvrprotestantischT heologie 18 (1892): 66-107. W hile
H a m isch believes 2 Baruch m akes use of m any tra d itio n s, he says the Gesam tkorueption of
th e book m u st be looked a t (H am isch, Verhangnis, 14).
281
dem and.150 Sayler shows th a t 2 Baruch is structured in to lite ra ry blocks th a t te ll how
B aruch and h is com m unity move from g rie f to consolation.151 Furtherm ore, as w ill be
shown below, some o f these supposed contradictions are only supe rficial and the divergent
concepts can be easily integrated in to a la rge r theological w hole.152 For example, it is not
necessary to assume th a t passages th a t lo o k forw ard to a tem porary earthly m essianic
kingdom are contradictory to those th a t hope for a fu tu re new w o rld or even a transcendental
eternal existence fo r the righteous. M uch lik e 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch looks forw ard to two phases in
the redem ptive plan: one to take place on the present earth and another to take place afte r the
new w orld comes. W hile 2 Baruch probably draws on diverse tra d itio n a l m aterial, these
m aterials are integrated in to a larger perspective th a t transcends the viewpoints o f the
sources.153
Like 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch is generally divided in to seven sections, although the precise
150C ollins, A pocalyptic Im agination, 171-2; Bogaert, 1:58-91; Sayler, 4-6, 154-5; Violet,
2:lxxiv. Even Oesterley, who w rote the in tro d u ctio n to Charles 1917 com m entary on 2
B aruch, stresses th e u n ity of th e book (Oesterley, In tro d u ctio n to Charles, Apocalypse o f
Baruch, x-xii). W hile Sayler convincingly shows the flaw s in Charles source theory, she argues
th a t the Epistle o f B aruch (ch. 78-87) was n o t p art of th e o rig in a l book, based on sim ila r
argum ents from contents and term inology (Sayler, 36-9, 98-101). K lijn argues th a t the author
incorporates tra d itio n s w ith w hich he does not always agree. The different ideas are not
supposed to be contrasted w ith each other, since the a u th o r reads h is own ideas in to the
m a te ria l (A. F rederik J. K lijn , "The Sources and the Redaction o f the Syriac Apocalypse o f
B aruch," Journal fo r the Study o f Judaism 1 (1970): 66, 76).
151Sayler, 12-39. Sayler bases her approach on Breechs w o rk on the structure of 4 Ezra,
where there is a s im ila r m ovement from distress to consolation (Breech, 267-74). The pattern
is ce rta in ly present in 2 Baruch, though it is not as strong as in 4 Ezra.
152W ille tt dem onstrates th a t eschatology in 2 Baruch has an apologetic in te n t and serves
the theodicy by show ing th a t re trib u tio n w ill occur. The righteous in d ivid u a l is encouraged by
the prom ise o f R esurrection to eternal life and Paradise. The concerns of the conquered
Jew ish natio n are answered b y the m essianic kingdom , w hen th e enemies w ill be destroyed
and Jerusalem w ill be restored (W illett, 112, 118-20). See C ollins, Apocalyptic Imagination,
171-2, for a discussion o f how 2 Baruch integrates several apparently contradictory perspec
tives are in to a la rge r theological whole.
153C ollins, A pocalyptic Im agination, 171-172; K lijn , "Sources," 65-76.
282
boundaries are less clear th a n in 4 Ezra.154 The apocalypse proper (ch. 1-77) Is followed by
an "epistle" fro m B aruch to the dispersed people o f Israel (ch. 78-87). Like 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch
w restles w ith the ju s tic e o f God In lig h t o f the destruction o f Jerusalem . 2 B aruch, however, is
less pessim istic th a n 4 Ezra about the nature and fin a l fate o f m ost o f hum anity.
2. The C orruption o f C reation
a. The Consequences o f th e F a ll
The present age is polluted by hum an evils (44:9). The w orld is corrupted not only by
the F all b u t also by the ongoing sins o f the hum an race (44:9; 73:3-5).
The F a ll had a profound effect on both the hum an race and the w orld. Adam s
disobedience made h u m a n ity subject to death. There appear to be two views of physical death
represented w ith in 2 Baruch: (1) The m a jo rity o f passages indicate th a t a ll hum ans face death
as a re su lt o f Adam s sin (17:3: 19:8; 23:4; 54:15). "W hen Adam sinned . . . death was decreed
against those who were to be bom " (23:4).155 (2) O ther verses suggest th a t the F all resulted
in a shorter life fo r Adam s descendants (17:3; 56:6). In th is view, physical death was always
intended as p a rt o f life on earth, b u t sin shortened the lifespan o f hum an beings. The problem
is not physical death, per se. b u t prem ature death (56:6, "untim ely death": cf. 73:4). Charles
argues th a t th is apparent contradiction reflects two different sources w ith different views o f the
effects o f the F a ll.156 A gainst th is view is the fact th a t both views are even found in the same
sentence (17:3). Charles attem pt at separating sources assumes a greater theological
consistency th a n is com m only found in the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials.
154For a thorough study o f the stru ctu re o f 2 Baruch, see M urphy, 11-29. M urphy and
W ille tt have h e lp fu l charts sum m arizing the diverse opinions o f division o f the sections
(M urphy, 12; W ille tt, 82; cf. Sayler, 11-39; H am isch, Verhangnis, 14; C ollins, Apocalyptic
Im agination, 170-1).
155Unless otherwise noted, tran slatio ns are from K lijn , "2 B aruch."
156Charles, APOT, 495.
283
Closely related to physical death is the s p iritu a l death resultin g fro m Adams sin. As a
re su lt of the F all, the places of eternal punishm ent and reward were established (23:4-5). God
decreed death as a punishm ent fo r those who transgress h is com m andm ents (19:8). A great
m u ltitu d e w ill face co rru p tio n (48:42), w hich is the punishm ent o f eternal fire (48:39-43). T his
p a rtia lly explains w hy the a u thor can say th a t both death and a shortened lifespan are results
o f the Fall. "Death" encompasses both eternal punishm ent and the end o f physical life.
The disobedience o f Adam and Eve introduced sin in to hum an nature. 2 Baruch,
however, does not consider hum an depravity to be as deep as 4 Ezra does. The m a jo rity o f
people follow Adam in sin and darkness (48:42, "th is whole m u ltitu d e ";157 42:43, "countless":
18:1-2; 19:3; 21:11-12; 56:6). As a re su lt they w ill face eternal corru p tio n and punishm ent
(e.g. 48:42-43; 54:14-15, 21-22). A lthough the F all has predisposed h u m a n ity to sin, each
person m akes a choice w hether to follow th is path o f darkness (19:3; 54:15) and a ll are aware
th a t they are acting unrighteously (48:40). "Adam is, therefore, not the cause, except only fo r
him self, b u t each of us has become h is own Adam " (54:19).158 A few righteous people con
tin u e in fa ith and obedience to the Law and th u s enjoy eternal reward (18:2; 21:11-12; 54:21-
22). The Fall resulted in a strong in te rn a l influence leading people to sin , b u t it is n o t decisive.
T his view is in sharp contrast to th e m ore pessim istic view o f 4 Ezra. In 4 Ezra, h um an ity is
subject to an evil influence th a t com pels people to sin and destines them fo r eternal pu n ish
m ent, unless God shows m ercy (e.g. 4 Ez. 3:20-22; 7:118).159
157In 48:42, "th is whole m u ltitu d e " refers to the unrighteous described in 48:37-41.
158Levison says each person has a choice w hether to sin. "Adam does not cause h is
ch ild re n to s in - They become h is ch ild re n b y im ita tin g h is disobedience" (Levison, 130, cf. p.
143).
159H am isch, Verhangnis, 106-19. Stone, Fourth Ezra, 258, argues th a t 2 Baruch 54:19 is
an in te n tio n a l critiq u e o f 4 Ezra.
284
b. Aspects o f the C orruption o f Creation
The effects o f Adam s sin extend fa r beyond th e hum an race and disrupted the order of
creation. The F a ll o f h u m a n ity negatively affected the angels (56:10-15). Adam "was a danger
to the angels" (v. 11). A t the tim e Adam was created, the angels possessed freedom. A fte r the
F a ll o f h um an ity, however, some o f the angels became tem pted and "m ingled themselves w ith
wom en." As a re su lt of th is sin, these fallen angels and m ost hum ans were destroyed in the
great Flood. T h is view is a profound reversal o f the W atcher tra d itio n , w hich plays a key role
in 1 Enoch.160 In 1 Enoch, the W atchers originate s in and hum anity is la ige ly portrayed as
a v ic tim of th e guile o f th e fallen angels. In 2 B aruch sin apparently originates w ith hum anity,
w hich leads m any o f the angels in to tem ptation, resultin g in th e ir eventual destruction. Thus
the cosm ic effects o f the hum an F all extend to the w orld o f s p iritu a l beings.
The F a ll o f h u m a n ity profoundly corrupted the n a tu ra l w orld. As a re su lt of Adam s
sin , the creatures o f th is w o rld are subject to disease (56:6) and prem ature death (56:6; 17:3;
54:15; 56:6). D eath became insatiable and o u t o f control (56:6). Everything is in the process
o f dying (21:22; 44:9). H um an life in th is w orld became fu ll o f sorrow, affliction , pain, hard
la bor and p a in in c h ild b irth (56:5-6).161 Adam s sin explains a ll kin d s of physical evil and
a fflic tio n s .162 The overall p ictu re is th a t creation is in disarray due to sin. The damage is
too deep for the w orld to re tu rn to its prim eval, undamaged state (3:7-8).163
160De Boer, 177-8, argues th a t the a u thor o f 2 B aruch knew o f the W atcher tra d itio n and
e x p lic itly rejected it (56:11-15) in order to stress the hum an respon sibility fo r the disru p tio n of
the cosm ic order.
161Levison, 140-1, claim s th a t "affliction " is a general expression fo r anguish and "illness"
refers to pain in c h ild b irth (cf. Gen 3:16-17). He aigues th a t "conception o f children" (56:6)
refers to the death o f ch ild re n . The w ord nsb m eans "take away," w hich refers to death (p.
140; cf. Bogaert, 2:108). Several scholars believe th a t the phrase refers to the conception of
c h ild re n (Charles, APOT, 513, begetting"; K lijn , "2 B aruch," 641, "conception"; Ham isch,
Verhangnis, 112, "em pfangen'j, b u t Levison says there is little lexical support fo r th is view.
162Levison, 130.
163T his is in direct contrast to 4 Ez. 7:30, w hich refers to an extended period a t the end o f
285
The co rru p tio n o f th e w orld is described in graph ic term s. Life in th is w orld is
characterized b y sorrow (21:19), suffering, struggle a n d trib u la tio n (15:8: 16:1; 48:50; 51:14;
56:5-6; 73:3). H um ans live fo r only a ve ry b rie f tim e (16:1; 19:2; 48:50; 56:6). In general, life
in th is w orld is v a n ity (44:10; 83:5-22). Even the best th in g s in th is life are tainted w ith evil
and subject to lim ita tio n s th a t reduce th e ir enjoym ent (83:9-22). E verything is co rru ptible and
u ltim a te ly everything w ill pass away (40:3; 44:9-10; 4 8 :2 ; 83:6, 10-23). Y o uth ful energy fades
w ith old age; good health is destroyed b y illness; b ea uty is eventually replaced b y ugliness;
strength decays in to weakness; tim es o f happiness are q u ic k ly replaced w ith disappointm ent,
sorrow, fa ilu re and h u m ilia tio n . W ealth is fu tile since it is lo st in death. The overall p ictu re is
th a t life is fu tile in th is co rru p tib le w orld.
The te rm "co rru p tio n " frequently describes th is w o rld and life in th is age (e.g. 21:19;
28:5; 40:3; 42:7; 43:2; 44:9-15; 74:2; 85:5). T his w o rld is called a "w orld o f corruption" (40:3).
Everything in th is w orld is "subject to co rru ption" (85:5; cf. 43:2). H um anity is co rru ptible in
contrast to God who is in co rru p tib le (28:5).
Frequently, "corru ption" refers to the fact th a t everything in th is w o rld is subject to
death and decay and w ill soon come to an end (42:7; 43:2; 44:9).164 For example, in 44:9,
there is a poetic parallelism between the lines "everything w ill pass away w hich is corru ptible"
and "everything th a t dies w ill go away."165
There is also a m oral dim ension to the c o rru p tio n o f th is w orld. Although th is m oral
sense o f co rru p tio n is not as pronounced as in 4 E zra (e.g. 7:48, 62, 111-113; 9:19-20), it is
s till present. The co rru p tib le w orld is an environm ent th a t pollutes people and induces them
the age, in w h ich the w orld re tu rn s to its original silence. W hile the Syriac word translated
t "w orld" in 3:7 m eans "ornam ent," the tra n sla to r p ro b a b ly used a w rong sense of the Greek
I Kocrpos (Bogaert, 1:13; Charles, APOT, 482).
i
j 164Cf. M urphy, 52-3.
.
165M urphy, 56, notes a s im ila r parallelism in 43:2.
286
.. u . _
to sin (21:19). Even in 44:9 the co rru p tib le w o rld is the w orld th a t is defiled w ith evil. Since
sin leads to death and decay, co rru p tio n often has the tw o-fold meaning o f (1) "subject to death
and decay": and (2) "characterized b y evil." C orruption describes the overall state o f a decaying
and fu tile w orld saturated w ith evil. A lthough a given passage m ay emphasize one side o f the
term , the other is generally presum ed.
This co rru p t w o rld tends to lead to fu rth e r wickedness by hum an beings (21:19). There
is a cycle o f co rru p tio n th a t is unbroken in the w orld: The F a ll led to the co rru p tio n o f the
w orld and a pressure tow ards sin w ith in a ll people. The co rru p t w orld "pollutes" people (21:19)
and exerts pressure on them to sin. As th e y sin, th is leads to fu rth e r corru ption o f the w orld.
U n til the new w orld comes, th is ongoing cycle o f corru ption w ill be unbroken.
This w orld w ill soon come to an end (48:50; 54:21; 83:5-7, 23; 85:10). T h is is a
"transitory" w orld (48:50, Charles). The yo u th o f the w orld has already passed away and the
power o f creation has become exhausted (85:10). A lthough 4 Ezra also says th a t the w o rld is
aged (5:50-56; 14:10, 17), there is a m oral im p lica tio n in 4 Ezra th a t is lacking in 2 Baruch.
In 4 Ezra, since the w o rld is old it has grown weak and cannot hold back sin and corruption.
This is p a rt o f the explanation fo r the increasing sin in the w orld. By contrast in 2 Baruch, the
age o f the w o rld is sim ply an in d ica tio n th a t th is w o rld is about to come to an end and a new
w orld is com ing.166
c. God is in C ontrol o f C reation
Despite these strong statem ents o f the corru ption o f creation, 2 B aruch indicates th a t
God is s till in control o f his creation.167 God alone knows the deep secrets o f the operation
166Cf. Stone, Features, 35:184.
1672 Baruch does n o t have extended descriptions o f the operation of nature as in 1 Enoch
(e.g. Book I, ch. 17-36, and Book HI, ch. 72-80). The passages w hich describe the operation o f
nature in greatest detail are allegorical o r sym bolic descriptions o f hum an h isto ry (ch. 36-37,
53, 82; cf. the A nim al Apocalypse o f 1 Enoch 85-90).
287
of the universe (54:1), although he has revealed some secrets to Moses (59:5-12).168 The God
who created a ll th in g s is s till sovereign over h is creation and sustains a ll things (21:4-10). He
determ ines the exact num ber of ra in drops th a t w ill fa ll (21:8). He fixed the heavens in place
(21:4) and he determ ines the exact position each heavenly body is to occupy (48:9). The
heavenly spheres te s tify to hum an sin, since they obey the laws o f God even when people do
n o t (19:1, 3).169 W hen he gives a com mand to various p a rts o f nature, they obey h im (6:6-
10, earth; 48:46, du st; 48:8, fire and w ind; 48:9, heavenly bodies; 77:17-26, birds). The
m a jo rity of angels also obey God and serve h im in the d u tie s to w hich they were assigned
(48:10; only a few were corrupted, 56:10-15). The overall p ictu re is th a t creation generally
operates in an orderly m anner and is obedient to God, m uch lik e BW 2-5.
T hus w hile creation is corrupted due to the F all o f hum an ity and ongoing hum an sins,
the depth o f the co rru p tio n is not complete. C reation is s till under Gods control and in m any
aspects operates according to Gods w ill. The depth o f co rru p tio n is m uch deeper in 4 Ezra,
w hich has a pessim istic picture o f th is co rru p t w orld.
d. D id th e F a ll Fundam entally Change C reation?
M urp hy argues th a t Adam s sin did not re su lt in a fundam ental change in creation,
since the earth is essentially flawed. "From the beginning creation was as we now experience
it - tra n sito ry and incapable o f sustain ing perm anent happiness and goodness."170
M urphys view sharply contrasts w ith the view o f H am isch, who says th a t 2 B aruch teaches
th a t Adam broug ht death in to the w orld. Gods original creation did not involve death or
trouble, b u t the s in o f Adam is the dividing lin e and the cause o f the d isco n tin u ity between the
168In the Enoch lite ra tu re , Enoch ra th e r th a n Moses leam s the secrets o f the operation o f
the n a tu ra l w orld.
169Charles, APOT, 492, says th a t th is verse shows the Law is a p a rt o f the heavenly order.
170M urphy, 62-63, cf. 47.
288
tw o ages.171
M urp hy co rre ctly notes th a t H am isch tends to read concepts from 4 Ezra In to 2
B a ru ch .172 In 4 E zra the sin o f Adam is m uch more im p o rta n t th a n in 2 B aruch and it has a
m uch m ore ra d ica l effect on a ll o f creation. M urphy is also correct th a t some passages suggest
th a t u n tim e ly death was the p rim a ry re su lt o f Adam s s in (e.g. 56:6). M urphy, however, too
easily dism isses passages th a t speak o f Adam bring ing death to h is descendants (e.g. 23:4)
when he says th a t in these verses the a u th o r "has used an idea curre nt in h is tim e in pas
sing."173 M u rp h y argues th a t since 54:15 says th a t each person has prepared h im se lf fo r
e ith e r eschatological glory o r torm ent, "Adam is 538103% irrelevant to the hum an condition"
and "each in d iv id u a l is u ltim a te ly responsible fo r h is own fate."174 However, although it is
tru e th a t the re s u lt o f Adams sin is "u n tim e ly death" fo r Adam s descendants, M urphys view
m isses the fundam en tal changes th a t have taken place to the operation o f the w orld since the
F a ll. The F a ll does n o t only introduce "u n tim e ly death" in to the w orld, b u t also m ourning,
a fflic tio n , illness, p a in fu l labor, pride and a wide variety o f other negative characteristics o f th is
age (56:6). E ven some o f the angels were tem pted and fe ll as a re su lt (56:11-14). In B aruchs
visio n the period fro m the F a ll to the Flood is described sym bolically as a period o f "black
w aters" (56:5-16; cf. ch. 53). The overall picture is th a t th e F a ll brought fundam ental changes
to the created order.
M urp hy fu rth e r claim s th a t the w o rld is in the cond ition th a t God o riginally created it,
because Adam is n o t m entioned in m any o f the passages where the corru ption of the w orld
171H am isch, Verhangnls, 115.
172M urp hy, 34.
173Ib id ., 36.
174Ib id .
289
. . .
and hum an m o rta lity are m entioned (e.g. 21:4-25).175 T his argum ent from silence, however,
ignores the m any passages where the co rru p tio n o f creation is said to be due to Adams sin.
Furtherm ore, it m isses the p o in t o f the theodicy o f 21:4-25: B aruch acknowledges th a t God
created and sustains the w orld. This heightens h is struggle about how Israel can suffer a t the
hands of the wicked and how th is age can be so characterized b y corru ption and evil. P art of
Gods answer is th a t he w ill b rin g ju s tic e w hen he judges the w icked and rewards the
righteous (ch. 23-24). God prepared a place of ju dgm ent and reward when Adam sinned
(23:4). There was a tim e at w hich death was decreed as a re su lt o f Adam's F a ll, w hich
suggests th a t death was n o t always p a rt o f the cond ition of the w o rld .176 T hus M urphys
argum ent overlooks the fa c t th a t w hile Adam s s in is n o t m entioned in B aruchs lam ent about
the evils o f the present age, it is m entioned in Gods answer as the cause o f th e present state
o f the world.
e. S o lid arity Between H u m anity and th e N atu ral W orld
2 Baruch teaches th a t God created the w o rld fo r h u m a n ity (14:18-19; 15:7; 21:24).
A lthough in the fin a l sense everything was created fo r God (21:7), God intended the hum an
race to be the guardians o f the w orld (14:18-19). More specifically, God created the w orld fo r
the righteous (15:7; 21:24). S im ila rly God prom ised the w orld to come as the inheritance of
the righteous (15:7). A lthough in one sense the w o rld was created fo r a ll of hum an ity (14:18-
19), th is assumes th a t h um an ity w ould fu n ctio n as God intended. Since m ost of the hum an
race has fallen in to sin, the inheritance o f th is w orld and the fu tu re perfect w orld is reserved
fo r those people who live as God designed.
This close relationship between h u m a n ity and the w orld helps explain how the F a ll and
the ongoing sins o f h u m a n ity have corrupted the w orld. Since God made the w o rld fo r the
175Ib id ., 50.
176Cf. H am isch, Verhangnis, 115.
290
sake of hum anity, when hum an beings sin the m aterial w orld suffers and is corrupted. There
is an inescapable so lid a rity between h u m a n ity and nature. W hen hum anity does not live as
God intended, the n a tu ra l w o rld also suffers since hum an ity is custodian o f the w orld. In a
review o f Israels history, the a u th o r lis ts several tim es when the land its e lf was either blessed
o r cursed depending on the behavior o f those who lived in and were stewards o f the land.
W hen Israel sinned in the tim e o f E lisha, ra in was w ith h e ld and there was a severe fam ine in
the land (62:4-5). In the tim e o f the exile, even though the land o f Zion did not sin, it suffered
and was conquered by Israels enemies because o f the sins o f the Israelites (77:8-10). By
contrast, a t the tim e of David and Solomon, "the land . . . received m ercy, since its in habita nts
d id not sin" (61:7, K lijn ). In each o f these instances the s p iritu a l state of the people affects the
n a tu ra l w orld.
f. Ecological Sins
In one im p o rta n t passage, God says th a t the G entiles are g u ilty of sins com m itted
against nature and w ill be judged fo r them (13:11-12): "B u t now, you nations and tribes, you
are g u ilty, because you have trodden dow n the earth a ll th is tim e, and because you have used
creation unrighteously." The parallelism between "trodden down the earth" and "used creation
unrighteously" suggests th a t these are related concepts. The expression "trodden down the
earth" m ight appear to refer to the arm ies th a t are m arching against Israel. However, "a ll th is
tim e" (Charles, "always") im plies th a t th is has been an ongoing problem and not sim ply a one
tim e event, such as the conquest o f Israel. Verse 12 identifies the exact problem: 'Tor I have
always benefited you, and you have always denied the beneficence." God has given m aterial
benefits to the Gentiles to meet th e ir physical needs,177 b u t they have been ungrateful
(Charles, v. 12) and have denied th a t the blessings o f the n a tu ra l w o rld came from God.
177Cf. M t. 5:45: "He m akes h is sun rise on the evil and on the good, and sends ra in on the
ju s t and on the un ju st."
291
A lthough the Syriac w ord fo r "use" is not necessarily pejorative, it can be in some con
te xts .178 The Greek te xt uses Kata% ptiojiai, w h ich means "m isuse" or "abuse" w ith the dative
(as used here).179 Bogaert argues th a t "creation" (singular in the Syriac), should be under
stood as "creatures," in agreement w ith the G reek T015 ev a w n KtuT|i[<m.180 A lthough th is
m ig h t appear to support the in te rp re ta tio n th a t th e nations w ill be judged fo r attacking Israel,
th is is n o t conclusive since it does not fit w ith v. 12. The best in te rp re ta tio n is th a t the
G entiles are judged (in part) fo r th e ir abuse o f the m aterial w orld and ungratefulness fo r Gods
m ate rial provision. S im ila r references to ecological sin are found in 1 Enoch 7:5-6; 9:2; 10:7-
8; 106:17.
3. The Redem ption o f C reation
The overall sequence o f eschatological events in 2 B aruch is s im ila r to 4 Ezra: (1) There
w ill be a period o f worldw ide trib u la tio n , w hich is p art o f the cleansing o f the w orld (26:1-29:2;
32:1-6; 39:1-6; 48:31-37a; 70:1-10). (2) The M essiah w ill come and defeat the wicked ru le rs
and then establish h is id y llic earthly kingdom (29:3-8; 39:7-40:3; 48:37b-41; 70:9). (3) The
M essiah w ill re tu rn to glory (30:1; cf. 4 Ez. 7:29 where he dies). (4) T his w orld age w ill come to
an end (54:21; 83:7). (5) A ll people w ill be resurrected and judged (30:1-2; 54:21). (6) The new
w o rld w ill come (32:1-6). (7) The righteous w ill receive th e ir eternal blessing and the wicked
w ill receive eternal punishm ent (30:3-5).
a. Eschatological Cosm ic Disasters
The n a tu ra l w orld also plays a p art in th e judgm ent and blessing of hum an beings. In
178Bogaert, 2:367.
179Liddell and Scott, 921. O nly in the accusative can it mean "kHl" o r "destroy."
180Bogaert, 2:368. H is conclusion is based on a speculative em endation o f the Syriac te xt

w hich changes the sin gular "creation" to the p lu ra l, since he claim s the scribes often added or
om itted th e Syriac m arks in dica ting p lu ra l.
292
the end tim e, there w ill be a tim e o f unprecedented h o rro r and trib u la tio n on the earth (25:1-
29:1; 48:31, 33-38; 70:1-9). There w ill be an unco ntrolled increase in hum an evil and violence
(27:11-15; 48:33-38; 70:3-7). There w ill be widespread n a tu ra l disasters and the norm al
orderly operation o f n a tu re w ill be disrupted: There w ill be fam ine, drought, num erous earth
quakes and fire fa llin g fro m heaven (27:6-10; 48:31, 37-38: 70:8). God w ill shake the entire
creation (32:1) and the suffe ring w ill be greater th a n at the destruction of Jerusalem (32:6).
The cosm ic disasters are signs of the end, the beginning stages of judgm ent (49:38-39) and a
preparation fo r th e com ing o f the M essiah, who w ill destroy the w icked and in s titu te h is
righteous kingdom on earth (ch 72-74). W hen God "shakes" h is creation, it is the beginning
stages o f the renew al o f creation (32:1, 6). T his process consists o f two m a jo r aspects: (1) the
eschatological d e stru ctio n of Jerusalem cleanses Israel and prepares fo r the glorious new
heavenly Jerusalem (32:3-4); and (2) the fin a l cosm ic tu rm o il prepares the way fo r the tra n s
form ation o f a ll creation. The cosmic disasters are both a p a rt o f the judgm ent o f the w icked
and a p a rt o f the tra n sfo rm a tio n process th a t culm inates in a renewal of creation.
O nly people who dw ell in the land o f Israe l w ill be protected from these eschatological
cosm ic disasters (29:2; 40:2; 70:1). The M essiah (40:2), God (29:1) and the land its e lf (70:1) a ll
w o rk to deliver the righteous w ho dw ell in the land. A lthough righteousness is essential fo r
delivery from these disasters (32:1), the close connection o f the righteous w ith the holy land
protects them in th is fin a l trib u la tio n (29:2; 40:2; 70: l ).181 The land o f Israel its e lf is said to
"have m ercy on" and "protect" its in h a b ita n ts (70:1). By contrast it is the earth th a t "devours"
its in h a b ita n ts w ho do n o t dw ell in the la nd (70:10). Thus the m aterial w o rld takes an active
p a rt in ju d g in g and protecting hum an beings.
181C harles, APOT, 497 believes th a t th is is based on Joel 2:32, w hich says th a t a rem nant
w ill be found on M t. Z io n in th e Day o f the Lord. Cf. 4 Ez. 13:48-49 fo r a s im ila r concept th a t
those who are w ith in the holy land w ill be saved. Sayler, 59, n. 39, claim s th a t th is idea is
only fo u n d in 2 B aruch and 4 Ezra in intertestam ental lite ra tu re .
293
b. Two Phases o f the Redemption of Creation
M any passages in 2 Baruch promise th a t God w ill redeem the m ate rial w orld. God
prom ises th a t even in the tim e o f te rrib le eschatological trib u la tio n "the w o rld w ill not be
forgotten" (4 :ld , K lijn ).182 There are two phases to the eschatological redem ption o f creation:
(1) the m essianic kingdom , and (2) the new w orld.
A fte r a period o f great eschatological trib u la tio n , the Messiah and h is kingdom w ill be
revealed (29:3-8). The m essianic kingdom w ill last fo r an unspecified, b u t lim ite d tim e. From
one perspective, th e kingdom is the fin a l era o f the present w orld (40:3). In the m essianic age,
the present w orld o f co rru p tio n w ill be perfected, not destroyed. Parts o f the original creation
are retained In the m essianic age, such as Behemoth and Leviathan (29:4).183 A lthough in
one sense the m essianic kingdom is p art o f the present w orld o f co rru p tio n (40:3), it has m any
o f the characteristics o f the perfect new w orld (ch. 29; 73-74). Thus the m essianic kingdom
functions as a tra n sitio n a l period between the old w orld and the new w orld. "That tim e is the
end o f th a t w hich is co rru p tib le and the beginning o f th a t w hich is in co rru p tib le " (74:2). The
m essianic kingdom w ill be an earthly age o f great peace and jo y fo r a ll people, and a tim e
w ith o u t sin, violence or suffering (73:1-5).
In the m essianic kingdom , the damage done to the m ate rial creation by the Fall w ill be
largely reversed.184 The righteous w ill enjoy privileges th a t once belonged to Adam .185
There w ill no longer be u n tim e ly death (73:3), w hich was one o f the p rim a ry effects of the Fall
182Charles, APOT, 482, translates 4: Id as "the w orld w ill not be given over to oblivion." The
end re su lt o f th is tra n sla tio n is the same, though the em phasis is different. The verse answers
the question o f 3:7 and shows th a t the eschatological trib u la tio n w ill n o t mean the end o f
everything and a re tu rn to the prim eval chaos.
183D ahl, 427.
184Cf. Sayler, 71: "The tra v a il w hich has characterized creation since Adam sinned w ill be
reversed in the M essianic era."
j 185Cf. Levison, 132.
294
I
!
(56:6; Gen 3:3). There w ill be no pain in c h ild b irth (73:7; cf. Gen. 3:16).186 There w ill be a
substantia l change In the operation of nature in the m essianic kingdom . Nature w ill be at
peace and harm ony w ith hum ankind, so th a t w ild anim als w ill become tame and serve
h um an ity (73:6). Even children w ill n o t be h u rt by dragons and snakes (cf. Is. 6:6-9; 65:25;
th is m ay be a reversal o f Gen. 3:14-15). A ll people w ill enjoy excellent health and disease w ill
vanish (73:2). There w ill be an end to n a tu ra l disasters and trib u la tio n s (73:2-3). Nature w ill
w ork together to provide fo r hum an needs (29:3-8). Crops w ill produce superabundantly,
bearing fru it a thousand- or ten thousand-fold (29:3-8; 74:1; cf. 1 Enoch 10:19). As a result,
no one w ill suffe r from hunger (29:4, 7-8). T his superproductivity o f nature w ill reverse the
curse o f the F all, w hich resulted in the la nd only producing crops through great hum an labor
(Gen. 3:17). Since crops w ill grow effortlessly through divine provision (29:7; 74:1), farm ers
w ill not grow weary. God w ill even provide m anna from on high to feed people supem aturaliy
(29:8). P a inful labor w ill no longer be required In order to grow and harvest crops (74:1). The
transform ation o f nature w ill affect both p lants and anim als. The transform ed w orld In the
m essianic kingdom is described In m uch greater detail In 2 B aruch th a n In 4 Ezra and resem
bles the description o f the m essianic kingdom In BW 10 and the new earth In Is. 65:17-25.
The second phase of the redem ption o f creation w ill be the creation o f a new w orld.
Num erous passages reflect the confidence th a t a new w orld Is coming, w hich w ill be fu ll of
righteousness, blessing and jo y (e.g. 14:13; 15:7-8; 44:12, 15; 46:5-6; 48:50; 51:3, 7-15;
59:12; 83:5-9; 85:14). Even though only God knows exactly w hen these eschatological events
w ill occur (54:1; 69:2), h isto ry Is m oving inexorably tow ards the consum m ation o f the world,
w hich God has prepared (20:1, 6; 21:7). The righteous do not hope sim ply fo r a transcen
dental, im m aterial eternal existence, b u t fo r a glorious life on a renewed earth.
186Sayler, 71, n. 58, notes th a t If 56:6 is read lite ra lly , c h ild b irth In general is p a rt o f the
curse. In th is case the reversal of the damage o f the fa ll is only partial, since women s till bear
children. She says, however, w hat is probably In view Is the p ain of c h ild b irth , w hich Is
elim inated In the messianic age (73:7).
295
The new w o rld w ill exist fo r the benefit o f th e righteous (15:7; 44:15; 46:5-6; 51:3-16).
Even as the present w o rld was created fo r h u m a n ity (14:18-19; 15:7; 21:24), p a rtic u la rly the
righteous (15:7; 21:24), the new w orld w ill be the inheritance o f the righteous (15:7). Entrance
in to the m essianic kingdom and the fu tu re perfect w o rld is based on fa ith (54:21), righteous
ness and obedience to the Law (14:13; 15:7-8; 44:14-15; 46:5-6; 51:3, 7, 11; 83:5-9; 85:14).
The prom ise th a t h u m a n ity w ould have dom inion over the earth (Gen 1:28-30) was n o t fu lfille d
due to the F all, b u t w ill be fu lfille d in the new w orld (15:7-8). Levison believes th a t the
prom ise o f a "crow n w ith great glory" (15:8) depicts cosm ic ru le and recalls Ps. 8:4-6, another
passage refe rring to th e hum an dom inion o f th e e a rth.187
In the fu tu re w orld the righteous w ill experience great jo y (14:13; 30:2) and blessing
(48:49). There w ill be no a fflic tio n o r pain (51:14, 16). The bodies of th e righteous w ill be
transform ed to a state of glory suitable fo r the glorious new w orld. T h e ir bodies w ill take on
heavenly glory (15:8; 48:49; 51:3, 5): "As fo r the glory of those who proved to be righteous on
account o f m y law, . . . th e ir splendor w ill th e n be glorified b y transform ations, and the shape
o f th e ir face w ill be changed in to the lig h t o f th e ir beauty" (51:3). The righteous w ill be
exceedingly b e a u tifu l (51:3, 10) and th e ir splendor w ill even exceed th a t o f the angels (51:5,
10, 12). T he ir bodies can be changed in to any shape they w ish (51:10) and th e ir perfect,
glorified bodies w ill never grow old (51:9, 16).
C o rruptio n w ill come to an end in the new w orld (40:3; 43:2; 44:9-12; 74:2). C orrup
tio n w ill end b oth in the sense of m o rta lity and im m orality. (1) The new w o rld w ill never come
to an end and the righteous w ill dw ell there forever (44:11-12; 48:50; 51:3, "undying w orld,"
16). In th is sense, c o rru p tio n is contrasted w ith "life" (42:7). The w icked w ill face eternal
corru ption, b u t the righteous w ill enjoy eternal life. (2) The w icked w ill n o t dwell in th e new
w o rld (51:16). The ongoing cycle o f evil and co rru p tio n th a t characterizes th is w orld w ill be
broug ht to an end.
187Levison, 132.
296
Paradise w ill be fu lly accessible to the righteous (51:11; cf. 4:2-6). T his Is evidently the
same Paradise In w hich Adam dw elt. W hile Paradise has been closed and hidden from hum an
beings since the F all, it has rem ained preserved In the presence o f God and w ill be revealed at
the end o f tim e (4:2-6). The righteous also w ill have access to heaven and w ill be able to see
the m ajesty o f th e angels who dw ell before the throne of God (51:11, cf. v. 8).188 Thus the
righteous w ill have free access both to heaven and to the new earth. There are both s p iritu a l
and m a te ria l aspects to the fu tu re life of the righteous.
The state of the w icked after the judgm ent Is In direct contrast to th a t o f the righteous.
They w ill be denied access to the perfect new w orld th a t the righteous w ill enjoy (44:15). The
w icked w ill face eternal suffering and co rru p tio n (e.g. 30:5; 42:7; 44:15; 46:6; 51:2; 85:16).
Even as the righteous are transform ed in to a glorious appearance, the bodies o f the wicked w ill
be changed In to hideous shapes (51:5). They w ill be eternally torm ented (30:5; 51:2), suffer in
fire (44:15), be p u t to shame (48:17), and face eternal sorrow (5:4). The sufferings o f th is w orld
w ill be m agnified fo r the wicked In eternity (52:2-3). Since corru ption is w h at the wicked
prefer, the co rru p tio n of th is w orld w ill be carried to an even greater extreme In eternity (51:3;
cf. 42:7). T hus In 2 B aruch the problem s and evil o f the present w orld are not destroyed so
m uch as reserved fo r the wicked in the afterlife, w hile the w orld in w hich the righteous w ill
dw ell w ill be purged o f a ll co rru p t aspects.
c. A New C reation or th e Renew al o f C reation?
2 B aruch has some am biguity about w hether the present w orld w ill be destroyed and a
new w orld w ill be created, or w hether the present creation w ill be renewed and transform ed.
The predom inant view is th a t the present w orld w ill end and a new w orld w ill come.
T his w orld is passing away (48:50; 85:10) and the "end o f the w orld" Is com ing, when a ll people
188The reference In 51:8 to the "w orld w hich is now invisible to them " probably refers to the
s p iritu a l w o rld, where God dwells. Charles, APOT, 509, notes the s p iritu a l dim ension here,
though he m isses the m aterial aspects o f the fu tu re dw elling of the righteous (e.g. v. 11).
297
w ill be judged (54:21; 83:7). This "w orld o f corruption" w ill end (40:3) and everything in life as
it now exists w ill end (19:5; 83:23). "The days are com ing, th a t a ll th a t has been w ill be taken
away to be destroyed, and it w ill become as though it had not been" (31:5, K lijn ).189 The end
o f the w o rld w ill be quite violent: "The M ighty One w ill shake the entire creation" (32:1; cf. Hag
2:6; Heb 12:26). T his cosm ic upheaval (32:1-6) w ill be the beginning o f a cleansing process
th a t w ill prepare the way fo r the renewal o f creation (32:6). A fter the present w orld ends, the
new w orld w ill come (44:12-15; 48:50; 51:7-15; 59:9; 83:8; 85:14). T his fu tu re w orld is called
the "new w orld" (44:12), the "com ing w orld" (44:15; cf. 59:9, "the w orlds190 w hich have not
yet come") and "the w orld w hich has no end" (48:50). Thus there are tw o w orlds and a person
m ust prepare h is hea rt le st he be excluded from both w orlds (83:8). The reward fo r the
righteous is both in the m essianic kingdom , w hich is part o f th is w orld, and in the new w orld
o f eternal blessing.
On the other hand, a few passages say th a t God w ill renew the creation (32:6; 57:2).
W hile it is clear th a t the renewal o f the w o rld involves the end o f co rru p tio n and a ll wicked
ness, th is does not necessarily im p ly th a t there w ill be a fresh s ta rt w ith a new creation.
Several factors could suggest th a t "renew" in these verses refers to the transform ation o f the
present w orld: (1) 2 Bar. 19:2 says th a t heaven and earth w ill stay forever. On the other hand,
the fu n ctio n o f th is statem ent is to emphasize the permanence o f the covenant w ith Israel.
(2) Charles translates 4: Id as "the w orld w ill not be given over to oblivion."191 T his
tra n sla tio n appears to suggest th a t there w ill be no destruction o f th is w orld. The verse,
however, answers B aruchs question (3:7) about w hether the destruction o f Jerusalem w ill
189W hile 31:5 m ay refer to the destruction o f Jerusalem (cf. 31:4), the follow ing verse
suggests a larger application to the renewal o f a ll creation (32:1). The destruction and
recreation o f Jerusalem is a type o r paradigm of the end o f the w orld and the renewal o f a ll
creation.
190Charles, APOT, 514, translates it "the earths w hich have not yet come."
191Ibid., 482.
298
mean the end of everything and a re tu rn to p rim o rd ia l chaos. God prom ises th a t there w ill be
a fu tu re fo r th e w o rld .192 K lijn s tra n sla tio n o f 4: Id is preferable: Even In the terrib le
eschatological trib u la tio n "the w orld w ill n o t be forgotten."193 (3) Paradise and the new
Jerusalem already exist and are hidden In th e presence o f God (4:2-6).194 The new w orld is
referred to as "the w orld w h ich is now Invisible" (51:8), w h ich Im plies th a t it already exists. 4
Ezra shows, however, th a t the concept o f a pre-existent Paradise is n o t Inconsistent w ith a
strong b e lie f In a new heavens and earth. Furtherm ore, the references to the invisible w orld
probably refe r to the s p iritu a l dw elling place o f God, not a new earth.195 (4) There are some
elements o f m a te ria l c o n tin u ity between the old and new w orlds. The dead w ill be resurrected
In the same bodies in w hich they were bu rie d (49:2-3; 50:2), although la te r they w ill be
transform ed in to eithe r m ore glorious or m ore hideous bodies, depending on th e ir
righteousness (51:2-3).196 The tem ple vessels were taken by angels and preserved in the
earth to be restored in the new w orld (6:8).197 (5) In 40:2, the author states th a t the w orld
w ill be "changed." W hile th is suggests a tran sform ation o f the present w orld, it is su fficien tly
am biguous to fit the view th a t another w orld is coming. (6) Several passages refer to the end
192Ib id .; M urphy, 85.
193K lijn , "2 B aruch," 622.
194R ussell, M ethod and Message, 283, argues th a t "the city" refers to the heavenly, new
Jerusalem .
195Cf. M urphy, 62-3; Charles, APOT, 509.
196K lijn says th a t the fact th a t people w ill recognize each other afte r the Resurrection (50:4)
shows th a t th e outw ard appearance of people w ill n o t change (K lijn, "Sources," 76). This
appears, however, to be sim p ly the sta rtin g poin t, since th e ir bodies w ill be glorified and th e ir
appearance w ill be transform ed (51:3).
197Cf. George W. E. N ickelsburg, "N arrative T raditions in the Paralepomena o f Jerem iah and
2 B aruch," CBQ 35 (1973): 64, 67, fo r other Jew ish w ritin g s where the sacred vessels are
hidden and restored in the eschaton (Paralepomena o f Jerem iah 3:8-14; 2 Macc 2:4-7; Life of
Jerem iah 12-13).
299
o f the age, ra th e r th a n the end o f the w o rld ("end o f tim es," 19:5198, 21:8, 30:3; "consum m a
tio n o f tim e," 29:8; 30:3, "end o f tim es"; 83:6, "the end o f the tim es and the periods"). T his
m ay suggest an am biguity between "w orld and "age" s im ila r to th a t o f 4 E zra.199 In these
passages, however, the "end o f tim e" (or the consum m ation o f tim e) refers to the whole com plex
o f eschatological events m arking the tra n s itio n from the old w orld/age to the new w orld/age.
Depending on the context, the "end" m ay focus on the end of the w ay o f life o f th is age (19:5),
the new w ay of life in the m essianic age (29:8), or the fin a l Judgm ent (30:3; 83:6). In its e lf
these references do n o t exclude the p o s s ib ility o f a new w orld. In fact, some passages com bine
both the end o r beginning o f the age w ith the end o f th is w orld o r the beginning o f the new
w orld (83:6-7; 44:12, "period w hich w ill never end" and a "new w orld"; 51:8; 85:10; 57:8,
hidden new w orld and hidden new age). The concept o f a new age is not incom patible w ith the
hope fo r a new w orld, as 4 Ezra shows.200 The new w o rld is one o f the p rim a ry features of
the new age.
A n im p o rta n t passage th a t cla rifies the m eaning o f "renew" is 31:5-32:6.201 The
a u th o r m akes an analogy between the d estruction o f Jerusalem and the eschatological tim e
when "the M ighty One w ill shake the entire creation" (32:1). The fu n c tio n o f the destruction o f
Jerusalem was to cleanse and perfect it, not to b rin g it to a perm anent end. "The b u ild in g of
Z ion w ill be shaken in order th a t it w ill be re b u ilt" (32:2). Even th a t second tem ple w ill be
198However, Charles, APOT, 492, says th is refers to the end of a ll things.
199Cf. the discussion o f the development o f the m eaning o f D1?*!!) and cdfiv in Je n n i, Part I,
197-248, and Stones discussion o f the term s fo r w o rld in 4 Ezra (Stone, Features, 178-80).
200Stone, Features, 180.
201K lijn , "Sources," 70-1, follow s C harles, APOT, 2:499, who says 32:2-4 does n o t fit the
context, b u t is an independent prophecy about the tem ple. The topic o f the shaking of the
earth is begun in v. 1 and continues in w . 5-6. I t appears more lik e ly th a t th is is an in te n
tio n a l s tru c tu ra l in clusion, w hich is designed to show the s im ila rity between the tw o events.
In both cases the p a tte rn is destruction w h ich cleanses followed by renewal in to glory. Since
the th ird tem ple is p a rt o f the renewed creation, it leads n a tu ra lly to a discussion o f the
renewal o f creation in v. 5.
300
destroyed (32:3) in order "th a t it w ill be renewed in glory and th a t it w ill be perfected in to
eternity (32:4).202 B aruch exhorts the elders o f Israel not to be overly distressed about the
tria ls accom panying the destruction o f Jerusalem , since the trib u la tio n s when God renews the
entire creation w ill be even greater: "G reater th a n the two evils (the tw o tim es Jerusalem was
destroyed) w ill be the tria l w hen th e M ighty One w ill renew h is creation" (32:6). Thus renewal
involves the e lim ina tion o f som ething im perfect and replacing it w ith som ething m ore perm a
nent and glorious. Even as the perfecting o f Jerusalem required the destruction o f the old
Jerusalem , the renewal o f a ll creation (32:6) w ill involve a cataclysm ic trib u la tio n through
w hich God w ill shake h is creation (32:1). Thus "renewal" in th is sense does not so m uch mean
the transform ation o f som ething already existing as the creation o f som ething new th a t is
patterned on the old, b u t glorified and perfected (32:5). W hen God renews the creation, he w ill
replace the old co rru ptible w o rld w ith a perfect, in corrup tible w o rld.203
T hus the predom inant p ictu re in 2 B aruch is th a t God w ill b rin g the present w orld to
an end and create a new w orld. There are nevertheless a few passages th a t suggest the tra n s
form ation o f the present creation. The presence o f both views m ay be m ore th a n sim ply a la ck
o f concern fo r theological consistency or even the integration o f m u ltip le sources w ith d iffering
views.204 The picture o f renewal in ch. 32 shows th a t the renewal o f creation m ay take place
through the process o f replacing the old co rru p t w orld w ith a new, perfect w orld. K lijn says,
God is clearly b ring ing th is w o rld to an end in order to "renew it." The next w orld is
different from th is w orld because it is a glorious w orld, b u t it rem ains essentially the same
w orld in w hich the righteous w ill recognize each other.205
202K lijn , "Sources," 71, believes th is is a th ird temple w hich is earthly b u t eternal. However,
M urphy, 121, believes th is is the tem ple in the heavenly Jerusalem .
i
I
| 203Cf. Charles, APOT, 499.
| 204Ibid., 474-9.
205K lijn , "Sources," 76.
d. M aterial Aspects o f the Eternal Dwelling o f the Righteous
M urp hy argues th a t the new w orld is id entical w ith heaven. He believes th a t 2 Baruch
rejects the idea o f a new earth, since the earth is essentially flawed and corruptible. In his
view, th is "vertical eschatology" (passing from earth to heaven) replaces the more tra d itio n a l
view o f a succession of w orlds and is a m ajor step in the direction o f G nosticism .206
It is ce rta in ly tru e th a t the description o f the fu tu re w orld includes m uch th a t is
transcendental. The righteous w ill share the glory of the angels and have fu ll access to Gods
heavenly dw elling place. The emphasis on the m essianic kingdom , however, shows th a t the
a u th o r o f 2 B aruch does not dism iss the w orld as in herently and unredeem ably evil.207 The
m essianic kingdom is on th is earth, yet m ost o f th e corru pting effects o f the F all have been
removed. 2 B aruch is fa r from a G nostic view th a t the m aterial w orld is inherently corrupt.
There are definite in dica tions o f a m a te ria l aspect to the eternal existence of the
righteous: (1) The earth w ill be renewed and perfected (32:1-6). (2) There is the explicit
prom ise th a t "heaven and earth w ill rem ain forever" (19:1). (3) The earth is p a rt o f the
inheritance of the righteous and w ill exist fo r th e ir benefit (15:7-8; 21:24; 44:15; 46:5-6; 51:3-
16). The righteous w ill have free access both to the new earth (51:3, 8 (?), 11) and the glorious
heavenly dw elling of God (51:11, 8(?)). (4) The righteous w ill have physical bodies in w hich
they can live on the renewed earth (50:2; 51:3, 9-12). Even the wicked w ill have bodies in
eternity, altho ugh th e ir bodies w ill be transform ed in to extreme hideousness (51:5), even as
the bodies o f the righteous w ill be transform ed in to extreme beauty. (5) The concept of
Paradise im plies a bea u tifu l, physical environm ent fo r the righteous. There is an apparent
c o n tin u ity between the eternal Paradise and the garden o f Eden th a t Adam and Eve enjoyed
(4:3).208 (6) There w ill be an eternal, glorified Jerusalem (6:8-9; 32:4).209 The vessels of
206M urphy, 62-3, 67.
207M urphy, 66-7, has only a superficial discussion o f the extensive m essianic passages in
ch. 29-30, 39-40, 70-74.
208The descriptions o f Paradise in 4 Ezra, however, have more exp licit aspects o f nature,
302
w orship fro m the o riginal tem ple were divinely preserved and w ill be restored at th e end o f tim e
fo r use in the glorified tem ple (6:6-9).210 (7) There are some aspects o f c o n tin u ity between
the m aterial aspects o f the old and th e new creation. The righteous, fo r example, w ill be resur
rected in the same bodies in w h ich they lived in th is life (49:2-50:2), although these bodies w ill
be glorified and perfected so th a t they m ay dw ell both on the renewed earth (51:3, 9-12) and in
heaven (51:11).
Despite these physical dim ensions o f th e new w orld, the descriptions of e te rn ity in
2 Baruch do n o t focus on the m a te ria l w orld, b u t on th e blessing, glory and righteousness of
the people o f God. There is little d e ta il about how the new w orld w ill operate, o ther th a n th a t
evil and c o rru p tio n w ill end and th a t the righteous w ill enjoy eternal bliss. A lthough the
description o f the m essianic kingdom includes a detailed picture o f a glorified, perfectly
fu n ctio n in g n a tu ra l w orld, there is no s im ila r descrip tion o f the new w orld.
a . P ersonification of In d iv id u a l P arts o f N ature
Nature is personified in several ways in 2 B aruch. God (48:8-10, 46), angels (6:6-10)
and Baruch (10:9-12; 11:6; 12:1; 77:17-26) fre q u e n tly address the n a tu ra l w orld. God (21:4;
48:8-10, 46) or an angel (6:6-10) com m ands nature and expects it to obey him . These
com mands are given to inanim ate objects such as th e earth (6:6-10), dust (48:46), fire and
w in d (48:8) and heavenly bodies (48:9), as w ell as anim als (77:17-26, birds). A n angel
such as garden, flowers, fru it and trees (4 Ez. 3:6; 6:2; 7:123; 8:52) and an e xp licit co n tin u ity
w ith Eden (3:6). Cf. Stone, Features, 35:200-1.
209Charles, APOT, 484, believes 6:8-9 refers to the restored tem ple in th e m essianic
kingdom . V. 9, however, says the tem ple w ill be restored forever, w h ich better fits the new
Jerusalem in the new earth. The preexistence o f the new Jerusalem in the presence o f God
(4:2-6) m ay im p ly th a t it is transcendental (M urphy, 63).
210The ve il, the holy ephod, the m ercy seat, th e tw o tables, the holy raim ents o f the priests,
the alter o f incense, the 48 precious stones and the h o ly vessels o f the tabernacle were a ll
hidden by God and preserved fo r the glorified tem ple.
303
* _ _
commands the earth to hide the tem ple vessels and protect them u n til the tem ple is restored
in the new age (6:6-10). God commanded the dust to produce Adam (48:46). B aruch gives an
eagle e xplicit, detailed in s tru c tio n s fo r ta kin g his le tte r to the nine and a h a lf lo s t trib e s (77:17-
26). In his "m otivational ta lk " to the eagle he gives several examples o f b ird s th a t obeyed
hum an commands, in clu d in g Noahs dove, E lija h s ravens and the b ird th ro u g h w hich
Solomon sent a le tte r (77:23-25). He assumes th a t the eagle has a sig nifica nt degree o f under
standing and w ill obey h is detailed in stru ctio n s fo r the journey. The overall p ictu re o f these
passages is th a t nature is obedient to God (cf. BW 5:2-3). God in s tru c ts and gives w isdom to
the heavenly bodies, who serve in the position to w hich they are assigned (48:9). In the tim e o f
Moses, God also called heaven and earth to w itness against the Israelites who were disobedient
to the Law (19:1, 3; 84:4). These passages suggest th a t at least a basic level o f consciousness
and in te lle ctu a l a b ility is present in the n a tu ra l w orld.
In a t least one passage, em otions are ascribed to the n a tu ra l w orld. In 12:1, 3 the land
o f Zion is described as "happy" and "rejoicing."211 T ha t blessed state, however, w ill soon end
when the eschatological trib u la tio n s come upon the land.
The relationship o f the la nd w ith the people o f God is also described anthropom or-
phically. In the fin a l trib u la tio n , the holy land "w ill have m ercy on its in h a b ita n ts and protect
them from the cosm ic disasters (71:1).
One passage th a t appears to contradict the p a tte rn of conscious intelligence in nature
is 11:6. The a u th o r wishes th a t the earth had ears to hear and the d u st had a heart so it
could te ll the dead th a t they are more happy than those who live in Zion d u rin g its conquest.
This im plies th a t the earth does n o t have the a b ility to hear o r speak. T his does not fit the
211K lijn , "2 B aruch," 625, translates 12:1 "O land, th a t w hich is happy," w h ich Charles,
APOT, 487, translates it "O land, w hich a rt prospering." In h is tra n sla tio n o f 12:3, however,
even Charles indicates the land w ill not always continue to rejoice. Bogaert, 2:366 suggests
the double tra n sla tio n tu seras prosp&re etjoyeuse, based on h is proposed em endation o f a
m issing w ord in the Greek Q xyrhynchus Papyrus fragm ent on the verse. However, h is
tra n sla tio n based on the Syriac te xt is prosp&re.
304
general pa tte rn o f the person ification o f the earth In 2 B aruch, w hich points to at least some
degree of conscious awareness and obedience. It also contrasts sharply w ith several passages
in 4 Ezra th a t suggest th a t the earth can understand speech and even speak its e lf (4 Ez. 6:13-
16: 7:55, 62; 8:2; 10:9) .
O verall 2 B a ruch has a p ictu re o f the obedience o f creation to Gods w ill and at least a
basic degree o f consciousness. 2 Baruch, however, does not have the strong sense th a t
creation is suffering em otional p a in due to sin as found in 4 Ezra (e.g. 6:14-16; 11:46; 12:3)
and 1 Enoch (e.g. 87:1; 88:2). It also lacks the m oral respon sibility o f nature found in
1 Enoch, where n a tu ra l objects can choose w hether to obey God (e.g. ch. 2-5) o r to sin (e.g.
18:15; 21:1-6).
b. Addressing N ature as a R h eto rical Device
Not a ll passages th a t address nature a ttrib u te consciousness to the n a tu ra l w orld. In
some passages, nature is addressed as a rhetorical device. For example, in 10:9-12 various
aspects o f nature are addressed in a lam entation about the fu tility o f the present life in Z ion in
lig h t o f the im m inent d e stru ctio n of Jerusalem . V arious aspects o f the n a tu ra l w orld (earth,
sky, vines, sun and moon) are addressed along w ith people (newlyweds, wives, priests, young
women and farm ers: w . 6-7, 9, 13-19), as w e ll as dem onic and m ythical figures (Sirens,
demons and dragons: v. 8). Since Zion is about to undergo such tu m u ltu o u s trib u la tio n , the
norm al activities o f nature and people alike are fu tile . These passages use apostrophe, a
rh e to rica l device addressing someone not present. This device does not indicate w hether
n a tu ra l objects possess consciousness or the a b ility to do w hat is requested. S im ila r apos
trophes o f nature are used in 11:7; 12:1 and 36:10. Several other passages th a t describe the
operation o f nature in great d e ta il are allegortcal o r sym bolic descriptions o f h isto ry (ch. 36-37,
53, 82; c f 1 En. 85-90(AA)).
1
l.
305
5 . Summary of 2 Baruch
The F a ll o f Adam had cosm ic effects fa r beyond Adam s own life. I t brought pain,
hardship and co rru p tio n to life In th is w orld and made hum ans subject to co rru p tio n and
i
I prem ature death. The operation o f th e w orld and the heavenly bodies became at least p a rtia lly
disturbed and subject to corru ption. M any o f the angels were led Into s in and destruction
; because o f the Fall. Even the best th in g s In life are subject to va n ity and decay. The ongoing
I
sins of hum an ity lead to fu rth e r co rru p tio n and sorrow. God holds people accountable for
th e ir m isuse o f creation and fo r th e ir ungratefulness fo r h is provision.
The depth o f the co rru p tio n o f creation, however. Is somewhat less th a n In 4 Ezra.
There are some who are righteous and obey the Law and th u s w ill enjoy the fu tu re w orld of
blessing. W hile th is is a w o rld o f corru ption, there are m any aspects of the n a tu ra l w orld th a t
operate according to Gods design. M any parts o f nature continue to obey God and operate in
an orderly m anner. God has fixed th e heavenly bodies In place and determ ines m any aspects
o f the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld.
There are tw o phases to the redem ption o f creation: (1) In the m essianic kingdom ,
m uch of the damage of the Fall w ill be reversed. Nature w ill be at peace and harm ony w ith
hum ankind. Nature w ill be superproductive and a ll pain, disease, n a tu ra l disasters, sorrow
and un tim e ly death w ill end. In some senses, however, the m essianic kingdom Is p a rt o f the
old w orld of co rru p tio n and serves as a tra n s itio n to the new w orld. (2) This w o rld w ill come to
an end and a new w orld w ill come a fte r the Judgm ent. There w ill be no corru p tio n o r death In
th is new w orld, and the righteous w ill enjoy great blessing. The righteous w ill have glorious,
transform ed bodies th a t are suited fo r life in both heaven and on the renewed earth. The new
earth is p a rt o f the inheritance o f the righteous, although there are few details o f the operation
o f the new w orld. There is some tension between the view th a t a new earth w ill come and the
view th a t the present earth w ill be transform ed. The predom inant view, however, is th a t there
w ill be a new earth.
306
*1 ... . ... . . . .
The n a tu ra l w orld is personified in several passages. N ature has a t least a basic degree
o f consciousness. God com m ands both anim als and inanim ate objects, and they obey him .
A lthough no passage says creation suffers em otional p a in due to th e co rru p tio n o f creation, yet
the happiness and jo y o f the la n d o f Zion w ill end at the eschatological trib u la tio n .
The follow ing table sum m arizes the key points concerning th e co rru p tio n and redem p
tio n o f creation in 2 Baruch:
Table 22: Summary ol 2 Baruch
1. The Fall brought hardship, pain, corruption, 1. In the messianic kingdom, the damage of the Fall 1. God commands animals and
premature death and vanity to this world. will be reversed. Pain, disease, natural disasters and inanimate objeds, which obey
2. The Fall disrupted the orderly operation of sorrow will end. Nature will be superprodudive and at Him.
this world. harmony with humankind. 2. Natural objeds appear to
3. Many of the angels were led into sin and 2. A new world will come after the Judgment with no have consdousness and some
destruction because of the Fall. corruption or death. times joy.
4. Human sins lead to further corruption and 3. The righteous will have glorious, transformed bodies
sorrow. God holds people accountable for suited for life in both heaven and on the renewed earth.
their misuse of creation. 4. The righteous will inherit the new earth, but there are
5. The corruption of creation is not total since few details about it.
many aspects of nature continue in obedience 5. Most passages point to a new earth, although a few
to God. suggest the renewal of the present earth.
D . The Apocalypse o f Moses and th e L ife o f Adam and Eve
1. D ate, Provenance and G enre o f th e Apocalypse o f Moses and th e Life o f Adam and Eve
The Apocalypse o f Moses (Ap. Mos.) and the Life o f Adam and Eve (LAE) are two
recensions o f a m idrash on Gen. 1-4. They focus on the F all and its results, the expulsion o f
Adam and Eve from Paradise and th e ir deathbed reflections and in stru ctio n s to th e ir children.
The a u thor is w idely acknowledged to be Jew ish.212 A lthough W ells argues th a t he
212L. S. A. W ells, "The Books o f Adam and Eve," in APOT, ed. R. H. Charles (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1913), 2:126-7; M. D. Johnson, "Life of Adam and Eve," in OTP, ed. Jam es H.
C harlesw orth (Garden C iiy, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1983), 2:252; Leonhard Rost, Judaism
Outside the Hebrew Canon. A n Introduction to the Documents, trans. D avid E. Green (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1971), 154.
307
was A lexandrian,213 m ost believe he was Palestinian. Johnson shows th a t th e b ib lica l
in te rp re ta tio n lacks the allegorization typical o f Philos exegetical m ethods. The form is more
like the m idrash haggadah o f Q um ran o r the Rabbis,214 and the contents are sim ila r to
Pharisaic o r possibly Essene Juda ism .215 The extant texts have few C h ristia n
in terpo lation s.216
The original was probably w ritte n in the late firs t century A D .217 M ost believe it was
w ritte n in Hebrew218 or possibly Aram aic219, although no Sem itic language m anuscripts
are extant. The Greek version (Ap. Mos.) translated and elaborated the Hebrew o rig in a l.220
213W ells, 130.
214Johnson, "Life," 252.
215A lthough Rost, 154, believes it is Essene, Johnson, "Life," 252, believes it is Pharisaic,
since there are few sectarian o r polem ic elements.
216Johnson, "Life," 252; W ells, 126-7. M any la te r Adam docum ents derived from these
w orks add strong C h ristia n elements. For example, in Seths quest fo r the o il o f mercy,
m edieval w orks prom ise th a t C h rist w ould b rin g the o il o f m ercy (or be the o il o f m ercy
him self), and they say th a t Seth saw the Tree o f Life, w h ich contained the wood o f the cross on
w hich C h rist was crucified. Ap. Mos. and LAE have few such C h ristia n elements. See Esther
Casier Q uinn , The Quest o f Seth fo r the O il o f Life (Chicago; U niversity o f Chicago, 1962), 7-8.
217W. O. E. Oesterley, The Books o f the Apocrypha. Their Origin, Teaching and Contents
(London: Robert Scott Roxbuighe House, 1916), 223; Charlesworth, Pseudepigrapha and
Modem, 74; Johnson, "Life," 252 (100 B .C .-A D . 200, probably tow ard end o f firs t century);
Eissfeldt, 637 (20 B.C.-A.D. 70). D aniel A B ertrand, La Vie greque d A dam et Eve. Introduc
tion, Texte, Traduction et Commentaire (Paris: A drien Maisonneuve, 1987), 30-1, dates the
Greek Ap. Mos. 100 B.C. to A.D. 50. He believes it m u st be before Paul, since he th in k s the
m any sim ila ritie s to Pauls le tte rs are due to the influence the book had on Paul. Rost, 154
and Charles C u tler Torrey, The Apocryphal Literature. A B rie f Introduction (New Haven: Yale
U niversity Press, 1945), 133, claim it m ust be p rio r to A D . 70. since the tem ple is s till
standing. However, Johnson, "Life," 252, notes th a t LAE 29:8, w hich indicates th a t the second
tem ple was s till standing, is n o t found in the best L a tin MSS. The book lacks the Rabbinic
polem ics against C h ristia n ity. The book has m any parallels to 2 Enoch, early rabbinic
tra d itio n s and Josephus, w hich places it in the period near the beginning of C h ristia n ity.
218Johnson, "Life," 251; W ells, 129; W ilhelm Meyer, V ita Adae E t Evae, Adhandlungen der
kSniglich bayerischen Akadem ie der W issenschaften, Philosophisce-philologische Klasse, no.
14 (M unich: n.p., 1878), 217.
219Torrey, 133
220There are also early Adam books in Slavonic, Georgian and Armenian. Stone believes
308
M ost scholars today believe th e L a tin version (LAE) was derived from the G reek version,
although it m ay have been derived independently from the Hebrew o rig in a l.221 The lite ra ry
rela tio n sh ip between LAE and Ap. Mos. is com plex 222 in p a rt due to the probable influence
o f an early Adam testam ent th a t is no longer available.223 Over h a lf of the m ate rial is shared
between the Greek and L a tin recensions, b u t each recension adds its own unique
sections.224
A lthough the form is largely testam ent225. narrative226 and m idrash227, the books
th a t these are also derived from the p rototyp ical Adam lite ra tu re and should be considered
"prim ary" Adam books, along w ith the Ap. Mos. and LAE (Michael Stone, A H istory o f the
Literature o f Adam and Eve, SBL E a rly Judaism and Its Literature, no. 3, ed. W illiam A dler
(A tlanta: Scholars Press, 1992), 30-41). M ost scholars, however, believe th a t these w orks were
derived from Ap. Mos. and LAE, w ith added C h ristia n interpolations. Cf. Johnson, "Life," 250;
W ells, 327-9; C. Fuchs, Das Leben Adam s und Evas, Die Apokrypehn und Pseudepigraphen
des A lte n Testam ents, no. 2, ed. E. Kautzsch (Tubingen: M ohr, 1900), 508-9; Nickelsburg,
"B ible R ew ritten," 116.
221J . L. Sharpe III, "Prolegomena to the E stablishm ent of the C ritica l Text o f the Greek
Apocalypse o f Moses" (PhD D issertation, Duke U niversity, 1969), 114-39; W ells, 129-32;
M eyer, "V ita," 217; Nickelsburg, "Bible R ew ritten," 116.
222Stone, H istory, 61-71, surveys the various views of lite ra ry relationships between Ap.
Mos. and LAE. S cholarly research in to the synoptic sources and redaction is only in the early
stages. Cf. George W. E. N ickelsburg, "Some Related T raditions in the Apocalypse o f Adam,
the Books o f Adam and Eve, and 1 Enoch," in Sethian Gnosicism, ed. B entley Layton, The
Rediscovery o f G nosticism . Proceedings of the In te rn a tio n a l Conference on G nosticism A t Yale,
New Haven, C onnecticut, M arch 28-31, 1978 (Leiden: B rill, 1980), 2:524-5, 538.
223M ontague Rhodes Jam es, The Lost Apocrypha o f the Old Testament (London: SPCK,
1920), 1-8, argues fo r two early Jew ish Adam books, from w hich a ll other Adam books were
derived: (1) a lost Apocalypse o f Adam , on ly represented in P a tristic quotations; (2) the Hebrew
book represented m ost fu lly in the Apocalypse o f Moses and the Life of Adam and Eve.
224N ickelsburg, Jew ish Literature, 256, has a chart sum m arizing the overlapping and
unique sections. G ary A. Anderson and M ichael E. Stone, eds.. Life o f A dam and Eve. Polyglot
(A tlanta: Scholars Press, 1994), is a h e lp fu l synoptic edition, w hich includes the Greek and
L a tin texts w ith tran slatio ns o f the Arm enian, Georgian and Slavonic versions.
22SN ickelsburg, Jew ish Literature, 253.
226C ollins, "Jew ish Apocalypses," 44.
227Johnson, "Life," 254; Charlesw orth, Pseudepigrapha and Modem, 74; Q uinn, 30
309
have m any typ ica l apocalyptic elements b oth in form and content: (1) In a heavenly ascent,
secret knowledge is im parted (LAE 25-29), and a v isio n shows the hidden w orkings of heaven
(Ap. Mos. 33-41). (2) A n angel serves as guide on th e heavenly jo u rn e y (LAE 25, 29) and gives
in stru ctio n s (Ap. Mos. 43). (3) M any m anuscripts o f LAE include a typical apocalyptic
h is to ric a l overview (LAE 29:4-15), although some scholars question w hether th is section was
p a rt o f the o riginal w ork. (4) Angels are prom inent in heavenly events, com m unicate to hum an
beings and care fo r th e ir bodies (Ap. Mos. 11; 13; 17; 22; 27; 29; 32-43; (LAE 45-49);228 LAE
9-22). (5) The events surro unding Adam s death have a strongly apocalyptic flavor: e.g.
heavenly wonders, such as the darkening o f the sun, m oon and stars, and angelic trum pets
(LAE 43:2; 46 (Ap. Mos. 36); cf. Ap. Mos. 22). (6) H um an sin is pervasive, re su ltin g in the
in e v ita b ility of death and the w rath o f God against s in (LAE 44:3; Ap. Mos. 14:2; LAE 49:3;
50:2). (7) There are references to "the la s t days (e.g. LAE 42:1) and "the end o f tim es" (Ap.
M os. 13:2). (8) There are tw o judgm ents, w ater (the Flood) and fire (final Judgm ent) (LAE 49:3;
50:2; cf. Ap. Mos. 14:2; 39:2-3; LAE 39; 47). (9) The eschatological chronology is typical of
apocalyptic w ritin g s: a universal resurrectio n (LAE 47:3; Ap. Mos. 10:2; 13:3; 37:5; 41:3; 43:2),
th e Judgm ent o f a ll people and the condem nation o f the devil (LAE 39; 47:3; 49:3; 50:2; Ap.
Mos. 10:2; 14:2; 13:3; 37:5; 41:3; 43:2), and a "com ing age" (LAE 51:2) in w hich the evil heart
w ill be removed from people (Ap. Mos. 13:3-5) and th e righteous w ill be allowed to dwell again
in Paradise (LAE 29:9-13; 49:3; 51:2).
Despite these sim ila ritie s, Ap. Mos. and LAE have several differences from typical
Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials: (1) The pessim ism is n o t as deep as in m any apocalyptic
w ritin g s. (2) There is no sense th a t the end o f tim e is im m inent o r th a t the a u thor was livin g
in the la s t days. (3) The style is largely narrative, although it has hig h ly sym bolic descriptions
and num erous heavenly scenes.
Parallel passages between Ap. Mos. and LAE are indicated in parenthesis. Unless
otherw ise noted, tra n sla tio n s and verse num bering are taken from Johnson, "Life."
310
Levison shows th a t Ap. Mos. and LAE are s im ila r to 2 B aruch and 4 Ezra on the cause,
effects and so lu tio n fo r the problem o f s in .229 W ells shows the close s im ila rity between Ap.
Mos. and 2 Enoch, although 2 Enoch is Influenced b y Philonic and Platonic speculations. He
argues, "Paul and the a u th o r o f 2 Enoch were near contem poraries o f the o riginal a u th o r of Ap.
Mos. and moved in the same circle o f ideas."230 N ickelsburg fin d s m any apocalyptic
characteristics and sections th a t are apocalypses w ith in Ap. Mos. and LAE, although he says
th a t these apocalyptic features are typ ica l o f those found in testam entaiy lite ra tu re .231 He
notes m any sim ila ritie s in form and content between these w orks, 1 Enoch (especially BW, BD
and AW), and the G nostic Apocalypse o f Adam (a testam ent w ith a very large apocalypse).232
Thus Ap. Mos. and LAE u tilize a h yb rid o f testam entary and apocalyptic genres, w ith theology
s im ila r to m any Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s 233
229Levison, 189.
230W ells, 130. However, Stone, H istory, 56, says th a t more w o rk needs to be done to
dem onstrate W ells claim .
23'N ickelsburg, Jew ish Literature, 257.
232N ickelsbuig, "Some Related T raditions," 515-39. For example, LAE 25-29 contains a
transm ission o f secret Inform ation based upon a heavenly vision, w h ich closely parallels
Enochs heavenly ascent In 1 En. 13:7-16:4. (pp. 520, 526-529). LAE 29:2-10 is an "historica l
apocalypse" w ith m any s im ila ritie s to AW (1 En. 91:11-17; 93:1-10; cf. T. Levi 16-18; T. Judah
21-25; 1 En. 85-90 (pp. 520, 525, 528-533). Ap. Mos. 39:2-3 is s im ila r to "apocalyptic
predictions in other testam ents" (p. 519). He even suggests th a t there m ay be a lite ra ry
dependence upon 1 Enoch (p. 533).
233C ollins, "Jewish Apocalypses," 44, notes m any affinitie s to apocalyptic, such as "elements
o f apocalyptic eschatology" (e.g. Ap. Mos. 13:2-5; LAE 29), ex eventu prophecy (LAE 29) and the
heavenly jo u rn e y o f Adam (cf. 25-28), although he fin a lly classifies It as "narrative para
phrase." Wells, 131, 144, sees several sm all apocalypses in the book (e.g. Ap. Mos. 13:3-6)
and lis ts a num ber o f apocalyptic features o f the books as a whole. B ertrand, 53-4, concludes
th a t Ap. Mos. uses a com posite genre, w hich is typ ica l o f m uch o f the pseudepigrapha. The
larger part is haggada, a pious legend paraphrasing and expanding on Genesis fo r m oral
teaching. A significant portion, however, uses apocalyptic techniques to make revelations
about the end o f Adam and Eve, the destiny o f th e ir bodies and souls and th e ir fin a l forgive
ness by God.
311
2. The Corruption of Creation
a. Consequences o f the Fall
B oth the Apocalypse o f Moses and the Life of Adam and Eve devote a large am ount of
space to th e results o f the F all. Gods judgm ent on the firs t hum an transgression had a
profound effect on bo th the hum an race and the rest o f creation.
As a re su lt of th e disobedience of Adam and Eve,234 transgression and sin became a
p a rt o f the experience o f all h u m a n ity (LAE 44:3). The whole hum an race is under Gods w rath
(Ap. Mos. 14:2; LAE 49:3; 50:2) and w ill u ltim a te ly face Gods judgm ent (LAE 49:3; 50:2) and
destruction (Ap. Mos. 14:2). There w ill be two judgm ents: w ater and fire . The w ater judgm ent
undoubtedly refers to the Flood. It is unclear w hether the "fire" refers to the end o f the w orld
o r the punishm ent o f eternal h e ll fire . Since the focus is on Gods w rath on the hum an race
(LAE 49:3), it is more lik e ly to refer to the fire o f the fin a l Judgm ent, although there is no vivid
description of eternal punishm ent as in m any apocalyptic w ritings.
A lthough the fin a l Judgm ent is expected, the em phasis of the books is on the changes
th a t the F a ll brought to life in th is w orld. W hen Adam and Eve sinned, they lost th e ir original
glory (Ap. Mos. 20:2) and were estranged from the glory o f God (Ap. Mos. 21:6). Im m o rta lity
was lost fo r a ll people (Ap. Mos. 28:3) and death became certain (LAE 26:2; Ap. Mos. 14:2).
Life is now fu ll o f hardship, labor, (LAE 44:3; Ap. Mos. 24:2-3), enm ity, strife (Ap. Mos. 25:4;
28:3), disease, pain, suffering (Ap. Mos. 25:1-3), and m any evils (LAE 44:2, 4). Due to the F all,
hum an life is m arked b y its fu tile la b o r and fa ilu re : "those who rise up fro m us sh a ll labor, not
being adequate, b u t failing " (LAE 44:3; cf. Ap. Mos. 24:3). H um anity is banned from Paradise,
w ith a ll its pleasures (Ap. Mos. 27-29).
There are several physical aspects to Gods judgm ent on the hum an race in response to
234These books p a rtic u la rly stress Eves respon sibility fo r the F all (e.g. LAE 9; Ap. Mos. 9:2;
10:2 (LAE 3:2); 17:1 (LAE 19); 19:1-3; 25:3; LAE 5:3). Levison, 180-1, shows th a t LAE is
p a rticu la rly strong on the sin o f Eve and presents Adam as a m odel of perfect penitence.
312
the F all: (1) death, (2) disease and b o d ily pains, and (3) b irth pangs. These physical aspects o f
the curse affected not only Adam and Eve, b u t also a ll th e ir descendants (LAE 34:2; 44:2 (Ap.
Mos. 14:2); 49:3; 50:2).
D eath is a ju dgm ent o f God due to Adam s disobedience of Gods com m andm ent (LAE
26:2; Ap. Mos. 14:2; 28:3). Not only Adam and Eve (LAE 26:2) b u t also a ll of th e ir descen
dants (Ap. Mos. 14:2) die because o f the transgression o f Adam and Eve. A pparently hum an
beings w ould not have died if Adam and Eve had not disobeyed God. In contrast to 2 Baruch,
an apocalyptic w o rk o f the same era, LAE and Ap. Mos. do n o t indicate th a t th is judgm ent o f
death includes a fu tu re punishm ent, such as eternal fire (contrast 2 Bar. 19:8; 23:4-5; 48:39-
43). A lth ough Ap. Mos. and LAE indicate th a t physical death became p a rt o f the hum an
experience, th e y do not say w hether death was a p a rt o f the n a tu ra l w orld p rio r to the Fall.
Disease and b o d ily pains are another p a rt o f Gods ju dgm ent on hum anity. Both books
refer to "seventy plagues"235 on the body (LAE 34:2 (Ap. Mos. 8:2)). The num ber seventy is
probably a sym bolic num ber236 in d ica tin g th a t the ailm ents affect the entire body. The wide
spread effect o f sin in a fflictin g the body is also shown by the expression "from the top of the
head and th e eyes and ears down to the n a ils o f the feet and in each separate lim b " (LAE 34:2).
T his is a m erismus, a figure o f speech in w hich the extreme members o f the body are m en
tioned to in dica te the whole body.237 LAE 34:2 indicates th a t p rio r to the F all there were no
diseases. W hen Adam is sick on h is deathbed, Seth asks, "W hat is pain and illness?" (Ap.
Mos. 5:5 (LAE 30:4); cf. LAE 31:5). Seths query suggests th a t there was a delay in im plem ent
in g the curse o f illness u n til ju s t p rio r to Adam s death, since illness was s till unknow n to
Adam s ch ild re n at th a t tim e.
235Some MSS have seventy-two.
236Cf. Levison, 182; Johnson, "Life," 142.
237Ap. Mos. does not have th is expression. It sim ply m entions diseases o f the eyes and
ears, as sam ples o f the "seventy plagues."
313
A nother aspect o f th e physical curse due to the F a ll is pain in c h ild b irth (Ap. Mos.
25:1-3). T h is is based o n Gen. 3:16 and involves an im p o rta n t change in the operation o f the
physical w o rld afte r the F all.
N ature its e lf also suffered damage as a re su lt of th e disobedience o f Adam and Eve.
Im m ediately after Eve ate the forbidden fru it, a ll o f the nearby plants in paradise lo st th e ir
leaves, except fo r the fig tree (Ap. Mos. 20:4). T h is suggests a so lid a rity between hum anity and
the n a tu ra l w orld so th a t w hen hum an beings sin , nature suffers damage. By contrast, when
God entered Paradise to ju dge the o rig in a l hum ans, a ll o f the plants in Paradise blossomed
and prospered (Ap. Mos. 22:3). Gods divine glory and righteousness has a healing effect on
nature, b u t hum an unrighteousness leads to co rru p tio n and damage in the n a tu ra l w orld.
The ground was cursed so th a t it w ould no longer produce crops as easily as it did
before (Ap. Mos. 24:1-3). The curse on the ground, w hich is based on Gen. 3:17-19, involves
several aspects: (1) The ground w ould no longer produce crops, except through hard labor (v.
2-3). (2) The ground w ould never be as productive as it was before the F a ll (v. 2, "it shall not
give its strength"). (3) Weeds, th istle s and th o rn s w ould grow easily and abundantly, b u t these
plants w ould be of no value fo r food and w ould m ake growing food crops m ore d iffic u lt (v. 2).
Thus the curse involved a profound change in the operation o f p la n t life.
A fte r Adam and Eve were expelled from Paradise, they no longer had access to m any of
the p la n ts th a t grew in Paradise (LAE 2:2; 4:1). These plants w ould not grow outside of
Paradise and w ould no longer be available fo r hum an food. As a result, hum ans w ould be
reduced to eating the same food as anim als (LAE 4:1). The only special pla n ts Adam and Eve
could take from Paradise were certain arom atic spices (LAE 43:4; Ap. Mos. 29:3-6).
The F all also resulted in changes to the anim al w orld. The serpent was cursed because
it allowed its e lf to be a vessel fo r the use o f the devil. The serpent underw ent fundam ental
changes in its physical nature: I t was deprived o f its hands, feet, ears, w ings and lim bs, and as
a re su lt it was forced to craw l on its belly (Ap. Mos. 26:1-4).
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A lthough other anim als d id not undergo such radica l changes in th e ir physical bodies,
th e ir behavior changed profoundly after the Fall. Ap. Mos. says th a t anim als began to rebel
against the rule o f hum an beings after Adam and Eves disobedience (Ap. Mos. 24:4).238
P rior to the Fall, anim als were in subjection to hum anity, since the image o f God is in hum ans
(Ap. Mos. 10:3). W hen Adam and Eve disobeyed God and ate the forbidden fru it, the nature of
anim als was changed (Ap. Mos. 11:3). Anim als took on some o f the rebellious nature th a t is
also passed on to the descendants of Adam and Eve.
The rebellion o f the anim als is illu stra te d by the story in w hich a w ild animal attacks
and bites Seth (Ap. Mos. 10-12). In Ap. Mos. the a tta ck is a re s u lt o f a fundam ental change in
the anim al w orld due to the Fall (Ap. Mos. 11:2-3; c f 10:2). The type o f w ild anim al is not
specified, since it is representative of a fundam ental change in nature th a t affected all types o f
anim als. In LAE, however, the anim al is identified as a serpent (LAE 37:1; 44:1), the anim al
th a t was indw elt b y the devil. It is v irtu a lly identified as the devil,239 since he is also called
"the cursed enemy of tru th , the chaotic destroyer" (LAE 39:2). In LAE, therefore, the attack is
p a rt o f the devils attem pt to destroy Adam and Eve.240 LAE does not have the same stress
as Ap. Mos. on the damage the F a ll caused to the anim al w orld. This is also show n by the
om ission o f the passage in Ap. Mos. 26, w hich says th a t th e rebellion o f the animals is a result
o f the F all.
238Cf. Bereshith Rabba 25:2, where anim als are not longer obedient to hum anity.
239Johnson, 109:274, n. 39a. W ells, 143, says "serpent" in 38:1 is a gloss. The original
story is reflected in Ap. Mos. and was a m idrash explaining the beasts revolt.
! 240Cf. Nickelsburg, "Some Related Traditions," 517. Levison, 166, argues th a t Ap. Mos.
| uses the story to show the loss of dom inion o f hum anity over the anim al kingdom . He Haims
j th a t in LAE, dom inion is n o t lo st a t a ll. Adam s till has com m and over animals, so a ll anim als
| and even the rive r Jordan obey h im during h is penitence (p. 176). Levison is correct th a t Ap.
Mos. has a stronger em phasis on the loss o f dom inion over the anim als. B oth books, however,
stress th a t a ll types o f anim als obeyed Adam at his penitence. Furtherm ore, in Ap. Mos., the
w ild beast obeys Seth, when he commands him to be sile n t and leave. T his shows th a t even in
Ap. Mos., the loss o f dom inion is not absolute.
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jf ___________________ ... . ...
b. Elem ents of Obedience o f Nature
Despite the increased rebellion o f the anim als, nature s till exhibits a degree of
obedience to hum anity. In both Ap. Mos. and LAE, Adam com mands the animals to surround
h im w hile he does 40 days o f penitence standing up to h is neck in the Jordan riv e r (LAE 8 :1-3
(Ap. Mos. 29:13-14)). The anim als in s ta n tly obey h im and ra lly to assist h im in h is repentance
(LAE 8:3). In LAE, he com mands the fis h (8 :1) and "a ll livin g beings" to come and to surround
him (8:3). The w ater o f the Jordan also cooperates, b y stopping its curre nt (LAE 8:3).
Similarly in Ap. Mos. Adam commands the waters o f the Jordan and "all b ird s and a ll animals
and a ll reptiles both on la nd and in the sea" (29:13). T his is a merismus in d ica tin g th a t a ll
types of anim als respond in obedience to Adam. In response to Adam s com mand, not only
m ortal creatures, b u t also "a ll the angels" surround Adam to protect him (Ap. Mos. 29:14). On
the surface, th is obedience of creation to hum an beings sounds lik e a contradiction to the
passages th a t indicate th a t anim als are in rebellion against hum anity. Even in the passage
where the w ild anim al attacks Seth, however, the beast obeys Seth when he com mands it to be
sile n t and to leave (Ap. Mos. 12:1-2). T hus although creation is corrupted, the damage to
nature is not comprehensive.
a. Reversal o f th e Damage Caused by th e F a ll
A lthough the em phasis o f Ap. Mos. and LAE is on the effects of the F all, both books
refer to an eschatological tim e when the damage o f the F a ll w ill be reversed. The language to
describe the reversal o f the F all is s im ila r to other apocalyptic lite ra tu re .
In the "last days" h u m a n ity w ill be resurrected (LAE 47:3; Ap. Mos. 10:2; 13:3; 37:5;
41:3; 43:2) and w ill again be allowed free access to Paradise (LAE 42:1; Ap. Mos. 13:1-4). They
w ill be given "every jo y of Paradise and o f God" (Ap. Mos. 13:4). H um anity w ill experience
perfect jo y (Ap. Mos. 13:4; LAE 47:3 (Ap. Mos. 39:2)) and rest (LAE 51:2). The rest th a t
316
h u m a n ity w ill enjoy is analogous to Gods re st on the seventh day of creation (LAE 51:2).
H um anity w ill again have access to the Tree of Life (LAE 42:1; Ap. Mos. 31:2). The Tree o f Life
in Gen. 2:9 is called "the tree o f m ercy" in these books (LAE 40:3; 42:1; Ap. Mos. 13:2).241
From th is tree flow s the "o il o f m ercy,"242 w hich gives healing and life (Ap. Mos. 13:1; cf. LAE
40:1, 3; 41:1), and w hich removes bod ily pains (LAE 41:2). In th a t day, there w ill be no more
sinners (Ap. Mos. 13:5). The evil heart (= the rabbinic yetzer hara?) w ill be removed from
hum an beings and they w ill be given a good heart th a t w orships God alone (Ap. Mos. 13:5).
The reversal o f the F all w ill be so complete th a t Adam w ill s it on the glorious throne form erly
used by the devil, who deceived and led h im astray (LAE 47:3 (Ap. Mos. 39:2)). The devil w ill
be condemned and experience great sorrow, along w ith a ll who follow him (Ap. Mos. 39:2).
Ap. Mos. and LAE generally do not have detailed descriptions o f the fu tu re Paradise or
other aspects o f th e redeemed m aterial w orld. They do n o t address the question o f w hether
there w ill be a "new earth" o r a restored earth, other th a n to affirm th a t the e a rth ly Paradise
w ill be restored. There is, however, one extended passage (LAE 29:4-15) found in m any
m anuscripts o f LAE243 th a t reflects a profound hope fo r the redem ption o f the m aterial w orld.
It contains a typ ica l apocalyptic h isto rica l overview, w ith references to the destruction o f the
two tem ples, the ju d g m e n t o f the wicked, and an eschatological era o f righteousness. The
241B ertrand, 118.
242The Tree of Life was freq uently identified as the olive tree in Jew ish, early C h ristian and
G nostic w ritin g s (e.g. 2 En. 8:7; 22:8; 66:2; 4 Ez. 2:12; Evang. Nicod. 18: Descent o f C hrist 3;
Recognitlones 1:45: H ippolytus 5:2; Origen, Contra Celsum 6:27. See Ginzberg, 5:119-20).
243MSS groups n. III and IV include th is passage. Johnson, 109:268, n. 29b, follow ing
W ells, 140, believes th is is an apocalyptic interpolation. C ertainly v. 9 and possibly v. 14 are
C h ristia n additions. However, the h isto rica l overview form and m ost o f the content are typ ica l
o f other Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials. Charles rejects W ells view and argues th a t the passage
should not be seen as C h ristia n , except fo r a few added words (e.g. God dw elling in visible
form on earth and the references to baptism ; see Charles editorial note in W ells, 268, n 29b).
Torrey, 133, notes th a t v. 8 is a reference to the second temple not the m essianic age (Wells,
140), since in iq u ity grows d u rin g th a t tim e. Since there is no reference to the destruction of
the second tem ple, th is passage should be dated a t about the same tim e as the rest o f LAE.
317
present evil age Is tem porary (v. 4), and an age o f righteousness is coining (w . 9-12). There is
an im p o rta n t reference to the redem ption o f creation: "Heaven and earth, nights and days, and
a ll creatures w ill obey h im and not ignore h is com m andm ent nor change its w orks" (v. 12).
T his refers to the tran sfo rm a tio n o f a ll creation, so th a t even the m ate rial w o rld w ill obey Gods
w ill. God w ill dw ell on earth in the presence o f hum an beings (v. 9, 15). W hile th is m ay refer
to a m essianic kingdom on earth ra th e r th a n a new earth, i t nevertheless suggests the
transform ation o f the m aterial w orld and affirm s the im portance o f the earth in Gods scheme.
b. E a rth ly and H eavenly Paradises
There are tw o Paradises described in these books: (1) an earthly one, w hich is the
garden o f Eden (LAE 25:2); and (2) a heavenly one (LAE 25:3). There are only a few references
to the heavenly Paradise, w hich is called th e "Paradise o f righteousness" (LAE 25:3) and the
"Paradise o f v is ita tio n and o f Gods com m and" (LAE 29:1). This is the dw elling place o f God
and the angels (LAE 25:3), and is located in the "th ird heaven" (Ap. Mos. 37:5; 40:1). The
earthly Paradise receives m ore stress in these books, la rge ly because of the in terest in the
events su rro u n d in g and re su ltin g from the F a ll (LAE 3:1; 4:1; 25:2; 36:2 (Ap. Mos. 9:3); LAE
37:1; 40:1-2 (Ap. Mos. 13:1, 2(?)); LAE 40:6; Ap. Mos. 20:4; 22:3-4; 27:1, 4; 29:3, 5-6; 38:4;
39:1; 40:6-7). T his earthly Paradise s till exists after the F a ll, even at the end o f Adam s life
(LAE 36:2 (Ap. Mos. 9:3); LAE 40:6). There is some confusion of the tw o Paradises in the
description o f the b u ria l o f Adam in Ap. Mos. W hen Adam died, God forgave h im and
commanded th a t h is body be taken im m ediately to the heavenly Paradise in the th ird heaven
(Ap. Mos. 37:4-5; cf. 38:4). He was to w a it there u n til th e day o f the R esurrection and the
Judgm ent (Ap. Mos. 37:5). Yet in Ap. Mos. 39:1 and 40:7, Adam s body was b urie d in the
ground in the e a rth ly Paradise, near the spot where God form ed him fro m the dust o f the
earth.
There is a ce rta in am biguity about w hether the righteous w ill enjoy the heavenly
318
Paradise o r the restored e a rth ly Paradise (e.g. Ap. Mos. 13:2, 4). Adam s soul244 is taken to
the heavenly Paradise when he dies, yet th is appears to be only fo r a tem porary period w hile
he aw aits the R esurrection (Ap. Mos. 37:4-6). This does not appear to be a tim e o f b liss fo r
Adam, b u t a so rt o f sem i-conscious state245 in w hich he awaits the R esurrection. Several
passages im p ly th a t the e a rth ly Paradise o f Eden w ill be reopened to h um an ity in the last
days. The o il o f the tree o f m ercy in the original earthly Paradise w ill be accessible to hum ani
ty (LAE 42:1 (Ap. Mos. 13:2)). This suggests th a t there is a m aterial aspect to the fu tu re
existence o f the righteous afte r the Resurrection, n o t a purely transcendental heavenly
existence. W hen God appeared in Eden after Eve sinned, the plants th a t w ithered were re
stored (Ap. Mos. 22:3), w hich shows th a t Gods presence brings healing to creation. It also
anticipates the restoration of Paradise in the last days. The hope of the book generally focuses
on the restoration o f the earthly Paradise more th a n on a transcendental heavenly existence.
4 . The Personification o f C reation
There are several passages in w hich nature is personified. W hen Adam is standing in
the Jordan rive r to do penitence, he commands anim als and the waters o f the Jordan to
m ourn w ith him and to gather around to protect h im (LAE 8:1-3 (Ap. Mos. 29:13-14)).248
T heir obedience is more th a n sim ply anim al trainin g. It suggests a degree o f consciousness for
anim als and even some n a tu ra l objects such as a river. Even when anim als disobey a hum an
command they show a power o f conscious choice. For example, after a w ild anim al attacks
and bites Seth, Eve and Seth engage the anim al in a conversation (Ap. Mos. 10-12 (LAE 37-
39)). W hile LAE lim its th is to the serpent th a t is indw elt by the devil (LAE 37:1), Ap. Mos. is
244Ib id ., 123.
245Cf. Ap. Mos. 39, where God speaks to Adams soul and 41:1, where God speaks to
Adam s corpse,
246Ap. Mos. 29:13-14 is from a section only found in MSS F and H. However, the concepts
are found elsewhere in the Ap. Mos. and the passage is a direct p arallel to LAE 8:1-3.
319
vague about the k in d o f anim al, w hich im plies th a t anim al consciousness and perhaps even
speaking a b ility was m uch more widespread a t th a t tim e. N either book says w hy animals do
not speak m ore com m only today, u n like Jubilees, w hich sees the end o f anim al speech as a
consequence o f the F a ll (Jub. 3:28).247
A nim als and inanim ate objects also have em otions and pray. D u ring Adam s penitence
in the Jordan, the anim als m ourn and weep fo r Adam s s in (LAE 8:1-2 (Ap. Mos. 29:14)). In
Ap. Mos., the anim als p ray th a t Adam w ould be forgiven (Ap. Mos. 29:14; 36:1). W hen Adam
dies, the sun and m oon darken fo r 7 days (LAE 46:1), w h ich Ap. Mos. in terprets as prayer fo r
Adam (Ap. Mos. 36:1-3). T his sorrow and prayer fo r the s in o f Adam show a rem arkable
so lid a rity between hum ans and anim als and a concern fo r how hum an sin has an im pact on
the n a tu ra l w orld.
The passages th a t personify creation serve to h ig h lig h t the sin o f Adam and Eve and
the effects o f sin on the n a tu ra l w orld. The disobedience o f anim als is due to the F all. W hen
they do obey Adam, it is to help h im repent from sin. W hen anim als ta lk , they speak of how
hum an s in brought damage to the n a tu ra l w orld. N a tu ra l objects m ourn and intercede fo r
hum an sin.
5 . Sum m ary o f th e A p o calyp se o f Moses and th e L ife o f Adam and Eve
The co rru p tio n o f creation is an im portant theme in Ap. Mos. and LAE, since both
books focus on the F a ll and its consequences. The disobedience o f Adam and Eve brought
m ajor changes to the n a tu ra l order: death, bo d ily pains, disease, b irth pangs and a life of
hardship and labor fo r a ll descendants o f Adam and Eve. As soon as Eve ate the forbidden
fru it, the leaves of the trees in Eden dropped, showing a so lid a rity between hum anity and
nature. The ground began to b rin g fo rth crops only w ith considerable hum an labor, w hile
247Cf. Josephus, A ntiquities, i 1.4. See M o rflll, 73-4, fo r Greek w rite rs who ascribed rationa l
th o u g h t to anim als.
320
weeds began to grow vigorously. Ap. Mos. stresses th a t anim als became disobedient to
hu m a n ity. Yet th e co rru p tio n o f creation is n o t complete, since anim als sometimes obey
hum an com m ands and even intercede fo r hum an sin.
Ap. Mos. and LAE show some concern fo r the redem ption o f creation, b u t the them e is
n o t developed as fu lly as in some other Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs. In th e la st days, the
effects o f the F a ll w ill be reversed: H um anity w ill again have access to th e earthly Paradise and
its Tree o f Life. The evil hum an heart w ill be removed and h u m a n ity w ill have rest and great
jo y . Some m a n u scrip ts indicate th a t a ll creation, in clu d in g heaven and earth, w ill obey God
forever.
A nim als and som etim es inanim ate objects are personified in both Ap. Mos. and LAE.
They show consciousness, em otion, power o f choice and a t tim es even th e a b ility to speak.
N ature m ourns fo r the s in o f Adam and intercedes on his behalf. Every passage In w hich
n a tu re is personified focuses on the sin o f Adam and its effects on creation.
The fo llo w in g table sum m arizes the key points concerning the co rru p tio n and redemp
tio n of creation in Ap. Mos. and LAE:
Table 23: Summary of the Apocalypse of Moses and The Life of Adam and Eve
1) The Fall brought death, bodily pains, disease, birth pangs, 1) In the last days, humanity will 1) Animals and some inanimate
hardship and labor to humanity. again gain access to the earthly objects have emotion, conscious
2) After the Fall, people were forbidden to enter Paradise. Paradise and enjoy a life of joy and ness, power of choice and some
3) The Fail damaged the natural worid: the ground brings forth rest. times speaking ability.
crops only with labor; animals became disobedient. 2) In some manuscripts heaven, 2) Personification highlights the
4) Ap. Mos. emphasizes the change in animals more than LAE. earth and all creation will obey God effects of original sin on creation.
5) The corruption of creation is not complete: at times animals forever.
obey and intercede for humans.
321
CHAPTER 6:
SUMMARY: THE CORRUPTION AND REDEMPTION OF CREATION

IN JEWISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
A . G eneral Trends
The co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation are frequent them es In Jew ish apocalyptic
lite ra tu re . There are very few apocalyptic works, in fact, th a t do n o t address these Issues to
some extent. C ollins argues th a t one o f the m ajor characteristics of the Jew ish apocalypses is
a concern w ith cosm ic transform ation. He notes also th a t a ll apocalypses deal w ith the
underlying problem th a t "th is w o rld is o u t o f jo in t."1
O f the apocalyptic w ritin g s studied here, only AW does n o t discuss these themes a t all,
though even AW has a reference to the tran sform ation of heaven and a tem porary period o f
m aterial prosperity on earth. BP 2 does n o t discuss corru ption, b u t it refers to the eschato
logical transform ation o f the earth. Even those w ritin g s th a t emphasize the re g u la rity of
nature also refer, a t least in a lim ite d degree, to the co rru p tio n o f creation, especially at such
c ritic a l tim es as the pre-Flood era and the fin a l days of history.
A pocalyptic lite ra tu re also freq uently points to a so lid a rity between h u m a n ity and the
n a tu ra l w orld (BW 6-16; Ju b .; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). The w orld was made fo r h um an i
ty , p a rticu la rly the righteous people of God (4 Ez; 2 Bar). This accounts fo r th e Im pact th a t
hum an sin has on nature. Since the w orld was made fo r h um an ity and h u m a n ity is closely
lin ke d w ith the w orld, hum an s in profoundly affects the creation. T his also Im plies th a t the
; redem ption o f creation w ill be associated w ith the eschatological re tu rn o f h u m a n ity to

i
! ---------------------------------------------------
| C o llin s , "Jew ish Apocalypses," 27-8; C ollins, "Introdu ction," 6-7, 17. O f th e 15 apocalyptic
w orks C ollins classifies as Jew ish apocalypses, 12 refer to cosm ic transform ation. Cf. Russell,
M ethod and Message, 280-4.
322
*d . . .
righteousness and obedience to God.
B. The Corruption of Creation
O f the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials studied, a ll except fo r AW and BP 2 address the
question o f the co rru p tio n o f creation. There are several approaches taken by the Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s: (1) The m a jo rity say th a t the n a tu ra l w orld has been corrupted by sin, at
least to some degree (BW 6-16; BW 17-36; AB 80; AA; 1 En. Noah; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2
Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE). (2) B y contrast, some apocalyptic w ritin g s emphasize the consistent
operation o f creation o r its obedience to Gods laws (BW 1-5; AB, except 80; BD 83-84 (but cf.
AA); Ep. En.; BP 1). (3) O thers refer to the consistency o f creation, b u t also acknowledge a
lim ite d corru ption o f creation. E ith e r some parts o f the n a tu ra l w o rld m ay be corrupted (BW
17-36; Ju b .; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE) o r creation m ay be corrupted at ce rta in tim es, such as
p rio r to the Flood o r in the last days (AB 80; Jub.; 2 E n.; BP 3; 2 Bar.). Thus, although m any
apocalyptic w ritin g s stress the consistent operation o f nature, they also acknowledge th a t
some thing s are n o t rig h t about the n a tu ra l w orld and th a t the n a tu ra l w orld has been
damaged by sin.
Corruption of
Creation
Not coranted Corrupted Not discussed
Nature consistent Nature obeys By angelic sin By human sin m

BP2
AB BW 1-5 Partially Watchers Eschatological Fall Pre-Flood Ongoing Eschatological
BD AB l l 1 1 1 1 1
Jub BD B W 17-36 BWB-16 AB80 Jub Jub BW 6-16 AB80
2En Ep En Jub BW 17-36 4 Ez 2En AB80 2 Bar
BP 1 2En AA 2 Bar BPS Jub
BP 3 BP 3 BP 3 Ap Mos/LAE 4Ez
2 Bar 1 En Noah 2 Bar
Ap Mos/LAE
Figure 1: Apocalyptic Views of the Corruption of Creation
323
1. Causes o f the Corruption o f Creation
W henever the created w orld is corrupted, it is due to sin.2 Jew ish apocalyptic w riters
a ffirm w ith Gen. 1 th a t God o rig in a lly made the entire creation good. B u t som ething went
w rong and now the whole created w o rld is damaged. In the apocalyptic m aterials studied,
however, n e ith e r the created w orld n o r m atter are Inherently evil.
In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, tim es o f increasing hum an s in are often accompa
nied by the co rru p tio n o f creation and the d isru p tio n o f the proper operation o f nature. In
m any instances when unrighteousness increases there are also cosm ic disasters. The pre-
Flood era and the tim e ju s t p rio r to the end o f the w o rld are both tim es o f great unrighteous
ness as w e ll as tim es o f m ajor changes in the operation o f the w orld. B y contrast, w hen the
people o f God re tu rn to righteousness in the new age or th e m essianic kingdom , nature w ill be
perfected and become superproductive. Even the w ritin g s th a t generally emphasize a
consistent operation o f the n a tu ra l w o rld acknowledge such tim es o f deviation from the norm al
patterns o f nature. T h is is p a rticu la rly s trik in g in AB 80, w h ich says th a t in the la st days the
stars w ill w ander from th e ir norm al patterns, in sharp contrast to the perfect consistency of
the n a tu ra l order in the rest o f h isto ry as described in the rest o f AB.
C reation is corrupted either because o f (1) hum an s in (2 En.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap.
M os./LAE); (2) the sins o f fallen angels or W atchers (BW 6-16; AA; 1 En. Noah); o r (3) both
hum an and th e W atchers sins (BW 17-36; AB 80; Jub.; BP 3). H um an s in is the m ost
common cause. There are several aspects o f hum an sin th a t damage th e n a tu ra l w orld; (1) the
F a ll (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE); (2) widespread evil in th e pre-Flood generation (Jub.;
2 E n.; BP 3); (3) ongoing sin thro ugho ut h isto ry (BW 6-16; AB 80; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.); and (4) the
eschatological increase of hum an s in (AB 80; Ju b .; 2 Bar). Several w ritin g s com bine more
ii
i __________________________
2The on ly exception is the secondary thread in 4 Ezra about increasing m oral and physical
co rru p tio n due to the advanced state o f the earth. T his does not fit the m ajor theme o f 4 Ezra,
however, w h ich stresses hum an accountability fo r s in and the co rru p tio n o f the age.
324
than one o f these factors (AB 80: ongoing, eschatological; Ju b .: a ll four; 4 Ez.: F all, ongoing;
2 B ar.: F all, ongoing, eschatological).
W hen the F a ll causes th e co rru p tio n o f creation, the damage always affects the overall
characteristics o f life in th is age (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). W ritin g s th a t focus on
the F a ll generally see th is age as an age o f corru ption. O ngoing hum an s in also tends to be
associated w ith a general c o rru p tio n o f creation thro ugho ut the age (BW 6-16; AB 80; 4 Ez.; 2
Bar.). On the other hand, w hen there is an eschatological increase in hum an sin, it is
associated w ith eschatological cosm ic disasters and a d isru p tio n o f the norm al orderly
operation o f the n a tu ra l w o rld (AB 80; Ju b .; 2 Bar.).
The idea th a t ongoing s in causes damage to the whole n a tu ra l order is an extension of
OT la n d theology. In the OT w hen Israel is obedient to God, the land is fru itfu l, b u t when
Israel is sin nin g th e la nd loses fe rtility (Deut. 28:1-24; 29:22-29; Lev. 18:24-28; cf. Gen 4:11-
12). The OT prophets and Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s extend the concept to the whole created
order. The created order is desolate o r fru itfu l depending upon Israels obedience (Is. 7:23-25;
8:21-22; 9:18-21; 13:9-13; 24:4-6; 33:7-9; 32:9-14; 34:8-17; Je r. 4:23-26; Am os 4:7-9; Hos
4:1-3). C reation w ill be renewed w hen the people o f God are renewed (Is. 11:6-9; Jer. 50:34;
Ez. 34:25-31; Hos. 2:18-23; Zech. 8:12).3
A n early concept in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re is th a t creation is corrupted by the sin
o f the fa lle n angels or the W atchers, who m ated w ith hum an wom en and ta u g h t forbidden arts
to h u m a n ity in the pre-Flood era. T his is introduced by BW 6-11 and is followed by several
w ritin g s th a t use the W atcher tra d itio n (AA; 1 En. Noah; Jub.; BP 3). This is an explanation
fo r s in and the harsher side o f nature th a t absolves h u m a n ity o f responsibility. Nevertheless,
it establishes a clear re la tio n sh ip between sin and the co rru p tio n o f creation. W hile in m ost
apocalyptic m aterials the c o rru p tio n o f creation is due eithe r to the F all o f Adam o r the
3Sylvia C. Keesmaat, "Exodus and the In te rte xtu a l Transform ation of T ra d itio n in Romans
8:14-30," JS N T54 (1994): 43-4.
325
disobedience of the W atchers, Jub. com bines both ideas and associates the co rru p tio n o f
creation w ith sin in general.
G enerally sins at the tim e o f the Flood do not cause a perm anent change in the n a tu ra l
order, although the n a tu ra l w orld suffers a t the hands o f s in fu l people and the fa lle n angels.
BP 3 and 2 En. are exceptions, since they describe fundam ental changes in the operation o f
the cosmos due to the s in of th e W atchers, so th a t nature no longer operates as God designed
it.
B oth hum ans and the W atchers are accountable fo r th e ir sins against the n a tu ra l
w orld (BW 6-16; Ju b .; 2 En.; 2 Bar.). In 2 En. hum ans w ill be judged fo r m istreatm ent of
anim als. The n a tu ra l w o rld is a victim o f the sins o f both hum ans and the W atchers (BW 6-
16; BW 17-36; AA; Ju b .; BP 3). Personification o f creation frequently stresses th is idea. Thus
the n a tu ra l w orld cries o u t fo r release from oppression (BW 6-16; AB 85-90) and it even has
sorrow due to hum an sin (4 Ez.; Ap. M os/LAE).
In some instances, parts of the n a tu ra l w orld disobey God's pla n (BW 17-36; AB 80;
Ju b .; Ap. M os./LAE). W hen p a rts of nature disobey Gods design, they are held m orally
accountable. In some instances the n a tu ra l w orld in itia te s disobedience on its own (BW 17-
36). G enerally, however, the disobedience o f the creatures is associated w ith hum an o r angelic
sin, and so is a reflection o f the d isru p tio n o f the norm al operation o f creation. Even when
n a tu ra l objects in itia te th e ir own disobedience, it is an in d ica tio n th a t creation has been
corrupted b y sin. In BW 17-36, fo r example, the disobedience o f the w andering stars is
associated w ith disobedient angels. B oth the stars and th e disobedient angels w ill be eternally
punished. T his m ay allude to the W atcher tra d itio n and it m ay suggest th a t the stars wander
as a re su lt of the fa ll o f th e W atchers.
In a few passages in 4 Ez.,4 the advanced age of th e earth causes the m oral and
physical decay th a t is characteristic o f th is age. T his idea, however, is secondary to the
5:54-55; 14:10, 16-18.
326
em phasis th a t the F all and ongoing hum an sin corrupted creation and led to th is age of
hardship and corruption.
2 . Aspects o f th e C orruption o f C reation
The Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s frequently say th a t sin introduced disease, death,
decay, corruption, suffering and sorrow to th is life (Jub.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE).
Regardless o f w hether the focus is on the sins o f the W atchers (BP 3) or hum ans (Jub.; 4 Ez.;
2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE), the re su lts are sim ilar. In m aterials th a t stress the W atchers sins,
nature is usu a lly a v ictim and suffers due to the sins o f the W atchers (BW 6-16; BW 17-36;
AA; Ju b .; BP 3). In BP 3, however, and to some in extent BW 6-16, hum ans also are victim s o f
the W atchers sins. The disobedience of the W atchers introduced sin, suffering and death in to
the hum an race. In other w ritin g s (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE), the F all o f hum anity
had the same consequence. A related secondary theme is th a t the hum an lifespan was
shortened due to the F all (Jub.; 2 Bar.). In Jub. and 2 Bar. prem ature death as a conse
quence o f the F a ll is held in tension w ith the idea th a t death its e lf is a re su lt o f the F all. No
attem pt is made to reconcile the two views, although the em phasis in Jub. and 2 Bar. is th a t
the hum an lifespan was shortened.
In general, life in th is age is characterized by v a n ity due to the problem s of life (4 Ez.; 2
Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE). Labor is fu tile since hardship and fa ilu re are inevitable (Ap. Mos./LAE).
2 Bar. is especially graphic in its description of the fu tility o f th is present life . The best things
in life are subject to lim ita tio n s and w ill eventually pass away in death: beauty, youth,
strength, w ealth, happiness. Even life in Zion is fu tile , since Jerusalem w ill soon be destroyed.
However, there is hope, since the va n ity of th is life w ill end w hen the new w o rld comes (4 Ez.;
2 Bar.). 2 En. also speaks of "th is va in w orld," b u t in the sense th a t it is fu tile to follow the
path o f sin, because it w ill not lead to eternal life.
The F a ll also led to m ajor disrup tions in the previously orderly operation of nature
327
(Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). The behavior o f anim als changed after the Fall, so th a t
th e y are no longer as obedient to h u m a n ity (Jub.; Ap. M os/LAE). P rior to the F all, anim als
could speak, b u t th a t a b ility was lost as a consequence o f the disobedience o f Adam and Eve.
M any apocalyptic w ritin g s say th a t the earth Itse lf was corrupted by sin, e ith e r through the sin
o f the W atchers (BW 6-16; 1 En. Noah; Jub.) o r through the sin o f hum anity a t the F a ll (Jub.;
4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE).
A recurren t theme Is th a t some p a rts o f nature disobey Gods design because o f hum an
o r the W atchers s in (BW 17-36; AB 80; J u b .; Ap. M os./LAE). The sin o f the W atchers led to
cosm ic Irregularities, such as aberrations In the patterns o f certain heavenly lum inaries,
earthquakes, widespread crop fa ilu re , plagues, b irth defects, and disturbances among anim als
(BW 6-16; BW 17-36; 1 En. Noah; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 3). A lthough such aberrations were largely
lim ite d to the pre-Flood era, these problem s show the close relationship between sin and the
co rru p tio n o f the n a tu ra l w orld.
S im ila r disturbances w ill occur a t the end o f tim e. There w ill be num erous eschato
logical cosm ic disasters (AB 80; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ju b .), such as stars, sun and m oon deviating
from th e ir appointed paths, earthquakes, widespread crop fa ilu re , plagues, b irth defects, and
disturbances among anim als. A lthough on one level these catastrophes are a punishm ent fo r
hum an sin, on another level they are a sign o f the d isru p tio n o f the orderly operation o f nature
due to sin. In AB 80, fo r example, the stars w ander due to the s in of the angels who are
responsible fo r the operation o f the cosmos. In 2 B ar., hum an s in even co rru p ts the angels,
leading some in to sin. T his is a reversal o f the p a tte rn o f the W atcher tra d itio n , in w h ich the
s in o f the fa lle n W atchers led to hum an sin (BW 6-16; BP 3).
"C orruption" has a dual sense in apocalyptic lite ra tu re :5 (1) It can be used in the
sThe word "corru pt" (Latin corm ptus, Greek ^Baproq, etc.) and cognate w ords are used
especially frequently In 4 Ezra and 2 B aruch, and less frequently in 1 Enoch and 2 Enoch.
The concept also appears even when the specific w ord Is not used. The Aram aic w ord is
found in the Book o f G iants found in Q um ran in reference to the corru ption broug ht by the
328
physical sense th a t life In th is age is subject to decay, disease, death and suffering, (2) It can
also be used In a m oral sense to refer to widespread evil. A ll Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s use
"corru ption" in b o th senses to some degree. Even w hen one aspect o f corru p tio n is p rim a rily
in view, the other tends to be in the background. T h is helps explain the close connection
between s in and the c o rru p tio n of creation. W hen there is widespread sin (m oral corruption),
there are also death, decay, suffe ring and the fu tility o f life (physical corruption). B oth hum an
life and th e n a tu ra l w orld its e lf suffe r damage from sin . This close connection between the tw o
sides of c o rru p tio n w ill be especially apparent in the period o f eschatological tria ls , w hen there
w ill be b o th widespread e vil and unprecedented cosm ic disasters.
3 . The Degree o f C orruption
There is a tension between tw o them es in Jew ish apocalyptic lite rature: (1) the n a tu ra l
w orld over w hich God has co n tro l operates consistently and obeys God; and, (2) some thing s
are not rig h t about th is w o rld and age due to sin. A lthough these them es m ight appear to be
at opposite ends o f a spectrum , m ost o f Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s refer to both, a t least to
some extent. Those w ritin g s th a t stress the consistent operation o f th e n atural w o rld (BW 1-5;
AB 72-79: BD 83-84; Ep. E n.; BP 1) emphasize the regular patterns o f the heavenly lum inaries
and the cycles o f nature. A lth o u g h a few w ritin g s are exclusively o n the consistency side o f the
spectrum (BW 1-5: AB 72-79 (contrast ch. 80); BP 1), m ost w orks th a t refer to the consistency
o f nature also acknowledge ce rta in tim es when sin abounds and th e n a tu ra l w orld deviates
from its n o rm ally consistent p a tte rn (BW 17-36; AB 80; Jub.; 2 E n.; BP 3; 2 Bar.; Ap.
M os./LAE). The pre-Flood generation (BW 6-16: 1 En. Noah; Jub.; 2 En.; BP 3; 2 Bar.) and
the end tim es (BW 17-36; AB 80; Ju b .; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.) are the m ajor periods of deviation. Pre-
Flood sin is often a type o f the increased eschatological sin (BW 6-16; AW; Ep. E n.; J u b .; 2
I
i
1 __________________________
fa lle n W atchers (4Q EnG iantsa 8.11). T his passage is very sim ila r to 1 En. 7:6. See M ilik ,
Enoch, 315.
329
En.; BP 2; BP 3). Several w ritin g s suggest th a t only some aspects o f creation are damaged,
such as some w andering stars (BW 17-36; Ju b .; BP 3; 2 En.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE). O thers,
however, m inim ize th e consistency them e and la y stress on the co rru p tio n of th is age and the
damage th a t th is w orld has suffered due to sin (BW 6-16; AB 80; AA; 1 En. Noah; 4 Ez.).
None of the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials studied, however, go to the extreme of saying
th a t th e m ate rial w o rld is evil or com pletely corrupted. They affirm th a t th e m aterial w orld
was created b y God, even though it has suffered damage due to the sins o f hum ans and the
fallen W atchers. Thus Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re generally is not world-denying. Rather,
apocalyptic lite ra tu re sees th is w orld as corrupted and damaged due to hum an a n d /o r angelic
sin. T hus there Is a forw ard-looking perspective In Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re th a t seeks the
tim e w hen th is damage w ill be reversed and the n a tu ra l w o rld w ill be redeemed. The people o f
God are to place th e ir hopes in the fu tu re perfect w orld/age, ra th e r th a n the present corrupted
w orld.
4 . Sum m ary o f th e C orruption o f C reation
The follow ing table sum m arizes the m ajor aspects of the corru p tio n of creation In the
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs:
Table 24: The Corruption of Creation in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
BW AB BD 1 En. Bk 5 Jub 2 BP 4 2 Ap
Aspect of the En Ez Bar Mos/
Corruption of Creation 1- 6* IT- 72-79, 80 83- AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
5 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
1. Not discussed X X
2. Not corrupted
Nature operates as God X X X X
intended
Nature operates consistently X X X X X X
Nature obeys God's laws X X X X X
Nature partially obedient X X X X X X
330
Aspect of the Ell Ez Bar Moa/
Corruption of Creation 1- 6- IT- 72-79, 80 83- AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
S 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
3. Sin corrupts nature

Angels:
Watchers' sin X ? X X X X
Eschatological angelic sin X
Humans:
Human Fall X X X X
Pre-Flood human sin X X X
Ongoing human sin X X X X X
Eschatological human sin X X X?
Nature is a victim of sin X X X X X
4. Extent of corruption
Earth corrupted by sin X X X X X
Parts of nature disobey X X X X
Human lifespan grows shorter X X
due to sin
Death, disease, decay, X X X X X
vanity:
Watchers' sin brought X
Human Fall brought X X X X
Due to the Fall:
Led to judgment oi creation X
Disrupted orderly operation X X
of the naturai world
Led to change in animals X X
Led to angelic sin X
This is an age of corruption X X X
Age of earth causes moral X
and physical decay
Cosmic irregularities (stars, X X X X X X X X X
planets)
Eschatological X X X X X
Pre-Flood X X X X
Adam's death X
331
U I I
"I-
-IM -
Aspect of the En El Bar Mos/
Corruption of Creation 1- 6- IT- 72-79, 80 83- AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
5 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
5. Sin against animals

Accountability for sin against X X X X
animals
Judged for mistreatment of X
animals
C . The R edem ption o f C reation
The redem ption o f creation is a m ajor them e in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re . O f the 18
w ritin g s studied, a ll b u t five address the subject (BW 1-5; AB 80; BD 83-84; Ep. En.; BP 1).
F urther, these w ritin g s th a t do n o t m ention the theme are subsections o f larger portions of
1 Enoch th a t do deal w ith th is them e, at least in th e ir fin a l redaction.6
In m ost cases, the tran sform ation o f creation o r th e new creation is a response to the
cosmic effects o f sin. God w ill reverse the damage th a t s in caused to the n a tu ra l w orld. Yet
the redem ption o f creation is so im portant in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re th a t the theme even
occurs in some m aterials th a t stress the re g u la rity o f the operation of the n a tu ra l w orld (e.g.
AB).
1. The R elationship Betw een th e O ld and New C reation
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s differ in th e ir view o f th e rela tio n sh ip between the old
creation and the new creation. They are fa irly evenly divided between tw o m ajor approaches;
(1) There w ill be a new creation w ith a new heaven and earth (AB; AW; BP 3). (2) The present
BW 1-5 refers to the cataclysm ic end o f the w orld, b u t it is in a p a rt of BW w hich deals

w ith the redem ption o f creation in several sig nifica nt passages. BP 1 does not trea t the theme,
b u t the other parables do. A lthough AB 80 does not address th is them e, AB 72-79, 82 does.
The firs t dream vision (BD 83-84) does not tre a t the them e, b u t the second (AA) does. In the
fin a l redaction, Ep. En. is jo in e d w ith AW and 1 En. Noah, w h ich discuss the redem ption of
creation.
332
creation w ill be renewed (BW 1-5, 6-16; BP 2). Several w orks hold b o th ideas in tensio n (Jub.;
4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). In Ju b . the tra n sfo rm a tio n o f creation dom inates, w hile in 4 Ez. and 2 Bar. the
new creation m o tif dom inates.
The w ritin g s th a t stress a new creation tend to speak o f the end o f th is w o rld and the
de stru ctio n of heaven and earth, in preparation fo r a new creation (AW; 2 E n.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.).
F requently the end o f the age is m arked by an eschatological cataclysm , w ith cosm ic disasters
and ra d ica l changes in the norm al operation o f nature (BW 1; BD 83-84; 2 En.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.).
Relationship of
Old and New Creation
New creation Same creation
Transformation Continuity Restore pre-Fail

AW of Paradise conditions
Jub (2)
2 En (?) Instantaneous Gradual BW 17-36 AA
BP 3 AB 2 En
4Ez(2) BW1-5 Jub (1) 2En 4Ez(?)
2 Bar (1) BW 6-16 BP 3
BP 3
4Ez(1) 4 Ez (?)
2 Bar (2) 2 Bar
Ap Mos/LAE
Figure 2: Apocalyptic Views of the Relationship of the Old and New Creations
The "end o f the w o rld," however, does n o t always refer to the actual destruction of the
physical created order. Sometimes, as in 4 Ez., it refers to the "decisive tu rn in g p o in t o f
h is to ry "' or the event th a t signals the s ta rt o f a new age o r w orld order. T his concept is
consistent w ith the view found in some apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t there w ill be a tran sform ation
o r renew al o f the existing creation. In these cases, there is an am biguity of the te rm "w orld,"
w hich can also m ean "age."8
Among the apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t stress c o n tin u ity between the old and new
BL a tin saeculunx Syriac clm; odtov; Stone, Features, 35:147-87.
333
creation, several m otifs appear: (1) T his w orld, in clu d in g nature, w ill be transform ed and
perfected (BW 1-5, 6-16; Ju b .; BP 2; to a lesser extent, 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). (2) God w ill reverse the
damage th a t the F all, the sin o f the W atchers and ongoing hum an sin have brought to the
created order (BW 6-16; Ju b .; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). (3) M arty w ritin g s stress the c o n tin u ity o f
the fu tu re Paradise w ith Eden (BW 17-36; AB; 2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE).
Paradise already exists, often reserved in a secret place. (4) Some look forw ard to a restoration
o f the perfect pre-F all conditions th a t h u m a n ity enjoyed on earth (AA; 2 En.; 4 Ez. (?)). (5)
O thers idealize the fu tu re w orld as even greater th a n the pre-Fall w orld (BW 6-16; BP 2).
In m ost cases, the tran sform ation o f the w orld is an instantaneous and clim actic event
at the end o f history. It involves a recreation of heaven and earth by an act o f divine power. It
is a decisive change from the present age o f evil and co rru p tio n to a new eternal age o f
righteousness and blessing. Ju b . is an exception, fo r it describes a gradual renewal o f the
w orld. The benefits to h u m a n ity and the changes in the n a tu ra l w orld w ill progressively
increase in the la st days.
A recurrent m o tif is the Flood as a type o f eschatological events. Apocalyptic w ritin g s
frequently speak o f tw o judgm ents, w ith the Flood fu n ctio n in g as a type o f the fin a l Judgm ent
(BW 6-16; AW; Ep. En.; Ju b .; 2 E n.; BP 2, 3; cf. Ap. M os./LAE). In a few cases, the Flood
serves as a type o f th e new creation (BP 3; 4 Ez.). In these passages, the Flood does not
sim ply fu n ctio n as a judgm ent b u t it also brings renew al and the cleansing o f the w orld. Thus
the tran sform ation o f the w o rld a fte r the Flood is a pictu re o f the changes in the w orld at the
end o f the age.
2 . The Future D w elling Place o f th e Righteous
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s are divided over the fin a l dw elling place o f the righteous.
(1) The m a jo rity refer to an e a rth ly dw elling fo r the righteous (BW 1-5; 6-16; AA; 1 En. Noah;
Jub; 2 En.; BP 2, 3; 4 Ez.). (2) A few refer exclusively to a transcendental heavenly dw elling fo r
334
the righteous (AW; Ep. En.; BP 1). (3) Some allow the righteous access to both heaven and a
renewed earth in eternity (2 En.; BP 2; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os/LAE (?)).
There are tw o types o f idealized earthly dw elling places fo r the righteous: (1) M any
apocalyptic w ritin g s refer to a tem porary golden age o f prosperity on earth (BW 6-16; AW;
1 En. Noah; BP 2; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Frequently th is golden age is associated w ith the Messiah
(AA; AW; BP 2; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.), although BW 6-16 has an idealized period o f e a rtlily prosperity
follow ing the Flood. (2) O ther w ritin g s describe an eternal dw elling of the righteous on the new
earth or in a restored e arthly Paradise o r Eden (BW 1-5; BW 6-16; 17-36; Ju b .; 2 E n.; BP 3;
4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). Several w ritin g s include b oth a tem porary golden age and an
eternal e a rth ly dw elling place fo r h um an ity (BW 6-16; AA; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). In some instances it
is not clear w h ich o f these earthly places o f blessing is in view, since the description of one can
be in tertw in ed w ith the other (e.g. BW 6-16) or the descriptions can be inconsistent (Jub.).
Destiny
of Righteous
Earth Heaven Both
Eternal Temporary Both Transcendental Material elements BP 2

2En
BW 1-5 Earthly Eden BW 8-16 BW 8-18 AW 1 En 17-38 4 Ez (?)
BW 8-16 AA AA Ep En 2 En 2 Bar
AA BW 17-36 AW BP 2 2 En BP 2 Ap Mos/LAE (?)
Jub Jub 1 En Noah 2 Bar BP 1 4 Ez
BP 2 2 En BP 2 4 Ez BP 2 2 Bar
BP 3 (?) 4 Ez (?) 4Ez 4 Ez (?)
4 Ez 2 Bar 2 Bar 2 Bar
Ap Mos/LAE Ap Mos/LAE
2 Bar
Figure 3: Apocalyptic Views of the Destiny of the Righteous
3 . The Eschatological Changes in C reation
Apocalyptic w ritin g s describe m any changes th a t w ill take place when creation is
redeemed. There w ill be a transform ation o f heaven and earth, re su ltin g in fundam ental
changes in the operation o f nature. The changes are usu a lly eternal (BW 1-5, 6-16; AB; AA;
AW; 2 En. 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Jub.), although some w ritin g s refer to changes th a t affect p rim a rily
335
the tem porary golden age on earth (BW; BP 2; AA; AW; 1 En. Noah; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.).
The m ost widespread change w ill be the e lim in a tio n of death and disease. The damage
done by the F all, the W atchers sins and ongoing hum an sin w ill be reversed and the curse o f
death w ill be removed (BW 6-16; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Apocalyptic w ritin g s have
tw o views about the reversal o f death: (1) death w ill be elim inated com pletely (2 En.; 4 Ez.;
2 Bar.); or. (2) un tim e ly death w ill be elim inated and th e hum an lifespan w ill be radica lly
lengthened (BW 6-16; Jub.). It Is freq uently said th a t there w ill be no suffering, a fflictio n or
disease in th e fu tu re w orld (BW 1-5, 6-16; J u b .; 2 E n.; BP 2, 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). C orruption w ill
be elim inated b o th in the m oral sense of s in and in the physical sense o f the disease and
decay th a t a fflic ts th is w orld due to sin (2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.).
The earth and nature w ill undergo sig nifica nt changes. M any w ritin g s refer to the
tran sform ation o f the earth its e lf (BW 6-16; BP 2, 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Jub.). The transform ation
o f nature w ill be com prehensive, affecting both p lants and anim als. Plants w ill become
superproductive, producing m any tim es th e ir norm al fru it w ith no hum an effort (BW 6-16; AA;
2 En.; 2 Bar.). Sometimes anim als w ill have a place In the new w orld. The behavior o f
anim als, however, w ill change so th a t w ild anim als become tame and obedient to hum an
beings, and no longer harm people (Jub.; 2 En; 2 Bar.).
There w ill be cosm ic changes as w ell. The heavenly lum inaries w ill be transform ed.
They w ill become sig n ifica n tly b rig h te r and perfectly consistent in th e ir operation (AW; Jub.).
There w ill be a new heaven (AW) or the present heaven w ill be transform ed and become a place
o f even greater glory (BP 2; Jub.).
The redem ption o f creation Is often associated w ith the eschatological righteousness o f
the people o f God, even as the co rru p tio n o f creation Is associated w ith sin. In th e new age o r
| m essianic kingdom , when the evil people are sent to eternal punishm ent and only the
i
; righteous dw ell on the earth, the whole created order w ill fu n ctio n in a m ore harm onious
i
m anner (AW; BP 2; 4 Ez; Ap. M os./LAE; Jub.). W ritin g s th a t refer to a tem porary eschatolog-
336
t _ ........
ica l golden age o r m essianic kingdom also often describe nature In Idealized term s the
elim in a tio n o f suffering and disease, prolonged hum an lifespan, su pe rp rod uctivity o f crops,
harm onious anim al behavior, and other features o f th e perfection o f the n a tu ra l order
(BW 6-16; 2 Bar.).
4 . N ature in th e F uture W orld
M any apocalyptic w ritin g s describe aspects o f nature th a t w ill appear In the new w orld
(BW 1-5, 6-16, 17-36 (?); Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 2; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). P lants are freq uently described (BW
6-16, 17-36; Ju b .; 2 E n.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). They often become superproductive (BW 6-16; 2
En.; 2 B ar.),9 reversing the curse on the ground as a re su lt of th e F a ll (Gen. 3:17-19).
Sometimes anim als live In the new age, w ith w ild anim als no longer causing harm (Jub.;
2 En.; 2 Bar.). The heavenly lum inaries w ill shine w ith even greater brightness th a n In the
present age (AW; Jub.).
W hether the fu tu re hum an dw elling place Is In heaven o r on earth, it frequently
includes features o f nature, w hich are often ric h ly described (BW 1-5, 6-16; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 2,
3 (?); 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). The references to Paradise o r Eden as a place o f fin a l blessing fo r the
righteous suggest an environm ent In w hich nature fu n ctio n s perfectly (BW 17-36; Ju b .; 2 En.;
2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). O ften th is is the same Paradise th a t Adam and Eve enjoyed (BW 17-
36; AB; 2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez. (?); 2 Bar.; AP. M os./LAE). In some cases it is d iffic u lt to te ll
w hether Paradise is an actual earthly, m ate rial location o r a place o f heavenly blessing
described sym bolically (BP 3; 4 Ez.). 2 En. and Ap. M os./LA E postulate tw o Paradises, a
heavenly one and an e a rth ly one. In 2 En. b o th are lin ke d so th a t the righteous can travel
between them .
M any w ritin g s clearly id e n tify Paradise as an earthly dw elling place w ith a perfected
9Cf. sim ila r prophetic descriptions o f the new earth in Amos 9:13-15; Hos. 2:21-23; Is.
5:10; 30:23-25; 65:17-25; Ez. 34:26-27; 36:8, 29-30; Zech. 8:12; Jer. 31:12; Ps. 72:16.
337
n a tu ra l w orld (BW 17-36; 2 En.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE; Jub.). O n the other hand, In some
cases the garden appears to be a picture o f a heavenly place o f blessing (BW 17-36 (?); BP 3;
AB; 2 En.; Ap. M os./LAE). Yet even in these cases there are descriptions o f m aterial elements,
such as trees, fru it, stream s, and other aspects o f a garden (BW 17-36; BP 3; 2 En. 4 Ez.; 2
Bar.). In some instances, such as m uch o f BW 17-36, these features o f nature in Paradise
appear to be m etaphorical descriptions of s p iritu a l bliss. Frequently, however, such descrip
tions suggest an expectation th a t m aterial features o f nature w ill even be p a rt o f the heavenly
existence o f the righteous (e.g. 2 En.). They also reflect the pervasive apocalyptic expectation
th a t the m aterial w o rld w ill be transform ed and perfected in the new age.
5 . Sum m ary o f th e Redem ption o f C reation
The follow ing table sum m arizes the m ajor aspects o f the redem ption o f creation in the
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s;
Table 25; The Redemption of Creation in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
BW AB BD 1 En. Bk5 Jub 2 BP 4 2 Ap

Redemption of Creation 1- 6- IT- 72-79, 80 63- AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
5 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
1. Not discussed X X X X X
2. Final dwelling of righteous

Heaven X X X X X ? X ?
Earth X X X X X ? X X
God will dwell on earth X X X X
among righteous
Earthly Paradise (Eden) X X X ? X X
3. Temporary Earthly
Kingdom
Temporary period of material X X X X X X X
prosperity on earth
Messianic kingdom X X X X X
338
BW AB BD 1 En.Bk5 Jub 2 BP 4 2 Ap
Aspect of the Ell Ez Bar Mos/
Redemption of Creation 1- 6- IT- 72-79, 80 83* AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
5 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
4. Relationship of Old and

New Creations
New creation X X 2 ? X 2 1
New heavens X
New earth X X
Renewal of present creation X X X X X 1 X X X 1 2
Transformation of creation X X 1 X 1 2
Continuity between old and X X X X ? X X
new Paradise
Restoration of pre-Pali X X ?
conditions on earth
Gradual renewal X
Final conditions greater than X
pre-Fail
God reverses damage to X X X X X
creation
S. Type of Changes
Heaven
Heaven transformed X X
Luminaries brighter X X
Earth and nature
Earth transformed X X X X X X
Animals changed X X
Plants superproductive X X X
All creation will obey God X
Death and disease
Death eliminated X X X
Longer lifespan X X
No sickness or affliction X X X X X X X X
Corruption eliminated X X X X
Changes are eternal X X X X X X X X X
Changes in nature follow X X X
human spiritual renewal
339
d _
Aspect of the En Ez Bar Moa/
Redemption of Creation 1- 6- 17- 72-79, 80 83- AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
5 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
6. Nature in eternity
Nature operates in new world X X ? X X X X
Plants X X ? X X X X X
Animals in new age X X X
Heavenly luminaries X X
Human dwelling includes X X X
nature
Righteous dwell in a heavenly X X
garden
Heavenly Paradise has X X X X X
material dimensions
Punishment of disobedient X
parts of nature
7. Flood typology
Flood a type of final judgment X X X X X X X
Flood a type of new creation X X
8. End of the world/age

End of this world ? X X X
Cataclysmic end of world X X X
End of this age X X X ?
D . The P ersonification o f C reation
The personification o f nature is a frequent feature o f the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs.
O f the m aterials studied, on ly BD 83-84, AW and 1 En. Noah have no personification o f
creation.
1. Types o f P ersonification
There are three types o f personification of the n a tu ra l w orld: (1) Most frequently n a tu ra l
objects such as stars, the earth and anim als have in d ivid u a l personalities (BW 1-5; 6-16; 17-
340
36; AB 80; AA; Ep. En; 2 En.; BP 1, 3; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). (2) O ccasionally the
whole n a tu ra l w orld is personified together collectively (BW 1-5; BP 1). (3) In several w ritin g s
angels w o rk behind the scenes to control the operation o f nature (Jub; AB; AB 80; 2 En.; BP 1,
3). Some w ritin g s combine both the control by angels and the person ification o f in d ivid u a l
| aspects o f n a tu re (AB 80; 2 En.; BP 1 ,3 ).

I
j The m ost common type o f personification gives each feature o f nature an in d ivid u a l
! personality. The m ost frequently personified elements are (1) the earth (BW 2-5; BW 6-16; AA;
Ep. En.; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 2; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar); and (2) the heavenly lum inaries, such as sun, moon
1 and stars (BW 1-5; BW 17-36; AB 80; Ep. En.; 2 En.; BP 3; 2 Bar.). O ther features personified
I
are (3) the w eather (e.g. lig h tn in g , ra in , h a il, snow, w ind; BW 1-5; Ep. En.; 2 Bar.; BP 1, 3); (4)
seasons (BW 1-5; 2 En.; BP 1); (5) m ountains (BW 2-5; BP 2); (6) seas and rive rs (BP 3; Ap.
M os./LAE); (7) trees (BW 1-5); and (8) anim als (2 En.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE).
The m ost frequent type o f personification in the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials is
anthropopathism , i.e. ascribing hum an em otions to inanim ate objects. (1) A ll aspects o f the
n a tu ra l w o rld fear God (BW 1-5; Ep. En.; 2 Bar.). (2) Created objects have great jo y in the
proper fu lfillm e n t o f Gods design fo r them (2 En.; BP 2; 2 Bar.). (3) The earth, seas and
anim als have sorrow about hum an sin (4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE). (4) They suffe r oppression, fear
and pain due to the sins of the W atchers (BW 6-16; AA) and hum ans (BW 6-16; Jub.; 4 Ez.)
and they cry out fo r release from th is oppression (BW 6-16; AA; Jub.). (5) The earth and
m ountains have great fear as they anticipate the coining eschatological cosm ic disasters (BW
1-5; Ep. En.). (6) The earth w ill experience re lie f when evil is removed in the new age (4 Ez.).
(7) C reation w ill have great jo y when the Messiah comes and the righteous dw ell on the
renewed earth (BP).
| M any apocalyptic w ritin g s ascribe in te lle ctu a l capabilities to anim als and inanim ate
| objects. (1) In te lle ctu a l understanding is frequently a ttrib u te d to the whole creation, in clu d in g
anim als, th e earth, seas and rivers, heavenly lum inaries, weather and seasons (BP 1, 3; 2 En.;
341
....
4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE). T h is often involves the a b ility to understand the speech of
hum ans, God and angels. (2) A nim als and inanim ate objects also frequently have the power of
conscious m oral choice (BW 1-5; 17-36; BP 1, 3; AB 80; Ep. En.; 2 En.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE).
(3) In m ost cases, the n a tu ra l w o rld uses th is m oral capa bility to obey God, w hich accounts fo r
the consistent operation o f nature (BW 1-5; BP 1 ,3 ; Ep. En.; 2 En.; 2 Bar.). A t tim es,
however, th is m oral choice is used to disobey Gods w ill, and so parts o f creation deviate from
th e ir proper course (BW 17-36; AB 80). (4) In Ap. M os./LA E the n a tu ra l w orld has such a
great concern fo r hum an sin , th a t anim als, the sun and the m oon intercede fo r the sins o f
people.
In some instances anim als and inanim ate objects have speaking a b ility (2 En.; BP 1 ,3 ;
4 Ez.; Ap. M os/LAE). T his a b ility is used (1) to praise God and give th a n ks (2 En.; BP 1, 3);
(2) to cry out fo r release from the oppression and s in o f hum ans and th e fa lle n W atchers (BW
6-16; AA; Jub.); and (3) to te s tify in the judgm ent against hum ans who tre a t them im properly
(2 En.).
In m any apocalyptic w ritin g s, the angels control the operation o f various aspects of
nature (AB; AB 80; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 1, 3). In m ost cases th is em phasis suggests th a t God is in
control o f his creation through th e m ediation o f h is angels. It also emphasizes the consistency
o f the cycles o f creation. In AB 80, however, some o f the heavenly lu m inaries w ill deviate from
th e ir proper course in the la s t days, because the angels controlling them w ill disobey Gods
com m andm ents. The association o f angels w ith the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld highlights
the connection between righteousness and the operation o f creation. W hen the angels are
obedient to God, creation operates as God designed; when the angels disobey, the creation is
corrupted.
2 . Functions o f Personification
In Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re , the personification of the n a tu ra l w orld is closely
342
related to the message about the present and fu tu re state o f nature. It Is not Incidental to the
message b u t serves to convey the message o f apocalyptic more intensely.
There are several m a jo r functions o f the personification of creation in apocalyptic
lite ra tu re : (1) It can stress the regularity o f the operation of the n a tu ra l w orld (BW 1-5; AB;
Ju b .; 2 E n.; BP 1, 3; 2 Bar.). T his Is especially associated w ith passages th a t focus on the
obedience o f creation o r th e control o f angels over the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld. (2) The
obedience o f nature to Gods w ill can serve as a m odel fo r hum ans to em ulate (BW 2-5; Ep.
En.; BP 1). T his paraenetic fu n ctio n Is closely related to the re g u la rity o f the n a tu ra l world.
W hen p a rts of n a tu re disobey Gods w ill, th is serves as a m odel o f accountability fo r sin (BW
17-36). (3) Personification can stress the co rru p tio n o f creation (BW 6-16; 17-36; AA; AB 80;
Jub; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE). This can be due to the effects o f the F a ll (Ap. M os./LAE), the pre-
Flood sins (BW 6-16; AA). ongoing hum an s in (Jub.; 4 Ez.), o r eschatological sins resulting in
deviations from the norm al cosm ic order (AB 80). (4) Personification can h ig h lig h t eschatologi
cal events. The n a tu ra l w orld has fear about the Im pending cosmic disasters (BW 1-5; BP 2;
4 Ez.). It also has jo y about the com ing tran sfo rm a tio n o f creation and the renewal o f hum an
righteousness (BP 2). (5) P ersonification can dem onstrate the so lid a rity between hum anity and
the re st o f creation. H um an s in has consequences fo r the whole created w orld, n o t sim ply the
hum an race. T his Is show n b y the pain and sorrow o f the n a tu ra l w orld due to the sins of
hum ans (BW 6-16; AA; Ju b .; 2 En.; 4 Ez.), by the Intercession o f th e creation fo r hum an sins
(Ap. M os./LAE) and b y the jo y of creation w hen h u m a n ity is restored to righteousness In the
new w o rld (BP 2).
3 . Sum m ary o f th e P ersonification o f C reation
The follow ing table sum m arizes the m ajor aspects of the personification o f creation In
the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s:
343
Table 26: The Personification of Creation in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature

Personification of Creation 1- 6- IT- 72-79, 80 83- AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
5 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
1. No personification X X X
2. Types of personification
Emotions X X X
Fear X X X
God X X
Eschatological disasters X X
Due to sin of Watchers/ X
Giants
Joy X X X
In fulfillment of duties X X X
Coming of Messiah, X
righteous on new earth
Suffers pain due to sin X X X
Sorrow due to human sin X X
Relief when evil removed X
Speaking ability X X X X X
Praises God X X X
Intercede for humans X
Testify in judgment X
Cries out for release from X X X
oppression
From Watchers/Giants X X
From humans X X
Intellectual
intellectual understanding X X
Conscious moral choice X X X X
Nature obeys God X X X X X X
Parts of nature disobey X X
Judged X X
3. Personalities of natural
objects
344
Aspect of the Ell El Bar Mos/
Personification of Creation 1- 6- 17- 72-79, 80 83- AA AW Ep Noah Par Par Par LAE
5 16 36 82 84 1 2 3
Individual personalities X X X X X X X X X X X X
Angels operate natural world X X X X X X
4. Function of personification
Stress regularity of nature X X X X X X X
Paraenetic X X X X
Model of moral obedience X X X
Model of moral X
accountability
Stress corruption of creation X X X X X X X X
Due to the Fall X
Due to pre-Flood sins of X X
Watchers and humans
Due to ongoing human sin X X
Due to eschatological sin X
Highlight eschatological X X X
events
Stress hope for a renewed X
earth
5. Aspects of nature
personified
Whole natural world X X
Earth X X X X X X X X X
Mountains X X
Heavenly luminaries X X X X X X X
Seasons X X X
Weather (lightning, hail, rain, X X X X
snow, wind)
Trees X
Seas, rivers X X X
Animals X X X X
345
.... ________
SECTION m :
INTERPRETATION OF ROMANS 8:19-22 IN THE LIGHT OF JEWISH

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
CHAPTER 7:
EXEGESIS OF ROMANS 8:19-22
A. The Them e and th e R elationship o f th e Passage to Its C ontext
Rom. 8:19-22 focuses on tw o m a jo r them es: (1) the present co rru p tio n o f the subhu
m an creation th a t resulted from the F a ll o f Adam ; and. (2) the eschatological deliverance o f
creation fro m co rru p tio n to be transform ed In to a state of freedom and g lo iy. In order to
understand how th is pericope fits in to the la rge r context, it is essential to see th a t Paul
repeatedly alternates between these tw in them es of the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation.
Rom. 8:19-22 is a subsection o f a larger passage (w . 18-30)1 th a t speaks o f the hope
of fu tu re glory am idst present suffering. A lth ough believers can expect to suffer w ith C h rist in
th is age (v. 17), th e ir suffe ring is in sig n ifica n t com pared to the glory th a t they w ill enjoy in
ete rn ity (v. 18). C h ristia n s groan in suffering as they aw ait the redem ption of th e ir bodies
(v. 23), even as the rest o f creation groans because o f the co rru p tio n th a t resulted from the F all
(w . 20-22). Yet believers should have hope (w . 23-25) and confident assurance (v. 28-30) th a t
they w ill be glorified w ith C h rist, even as the subhum an m aterial creation w ill be set free and
transform ed (w . 19, 21). The S p irit o f God helps believers through life in th is age and
intercedes fo r them (w . 26-27).
^ e extent o f the la rge r passage is debated. M ost see the passage as w . 18-30 (e.g.
K&semann, Romans, 231; Christofifersson, 141; Balz, 93; Peter von der Osten-Sacken, R6m er8
A ls Beispiel Paulinscher Sotertologte (G dttingen: Vandenhoeck and R uprecht, 1975), 139;
Douglas Moo, Romans 1-8, The W ycliffe Exegetical Comm entary, ed. Kenneth B arker (Chicago:
Moody, 1991), 544-5). The s h ift to a series o f rh e to rica l questions in v. 31 m arks the sta rt o f a
new section (Christofifersson, 141). Moo believers the in clu sio n form ed b y 5oâ in v. 18 and
5odffi in v. 30 m arks th e boundaries o f the section. Some s ta rt the section at v. 17 instead o f
v. 18 (e.g. C ranfleld, Romans, 404). Some believe the passage ends a t v. 27 (Balz, 33). O thers
extend the passage to v. 39 (Edw in Lewis, "A C h ristia n Theodicy. A n Exposition o f Romans
8:18-30," In t 11 (1957): 405).
347
Vv. 19-22 b o th support and expand on the them es of w . 17-18: (1) Paul supports the
thesis th a t believers w ill enjoy eternal glory despite th e ir present suffering by showing th a t the
created order also suffers b u t w ill one day be transform ed to glory. (2) Paul expands the hope
o f glory to include the transform ation o f the n a tu ra l w o rld w hen believers are glorified.
Paul uses the divine prom ise o f the u ltim a te redem ption o f creation (w . 19-22) as
support fo r the C h ristia n hope o f eternal glory {w . 17-18).2 T his relationship is shown by the
yap th a t lin k s v. 19 to v. 18.3 God plans th a t the n a tu ra l order w ill be restored to its proper
operation so th a t it m ay fu lfil the purpose fo r w hich it was created. The creation eagerly
awaits the tim e w hen believers w ill appear w ith C h rist in glory (v. 19), because w hen the
children o f God are glorified th e n the creation also w ill be delivered from its slavery to
corru ption and fu tility (v. 21). The im plicatio n is th a t i f God is going to deliver the n a tu ra l
w orld from the co rru p tin g damage of sin and death, he can also be tru ste d to redeem the
m aterial bodies o f h is ch ild re n (v. 23) and g lo rify them w ith C h rist (w . 17-18). The content o f
C h ristian hope encompasses a ll o f creation, not only believers (w . 19, 21). The redem ption o f
the bodies o f believers (v. 23) flow s out o f the divine pla n to deliver the m aterial w orld from
slavery to death and decay (v. 22).
Vv. 19-22 also develops fu rth e r the them e o f suffering introduced in w . 17-18.
Suffering is a norm al p a rt of the C h ristia n life . Believers m u st share in the sufferings o f C h rist
in order to share in the eschatological glory o f C h rist (v. 17). Vv. 20-22 develop th is theme
fu rth e r and extend it to a cosmic principle. The suffering o f believers is not isolated, b u t it is
related to the co rru p tio n o f creation th a t is characteristic o f th is age.4 The whole creation was
2Gibbs, Creation and Redemption, 36-7; B a rre tt, Romans, 165; Balz, 31.
3C ranfleld, Romans, 410, notes th a t a ll o f w . 19-30 supports v. 18.
4Gore, 1:298-9. B a rre tt goes too fa r w hen he says th a t Paul is not concerned about
creation fo r its own sake (B arrett, Romans, 165; b u t contrast C ranfleld, "Observations," 229).
Gager correctly notes th a t Paul universalizes the tension between suffering and glory in w . 19-
22, even though Gager lim its Kxunq to hum an ity (Gager, "Functional D iversity," 328, 330).
348
subjected to fu tility and enslaved to death and decay due to the Im pact o f the F a ll o f Adam.
T h is extends the p rin cip le o f the far-reaching Im pact o f Adam s sin even beyond w hat Paul
described in Rom. 5:12-21. Adam s s in n o t only brought s in and death to a ll o f Adam s
descendants (5:12-21), it also p u t the w hole created order in bondage to death, decay,
co rru p tio n and fu tility (8:20-22).5
Yet the present suffering is not purposeless or w ith o u t hope. The suffering-leads-to-
g lo iy p rin cip le th a t is characteristic o f the C h ristia n life (v. 17) is also p a rt o f the operation of
the cosmos in th is age (v. 20-22).6 The agony o f the n a tu ra l w orld in th is age is interpreted
thro ugh the eyes o f fa ith as b irth pangs leading to a glorious new w orld ra th e r th a n the death
pangs of a dying creation (v. 22). Lewis sees w . 18-39 as a type o f theodicy th a t ju s tifie s Gods
ways w ith hum ans in term s o f suffering as a prerequisite fo r glory. B y focusing on the u lti
m ate end o f the suffering, w hich is glory, there is a basis fo r hope and a reason to p a tie n tly
endure the suffering.7
The suffering and g lo ry shared b y believers and the rest o f creation presupposes a
so lid a rity between h u m a n ity and the re st o f creation. C reation suffers due to the F all of
h u m a n ity and w ill be transform ed w hen redeemed h u m a n ity is resurrected and glorified.
Paul m ay be try in g to counteract an overly realized eschatology th a t could be inferred
from h is teachings about victo ry in the S p irit earlier in Rom. 8. The presence o f the S p irit in
every believer (w . 4-16) should not be understood triu m p h a listica lfy as if believers have
already obtained heavenly glory and w ill no longer suffer in th is life (v. 17). Even C hristians
SD. M. Russell, 188-9, notes th a t the "movement from in d ivid u a l to cosm ic concerns in
Romans 8 m irro rs the same em phasis in 5.1-21." N ils A. D ahl, "Two Notes on Romans 5," ST
5 (1952): 37-48, also notes th a t Rom. 8:14-39 elucidates the themes o f Rom. 5:1-11.
6G ibbs, Creation and Redemption, 36-7; Gore, 1:298-9.
7Lewis, "C h ristian Theodicy," 405-8.
8Kasemann, Romans, 229, 231. Kasemann believes "enthusiasts" in Rome emphasized

glossolalia and interpreted glossolalia as p ro o f o f freedom in the S p irit, whereas Paul in te r-
349
face suffering and death in th is life , since the entire creation suffers from the consequences of
sin in th is age (w . 20-22). The tim e is com ing when bo th believers and the n a tu ra l w orld w ill
experience freedom and glory (v. 19, 21, 23, 29-30). G lory and the redem ption o f the bodies of
believers w ill be p a rt o f the new w orld, w h ich both the m aterial creation and believers eagerly
aw ait (v. 19, 23).
B. S tru ctu re o f th e Passage
There have been num erous suggestions about the stru ctu re of w . 18-30.9 Zahn's
analysis has influenced m any la te r exegetes. He argues th a t the theme o f the passage is the
greatness o f the com ing glory, w hich is stated in v. 18 and then developed in the follow ing
verses. The threefold groaning is the key to the stru ctu re :
1. Thesis: the greatness o f the com ing glory (v. 18)

2. Threefold groaning:
a. C reation (w . 19-22)
b. Believers (w . 23-25)
c. The S p irit (w . 26-27)
3. Assurance o f com ing g lo ry (w . 28-30)10
One weakness o f th is approach is th a t the type o f groaning is not the same in each
case. In p a rticu la r, the groaning o f the S p irit is quite different th a n the groaning o f creation
and believers. The S p irit groans in intercession and th u s has a positive fu n ctio n , w hile the
groaning o f believers is due to th e ir anxiously aw aiting the redem ption of th e ir bodies. The
groaning o f creation is due to its enslavem ent to co rru p tio n , b u t it also looks forw ard to its
preted it as a cry fo r freedom. A lthough KSsemanns concept of the background o f the passage
has n o t been w idely accepted, he is probably correct th a t Pauls teachings about suffering as a
preparation fo r glory were w ritte n to help counteract an overly realized eschatology.
9See C hristoffersson, 28-33, 141 fo r an extensive discussion o f various alternatives.
10Zahn, 515; cf. Nygren, 329-30; Beker, "V ision o f Hope, 28-9; John B o lt, "The Relation
Between Creation and Redem ption in Romans 8:18-27," C alvin Theological Journa l 30, no. 3
(A pril 1995): 41-3 and Balz, 33 (who develops the stru ctu re in m ore detail).
350
redemption as the creative groaning of childbirth.11
A n other draw back o f Zahns scheme is th a t it does n o t do ju stice to the d ua l themes of
suffering and glory th a t repeatedly recur thro ugho ut the passage. Zahn believes th a t the
overall them e focuses on glory, even though the large groanings section (w . 19-27) focuses on
suffering. Even m any who follow Zahns basic stru ctu re disagree about the central theme.
Some see the u n ifyin g them e in the w . 18-30 to be glory12 o r the hope o f glory.13 O thers
believe the passage focuses on b rin g in g com fort to believers in sufferings.14 A few stress the
role o f the S p irit in th e passage,15 b u t th is is n o t effective as a unifying them e since it only
plays a p a rt in w . 23, 26-27 (contrast w . 1-16, where nveufia appears in the m a jo rity o f
verses).
The m ost satisfactory understanding o f the u n ifyin g them e combines the m otifs of
suffering and hope o f glory in to one dual-sided them e. Christofifersson agrees w ith Zahn th a t
the them e statem ent is in v. 18. H is theme statem ent, however, more sa tisfa cto rily integrates
the d ua l m otifs: "the present suffering is n othing as com pared w ith the fu tu re glory."16 He
argues th a t the them e o f suffering is developed in w . 19-25 and the theme o f glory is devel
oped in w . 28-30, w ith a tu rn in g p o in t in the w o rk o f the S p irit in w . 26-27. He proposes the
follow ing stru ctu re :
n Cf. U. Luz, Das Geschichtsverstandnis des Paulus (M unich: Kaiser, 1968), 377.
12M o o , Romans, 544-5; Zahn, 515.
13H enning Paulsen, Uberllefenm g und Auslegung in Romer 8 (Neukinchen-Vluyn: N eukir-

chener, 1974), 107 (hope); C ranfleld, Romans, 403 ("indw elling of the S p irit the g ift o f hope");
cf. M oltm ann, Theology o f Hope. Also Schlatter, 264; K arl Kertelge, The Epistle to the Romans
(New York: Herder and Herder, 1972) (infuse certa inty of salvation).
14Nygren, 335.
lsD unn, Romans, 465-6, "the S p irit as firs tfru its ."
16C hristoffersson, 143.
351
I
1. T ra n sitio n from the preceding and basis fo r the thesis (v. 17)
2. Thesis: the present suffering is nothing as compared w ith the fu tu re glory (v. 18)
3. The present suffering (w . 19-25)
a. Testim ony from C reation (w . 19-22)
b. Testim ony fro m the believers (w . 23-25)
4. The tu rn in g p oint a t the s p irits intercession (w . 26-27)
5. The com ing glory (w . 28-30)
C hristoffersson correctly notes th a t verse 17 serves both as a tra n s itio n from the
preceding section and a foundation fo r the follow ing section: Sharing in C h rists suffering is
essential fo r sharing in fu tu re glory w ith him . The thesis statem ent o f v. 18 is based on th is
proposition.17 T his view describes the them e statem ent o f v. 18 m ore accurately than Zahns
approach, since it com bines both suffering and glory. Nevertheless, th is ou tlin e does not go
fa r enough to show th a t b o th suffering and glory appear in each o f the m ajor subsections. It
misses the strong theme o f hope and a n ticip a tio n o f fu tu re glory found in w . 19-22 and 23-25.
The unifying m o tif is n e ith e r suffering n o r glory alone. O nly a com bination o f th e present
suffering and the hope o f fu tu re glory unite s the passage.
The follow ing s tru c tu ra l m odel b e tte r takes in to consideration th is dua l theme:
0. T ransition: Believers share in the present suffering o f C h rist and w ill share in the
fu tu re glory o f C h rist (v. 17).
1. Thesis: the present suffering is in sig n ifica n t compared w ith the fu tu re glory o f believers
(v. 18)
2. Hope o f fu tu re glory am idst present suffering:
a. A ll creation groans in suffering, yet looks forw ard w ith hope to fu tu re glory (w . 19-
22 )
b. Believers groan as they aw ait in hope the fu tu re redem ption o f th e ir bodies (w . 23-
25)
c. The S p irits groaning in intercession helps believers in th is age o f suffering (w . 26-
27)
3. C onfident assurance o f the com ing glory (w . 28-30)
As th is outline shows, the them es o f present suffering and hope fo r fu tu re glory are
tig h tly Intertw ined throughout the passage.18 Paul moves back and fo rth between the two
17Ibid., 142; cf. Beker, "Vision o f Hope," 30. Beker notes the s h ift from the present triu m p h
o f the C hurch through the S p irit (w . 1- 17b) to the fu tu re hope o f glory (w . 18-30). Vv. 1-17b
describe the C hurch against the w orld, b u t w . 18-30 describe the C hurch fo r the w orld in
so lid a rity w ith it. Beker argues th a t v. 17c m arks the sh ift b y in tro d u cin g the theme o f
suffering and glory.
i
18A possible exception is w . 26-27. Yet even though th is section on the intercession o f the
f
352
them es easily because h is goal is to give assurance o f fu tu re glory to believers who are in the
m idst o f suffering. Vv. 19-22 show th a t th is is tru e not o n ly fo r believers b u t also fo r the rest
o f creation.
W ith in w . 19-22, Paul alternates back and fo rth between these dual themes o f the
present suffering and the expectation of fu tu re glory:
G lory: C reation looks forw ard expectantly to the revelation of the sons of God (v. 19)
Suffering: C reation is subjected to fu tility (v. 20a-b)
G lory: C reation hopes to be set free and brought in to the freedom of the glory of the
ch ild re n o f God (w . 20c-21)
S uffering: C reation groans and suffers the pains o f c h ild b irth (v. 22)
In add ition to the them e o f suffering, v. 22 also has an und erlyin g m o tif o f hope fo r fu tu re
glory, since the agony of c h ild b irth is a productive pain th a t leads to a positive result.
The close in te rp la y o f these two them es shows th a t no s tru c tu ra l suggestion th a t
focuses on only one m o tif is adequate. The entire passage (w . 18-30) focuses on enduring
present suffering w ith a hopeful expectation o f fu tu re glory. The co rru p tio n and redem ption of
creation discussed in w . 19-22 both supports th is dual sided central m o tif and extends it
beyond focusing only on believers to show th a t God is also concerned fo r the subhum an
created order.
C. The M eaning o f Kxioiq
The m eaning o f Jctioiq is one o f the m ost c ritic a l in terpretive issues o f th is passage. In
classical Greek the basic m eaning o f does n o t necessarily have a theological connota
tio n .19 In the LXX and NT, however, the w ord consistently refers to th a t w hich is created by
God. There are several m eanings in the LXX:20 (1) M ost often ktuti^ refers to "the creation o f
S p irit helps believers thro ugh present suffering, it is s till forw ard looking and hopeful.
19Liddell and Scott, 1003.
20A lthough the Greek version th a t probably lies behind th e L a tin version o f 4 Ezra is not
extant, it is interesting th a t the L a tin creatura in 4 Ezra parallels th is range o f usages: (1) the
m ate rial w orld (5:44, 45, 55, 56; 7:75 (possibly creation as a whole); 8:45; (2) an in d ivid u a l
353
God in its to ta lity " (Jdt. 9:12; 3 Macc. 2:2; 7; 6:2; W is. 5:17; Sir. 16:17; 49:16?).21 The LXX
often uses the expression "the whole creation" or "every creature." (2) In several passages,
K tio is refers to creatures. It can refer to hum ans, anim als and created thing s in nature (Jdt.
16:14; Tob. 8:5) o r exclusively creatures in n a tu re (Tob. 8:15; Sir. 43:25). (3) There are several
instances where the term is lim ite d to the non-hum an m aterial creation o r "nature." These
references can be collective (Wis. 2:6; 16:24; 19:6, as show n b y the succeeding verses even
though it says o?oi f| xxtm^) o r they can refer to in d iv id u a l creatures (Tob. 8:15; Sir. 43:25 (sea
creatures)). (4) In S ir. 49:16 th e w ord m ay be re stricte d to hum an beings, fo r Adam is said to
have been honored above every created th in g in a lis t o f h ig h ly honored people. It is also
possible, however, as Nelson suggests th a t th is is another reference to creation as a whole.22
(5) Nelson believes Tob. 8:5, 15 refer to ra tio n a l creatures, in clud ing hum anity.23 In Tob.
8:15, however, "creatures" are clearly distinguished fro m believers and angels, in dica ting th a t
KxicTi^18 lim ite d here to creatures in n a ture 24 Tob. 8:5 m ay refer to ra tio n a l creatures, since
they are called to bless God, b u t it is m ore lik e ly a reference to earthly creatures (anim ate and
inanim ate), in co n tra st to heavenly ones ("heaven" m ay be m etonym y fo r creatures in heaven).
This wide range o f uses in the LXX shows th a t the exact nuance of tcticnq can only be deter
m ined b y its usage in a p a rtic u la r context. Even apparently comprehensive expressions like
"a ll creation" and "the whole creation" m ay be lim ite d to a subset o f created things (Tob. 8:15;
Wis. 19:6; Sir. 43:25; 49:16).
creature (e.g. 7:62; 11:6); (3) people: the people o f God (8:47; 13:26), a baby (8:8); and (4) the
verbal sense o f a ct o f creating (6:38).
22Ib id ., 152. Adam is honored uxep xav <nov ev xfl tcuaei, w hich could m ean kxI ok; refers to
every created th in g .
23Ib id ., 143. I t is in terestin g th a t these are the only verses in the LXX to use the p lu ra l.
24"Let the h o ly ones and a ll y o u r creatures and a ll th e angels and yo u r elect praise you."
354
The range o f uses fo r Ktim q In the NT Is s im ila r to th a t of the LXX: (1) The m ost
common use is the collective sense o f "the sum to ta l o f everything created"25 (Mk. 10:6;
13:19; Col. 1:15, 23?; Heb. 9:11; 2 Pet. 3:4; Rev. 3:14 (possibly verbal)). (2) A nother common
use refers to an In d ivid u a l creature o r created th in g . T his usage can be lim ite d to hum ans
and anim als (Rom. 1:25, cf. v. 23) o r it can com prehensively refer to any type o f created thing
(Rom. 8:39; Heb. 4:1326). It is never used In the NT in the p lu ra l, however, and the collective
m eaning is never fa r from view, even w hen in d ivid u a l creatures are referred to. (3) A few
instances lim it the m eaning to h u m a n kin d in a collective sense (Mk. 16:15; possibly Col. 1:23).
(4) A n im portant va ria tio n o f the hum an category refers to the new hum an creatures created
by the transform ing w o rk o f God th ro u g h the new b irth , w hich is like a second creation (2 Cor.
5:17; Gal 6:15). (5) A t least one verse uses the w ord in a verbal sense to refer to "the act o f
creation"27 (Rom. 1:20). Gal. 6:15 also has a verbal nuance when it refers to the new creation
o f God in transform ing a believer. (6) The only secular m eaning o f xxictq in the NT refers to an
authoritative in s titu tio n o r governm ent created by people (1 Pet. 2:13).
In both the LXX and the NT, the expression "a ll creation" (naoa ktvok^ sometimes
refers only to a p a rt o f the creation o f a certa in class. I t can be lim ite d to anim als (Tob. 8:15;
W is. 19:6 (oXtj f| xxunq); Sir. 43:25) o r hum an kind (Mk. 16:15; Col. 1:23; S ir. 49:16, weep nav
<Bov ev xfi Ktioei). These expressions som etim es indicate comprehensiveness w ith in th e scope
o f the creation th a t is in focus.
M odem scholars have generally follow ed the same classification alternatives28 as the
C hurch Fathers fo r the m eaning o f kxuji? in Rom. 8:19-22: (1) Universal: M any scholars
25BAGD, 456.
This verse describes a general p rin cip le th a t Is applied to hum an beings. Cf. NTV:
"nothing in creation"; BAGD, 456. Nelson, 245, lim its it to hum ans.
27BAGD, 455.
The classification nam es are ta ke n from Christofifersson, 19-21, 33-6.
355
understand xxvaiq In the w idest possible m anner to include a ll o f creation, in clud ing hum anity
and angels.29 (2) Cosmic: The m ost widespread view is th a t kxioi? refers to the subhum an
creation, both anim ate and inanim ate, or essentially w hat is called nature today.30
(3) A nthropological: Some have followed the A u g u stin ia n view th a t is lim ite d to hum an
ity ,31 w ith a few lim itin g it (3A) only to believers,32 o r (3B) only to unbelievers.33 (4) Cosmo-
anthropological: Some believe the word refers to both the subhum an creation and unbelieving
hum anity.34 This is sim ila r to the universal view, b u t it excludes angels, demons and
believers. (5) Angelogical: Fuchs takes the unusual position th a t it refers to angels.35
29E.g. Nelson, Groaning. 192-3, 249-53; G ibbs, "Cosmic," 471; Gerber, 64-8: B arrett,
Romans, 166; M ichel, 173; G riffith , "Apocalyptic," 178; B runn er, Creation and Redemption,
2:439. B u t in B runner, Revelation and Reason, 72), he says x tio i? refers to unbelieving
hum anity.
30E.g. C ranfield, "O bservations," 225; Fitzm yer, Romans, 506; Moo, Romans, 551; D unn,
Romans, 469; M urray, 303; Dodd, Bible, 108; Godet, Romans, 102; Zahn, 400; Meyer, Romans,
2:374; Fritzsche, 151; Bardenhewer; W. Manson, "Notes, 163; Gaugler, 1:1:299; Francis, 150;
Boylan, 142; Loane, 81, 90; Sanders, Paul, 473; B ridger, 299-230; Leon M orris, The Epistle to
the Romans (Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerdmans, 1988), 322; Thackeray, 40; B arth, Romans, 306-8.
B ut in B a rth, Shorter, 99, he says kxuti? is m a in ly hum anity.
31Schlatter, 274; Gager, "Functional D iversity," 328-9; T.W. Manson, 966; E. W. H unt,
Portrait o f Paul (London: A .R M owbray, 1968), 163; B arth, Shorter, 99 (but in his longer
com m entary he takes the cosm ic view). S chlatter says it refers to "the homogeneous, closed
circle" o f hum anity.
32Reumann, 98-9; V6gtle, R5m 8,19-22," 351-66; VOgtle, Zukunft des Kosmos, 183-207;
Hommel, 7-23; H. S chm idt, Romer, 145. Reumann and Hom m el believe th a t Paul used an
apocalyptic fragm ent th a t o rig in a lly referred to the w orld aw aiting transform ation. Paul,
however, changes the m eaning to refer to believers aw aiting the glory th a t is "not yet" fo r them
(p. 101; cf. Gager, "Functional D iversity," 337). VOgtle says the passage is not a creation
theology b u t an expression of anthropology and soteriology.
33B runner, Revelation and Reason, 72, n. 16. Gager, 'F u n ctio n a l D iversity," 329, argues
th a t K tioi? in th is passage o rig in a lly referred to the whole created order, b u t fo r Paul th is
j cosmic dim ension is lim ite d to hum ans.
S 34Kasemann, Romans, 232-3; Leenhardt, 219; W erner Foerster, "Kt i<d," TDNT, 3:1031.
I 35E. Fuchs, Freiheit, 109.
356
The universal view is appealing in lig h t o f the reference to "a ll creation" (v. 22) .3B
Nelson says, "Pauls reference in Romans 8:19 is probably the w idest possible, w ith o u t
in te n tio n to exclude any category."37 The reference to ndoa f| kuok;, however, is n o t decisive.
For in both the LXX and NT, "a ll creation" and "whole creation" can be less th a n com prehen
sive, w hen a p a rtic u la r class o f creature is in focus in the context. M ost com m entators fin d it
d iffic u lt to consistently m a intain the universal view, and so tend to d rift tow ard the cosmic
view. Nelson, fo r example, contradicts h is generally universal position when he com ments on
v. 20, "because of the presence o f the expression m ix hcafoaa the creation in th is reference
should probably be lim ite d to the non-hum an order." S im ila rly G ibbs says "f| K tici? undoubt
edly refers to the whole creation," yet la te r he appears to distinguish "creation" from hum anity:
"There is a so lid a rity between m an and creation, so th a t the creation suffers under the pa in of
m ans F all."38
Since ictim q and even raxaa i\ kxutu; have a wide range o f possible m eanings in the LXX
and the NT, the context of Rom. 8:19-22 m u st determ ine w hat kxujis refers to. M ost scholars
s ta rt w ith the broadest m eaning of the w ord and th e n elim inate certain aspects o f the created
order th a t are incom patible w ith the passage.39
Angels should be excluded since good angels have not been subjected to fu tility or
co rru p tio n , eithe r because o f hum an s in o r th e ir own actions (w . 20-21). Demons should also
be excluded since they w ill n o t be redeemed (v. 21) and they do not long fo r the revealing o f the
sons o f God (v. 19). Furtherm ore, the subjection o f demons to the consequences o f sin was
because o f th e ir own disobedience, so the expression "not according to th e ir own w ill" w ould
36Nelson, Groaning, 253: Gibbs, "Cosm ic," 471.
38G ibbs, "Cosmic," 471-2.
39M urray, 301.
357
n o t be appropriate (v. 20). Heaven, as w e ll, can be excluded since it has n o t been subjected to
fu tility o r decay (w . 2 0 -2 1).40
The NT occasionally uses K tim ^ in the sense o f the unbelieving w o rld (Mk. 16:15).
Hom m el points o u t the s im ila rity between Rom. 1:21 and Rom. 8:20. In Rom. 1:21 the
G entiles became fu tile in th e ir th in k in g because o f th e ir refusal to honor God. Hom m el argues
th a t th is is s im ila r to th e subjection o f creation to fu tility in Rom. 8:20.41 In Rom. 1:21,
however, is n o t used,42 so th e verse does n o t c la rify th e use o f th is w ord. More im port
a n tly , unbelievers should be excluded fro m the m eaning o f ictunq in Rom. 8:19-22, because
unbelievers are h a rd ly eagerly aw aiting the revealing o f the ch ild re n o f God (v. 19).43 This
view also im plies th a t a ll people w ill be saved and delivered from bondage to s in and its conse
quences (v. 21). The NT use o f xoctyio^ w ould fit th is view b e tte r th a n m rn ^ , since it is often
used in the NT to refer to the w o rld o f unbelievers.44
The view th a t xxuns refers to believers w ould f it the them e o f the context about the
suffe ring and glory o f C hristians. Paul also is able to use K tio i to refer to believers (2 Cor.
5:17; Gal. 6:15) ,4S although in those passages he refers to believers as a new creation.48
40Plum er, 404-5.
41Homm el, 19.
42Though in Rom. 1:20 ktutk; is used in a verbal sense.
43M urray, 302.
44Kasemann, Romans, 232; C ranfield, Romans, 411. Nelson, Groaning, 149-51, has an
illu m in a tin g discussion o f the sim ila ritie s and differences o f xoogoq and kxuxi^. "Whereas
Kotrpos particip ates in the sin and is characterized by it, and th u s in its estrangem ent from
God can only be tra n sito ry, the icciai is said by Paul to be und er a subjection fo r w hich it is
n o t responsible; to w hich it subm itted in hope; and fro m w hich it expects to be delivered" (p.
151).
45Homm el, 19; Gager, "F unctional D iversity," 328.
46On the surface Heb. 4:13, appears to use ic tim t in reference to people. In fact it applies
to h u m a n ity a general p rin cip le about th e accou nta bility of a ll creatures to God.
358
Paul, however, frequently contrasts believers and ictioiq In Rom. 8. The creation eagerly aw aits
the revealing o f th e sons o f God (v. 19) and w ill benefit from th e freedom o f the glory th a t
believers w ill enjoy (v. 21). V. 23 also contrasts believers w ith Kxvmq as described in v. 22. The
phrase "not only so, b u t we ourselves also" (oii povov 8e, tiMxx x d i a tko i) shows th a t believers
groan (v. 23) In a s im ila r way to the rest of creation (v. 22). It also distinguishes believers from
th a t part o f creation th a t is groaning w ith the pains of c h ild b irth (v. 22) ,47
In support o f the view th a t KXtoiq refers to hum an ity in general, some have suggested
th a t the em otional and vo litio n a l descriptions are lite ra l hum an responses, not personifications
o f the n a tu ra l w orld. S chlatter argues th a t term s such as eager expectation (v. 19), fru s tra tio n
(v. 20), choice (v. 20), hope (v. 20) and groaning (v. 22) are personal acts in dica ting conscious
ness, w hich suggest th a t Paul has h um an ity in m in d .48 T his view, however, combines the
weaknesses o f both the believers and the unbelievers views. In p a rtic u la r it makes no sense o f
the contrasts between Kximq and believers (w . 19, 21, 23), and it im plies universal salvation o f
a ll people (v. 21). Furtherm ore, it could not be said th a t h u m a n ity was subjected to fu tility
"not o f its own w ill." F or hum an ity was subjected to fu tility because o f the disobedience of
Adam , its representative and p rim a l member.49 In one sense, o f course, hum anity could be
said to be subjected to fu tility not o f its own w ill since people in herited the curse from Adam.
Yet it is u n like ly th a t Paul w ould distinguish Adam from the re st o f hum an ity w ith o u t po in tin g
out such a d istin ctio n .50
Since angels, demons, h u m a n ity and heaven are excluded, it is m ost like ly th a t Paul
uses ic ria is 111 Rom. 8:19-22 in the sense o f the subhum an m ate rial creation, w hich is roughly
47C ranfleld, Romans, 411; M urray, 302.
^S ch la tte r, 269-70.
49M urray, 302; C ranfield, "O bservations," 225.
C ranfield, Romans, 411.
359
*d
equivalent to the m odem term "nature." As has been shown, the LXX uses tcxvcnc; in th is sense
both collectively (Wis. 2:6; 16:24; 19:6) and o f in d ivid u a l creatures o f the n a tu ra l w orld (Tob.
8:15; Sir. 43:25). This is even done in references to n&aa f| xxioiq (Tob. 8:15; Wis. 19:6; S ir.
43:25).51
The em otional and vo litio n a l term s in Rom. 8:19-22 do n o t exclude the n a tu ra l w orld.
The personification o f the n a tu ra l w orld is frequent in both the OT and Jew ish apocalyptic
lite rature. V arious aspects o f nature are frequently described w ith emotions, in telle ct and w ill.
The earth and other parts o f nature have sorrow or pa in due to hum an sin. They rejoice at
hum an righteousness, th e display o f Gods glory, the vindication o f God and the presence o f
the righteous in the m essianic kingdom .52 Rom. 7-8 has other examples o f personification
(sin, death, the Law, the carnal m ind).53 The OT also refers to the suffering o f the n a tu ra l
w orld due to hum an s in as w e ll as to the transform ation o f nature in a fu tu re golden age o f
righteousness.54
Thus although the rh yth m and structure o f Rom. 8:19-22 are not typ ica l o f poetry, the
language is ric h ly poetic in its colorful imagery, personification and em otional sensitivity.55
Even though the descriptions are figurative, the message of the passage regarding the suffering
51Godet, Romans, 102; Zahn, 400; Meyer, Romans, 2:374.
52Cry o f pain and sorrow due to sin: Gen. 4:11; Is. 24:4, 7; Jer. 4:28; 12:4. Joy: Ps. 65:12f;
98:4, 7-9; Is. 14:7-8; fear in Gods presence: Ps. 77:16; 97:4-5; 114:3-8; consciousness,
in telle ctua l understanding: Is. 1:2; cf. Lk. 19:40 (stones cry out Jesus identity); jo y when the
righteous are in the m essianic kingdom : Is. 55:12.
Plum er, 405-6.
54The suffering o f nature because o f sin: Gen. 3:17; Is. 24:4-7; 33:9; Jer. 4:4, 11, 26-28; the
eschatological tran sform ation o f nature: Is. 11:6-9; 65:17-25; 66:22-23.
^TDodd, Romans, 133; C ranfield, Romans, 404-5. Deichgraber calls it a "cosmic litu rg y " or
a hym n o f praise, cf. Rom. 11:36; 15:9-12; Phil. 2:10; Col. 1:20; Rev. 5:13; 19:5 (Reinhard
Deichgraber, Gotteshymnus und Christushym nus in der jru h e n C hristenheit (GSttingen:
Vandenhoeck and R uprecht, 1967), 211). Deichgraber correctly recognizes the poetic q ua lity
o f the passage b u t he overplays the litu rg ic a l fu n ctio n o f Rom. 8:19-22, w hich is more clearly
evident in h is other examples.
360
o f the n a tu ra l w o rld due to s in should n o t be dem ythologized o r anthropologized. The present
suffering o f creation Is very real, and God w ill b rin g th is suffering to an end when C hrist
re tu rn s.56
i
i
D . The In te rp re ta tio n o f Verse 19

I
: C reation is anxiously longing (dnoKapaSoida . . . dneK5e%eiai) as it w aits fo r the sons of
i
God to be revealed. AnoKtxpocSoida is a rare word. The noun has n o t been found p rio r to Paul,
although the cognate verb anoKapaSoKE(D was occasionally used in lite ra ry Koine as early as the
! second century B.C.87 The w ord means "expectant w aiting" o r "eager expectation."58 The
etym ology im plies "stra in in g the neck (or head)," "craning forw ard to see som ething."59 T his
suggests an image o f a crowd standing on tiptoe stra in in g w ith outstretched heads to catch the
firs t glim pse o f a person o r event eagerly longed fo r (such as the a rriva l o f a victo rs chariot).60
B oth NT occurrences are associated w ith eXjtiq (cf. P hil. 1:20), w hich suggests th a t
dnoKapaSoida involves "confident expectation.61" In Rom. 8 the forw ard looking character o f
the word is show n by the hope th a t creation w ill be delivered from subjection to decay and
share in the freedom o f the glorified ch ild re n o f God (w . 20b-21). B ertram sees an element o f
anxiety ("anxious, d o u b tfu l w aiting") due to the suffering th a t creation is now experiencing (w .
Cf. Gore, 1:305.
57James Hope M oulton and George M illig an, The Vocabulary o f the Greek Testam ent
Illu stra te d From the P apyri and Other Non-Ltterary Sources (Grand Rapids, M i.: Eerdmans,
1930), 63, believe th a t P aul coined the noun. The ro o t verb KapaSoxecD is found in 5 th -6 th C.
B.C. classical w rite rs such as H eroditus and Xenophon (Liddell and Scott, 877).
BAGD, 92.
59C ranfield, Romans, 410.
Stacey, "Pauls C ertainties," 180: G. Bertram , "AnoKopaSoida," ZNW 49 (1958): 265: Loane,
82.
61G. D elling, "AjioKapoc5oiria," TDNT, 1:393; D. R Denton, "AnoiaxpaSoida," ZNW 73 (1982):

138-40.
361
20-22). The context, however, shows th a t the expectancy is m arked b y confidence th a t
Gods prom ise w ill be fu lfille d , w h ich leads m ost m odem scholars to reject any negative
nuances fo r the w ord.63
The verb anetcSôpon reinforces the idea of eager w aiting. It m eans "to aw ait eagerly o r
expectantly fo r some fu tu re event," "to look forw ard eagerly."64 It is always associated in the
NT w ith the idea o f eschatological hope, p a rtic u la rly in re la tio n to the second com ing o f C h rist
(e.g. P hil. 3:20; 1 Cor. 1:7; Heb. 9:28) or th e fin a l perfection o f believers (Gal 5:5). In the
im m ediate context the w ord is associated w ith the hope o f creation fo r deliverance from
bondage to decay (v. 20) and the hope of believers who w a it eagerly fo r th e ir fin a l adoption and
the redem ption o f th e ir bodies (w . 23, 25). Thus the w hole creation eagerly aw aits the
revelation o f the sons o f God, even as believers eagerly a w a it the redem ption o f th e ir bodies.
G ram m atically dnompaSotda ra th e r th a n Kximq is th e subject o f the verb dneK&xexai.
T his is som ewhat su rp risin g since the verb expects a personal subject ra th e r them an abstract
one. M any E nglish tra n sla tio n s, in fact, m ake "creation" th e subject,66 since logically (if n o t
gram m atically) the creation does the w a itin g (anexSeKEta) fo r the sons o f God to be revealed.
T his is also confirm ed by the subjective genitive xfj? tctioeox;, w hich indicates th a t creation
B ertram , "AnompceSoida," TDNT, 1:264-70. Theodore o f M opsuestia believed the w ord

had a negative connotation because the p re fix o r negated KccpaSoxHO ("to hope") and so
tiftOKtxpaSoida m eans "to despair" (Patrologiae Graeca 66:824). This etym ology is rejected by
m ost m odem scholars.
E.g. D elling, "AjtoicapaSoKux," TDNT, 1:393; Denton, 138-40; Nelson, Groaning, 190-1;
Moo, Romans, 550, n . 15.
Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. N ida, Greek-Engtish Lexicon o f the New Testament
Based on Semantic Domains (New York: U nited B ible Societies, 1988-1989), 25:63.
W alter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon o f the New Testam ent and O ther E a rly C hriostian
Literature, 2nd ed., tra n s. W illiam F. A rn d t, F. W ilb u r G ingrich and F rederick W. D anker
(Chicago: U n iversity o f Chicago Press, 1979), 83.
E.g. RSV, NIV, NEB, NRSV, b u t co n tra st the more lite ra l rendering o f K JV and NASV,
w hich keep the "anxious longing" the subject.
362
perform s the Im plied verbal idea o f the subject, tinoKccpaSoida, and th u s "eagerly expects."
C hristoffersson suggests th a t m aking doiompaSoida the subject of the sentence intensifies the
longing o f creation.67
S ch latte r argues th a t the eager w a iting o f creation suggests th a t tcxioiq refers to
hum ans ra th e r th a n the n a tu ra l w orld, since anim als, plants and m ountains are n o t norm ally
thought to have em otional responses or consciousness.68 This type o f figurative language,
however, abounds in th is passage: creation w aits eagerly (v. 19), it is frustrate d, it has the
a b ility to choose, it has hope (v. 20), it w ill share in the freedom o f the redeemed (v. 21), and it
groans in p a in (v. 22). As has been shown, personification o f the n a tu ra l w o rld is a common
poetic device in the OT and Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re .69 In th is instance, the personifica
tio n h ig h lig h ts the close relationship between the eschatological fate of the n a tu ra l w o rld and
redeemed hum anity. The n a tu ra l w orld "eagerly aw aits" the revelation o f the sons o f God in
glory, because it is at th a t tim e th a t creation w ill be set free from its slavery to co rru p tio n and
w ill be transform ed to share the freedom o f the glory of the redeemed ch ild re n o f God (v. 21).
The m eaning o f "the revelation of the sons of God" (tf|V ajtoKaXuyiv xffiv uidiv xou 0eou)
has been m uch discussed. The use of dnoKcftAnjnq w ith believers as the object is unusual. In
w hat sense w ill the sons o f God be "revealed"? C hristoffersson sees th is as a m ajor argum ent
against the claim th a t x<5v uiffiv xou 8eof> refers to believers. He argues th a t revelation im plies
th a t som ething is hidden, w hich is not tru e o f C hristians.70 It w ill be shown, however, th a t it
is quite reasonable to use dnoKriX,m|as w ith believers.
AnoKaXo\|nq is used several tim es in the NT to refer to events surro unding the Second
67C hristoffersson, 103, n. 40.
S chlatter, 274.
See section n. Cf. Fritzsche, 151.

70C hristoffersson, 103-4.
363
Coming of C hrist. 1 Cor. 1:7 refers to "w aiting fo r the revelation of o u r Lord Jesus C hrist."
S im ila rly 2 Th. 1:7 refers to "the revelation o f the Lord Jesus from heaven w ith angels" (cf.
1 Pet. 1:7, 13).71 In these references dnoiaxXwias is not the revelation o f a message b u t the
i
j appearance o r unve iling o f a person - Jesus C hrist. The nuance o f drcoicdta)\|fK; in these
j passages is very close to the m eaning o f (fravepo and cognate words. This is the sense of
j
j datoicato)\|ns in Rom. 8:19, w hich says th a t the sons o f God are revealed. O ther passages refer
to eschatological events surro unding the Second Coming: the eschatological glory to be
revealed at the Second Coming (1 Pet. 4:13: 5:1), the fin a l Judgm ent (Rom. 2:5) and the fin a l
salvation o f believers (1 Pet. 1:5). The eschatological use o f dnoiedXuYi^, therefore, involves a
whole complex o f events surrounding the Second Coming o f C hrist, in w hich believers
participate. Furtherm ore, references to the glory o f believers are significant in lig h t of v. 18,
w hich refers to the revelation o f glory to believers (cf. v. 21).
There are m any suggestions about the m eaning o f "the revelation o f the sons o f God":
(1) Some, such as S tuhlm acher, Sanday and Headlam, say th a t it refers to the com ing o f the
redeemed w ith C h rist at h is Second Coming.72 (2) Bpylan says th a t it involves a public
m anifestation o f the glory o f believers.73 (3) O thers stress th a t the tru e status o f C hristians
w ill be shown.74 For example, Moo says th a t "C hristians, suffering (v. 18) and weak (v. 26)
like a ll other people, do not appear in th is life m uch lik e sons o f God, b u t the la st day w ill
7'Several passages in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re also refer to the Messiah being revealed
in the sense o f appearing at the end of the age: 4 Ez. 7:28, "m y son the Messiah shall be
revealed" (revelabitur)', 2 Bar. 39:7, h is dom inion is revealed: 1 En. 52:9; 62:7, Son o f Man was
concealed b u t w ill be revealed to the elect; 69:27. Cf. 1 En. 1:4, w hich says God w ill appear
tyavifcjetai) from heaven.
72Sanday and Headlam, 207-8; Peter Stuhlm acher, Pauls Letter to the Romans, trans. Scott
J. Hafem ann (Louisville, Kentucky: W estm inster/John Knox Press, 1994), 134.
73E.g. Boylan, 143; C ranfield, Romans, 412.
74D unn, Romans, 470; Moo, Romans, 550; Cranfield, Romans, 412; M urray, 303.
364
. _
p u b licly show o u r real status."75 S im ila rly, C ranfield says th a t although believers are already
sons o f God in th is life (w . 14-16), th e ir sonship is veiled except to fa ith . Believers have been
adopted, b u t at th a t fu tu re tim e th e ir adoption w ill be p u b licly proclaim ed (v. 23).76 (4) Moo
also notes th a t th e event is more th a n an unveiling: there is an actual tran sform ation of
believers in to glory at th a t tim e b y a divine act (cf. v. 18, 21, 2S).77
The concept o f the revelation o f the sons o f God is a com plex idea w ith several dim en
sions: (1) AnoKdcA,m|nq and ajtoKatamxco often have the idea of appearing, p a rticu la rly w ith
reference to C h rists Second Coming. A t the m ost basic level, it refers to the appearance o f
glorified believers w ith C h rist at h is Second Coming (cf. Col. 3:4; 1 Jn . 3:2).78 (2) The event
also reveals the id e n tity o f the ch ild re n o f God. A t any tim e in h isto iy, only a lim ite d num ber
o f believers are visible on earth. M any are hidden because o f death79 and others have not yet
been bom . The unve iling o f believers in glory w ill be the firs t tim e th a t the entire C hurch w ill
be gathered together and seen as a whole. (3) I t also involves the revelation o f the glory o f the
children o f God. a fte r they receive th e ir glorified resurrection bodies.80 As Moo observes, th is
glory involves the tran sform ation o f believers in to glory in th e ir new resurrection bodies (w .
18, 21, 23), as w e ll as the pub lic u n ve ilin g o f th e ir glorified state. T hat w hich believers have
"in p re lim in a ry form and in hiddenness w ill be brought to its fin a l stage and made p u b licly
75M o o , Romans, 550: cf. S chlatter, 268.
^M oo, Romans, 550-1; cf. M urray, 303.
78Sanday and Headlam , 207-8. Col. 3:4; 1 J n . 3:21 use âvepoco to refer to th is event. 1
Th. 4:16-17; 1 Cor. 15:23 also describe the com ing o f believers w ith C hrist.
79Cf. Robert Govett, Govett on Romans (1891; re p rin t, M iam i Springs, Florida: Conley and
Schoettle, 1981), 329.
Boylan, 143; Govett, 329. G ovett says the glory o f believers sh a ll appear in th e Resurrec
tio n even as C h rist's glory was show n in H is resurrection (1 Cor. 15:42-43).
365
evident."81 (4) A lthough believers are already ch ild re n of God (w . 14-17), in a sense th e ir
adoption w ill n o t be com pleted u n til th e ir bodies are resurrected (v. 23). U n til th e body is
redeemed, th e ir sonship is not com plete. Hence, the tim e w hen believers are revealed as sons
o f God w ill be the firs t tim e th a t they are fu lly sons o f God, w ith a ll the associated privileges.
M ost scholars believe th a t xd>v u'unv to o 6eou refers to glorified believers, in lig h t of the
frequent references to believers as sons o f God in the context (e.g. w . 14-17, 23).82 C hristof
fersson, however, proposes th a t the phrase refers to the angels o f the fin a l Judgm ent who w ill
come w ith C h rist at h is Second Coming. H is argum ents against in te rp re tin g the phrase as a
reference to believers are: (1) No o th e r NT passage speaks o f a revelation o f C h ristia n s.83
(2) The revelation o f the sons o f God is a revelation to the sub-hum an creation, b u t revelation
u su a lly is directed to people. (3) There is n o th in g in 8:18-27 th a t id e n tifie s the sons as
believers. C hristoffersson argues th a t th is passage comes from a d iffe re n t background than
the context, so it is n o t appropriate to use w . 13-17 fo r the id e n tific a tio n o f the sons o f God in
v. 19. (4) Believers long fo r th e ir adoption as sons, w hich they do n o t yet have, a t least in fu ll
m easure.84
C hristoffersson offers the follow ing argum ents fo r h is in te rp re ta tio n o f x<5v u ifiv xou Beoo
as angels: (1) In h is other le tte rs Paul refers to angels who come w ith C h rist (1 Th. 4:15-17;
possibly 3 :1 s;85 2 Th. 1:7; cf. M t. 25:30f; Jude 14 (citing 1 En. 1:9?)). 2 Th. 1:7 is p a rticu la r
ly im portant because it speaks o f the revelation (xf| dcnaKoXthjrci) o f the Lord Jesus w ith angels.
(2) Several Jew ish apocalyptic passages refer to the com ing o f angels w ith the M essiah (e.g.
81Moo, Romans, 550-1.
82E.g. Fitzm yer, Romans, 507; C ranfield, Romans, 412; D unn, Romans, 459, 470.
C hristoffersson, 104, 120; cf. Balz, 38.
^C hristoffersson, 120-1.
A lthough x<5v dyuov atixoO in 1 Th. 3:13 m ay refer to believers, not the angels.
366
1 En. 38:1-4; 4 Ez. 7:28; cf. 1 En. 1:4, 9 (God appears w ith angels in Judgm ent)). 4 Ez. 7:28
says the Messiah w ill he "revealed" when he comes in judgm ent, w hich is a close parallel to
Rom. 8 :19.86 (3) There are some Q um ran texts th a t refer to good angels as sons o f God (1 QS
4.22; 9.8; 1 QH 3.22). A lthough no apocalyptic passage d ire ctly calls angels "sons o f God,"
1 En. 6:2 comes close w hen it calls the fallen W atchers "angels, the ch ild re n o f heaven."87
C hristofferssons h e lp fu l study shows m any parallels between Rom. 8 and Jew ish
apocalyptic lite ra tu re . Nevertheless, h is argum ents fo r the in te rp re ta tio n o f xffiv uufiv xou Beou
as angels are not persuasive. There is strong evidence th a t xd>v u'id>v xou Beou refers to
believers in th is passage:
(1) The context speaks o f believers as sons o f God. The them e o f the larger section is
the suffering and glory o f believers (w . 17-18). Paul clearly uses "sons o f God" (both v io l and
xekvoc) fo r believers in the context (w . 14-17, cf. 23 (uioBeaia)). It is believers who w ill be
glorified (w . 17-18, cf. v. 21). C hristoffersson argues th a t Paul refers to believers in w . 14-17,
b u t switches to angels in v. 19. The change from uioq (w . 14, 19) to xeievov (w . 16, 17, 22) is
n o t sig nifica nt,88 fo r both u io i (v. 14) and xeicva (v. 16) refer to believers and are related to the
S p irits w o rk in confirm ing believers id e n tity as children o f God. Elsewhere in h is letters Paul
consistently uses the sin g u la r "son of God" (o uio^ xoC Becru) to refer to C h rist and he uses the
p lu ra l "sons o f God" fu lo i Beou) to refer to believers. He never uses e ith e r singular o r p lu ra l to
refer to angels 89
2 Bar. 39:7 says the "dom inion o f m y A nointed One . . . w ill be revealed." B u t th is refers
to the unveiling of h is kingdom , not the person.
87Ib id ., 122-4.
! Ib id ., 98, n . 21, acknowledges th a t there is no basis fo r distinguishin g between the two

| w ords in the NT (citing Bruce, 167). Nevertheless, he s till trie s to press a d istin ctio n in Rom.
I
89In the Pauline corpus xeievov always refers to C hristians (Rom. 8:16, 17, 21; 9:8; Eph. 5:1;
P hil. 2:15), except when it refers to ordinary children o r when it is used m etaphorically (e.g.
t
367
(2) W hile C hristoffersson is correct th a t there is no other Instance o f dnoKtita>\|ri w ith
believers as an object, there are several instances where a s im ila r concept occurs In different
words. As has been shown, OOTOiaxX'mins and djioKataSjci are used elsewhere alm ost In the
sense o f "m anifest" o r "appear." In eschatological contexts, ootokoX,wcco Is roughly equivalent
to (âvEpoco.90 Louw and Nida classify $avep<xo in the same sem antic dom ain as otnoicdX'uyi^
and djcoKaX-ikxco: prim ary dom ain "know" and subdom ain "w ell know n, clearly shown,
revealed." They indicate th a t In th is sense âvepoto means "to cause som ething to be fu lly
know n by revealing clearly and In some d etail - to make know n, to make plain, to reveal, to
brin g to the lig h t, to disclose."91 M undle observes, 'In the NT the m eaning o f both words Is
v irtu a lly Interchangeable, so th a t . . . any attem pt a t precise conceptual d istin ctio n only leads
to a rtific ia l dem arcations."92
There are some im portant passages w ith âvepo In w hich believers appear w ith C hrist:
Col. 3:4 says th a t when C hrist appears, believers w ill "appear w ith h im in glory." The parallel
concept is strengthened by the reference to Solja, an im p o rta n t aspect o f the eschatological
fu tu re o f believers in Rom. 8:18, 21. 1 Jn . 3:2 also refers to C h rists appearing and the
appearing o f transform ed believers w ith him .93 1 Pet. 5:1, 4 speak o f the eschatological glory
s p iritu a l children, children o f w rath). Except fo r references to ordinary children or m etaphori

cal usages (e.g. "ch ild re n o f Israel"), tiioq refers either to believers (Rom. 8:14, 19; 9:26 (quote);
2 Cor. 6:18 (quote); Gal. 3:26; 4:7) o r C h rist (Rom. 1:4, 9; 5:10; 8:3, 29, 32; 1 Cor. 1:9; 15:28;
2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 1:16; 4:4, 6; Eph. 4:13; Col. 1:13; 1 Th. 1:10). The phrase m oi BeoO always
refers to believers (Gal. 3:26; Rom. 8:14, 19) and the sin gular d uioq to fi Beou always refers to
C h rist (Rom. 1:4; 2 Cor. 1:19; Gal. 2:20; Eph. 4:13).
Oavepo can be used in the s tric t sense of "reveal." A divine "m ystery" Is revealed w ith
(âvepcxfl in Col. 1:26 and dnoictiXm|n In Rom. 16:21 and Eph. 3:3.
91Louw and Nida, 28.28-28.56.
92W ilhelm M undle and C olin Brow n, "Revelation," in NIDNTT, ed. C olin Brow n (Grand
Rapids, M i.: Zondervan, 1978), 3: 312.
Cf. R u dolf K a rl B ultm ann, The Johanntne Epistles, Herm eneia (Philadelphia: Fortress,
1973), 120.
368
o f believers in the context o f the Second Com ing (arcotcapaSoKUx) o f C h rist. In 1 Peter there is a
s h ift from mtoKod'ontos (5:1) to tôcvepoo (5:4), w hile s till speaking about C h rists Second Coming
and the believers fu tu re g lo iy. There is, therefore, a close relatio nship between these term s in
eschatological contexts, w h ich supports the concept th a t believers w ill be revealed at the
com ing o f C hrist.
(3) The content o f the eager expectation o f creation is am plified in w . 20c-21 as the
hope o f sharing in the freedom o f th e g lo iy o f th e ch ild re n o f God.
(4) A lthough there are several NT passages th a t refer to angels com ing w ith C h rist at
h is Second Coming (2 Th. 1:7 is the clearest), Paul never refers to them as "sons o f God."
Despite the OT precedents (Gen. 6:2, 4; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7), the NT does n o t p ic k up th is
usage. In lig h t o f the im m ediate context, w hich clearly identifies the "sons of God" as
believers, it is unnecessary to reach fu rth e r fo r an obscure reference to angels.
(5) W hile C hristoffersson is correct th a t there are Jew ish apocalyptic passages in w hich
angels appear at the com ing o f the M essiah, th e angels are not called "sons o f God" in these
passages nor elsewhere in th e w ritin g s he cites. Some of these references m ay, in fact, refer to
th e redeemed com ing w ith th e M essiah. 1 En. 38:1 (Parable 1) probably refers to believers who
come w ith the Messiah, ra th e r th a n to angels as C hristoffersson claim s94: 'The congregation
o f the righteous" is explained by v. 4, w hich refers to "the holy, the righteous and the elect" as
the ones who w ill possess the earth (cf. v. 2). A sim ila r expression is used in 1 En. 62:7-8
(Parable 3): "The congregation of the ho ly ones sh a ll be planted and a ll th e elect ones shall
stand before him ."95 T his shows th a t the "congregation o f the righteous" refers to believers,
^C hristoffersson, 122, acknowledges th a t th is is a possible in terpretation. Several o f

C hristofferssons examples are not discussed here because they o n ly refer to the revelation of
the M essiah, n o t angels. He acknowledges the weakness o f h is position th a t the texts th a t he
uses to support his thesis do not c a ll the angels "sons of God" (p. 123).
95Cf. 51:4-5 (parable 2), the "righteous ones" and "elect ones" are believers who w ill dwell on
the earth durin g the M essianic age w hen "the Elect One has risen." However, although it also
m entions angels ("the faces o f a ll the angels in heaven shall glow w ith jo y ), they do n o t appear
369
who will be gathered with the Messiah (v. 7).
These factors supp ort the conclusion th a t in Rom. 8:19 creation eagerly aw aits the
appearance o f g lo rifie d believers w ith C h rist. A lthough C h rists Second Coming is not
specifically m entioned in w . 19-22, w . 17-18 say th a t believers w ill be glorified w ith C h rist
and v. 23 refers to the redem ption o f th e ir bodies. These verses establish the eschatological
context fo r the appearing o f the sons o f God (v. 19). C reation awaits th is eschatological glory
o f the children o f God (v. 2 1).96
E . The In te rp re ta tio n o f Verse 20
The post-positive Tap indicates th a t w . 20-21 explain w hy creation w aits so eagerly fo r
the revelation o f the sons o f God. It is because creation has been subjected to fu tility and is
enslaved to corru ption. T hus creation looks forw ard to being set free to share in the freedom
th a t the ch ild re n o f God w ill experience w hen they are glorified.
C reation was subjected to fu tility (gaxaioTirti i\ kxiok; wiexccyri). Paul stresses the fu tility
o f the present state o f creation, by p u ttin g juxToadnrci firs t in the clause.97 This involves a
change from the o rig in a l state o f the creation; it is not p a rt o f "createdness itse lf," as B arth
claim s.98 The present co n d itio n o f n a ture is not as God o riginally designed. The tim in g o f
the event th a t brought the change is closely lin ke d to the in te rp re ta tio n o f who d id the
subjecting.
on the earth as the righteous do.
" AnoKapoSoida is used w ith the eschatological glory o f believers in 1 Pet. 4:13; 5:1 (cf. 5:4,
w hich uses ôcvepoto). These passages also have the present suffe ring-future glory m o tif found
in Rom. 8:17-25.
97C ranfleld, Romans, 413.
"B a rth , Romans, 308, believes the fu tility is p a rt o f the way the m ate rial w orld was
created. S im ila rly, C. F. D. M oule, M an and Nature, 11-2, argues th a t death was inherent in
nature from the beginning. Cf. R. H Allaw ay, "Fall o r Fall-S hort?," ExpTim 97, no. 4 (1986):
109-10.
370
t
There has been m uch debate about who subjected (tinetriyn) creation to fu tility . (1) The
m ost com m on view is th a t God subjected creation as a ju d ic ia l pronouncem ent in response to
Adam s disobedience. T h is lin k s the passage to the curse on the ground in Gen. 3 :1 7 -1 8 ."
(2) O thers believe th a t Adam subjected creation when he fe ll.100 Since Adam was given
dom inion over the w orld, h is s in subjected the w orld to fu tility .101 (3) A few have suggested
th a t h u m a n ity in general is in view .102 (4) In h is la te r Shorter Commentary on Ramans,
B a rth takes the unu sual po sitio n th a t C h rist subjected th e whole of creation to fu tility by the
ju dgm ent pronounced and executed on the cross.103 (5) A few claim th a t Satan o r the
"Satanic pow er o f sin" resulted in creation being subjected to fu tility .104 C hristoffersson
argues th a t the fa lle n W atcher tra d itio n from 1 Enoch is the background. The fallen angels
ta u g h t h u m a n ity forbidden and s in fu l knowledge, leading to a deform ation o f the w o rld.105
"E .g . C ranfield, Romans, 413; Kdsemann, Romans, 235: M urray, 303; Francis, 152;
G augler, 1:303; Bruce, 172; Sanday and Headlam, 208; H ill, "C onstruction," 297; G riffith ,
Romans, 95; Dodd, Romans, 134; Stacey, "Pauls C ertainties," 179; Loane, 179; Hodge, 272;
Lagrange, Romans, 208; Leenhardt, 220-1; Nelson, Groaning, 196-8; Best, 198; Bpylan, 143;
Denney, 449; R ust, 733; Govett, 336-7; Scroggs, 91; B arth, Romans, 309. B a rth la te r changed
h is view in h is Shorter Commentary on Romans. P h ilip takes the unu sual position th a t Satan,
Adam and God are involved in a fu ll answer: Satan tem pted, Adam transgressed and God pro
nounced th e sentence. F in a lly, however it is God who subjected creation to va n ity (Philip,
415).
100E. Fuchs, Freiheit, 109; Lampe, "New Testam ent D octrine," 458; Balz, 41; Lyonnet, 228;
G ib lin , 394; Stauffer, 74; H u nt, 96; Foerster, "Kuco," TDNT, 3:1031; G. D elling, 'Tdccto,"
TDNT, 8:41; D. Sm ith, 4:344.
101Lampe, "New Testam ent D octrine," 458.
102S tauffer, 74; Zahn, 221; Evdokim ov, 1.
103B a rth, Shorter, 99-100.
104Satan: P. D ubarle, "La theologie du cosmos," in In itia tio n th&ologlque, ed. P.

D ubarle (1952), 322, cited by Leenhardt, 221; A. Pallis, To the Romans (1920), cited by
K&semann, Romans, 235. Satanic power o f sin: Heim , 125. Heim e xp licitly rejects the idea of
the F a ll o f Adam and the existence o f a personal devil.
1 C hristoffersson, 130-1.
371
It is m ost lik e ly th a t the F a ll of Adam is in view in v. 20.106 In Rom. 5:12-19, Paul
explains th a t Adam s sin b ro u g h t s in and universal death to hum anity. In Rom. 8:20-22 Paul
extends the im pact o f the F a ll to the rest o f creation. A ll o f creation is now enslaved to
corru ption ($6opa) and fu tility (paxaidfn^) due to Adams s in .107 Yet it is God, n o t Adam, th a t
subjected creation to th is fu tility . In a ju d ic ia l pronouncem ent, God cursed the ground (Gen.
3:17-18). O nly God could subject creation w ith a hope fo r its fu tu re redem ption (v. 20, e^
eXjtiSv). N either Adam , n o r h u m a n ity n o r evil s p irits have th is a b ility .108 The te rm lixotdcocD
suggests an a u thoritative action, w hich is not suitable fo r Satan, Adam o r h u m a n ity.109
The view th a t Adam is th e one w ho subjected creation is close to the tru th . Gen. 3:17
describes the curse on the ground, w h ich shows th a t the judgm ent fo r the F all had an effect
on the n a tu ra l w orld. This is n o t, however, a n a tu ra l consequence o f Adams disobedience, nor
was it som ething th a t Adam d ire ctly caused. R ather the curse on the ground was a ju d ic ia l
action o f God in response to Adam s sin. The curse on the ground is connected w ith Adams
dom inion over creation. Since Adam was accountable to God to ru le the earth and tend the
garden, h is sin had an effect on the n a tu ra l w orld th a t he cared fo r.110 This suggests a
so lid a rity between h um an ity and the n a tu ra l w orld, so th a t hum an s in affects the rest of
creation.
The view th a t hum an sin in general is responsible fo r subjecting creation to fu tility is
p a rtia lly true. It correctly notes th a t nature is a v ictim o f hum an s in .111 B u t the aorist
106M urray, 330, says, "In re la tio n to th is earth th is is surety Pauls com m entary on Gen.
3 :1 7 ,1 8 ."
107Cf. R ust, 234-5.
108Leenhardt, 226-31; M urray, 303; Francis, 152; H ill, "C onstruction," 297.
109C ranfleld, Romans, 413.
110Lampe, "New Testam ent D octrine," 458.
11'Evdokim ov, 1.
372
I
UTcetdyn suggests th a t Paul has a single past event In m ind. In lig h t of h is p rio r discussion of
the consequences o f the "one trespass" o f Adam (5:18), the F a ll is most lik e ly in view.
B a rths view th a t C h rists cru cifixio n subjected creation to fu tility tu rn s the w ork of the
cross on its head. The cross brings life , not death and fu tility . Nelson correctly observes th a t
the cross Is the u ltim a te answ er fo r the s itu a tio n described In Rom. 8:20.112
Paul is n o t lik e ly to have Satan o r evil s p irits in m ind because they could n o t subject
creation "in hope." This view is also close to an un-P auline d u a lis m .113 Chrlstofferssons
evidence fo r th e fa lle n W atcher s to iy as the background fo r Rom. 8 Is weak. By contrast, Paul
does discuss the Im pact o f the F all o f Adam In Rom. 5. ChristofFersson is correct th a t s in is
the reason fo r the subjection o f creation to fu tility . It is not, however, the s in of evil sp irits,
b u t the sin o f Adam th a t resulted in th e profound change in th e n a tu ra l w orld.
C reation was subjected to fu tility "not o f its own w ill" (o^x EKofxnx), b u t according to the
w ill o f God w ho subjected it (aXX* xov unordâvxa). Ov>x exauaa indicates th a t the
subjection of creation w as n o t vo lu n ta ry o r by the choice of creation .114 God cursed the
earth not because o f any disobedience on the p a rt of the non-hum an creation b u t because o f
the disobedience o f Adam and Eve. T hus creation was a v ic tim o f hum an s in .115 The per
sonification th a t gives th e n on -ration al creation a w ill stresses th a t the n a tu ra l w orld p rim a rily
acts according to Gods design, except where it has been damaged as a re su lt o f hum an sin.
On the surface it w ould appear th a t 8ta p lu s accusative ("because o f the one who
subjected it") w ould indicate the reason fo r the subjection of creation to fu tility . T his w ould
m Nelson, Groaning, 197-8.
113Bruce, 173.
114Loane, 83.
U5Cf. Paul J . Achtem eier, Romans (Atlanta: Jo h n Knox Press, 1985), 142.
373
supp ort the view th a t the subjection was because o f Adams s in .116 BAGD suggests th a t Sia
p lu s accusative o f person indicates th e efficient cause fo r the subjection o f creation, not the
reason.117 It is also possible th a t th e idea of "w ill" is im plied by the co n tra st w ith etcoftaa:
"not because of its own w ill b u t according to [the w ill of] the one who subjected it. E ith e r way,
it indicates th a t creation was subjected not o f its own w ill, b u t according to the w ill o f God who
subjected it.
H ill takes the unu sual positio n th a t dXXa Sta x6v Cnrordâvta is a parenthetical phrase
th a t explains e^ eXniSi: "the creation was subjected to vanity, not w illin g ly (indeed) b u t
(nevertheless) in hope because of h im who subjected it; fo r th is reason creation sh a ll be set
free . . . ." The basis o f the hope o f creation is the one who subjected it . 118 T his m akes little
gram m atical sense o f ctXkct. "In hope" does n o t m ake a good contrast w ith "not because o f its
own w ill."
W hat is the nature o f the "fu tility " (paxoaoxijg) to w hich creation has been subjected?
BAGD says paxaioxnq means "em ptiness, fu tility , purposelessness, transitoriness" and in Rom.
8:20 "fru stra tio n ." It has the sense o f being "w ith o u t result" (|idxTjv), "ineffective," "n o t reaching
its end."119 The underlying idea is "the ineffectiveness o f th a t w hich does not a tta in its goal."
C reation is not able to fu lfil the purpose fo r w h ich it was m ade.120 I f th e nuance o f "fru s tra
tio n " is in view, th is m ay be an anthropopathism th a t im plies th a t the created w orld w ants to
116So Godet, Romans, 314.
117BAGD, 181, 'b y the one who subjected it." T his is followed by K&semann, Romans, 235;
Moo, Romans, 552. There are a few instances where Sia p lu s accusative fu n ctio n s lik e 8ux
p lu s genitive (e.g. Jn. 6:57); cf. Moo, Romans, 552.
118H ill, "C onstruction," 247.
119Sanday and Headlam, 208; cf. Francis, 152.
120C ranfield, Romans, 413-4; M urray, 303; Stacey, "Pauls C ertainties," 179; Sanday and
Headlam, 208; H unt, 96.
374
act as God designed, b u t is restricted due to th e damage of hum an sin.
The background o f Gen. 3:17-19 in the passage suggests th a t th is fu tility refers to the
change th a t the n a tu ra l order experienced as a re su lt of the F a ll.121 Since the ground was
cursed, it now b ring s fo rth weeds m ore easily th a n crops and it produces crops only as a
re s u lt of hard and p a in fu l labor. C ranfield says "the subhum an creation has been subjected to
the fru s tra tio n o f not being able properly to fu lfil the purpose o f its existence, God having
appointed th a t w ith o u t m an it should n o t be made perfect."122 Since h u m a n ity was given
dom inion over n a ture (Gen. 1:26, 28), when Adam sinned, the w orld fo r w hich he was
responsible became fru stra te d in its purposes and can no longer be a ll it was created to be.
C reation looks forw ard to the "freedom o f the glory o f the ch ild re n o f God" (v. 21), because
w hen hum anity is restored to its proper obedience to God, the rest o f creation benefits.
There have been m any attem pts to refine the understanding of th e "fu tility " o f the
creation w ith in th is basic picture. Leenhardt refers to the fu tility o f existence and its lack o f
m eaning.123 G augler says creation was deprived o f the g lo iy th a t it should have
received.124 R ust notes the seem ingly m eaningless struggle fo r existence and the process of
121C ranfield, Romans, 413. B y contrast, G ib lin argues th a t Paul does not mean th a t the
physical w orld w as a ctu a lly different p rio r to the Fall. He says th a t the apocalyptic perspective
is fundam en tally theological, not phenom enological o r physical. Paul refers to a certain
fru s tra tio n o f the powers o f God in creation w ith o u t presupposing an actual deterioration of
creation after the F a ll (G iblin, 394-5). Allaw ay, 109-10, sim ila rly argues th a t the w orld was
not created in a state o f g lo iy th a t was lost, b u t it was always an im perfect w orld th a t had
hope o f eventual g lo rifica tio n (Rom. 8:20-21). A lthough G ib lin w isely cautions about taking
eveiything "lite ra lly" in apocalyptic lite ra tu re , he is inconsistent since he believes there w ill be
an eschatological tran sform ation o f the n a tu ra l w orld. This view does n o t do ju stice to the
strong language o f the passage about th e present state o f creation and the use of the aorist
ortetaYn. w hich suggests th a t the subjection to fu tility was a change th a t took place are a
certa in tim e. It also im plies th a t Paul does not accept the re a lity o f the curse on the ground in
Gen. 3:16-17.
122Cranfield, Romans, 413-4.
123Leenhardt, 220.
124Gaugler, 1.
375
repeated death:
The great wastage in w hich the generative powers o f nature seem involved, the internecine
warfare in w h ich n a tu re seems red in tooth and claw, the seem ingly m eaningless and even
evil form s o f organic life w hich the process of na tu re has produced, the unending struggle
fo r existence w hich underlies the whole n a tu ra l order. . . . The whole process o f nature
seems subject to em ptiness, fu tility . In the anim al order and in the realm o f plants, the
cycle o f b irth and death repeats itse lf, co ntin uin g ever onwards in an unending stream o f
descendants.125
Some believe Ecclesiastes is the background fo r juxxaioxtiq in th is passage.126
Ecclesiastes has 32 o f th e 47 occurrences o f the w ord in the LXX and shapes the OT
understanding o f the term . T his book stresses the "vanity" o f a ll o f life apart from God.
B auem feind calls Rom. 8:20 "a va lid com m entary" on Ecclesiastes. Rom. 8:20 agrees w ith
Ecclesiastes th a t v a n ity exists in the w orld. Yet it goes beyond Ecclesiastes by explaining th a t
there was a beginning to the present state and it focuses on hope by prom ising there w ill be an
ending to the v a n ity .127 In addition, Ecclesiastes is largely focused on the va n ity o f hum an
experience, b u t Rom. 8:19-22 looks a t the larger p ictu re o f the fu tility of the whole created
order in is present state.
Several other suggestions have been made about the m eaning of paxatoxqQ: (1) It is
som etim es assumed th a t luxxaioxqq is a sim ple synonym fo r "corruption" (<}6opd; v. 21), in lig h t
o f the p a ra lle l ideas "subjected to fu tility " and "slavery to co rru p tio n ."128 It refers to the
m u ta b ility and m o rta lity o f creaturely existence. C ertainly p a rt o f the fu tility o f life is th a t
death is inevitable and creation is co n tin u a lly decaying. However, paxoaoxr^ is a broader term
12SR ust, 234.
126Sanday and Headlam , 208; O. B auem feind, "Maxaioq", TDNT, 4:523; Francis, 152;
G ibbs, Creation and Redemption, 42-3; C ranfield, Romans, 413.
127B auem feind, "Maxaioq," TDNT, 4:523.
128D unn, Romans, 470, says the w ords are "nearly equivalent"; cf. Euthym ius, 92, cited b y
C ranfield, Romans, 413. Boylan, 144, com bines th is idea w ith idolatry.
I
j 376
.. . . . ______
th a n $0opa.129 F u tility and fru s tra tio n are re su lts o f the slaveiy to death and decay.
(2) Some have argued th a t paxocioxirc refers to evil s p iritu a l powers th a t ru le the
cosmos. The LXX uses p a xa to x^ to refer to false gods and idols in Ps. 31:6 (LXX 30:7).
Elsewhere Paul calls th is "subjection to the elem ents o f the w orld" (Gal. 4:4).130 It is
ce rta in ly tru e th a t Paul sees evil forces at w o rk in the cosmos,131 b u t it is u n lik e ly th a t they
are in view in th is context. A lthough the LXX occasionally uses the adjective pdtaioq to refer
to idols, it only uses the noun p a ia ia rn q in th is sense in one instance (Ps. 31:6). In the LXX
th e w ord predom inantly refers to the va n ity o r fu tility o f follow ing a life of sin. In contexts th a t
speak of false gods, the p o in t o f \uxxcaoq is often the va n ity o f follow ing idols (e.g. 2 Ch. 11:15:
Is. 44:9; Jer. 10:3; Ez. 8 :10). M ost o f the references referring to false gods are speaking o f
idols, not demons.132 The biggest weakness o f th is view is th a t if God is behind the passive
verb UTtexayn, th is w ould im ply th a t God subjected creation to evil powers.133 Subjection to
demons w ould make no sense o f the fa ct th a t the subjection was "in hope" o f the fin a l
redem ption of creation.
(3) A va ria tio n o f th is view sees the te rm as a reference to id o la try and false gods. Rom.
1:21 uses the cognate verb paxaio to refer to the fu tile th in k in g o f people who w orship
id o ls.134 A lthough Rom. 1:21 is related, Rom. 8:20 focuses on the fu tility th a t is p a rt of the
129Fitzm yer, Romans, 507.
130Lietzm ann, 85: Jam es D. Hester, P auls Concept o f Inheritance, Scottish J o u rn a l of

Theology Occasional Papers, no. 14 (Edinburgh: O liver and Boyd, 1968), 81-2; W ilfred L. Knox,
S aint Paul and the Church o f the Gentiles (Cambridge U niversity: Cambridge, 1939), 107:
D enton, 166.
131E.g. G ibbs, 43, lis ts Rom. 7:21-23; 1 Cor. 5:3: Eph. 2:2; 6:12; Col. 1:13; 1 Th. 2:18.
132There are in fact com paratively few references to idols using pdxoao^ (1 Kings 16:13, 25;
Is. 2:20; Jer. 8:19; Hos. 5:11). One possible reference to demons is Lev. 17:7.
133T his is p a rticu la rly a flaw -with G ibbs, p. 43.
134Bpylan, 143. He also sees the m u ta b ility o f creaturely existence. He also lis ts Acts
377
created order, not the va in ways o f hum anity. This view has m any o f th e same weaknesses as
the evil powers view. Furtherm ore, when the adjective (laxodoq is used as a noun refe rring to
idols It is always p lu ra l and th e n ou n (juxxoaoti^ is only used o f id o ls once In the LXX (Ps.
30:7). The use of the te rm to refer to idols In the LXX (cf. A cts 14:15) fits w ith in the larger OT
picture o f the fu tility o f a s in fu l life apart from God. T his view also m akes no sense of
"subjection." I f the subjection to fu tility refers to the divine curse as a re s u lt of the F all, it
cannot refer to hum an id o la try since God did not cause the id ola try.
(4) Kasemann believes th a t paxcaoxT] refers to the "s p iritu a l em ptiness" th a t is the
status quo o f fallen creation. "It m isses existence and opts fo r illu s io n s ."135 This existential
in te rp re ta tio n focuses on hum an experience and misses the broader Im plications o f the F all fo r
a ll o f creation. It is not consistent w ith Kdsemanns view th a t God subjected creation,
although it fits the anthropological in terpretation o f VQgtle and others.
T his passage raises the im portant question o f w hether one can speak o f a "fallen
creation." (1) Bruce, who is ty p ic a l o f those who believe creation to be fa lle n , says, "Like m an,
creation m ust be redeemed because, like m an, creation has been subject to a fa ll." H um anity
was p u t in charge o f the "lower" creation and involved it in its fa ll. A cosm ic fa ll is im plied in
Gen. 3, where the ground was cursed, and Rev. 22, where there w ill be no more curse.136
S im ilarly, Heim says since nature is fallen, anim als atta ck one another and the whole o f
14:15, where x<5v paxauav refers to idols. D unn, Romans, 470 also stresses the relationship to
Rom. 1:21. The fu tility o f creation is in its being deified or seen solely in relatio n to hum anity,
fo r hum anitys use o r abuse.
13SK&semann, Romans, 235: cf. D elling, 'Tdoaco," TDNT, 8:523 ("the m eaninglessness of
existence w ith o u t God"); VOgtle, Z ukunft des Kosmos, 194; H einrich S chlier, D as, w o rau f alles
w artet. Eine Auslegung von R flm er 8 , 13-30," in Interpretation der W elt Festschrift J u r Romano
G uardini zum achtzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H elm ut K uhn (W iirzburg: E chter, 1965), 603; Gerber,
68 .
136Bruce, 169; cf. Stacey, "Pauls C ertainties," 179; K&semann, Romans, 235; Stuhlm acher,
Romans, 132.
378
nature is perverted to an u n n a tu ra l state.137 (2) By contrast Lampe says nature is not fallen
and indeed is incapable o f fa llin g in to disobedience.138 Forde says nature is n o t co rru p t and
does n o t have an evil w ill.139 B runn er says there is nothing wrong w ith creation as it now
exists decay is p a rt o f the original design.140 (3) Pauls position is probably somewhere in
between these extremes. I t is tru e th a t Rom. 8:19-22 speaks o f the damage th a t hum an sin
caused to the non-hum an creation. C reation is n o t in the state in w hich it was o rig in a lly
created.141 Yet it is not correct to speak of a fa lle n creation, as i f th a t im plies th a t the
subhum an creation disobeyed God. Foerster correctly says, "It is better n o t to speak o f a
fallen creation b u t o f a creation w hich is subjected to co rru p tio n ."142 Evdokim ov says th a t
nature is m o ra lly neu tral, b u t the repercussions o f the F a ll o f Adam perverted n o t only the
relatio nship o f h u m a n ity to God b u t also the relationship o f h um an ity to the cosmos.143 The
subjection o f creation to fu tility was not according to the w ill o f creation; it was n o t due to any
s in com m itted b y nature. Rather, nature is a v ic tim of hum an sin. Yet it goes too fa r to say
th a t nature is the way it always was. A lthough creation is n o t "fallen," Rom. 8 shows th a t
nature has been corrupted by hum an s in and is not the way it was o rig in a lly created because
o f the curse God made a fte r the F all. C reation w ill be transform ed when believers are glorified
137Heim , 103-4.
138Lampe, "New Testam ent D octrine," 452, 461; cf. Gowan, "Fall and Redem ption," 100-1.
139G erhard O. Forde, "Romans 8:18-27," In i 38, no. 3 (1984): 284-95.
140B runn er, Creation a n d Redemption, 2:128. He adm its Rom. 8:20f m ay be an exception,
b u t he does n o t m ake use o f the passage because it is "obscure and there is m uch controversy
about its m eaning." He w ants to avoid a du a listic view o f the w orld, w hich im plies th a t the
w orld is the w o rk o f the evil one.
141Cf. Heim , 133.
142Foerster, 'X tiS o ." TDNT. 3:1031.
1 Evdokim ov, 1. Plum er, 490, says nature is not sin fu l, b u t it experiences the results of
hum an sin.
379
and receive th e ir resurrection bodies.
Despite the fact th a t creation was subjected to fu tility , it s till has hope fo r redem ption
(& cXmSi). T his probably alludes to Gen. 3:15, where God prom ised th a t the seed o f the
woman w ould bruise the serpents head.144 W hen God pronounced judgm ent fo r the sin of
Adam and Eve, he also prom ised th a t redem ption w o uld come in th e fu tu re . T his prom ise is
the basis fo r hope fo r both fa lle n h u m a n ity and the whole creation, w hich was damaged by the
Fall. T his hope is the reason fo r the eager w a itin g (dnoKapoSoida) o f creation (v. 19). Again the
use o f personification stresses the close re la tio n sh ip between h u m a n ity and the n a tu ra l w orld
in its present state and fu tu re redem ption. C reation w a its eagerly fo r the revelation o f the
sons o f God, because at th a t tim e the prom ise w ill be fu lfille d and creation w ill achieve the
potential fo r w h ich it was created. A t th a t tim e creation w ill be delivered from its fu tility and
slavery to co rru p tio n and share in the g lo iy of the glorified children o f God (v. 21).
G ram m atically it is best to see e^' eXjriSi145 as connected w ith mexdyr] ra th e r th a n
orcoxdâvxa.146 C reation was subjected to fu tility , yet a t the same tim e w ith a prom ise giving
hope for its deliverance. T his fits perfectly the Gen. 3 account where God cursed the ground
(3:17-18) and a t the same tim e prom ised deliverance (3:15) in response to Adam s sin.
There is a strong p arallel between the present state and fu tu re hope o f hum an ity and
the present state and fu tu re hope o f the w ider m a te ria l creation. Kasemann argues th a t the
hope o f th e enslaved creation fo r redem ption is the cosm ic basis fo r the hope o f the enslaved
14SSome MSS have the spelling va ria n t en etoctiu. T his is due to the evolution o f the
aspira tion o f the w ord. See F. Blass and A. D ebrunner, A Greek Grammar o f the New
Testament and Other E arly C hristian Literature, trans. Robert W. F u n k (Chicago: U niversity o f
Chicago, 1961), 10-1.
146Sanday and Headlam, 208: C ranfield, Romans, 414; Nelson, Groaning, 196. Contrast
Fitzm yer, Romans, 508, who says the hope goes w ith th e nearer verb unoxaavxa. H ill,
"C onstruction," 247, says the hope is based on the nature of the person who subjected
creation (tinoxdijavxa).
380
person who cries fo r deliverance (7:21-25).147 Rom. 8:20-21 anticipates the clim ax o f
Romans 1-11, w hich is in 11:32. God sh u t a ll under disobedience so he could show m ercy to
a ll (11:32), a p rin cip le th a t is extended in Rom. 8:20-21 to the entire creation. God subjected
the m aterial order to fu tility and slavery to decay, in anticipatio n o f its fin a l transform ation in
g lo iy .148 The hope o f redeemed h u m a n ity fo r its fin a l Resurrection and g lo rifica tio n (8:24-25)
is p a rt o f the larger hope of creation fo r deliverance (8:20-21). The hope fo r the redem ption of
creation is contingent upon the redem ption of hum anity, n o t independent o f it (v. 19, 21).
F. The In te rp re ta tio n o f Verse 21
T his verse represents the clim ax o f th is section. It describes the glorious fu tu re to
w hich creation looks forward.
The te xtu a l evidence is fa irly evenly divided between the textu al va ria n t o ti or Sioxi fo r
the in itia l word. There are good q u a lity, early MSS w ith e ith e r reading.149 The difference is
largely s ty lis tic and does not affect the in terpretation o f the verse, since b o th words can mean
either "that" o r "because in H ellenistic Greek lite ra tu re .150
Scholars are divided between tran slatin g o n as "th a t151 o r because."152 (1) I f it
147K5semann, Romans, 236.
148Foerster, TDNT, 'Kti<d," 3:1032; cf. Kasemann, Romans, 236; R ust, 237-8.
149It is lik e ly th a t the 8i- was added to o n by dittography from the ending o f the previous
word, etaiS i (Fitzm yer, Romans, 509). It is also possible, o f course, th a t the 8i- was
accidentally deleted from 8id n by haplography. C ranfield argues th a t o n is the easier reading,
since it w ould be n a tu ra l to expect it to introduce a statem ent of the content o f the hope. He
concludes, therefore, th a t 8i 6n is o riginal since it is the more d iffic u lt reading (Cranfield,
Romans, 414-5). T his argum ent has little force, however, since in H ellenistic Greek both on
and 8io n can be used to introduce content as w e ll as causal clauses (M oulton and M illigan,
164-5; cf. Nelson, Groaning, 126-7). A lthough Paul prefers o n (250 to 10), 4 o f the 10 usages
o f Sion appear in Romans. The m a jo rity o f scholars today slig h tly favor o n , since m ost early
uncials and the tw o oldest papyri have th is reading. See the extensive discussion in Nelson,
Groaning, 124-7.
150A. V iard, "Expectatio Creaturae (Rom., Vin, 19-22)," RB 69 (1952): 334; cf. M oulton and
M illigan, 164-5.
151E.g. Sanday and Headlam, 208; Denney, 644; Bruce. 173; Francis, 153; Moo, Romans,
381
functions to indicate content ("that"), v. 21 explains the contents o f the hope o f creation:
C reation was subjected in hope th a t it w ould be liberated from bondage to corru ption. (2) I f
the fu n ctio n is causal ('because"), v. 21 explains the reason w hy the creation has hope:
C reation has hope because it know s th a t it w ill be liberated one day. B oth ideas are tru e and
it is d iffic u lt to distinguish between them based on eithe r gram m ar o r context. The m ain idea
is not affected by eithe r in terpretation. The tra n sla tio n because" indicates a slig h tly greater
degree of certa inty th a t the hope w ill be fu lfille d . There is nothing in the context, however,
th a t w ould suggest th a t the hope is only potential, ra th e r th a n confidence based on a divine
prom ise for the fu tu re o f creation.
The expression koci afrrn gives em phasis to xxio i^: "even creation itse lf." I t conveys a
sense o f wonder: "Even the creation its e lf is going to be set free!"153 The expression also
m akes clear th a t ictim q is to be distinguished from believers. Not only the ch ild re n o f God, b u t
even creation its e lf w ill be set free from slavery to c o rru p tio n .154
The present cond ition of creation is not only subjected to fu tility (v. 20), b u t also
enslaved to c o rru p tio n (<fr9opd, v. 21). The genitive <}9opd indicates th a t to w hich creation is
enslaved (Moo suggests it is an objective genitive),1SSra th e r th a t in w hich the slavery con
sists (genitive o f apposition)156 o r the slavery th a t comes from corru ption (subjective geni-
553; Fitzmyer, Rowans, 509.
152E.g. D unn, Romans, 471; H ill, "C onstruction," 297; Boylan, 144; B a rrett, Romans, 166;
C ranfield, Romans, 414-5. M ost who tran slate o n "th a t," in se rt a comma before e+' eXrriSi;
when o il is tran slated because," a comma is placed after. See Nelson, Groaning, 128, fo r the
positions of various tran slatio ns.
153M oo, Romans, 553.
154Cf. Loane, 84.
155Godet, Romans, 315; Lange, Romans, 272; Moo, Romans, 553.
156M urray, 304, n. 30; Meyer, Romans, 2:77. M u rra y says th is is the same as the genitive
xfiv eXcuBepiav xtfe 5ofy\q. This is not com pelling, because the la tte r could be interpreted as the
freedom that is a re su lt o f the glory o r p a rt o f the glory.
382
tive).157 C reation is helplessly enslaved to corruption.
<D9opd can be used in tw o m ajor senses: (1) death, decay and destruction (Gal. 6 :8; 2
Pet. 2:12); and (2) m oral c o rru p tio n and evil (1 Pet. 1:4; 2:19). A th ird derivative sense is "that
w hich is perishable" or "c o rru p tib ility ," in the sense o f being subject to death (1 Cor. 15:42,
50).158 Even w hen <}9opd is used in the sense o f death, in the NT a m oral connotation
underlies it (e.g. Gal. 6:8, sowing sin results in destruction: 2 Pet. 2:12, evil creatures w ill be
destroyed). Even th e sense o f th e p e rish a b ility of the body in 1 Cor. 15:42, 50 has the
connotation o f being unsu itable fo r heavenly dw elling, because the e arthly body has "dishonor"
and "weakness" (v. 43), and la cks heavenly "gloiy" (w . 40-41, 43). In Rom. 8:19-21 the sin of
Adam is in the background as the cause fo r the corru ption. The idea th a t Adam s F all led to
universal death in hu m a n ity, w hich is expressed in Rom. 5:12, 14, is extended in Rom. 8:19-
21 to the re st o f creation, w hich is universally enslaved to death and decay.
In Rom. 8:21, <^Bopd p rim a rily refers to death and decay159 and perhaps by im plica
tio n to the tra n sito rin e ss of life .160 In Pauls w ritin g s, the noun is never used in the sense o f
m oral co rru p tio n , although the cognate verb ^Bdpoo is sometimes used to mean "corru pt
m orally" (1 Cor. 15:33: Eph 4:22), "deceive" (2 Cor. 11:3) o r "cheat" (2 Cor. 7:2). The consistent
use of th e n ou n in a non-m oral sense in Pauls w ritin g s supports the in te rp re ta tio n o f t^Bopa as
death and decay ra th e r th a n m oral evil. O nly in 2 Pet. is the w ord used m orally. T his is
reinforced by the fa ct th a t in th is verse refers to the non-hum an m aterial w orld, w hich is
n o t capable o f m oral evil. Being "enslaved to corru ption" is close to the sense o f "perishability"
157C ranfleld, Romans, p. 414],
1 G u n th e r H arder, "<Mdpa>," TDNT. 9:102-4.
1S9D unn, Romans. 471-2; C ranfield, Romans, 414; Moo, Romans, 553; Lagrange, Romans,
209; Lewis, "C h ristia n Theodicy," 407; Fitzm yer, Romans, 509. Fitzm yer extends it to include
"n o t only p e ris h a b ility and putrefa ction, b u t also powerlessness, la ck of beauty, v ita lity , and
strength th a t characterize creations present condition."
160C ranfield, Romans, 414; R ust, 234.
383
as used In 1 Cor. 15:42, 50, where the term is applied to perishable e arthly hum an bodies.
C reation is in slavery o r bondage (SooAeia) to th is state of corru ption. It has no power to free
its e lf from the cycle o f death and decay th a t is so characteristic of the n a tu ra l w o rld In th is
age.
P aul probably has in m in d the punishm ent o f death described In Gen. 3:19,161 w hich
fits the other allusions to Gen. 3 in the context. Paul also alludes to the curse In Rom. 5:12,
14, although In relatio nship to hum an ity. A lthough Genesis apparently lim its the punishm ent
o f death a fte r the F a ll to h u m a n ity, Paul extends it to a ll o f creation In Rom. 8:21. The F all o f
Adam had cosm ic consequences.
In Is. 24:3-4, $6opa and th e cognate verb $9rip<D are used in a sim ila r sense. The earth
w ill be com pletely corrupted (<^6op$ ^GapVpexoa) due to the sin s of the people (v. 5). It is also
sig n ifica n t th a t v. 4 says "the earth m ourns" (ejievOqcrev f) yfj), w h ich associates the co rru p tio n
(or devastation) and m ourning o f th e earth. The use o f nevGeeu is a s im ila r concept to "creation
groans" in Rom. 8:22. A nother s im ila rity is th a t God causes these changes to th e earth as a
ju dgm ent fo r hum an s in (v. 1, 6). A lthough Is. 24:1-6 refers to earthly re su lts o f divine
judgm ents fo r hum an s in In h is to ry and Rom. 8:20-21 refers to the results o f the divine
ju dgm ent after the F a ll, the concepts are rem arkably sim ilar. Both describe the changes th a t
hum an sin brings to the n a tu ra l w o rld as a re s u lt o f Gods ju d g m e n t.162
Helm believes th is slavery to co rru p tio n also Includes th e fact th a t various parts of
161Govett, 340; Loane, 89.
162Paul D. Hanson, The D aw n o f Apocalyptic. The H istorical and Sociological Roots o f Jew ish
Apocalyptic Eschatology, Revised ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 313-4, argues th a t
Is. 24-27 is early apocalyptic. Themes such as worldw ide destruction, re tu rn to chaos,
in a u g u ra tio n o f the new age, Im prisonm ent o f the heavenly h o st and resurrectio n certainty
show its a ffin ity to la te r apocalyptic w ritin gs. It Is probably m ore accurate to say th a t it is
"proto-apocalyptic," as argued by W illia m R M illa r, Isaiah 24-27 and the O rigin o f Apocalyptic
(M issoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1976), 114; cf. D. M. Russell, 66, n. 58.
384
nature are constantly attacking and destroying each other.163 T his is certainly an aspect of
the enslavement o f nature to death and decay, w hich is deeply ingrained in the operation of
nature as it now exists. I f th is is w hat Paul had in m ind, the eschatological transform ation o f
creation w ill involve a fundam ental change in the operation of the n a tu ra l w o rld .164 By
contrast, C. F. D. Moule argues th a t death, such as predation in nature, is an inherent p a rt of
the n a tu ra l w orld in Gods in itia l design.165 This view assumes th a t the way nature operates
now is the way it always operated. Paul, however, says th a t creation was subjected to fu tility
at a certa in h isto rica l tim e (v. 20), w hich im plies th a t nature is now different th a n it was p rio r
to the Fall. Rom. 5:12-14 indicates th a t death became p a rt o f the hum an experience a fte r the
Fall and Rom. 8:20-21 m ay extend th is to the whole n a tu ra l order. Nevertheless, Paul is not
explicit about the type of changes th a t took place in nature after the Fall, nor does he describe
the exact changes th a t w ill occur in nature in the eschaton.
M oule argues th a t the corru ption refers to the hum an abuse o f nature, to w hich nature
is subject. W hen hum anity treats nature properly as Gods vice-gerent, nature w ill be set
free.166 M oule raises some v a lid im plications o f hum an itys dom inion over nature, b u t th is
ecological concern is not w hat Paul has in m ind by <}Bopd.
Lewis acknowledges th a t $9opa p rim a rily has the physical sense of death, b u t he also
believes th a t the idea o f death as alienation from God is also in view.167 There is no doubt
th a t Romans uses death in th is sense (e.g. 6:23), b u t o n ly in relationship to sin nin g hum anity.
There is n othing in Rom. 8:19-22 th a t suggests th a t the subhum an creation "sinned"; rath er, it
163Heim, 108-9.
164Ib id ., 135-7. Cf. Loane, 84-5 and Boylan, 144, who argue th a t physical death w ill end
(cf. 1 Cor. 15:54).
j
j 165C. F. D. M oule, Man and Nature, 11-2; cf. Leenhardt, 223-6.
166C. F. D. Moule, Man and Nature, 12, 14.
167Lewis, "C h ristian Theodicy," 409-10.
385
is a v ic tim o f hum an sin (v. 19). It goes beyond the sense o f v. 22 to extend co rru p tio n to
alienation fro m God. B a rre tt believes th a t <}Bopd refers to co rru p t s p iritu a l powers168, b u t
th is does n o t f it the use o f the w ord elsewhere in Pauls w ritin gs.
A lthough "subjection (tinerdyii, v. 20) is related conceptually to "enslavement" (5outeia,
v. 21), the enslavem ent of creation to co rru p tio n is not th e same as the subjection of creation
to fu tility . R ather the fu tility is a re su lt o f the enslavem ent o f creation to death and decay.
Since death is an inescapable p a rt o f the cycle o f nature since the Fall, there is a sense of
fu tility in the patterns o f life in th is age. T his provides another reason w hy creation eagerly
aw aits its fu tu re deliverance.
This pathetic present c o rru p tib ility of creation is contrasted to the fu tu re glory th a t
creation w ill share w ith glorified believers. T his w ill re su lt in creation being freed from
enslavem ent to the cycle o f death and decay.
The expression "children o f God" (xfiv texvcov t o o Beou) refers to C hristians (cf. w . 16-
17). Paul uses xeievov interchangeably w ith <1165 to refer to believers in the context (cf. w . 14-
17).169 Believers are the "children o f God" who w ill be glorified w ith C hrist (v. 17). The "gloiy
o f the ch ild re n o f God" (ttv ; 5 o i k tekvcsv t o o Beoo) refers to the eschatological g lo iy th a t
believers w ill share w ith God fo r e te rn ity.170 Believers w ill be glorified w ith C hrist at h is
Second Coming. They w ill share in h is g lo iy and reflect h is g lo iy (v. 17). The unspeakable
glory o f God also w ill be revealed to them (v. 18). A s im ila r concept is expressed in Col. 3:4,
w hich states th a t believers w ill appear w ith C h rist in g lo iy a t his second coming.
C reation eagerly aw aits the revealing o f the ch ild re n o f God (v. 19) because at th a t tim e
creation its e lf w ill be redeemed, transform ed and set free from slavery to corru ption (v. 21).
168B a rre tt, Romans, 166, although he adm its the personification o f creation in the passage
is "not im possible."
' See p. 367.
170Ksemann, Romans, 234.
386
The eschatological redem ption o f the m ate rial w o rld is connected w ith the fin a l glorifica tio n of
believers because o f the stew ardship th a t h u m a n ity was given over the earth. Even as the
dom inion of h u m a n ity resulted in the co rru p tio n o f creation when Adam fe ll, so it w ill re su lt in
th e redem ption o f creation when h u m a n ity assum es its proper role in God's plan.
V6gtle (followed by Kfisem ann) argues th a t th e parousia is uniquely described here in
exclusively anthropological term s as the m anifestation o f the children o f God.171 This is
p a rtia lly tru e , b u t it misses th e m a in p o in t o f the passage. C ertainly the focus o f the expec
ta tio n here is on th e g lo rifica tio n o f believers, ra th e r th a n the appearing o f C h rist, because,
fro m th e perspective o f creation, the m ost sig n ifica n t eschatological event is the glo rifica tio n of
h u m a n ity. T h is is because w hen believers are exalted, creation its e lf w ill be redeemed and
share in th a t glory.
The eschatological freedom (eXeoQeptoOôetai, eteuBepiav) of creation is sharply
contrasted w ith its present state o f slavery (Souteiaq). Even as creation is cu rre n tly enslaved to
c o rru p tio n , it w ill be set free to share in the g lo ry o f the ch ild re n of God. The freedom involves
b o th a negative and a positive dim ension.172 C reation w ill be set free from slavery to
c o rru p tio n . The ongoing cycle o f death and decay th a t characterizes the created w o rld in th is
age w ill end. C reation w ill also experience the 'freedom o f the glory of the ch ild re n o f God" (e14
tTyv cXeuSepvocv xx\q S o^q x<5v xacvoav xou 8eou). Freedom is one aspect of the glory th a t believers
w ill enjoy in e te rn ity and the m a te ria l creation w ill share th is freedom w ith the redeemed.
The freedom of the subhum an m a te ria l w o rld, however, is n o t exactly th e same type as
th e freedom o f believers. It is a freedom and g lo rifica tio n appropriate to its n on -ration al
n a tu re .173 C reation w ill become a ll th a t God intended it to be, b u t w hich it was prevented
> 171V 6gtle, Z uku nft des Kosmos, 187; Kasemann, Romans, 234.
f
172M oo, Romans, 553.
173Cf. M urray, 304.
387
from becoming due to the im pact o f hum an sin. A ll o f nature w ill b rin g glory to God.
C ranfleld correctly says th a t creation w ill have "the freedom fu lly and perfectly to fu lfil its
Creators purpose fo r it, th a t freedom w hich it does n o t have, so long as m an, its lord (Gen.
1.26; Ps. 8 :6) is in disgrace."174 Tennant observes th a t the present co n d itio n of creation is
"neith er original n o r fin a l." The w o rk o f C h rist in redem ption finishes the w ork o f God in
creation, by b rin g in g the creation to its intended state so it m ay fu lfil the purposes fo r w hich it
was created.175 C h rist's redem ption does not m erely affect hum anity, b u t it has cosmic
consequences th a t affect a ll o f creation.
The significance o f the genitive xqq SoijTy; has been debated: (1) Some B ible versions
(KJV, RSV, NIV, TEV) tran slate xqv eXeuQepiav xffe 5 6 tj< ; as "glorious freedom ," In th is view,
5ot) is seen as a genitive o f q u a lity o r an adjectival genitive, perhaps based on a Semitic
idiom . Sanday and Headlam correctly observe, however, th a t th is tu rn s thing s around by
m aking the freedom the p rim a ry term . The p rim a ry term is Soâ, to w hich eteoBepia is
subordinate. Freedom is one aspect o f the eschatological glory.176 (2) M u rra y and Nelson
see it as appositional. M u rra y says it is "the lib e rty th a t consists in the glory of Gods
ch ild re n ."177 Freedom and glory, however, are n o t precisely the same. (3) C ranfleld believes
it m akes more sense s tru c tu ra lly to see rf|q So^qq as th e same type of genitive as xqq ^Bopa?.
The lib e rty "results from , is the necessary accom panim ent of, the (revelation of the) glory o f the
ch ild re n of God."178 B a rre tt also believes th a t the freedom arises out o f the eschatological
174Cranfield, Romans, 416.
17SF. R Tennant, The Sources o f the Doctrines o f the F all and O riginal S in (Cambridge:
Cambridge U niversity Press, 1903), 271; Cf. G riffith , Romans, 115; Dodd, Bible, 106; Leen-
h a rd t, 222 .
176Sanday and Headlam, 208; cf. M orris, Romans, 322.
177M urray, 304; cf. Nelson, Groaning, 204. Kasemann, Romans, 234, com bines th is view
w ith the content view.
178Cranfield, Romans, 416-7.
388
glory.179 (4) Moo believes the sense is 'loosely possessive," m eaning "the freedom th a t
belongs to, Is associated w ith , the state o f glory." It is a freedom th a t only comes w ith the
com ing eschatological glory.180 Moo is close to the exact m eaning, although perhaps it
should be called a genitive o f content, ra th e r th a n possession. Liberty is one aspect o f the
eschatological glory.181
Regardless o f the precise classification o f the genitive, the sense is a com bination o f the
view o f the th ird and fo u rth views. The freedom is both an aspect o f the eschatological glory
(content) and the freedom w ill flo w out o f o r re su lt from the glory (source). A lthough the two
term s are not precisely the same, freedom is a re su lt o f the glorification o f believers.182 The
n on-rational creation w ill jo in w ith believers in th is freedom th a t is p art o f eschatological glory.
A related idea is expressed in 1 Cor. 15:42-43, where Paul contrasts the p e rish a b ility of
the present hum an body w ith the glory o f the fu tu re resurrection body. Rom. 8:23 also refers
to the resurrection of the body th a t believers await. The perishable bodies of believers are part
o f the perishable creation th a t is enslaved to c o rru p tib ility . B oth the believers bodies (Rom.
8:23, cf. 17-18; 1 Cor. 15:42, 50) and the rest o f the m aterial creation (Rom. 8:21) w ill be
delivered from enslavement to c o rru p tib ility and w ill share in eternal glory. Ronald Knox is
correct th a t the bodies o f believers w ill be redeemed as representatives of the m aterial
w o rld,183 b u t he goes too fa r when he claim s th a t th is is p rim a rily w hat Paul has in m ind in
Rom. 8:21. The redem ptive w o rk o f C h rist does n o t m erely affect hum anity. It has cosmic
179B arrett, Romans, 166.
I80Moo, Romans, 554.
181Godet, Romans, 315.
182Cf. Fitzm yer, Romans, 509. He says freedom is a characteristic o f the glory. Kasemann,
Romans, 234, says "eschatological glory is perfected freedom and th is in tu rn is the content o f
the eschatological g lo rifica tio n o f the ch ild re n o f God." T his is a com bination o f the apposition
and content views.
1 Ronald Knox, 2:100.
389
consequences th a t affect a ll o f creation. The whole creation (nfiaa f| Kximq, v. 22) is involved In
the present suffering. The subhum an m ate rial creation w ill also be delivered from slavery to
c o rru p tio n and death to share in eternal glory (v. 21). Denney observes th a t th is new glorified,
redeemed w orld in w hich righteousness dw ells w ill be a suitable dw elling fo r redeemed and
g lo rifie d h u m a n ity (cf. Is. 65:17; 2 Pet. 3:13; Rev. 21:1).184
In Pauls concept of the new creation in th is passage, he does not appear to have in
m in d the destruction o f the present w orld and the creation o f a new w o rld .185 The p ictu re is
of th e redem ption and transform ation of the present m aterial w orld. Creation does n o t look
forw ard eagerly to its own destruction, b u t it anticipates w ith hope its fu tu re lib e rty and glory.
The fu tu re certa inly w ill involve a fundam ental change in the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld,
since death and decay are such integral parts of the operation o f nature as it now exists. Paul,
however, only alludes to these changes and does n o t elaborate on th e ir nature.
A n im p o rta n t question is w hether Paul has in m in d a restoration o f the pre-F ail
cond ition s of the m aterial w orld (e.g. Achtem eier, Stacey, Francis, D ahl)186 o r a tran sform
a tio n of creation to an even greater state th a n the o riginal creation (e.g. Tennant, G riffith ,
Nelson, G ib lin ).187 There are several indications th a t Paul conceives o f the fin a l state o f
creation as even greater th a n its pre-F ail condition: (1) The overall outlook o f the passage is
forw ard looking. Creation does not look back w ith nostalgia at w hat it lost, b u t it looks
184Denney, 649; cf. Nygren, 331.
185Bruce, 170; M urray, 304, n. 28; Moo, Romans, 554. C ontrast H. C. G. M oule, Romans,
150, w ho says creation w ill "die" (be destroyed) and be "resurrected" to a new heavens and
earth. T h is view is derived from such passages as 2 Pet. 3:10 ("destroyed by fire") and M t.
24:35, b u t th is goes beyond the ideas in Rom. 8:19-22.
186Achtem eier, Romans, 142-3; Stacey. "Pauls C ertainties," 180; Francis, 154; D ahl, 441.
D ahl classifies th is passage in the "re stitu tio n " category. Francis points to the rabbinic
tra d itio n th a t one of the six thing s Adam lo st a t the F a ll th e divine glory reflected on h is face
(cf. Sanday and Headlam, 85).
I87Tennant, 271; Nelson, Groaning, 276-7; G riffith , Romans, 115; G iblin, 395 and possibly
Leenhardt, 222.
390
forw ard w ith a n ticip a tio n to w hat it w ill gain (w . 19, 21). (2) The fin a l state o f redeemed
h u m a n ity w ill be a glory th a t is greater th a n th a t w h ich Adam lost. Believers are ch ild re n of
God and w ill share in th e glory of C h rist (w . 17-18). P aul says th a t creation participates in
th is glory (v. 2 1).188 (3) The c h ild b irth m etaphor (v. 22), suggests the creation of a new life or
a new state o f affa irs, ra th e r th a n the re tu rn to a previous condition. Thus the damage to
creation due to s in w ill n o t sim ply be removed, b u t creation w ill be glorified so th a t the fu tu re
state o f creation w ill be even greater th a n th a t of the pre-F ail w orld.189
G. The In te rp re ta tio n o f Verse 22
T his verse supports (yap) w h at Paul has said in the previous verses, both in term s of
the present state and th e fu tu re hope of creation. It supports the present fu tility and slavery
o f creation to c o rru p tio n (w . 20-21) by show ing th a t a ll o f creation groans in agony. It also
supports the hope o f v. 2 1,190 by in d ica tin g th a t the present suffering o f creation can be
in terpreted as b irth pangs b rin g in g in a glorious new w orld. M urray observes th a t "these
groans and tra v a ils are n o t death pangs b u t b irth pangs.191 The present state o f suffering
in creation confirm s the fu tu re hope of the glory o f creation.
Paul says th a t the whole creation groans and suffers. The expression n&oa fj K tio i^
indicates th a t it is n o t sim ply h u m a n ity th a t suffers due to the F a ll.192 The entire creation
was affected.
188G iblin, 395, believes th a t since the g lo rifica tio n o f creation w ill be associated w ith the
g lo rifie d C h rist ra th e r th a n Adam, its glory w ill be of a different type th a n th a t Adam knew in
Paradise.
1"M u rra y , 305.
191Ibid.
192The general ru le is th a t ndq w ith an a rtic u la r noun means "the whole," in contrast to the
usage w ith an ana rth ro u s noun, w hich m eans "each o r "every." A lthough th is ru le is
som etim es broken in b ib lic a l Greek, it is followed here (Moo, Romans, 555).
391
"We know" (ot5a|iV) introduces som ething th a t the w rite r assumes is generally accepted
by the readers and th u s serves as a common ground on w hich he can base h is argum ent.193
T his w ord has been understood in tw o m ajor ways: (1) M any scholars believe th is refers to
general knowledge, based on the observation o f nature. Anyone who looks about at the
n a tu ra l w o rld w ith sensitivity can see the cycle o f suffering, death and decay th a t grips nature
in its relentless h o ld .194 (2) A m ore lik e ly view is th a t th is is som ething generally know n
among C h ristians, based on divine revelation in th e O ld Testam ent and refined thro ugh
C h ristian teaching.195 Gen. 3:17 indicates the damage the creation suffered due to the Fall.
O ther OT passages refer to the damage o f sin on nature (e.g. Is. 24:4-7; 33:9; Jer. 4:4, 11, 26-
28). B oth OT and NT refer to the fu tu re transform ation o f creation, w hich is a basis o f hope
despite th e present suffering o f creation, (e.g. Is. 11:6-9; 65:17-25; 66:22-23; A cts 3:21; 2 Pet.
3:13; Rev. 21: If). C ranfleld, S tauffer, D unn and Nelson extend th is to include the tra d itio n o f
Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re , w hich refined the OT understanding o f the im pact o f sin on
n a tu re.196 Paul consistently uses olSapev to refer to som ething know n to believers by fa ith
through revelation, not som ething th a t is com m on knowledge.197 A lthough a sensitive
194H. C. G. Moule, Romans, 151; Godet, Romans, 315; Lenski, 539; Sanday and Headlam,
208-9; Moo, Romans, 554; BAGD, 558; Loane, 87; W. A. W hitehouse, 40-1. Boylan, 144,
believes it is both know n to the senses and by revelation.
195C ranfield, Romans, 416; Boylan, 144; Lampe, "New Testam ent D octrine," 458; Breech,
76; Meyer, Romans, 2:326; B. W eiss, Romer, 365; Leenhardt, 222; Gaugler, 1:306-9.
S tuhlm acher, Romans, 134, says it is both the knowledge the Romans gained from experience
and from th e ir fa ith .
196C ranfield, Romans, 416; Stauffer, 74; D unn, Romans, 472; Nelson, Groaning, 211-2. E.g.
Nelson cites 4 Ez. 7:31-33; Sib. Or. 3:752.
197Cf. Rom. 2:2 (the ju dgm ent o f God fa lls on hypocrites); 3:19 (whatever the Law says it
says to those u n d e r the Law); 7:14 (the Law is sp iritu a l); 8:28 (God causes a ll thing s to w ork
together fo r good); cf. 1 Cor. 8:1, 4; 2 Cor. 5:1; 1 Tim . 1:8. The fu n ctio n o f olSoqtev is different
in 8:26, where he says we do not know how to pray. 2 Cor. 5:16 m ay be an exception to the
shared experience o f believers, since it m ay be lim ite d to Paul and a few others. Paul,
however, never uses the w ord to refer to a generally know n tru th evident to a ll people.
392
person could perceive the suffering o f nature, only the eyes o f fa ith in lig h t o f divine revelation
can see th a t the suffering o f creation is the tra v a il o f b irth , not the agony o f death.
A ll o f creation is "groaning together" (mxnevdêi) throughout the ages. A lthough
(Tuoxevd^co is only used here in the NT, the cognate oievdôa occurs 6 tim es in the NT and 17
tim es in the LXX. The basic m eaning o f crevd is "to sigh," "to groan" or "to w ail." It
expresses a deep distress o f s p irit in response to an undesirable circum stance.198 C reation
groans due to its subjection to fu tility and its bondage to corruption, w hich is the re su lt o f the
curse in response to the F all (w . 20-21).199 The b ib lic a l usage o f arevd<n often has the
positive expectation of an im m inent resolu tion of the cause of distress.200 Creation eagerly
aw aits the day when the sons o f God w ill be revealed and creation w ill be delivered from its
bondage (w . 19, 21). The groaning is not fu tile , b u t it is associated w ith the eager expectation
o f a glorious fu tu re (v. 19), in lig h t o f the fact th a t God subjected creation in hope o f its fu tu re
deliverance (v. 20). T his positive expectation is also suggested b y the b irth pangs m etaphor (v.
22), since b irth pangs im ply an im m inent jo y afte r the tra va il is complete (cf. Jn. 16:21).
Indeed, the groaning is n a tu ra lly associated w ith the b irth pangs and suggests the cries o f a
wom an in labor. T hus the groaning has a two-way focus: it cries fo r release from the present
condition of the co rru p tio n o f creation and looks forw ard to the tim e o f deliverance as a
positive hope. T his vision transform s the groaning so it does not indicate despair.201
C ontrast Moo, Romans, 554.
198J. Schneider, 'TtevdC," TDNT, 7:600. Cf. Ex. 6:15: Job. 3:24; Is. 11:6; 51:11.
199Ibid., 601-2. B arth, Romans, 310, m isses the point of the passage when he says the
groaning is due to "createdness" and the tem poral nature o f things (cf. Glacken, 163, who says
the groaning is p a rt of God's design fo r nature and is not related to sin).
200Nelson, Groaning, 222, 255. E.g. Ps. 38:9 (expects God to deliver him from the crisis);
Ex. 6:5; Ps. 11:6; Is. 51:11 (redem ption is about to be accomplished); Jn. 16:21 (childbirth); 2
Cor. 5:2, 4 (believers groaning to be clothed w ith the heavenly body; cf. v. 5 fo r the guarantee).
201Heil, 86-7; Nelson, Groaning, 256-7.
393
Is. 24:4-7 also says th a t the n a tu ra l order groans tn pain due to hum an sin. The earth
m ourns (nevGem) due to hum an sin, w hich "pollutes" the earth (w . 4-5). The LXX uses mevd^co.
m uch like Paul uses <nxrcevda> in Rom. 8:22, to re fe r to the groaning o f p a rt of the natural
order due to the devastation of sin (v. 7). The new w ine groans in sorrow due to its Inability to
produce a fru itfu l harvest. The entire n a tu ra l order groans and suffers since it is spoiled by
hum an sin.
Paul personifies the n a tu ra l w orld and says It suffers and groans due to hum an
s in .202 This anthropopathism stresses the damage th a t hum an s in does to the n a tu ra l
w orld. Creation has been seriously damaged and it w as set o ff course fro m its original created
purpose. Even though Paul uses personification, th is does n o t m ean the suffering of creation
is not real.200
There is a three-fold dim ension to the groaning in the context: (1) A ll creation groans as
it longs fo r deliverance from slavery to co rru p tio n (v. 22). (2) Believers groan as they await the
redem ption o f th e ir bodies (v. 23; cf. 2 Cor. 5 :2 ,4 ). (3) The S p irit groans in intercession for
believers (v. 26). T his s tru c tu ra l device stresses th e s o lid a rity between believers and the rest of
creation. Both groan fo r com plete deliverance from the co rru p tio n of th e physical w orld. The
S p irit supports the longing o f believers as they express in prayer th e ir desire fo r deliverance.
Paul also says th a t creation suffers the pains o f c h ild b irth (oovcsSiva). A lthough th is
com pound form w ith cruv- is unique in the NT, the root verb o5ivco (Gal. 4:19, 27; Rev. 12:2)
and the cognate noun <b8iv (Mt. 24:8; M k. 13:8; A cts 2:24; 1 Th. 5:3) are used several tim es in
the NT. The m etaphor of b irth pangs p oints to intense and prolonged p ain th a t leads to a
According to Vdgtle, Z uku nft des Kosmos, 193 and Paul A lthaus, D er B rie f an die Rdmer
ubersetzt und erklart (G ottingen: Vandenhoeck and R uprecht, 1978), 82, only believers can
actu a lly hear and in terpret th is groaning.
203Gore, 1:305. believes there is actual suffering, p a rtic u la rly am ong anim als
394
I
U
jo yous and positive outcom e.204 It is a b ip o la r m etaphor th a t combines both p a in and a
positive fu tu re outcome. T his can be m ore precisely broken down in to several aspects th a t are
em phasized in various degrees in p a rtic u la r passages: (1) intense pain, struggle and suffering;
(2) suffe ring th a t continues fo r an extended period; (3) fu tu re jo y, w hich is often sharply
contrasted to th e sorrow and pain; and (4) the development of new life or a new state of affairs
th a t is b etter and more glorious th a n th e present. The follow ing table shows the significance
o f b irth pangs in the NT:
Table 27: Birth Pangs in the New Testament
Pain: Positive Outcome:

Passage: Literal Birth:
Intense Pain: Extended Pain: Future Joy: New, Better Future State:
(bSivm:
Gal. 4:19 X X X
Gal. 4:27 X X
Rev. 12:2 X X (e.g. v. 5)
Rom. 8:22 X X X
cbBiv:
Mt. 24:8 (Primary) (Secondary)
Mk. 13:8 (Primary) (Secondary)
Acts 2:24 Agony of death
1 Th. 5:3 Suddenness of the pain
T im m :
Jn. 16:21 X X X
Gal. 4:27 X X
Heb. 6:7 Ground brings vegetation
Jam. 1:15 Lust gives birth to sin
Allother (13) give birth, be bom
Tiiccco is included in th is ch a rt because it sem antically overlaps w ith <b8ivm. In m ost
cases (13 tim es) th is w ord is used lite ra lly to m ean "give b irth " or 'be bom ." B u t when it is
204Leenhardt, 222.
395
used m etaphorically (4 tim es), its fu n c tio n is very sim ila r to <b8ivco. In Gal. 4:27 (a quotation of
Is. 5 4 :1), x ik x c o is in poetic parallelism to <&5iva>, showing the close s im ila rity o f the words. This
ch a rt shows th a t eithe r o r b o th aspects o f the b ipolar m etaphor m ay be in view, depending on
the context.
In Rom. 8:22 the b irth pangs m etaphor shows th a t the groaning and suffering of
creation w ill n o t be in vain. From one vantage point, th e creation suffers as a consequence of
the divine curse due to the Fall. Yet th is subjection o f creation was not in vain o r w ith o u t
hope (v. 20). The b irth pangs m etaphor in te rp re ts the pain and groaning o f creation due to the
F all as a hopeful sign th a t glorious changes are soon com ing to the w orld. B irth pangs are a
productive pain th a t re su lt in new life .205
The b irth pangs m etaphor, however, does not necessarily im ply th a t Paul has in m ind
th a t the earth w ill be recreated o r a new earth w ill be b o m 206 As has been shown, v. 21
suggests he has in m in d the tran sform ation o f the present m aterial creation. The b irth pangs
m etaphor is flexible enough to include a positive fu tu re outcome w ith o u t requiring the creation
o f som ething new.
G em pf argues th a t the b irth pangs m etaphor only refers to intense p ain and does not
allude to the b irth o f a new w orld. A lthough the passage as a whole speaks o f hope, the b irth
pangs m etaphor only refers to the present pain o f the w orld. He argues th a t the m etaphor
often refers to helpless pain, fru s tra tio n and fu tility .207 Gem pfs study correctly demon
strates th a t b irth pangs often focus on great pain, p a rticu la rly in the LXX, where the outcome
o f the pain is frequently n o t in view .208 He overstates h is case, however, since the b irth
206Cf. Gore, 1:306; Loane, 87; M urray, 305.
206C ontra G. B ertram , "Q5iv," TDNT, 9:673.
207Conrad Gempf, "The Im agery o f B irth Pangs in the New Testam ent," TynB ul 45, no. 1
(1994): 123-4.
208Gempf argues fo r several uses o f the m etaphor in the Bible: (1) intense p ain (Jer. 4:21;
396
pangs m etaphor in h e re n tly has nuances of expectation and orie n ta tio n to the fu tu re 209.
B irth pangs passages in th e LXX can focus on any phase o f the process o r outcome o f
b irth .210 In m any o f G em pfs examples the outcome o f the pain is o f m a jo r in terest.211
Furtherm ore, as the above ch a rt shows, in the NT <&Siv<d and <&8iv are u su a lly concerned w ith
the outcome o f the pain, w ith two exceptions th a t focus on the p a in its e lf (Acts 2:24; 1 Th.
5:3). Tucno always focuses on the outcom e, when it is used m etaphorically. In each case the
context determ ines w hich aspect o f th is b ip o la r m etaphor is in view. The context o f Rom. 8:22
focuses on eschatological hope (w . 20, 24-25), w h ich suggests th a t the b irth pangs m etaphor
also has the fu tu re glory o f creation in view. In w . 17-18 the suflfering-glory theme is applied
to believers, whereas in w . 19 and 21 the focus is on the fu tu re glorious state o f creation and
its deliverance from bondage to corruption. V. 19 also has the theme o f w a iting fo r an
extended period fo r a positive fu tu re outcome. The b irth pangs m etaphor is another way of
tyin g together a ll o f these images o f extended suffering and fin a l glory. The b irth pangs
m etaphor is ideally suited fo r th is purpose since it n a tu ra lly com bines both sides. It also
im plies th a t the present suffe ring o f creation, although intense and prolonged, w ill not
continue forever. T his too reinforces the theme o f hope.
Tsum ura argues th a t the reference to b irth pangs alludes to Gen. 3:16, in w hich pain
in childbearing is p a rt o f the punishm ent fo r the F a ll.212 Keesmaat also points out th a t there
30:4-7; 1 En. 62:4-6; M k. 13); (2) helpless pain (Is. 13:4-8; Jer. 48:41; Ps. 48:4; Is. 42:13-14;
cf. 1QH 5) (124-126); (3) productive pain (Jn. 16:21; Is. 66:6-9; M ic. 4:10; 5:3-4; cf. 1QH 3;
bSanhedrin 97-98); (3a) fru s tra tio n of an unproductive b irth process (Is. 26:17-18; Hos.
13:13); (3b) the b irth ra th e r th a n the process (Rev. 12:1-6; Gal. 4:19); (4) p a in th a t m u st ru n
its course, related to helplessness (Mic. 4:9-10; 5:3; M k. 13:8; M t. 24).
209Cf. Heil, 87.
210B ertram , "l8iv ," TDNT, 9:668-70.
211Gemphs category 3, productive pain: Is. 66:6-9; M i 4:10; 5:3-4; Jn . 16:21; cf. 1QH 3;
bSan. 97-98; and, category 3b, focus on the b irth ra th e r th a n the process: Rev. 12:1-6; Gal.
4:19.
212D. T. Tsum ura, "An OT Background to Rom 8:22," NTS 40, no. 4 (1994): 620-1; cf.
397
is a verbal p a ra lle l w ith the w ord "groaning," w h ich has the same root in both Gen. 3:17
(oTevocftiov) and Rom. 8:22 (cixrcevcxêi). Paul uses the language of the curse to show th a t
creation suffers the anguish o f the F a ll.213 I f th is is tru e , it strengthens the lin k between
Rom. 8:19-22 and Gen. 3, since b oth the curse on the ground (Gen. 3:17-19) and the p ain of
childbearing (Gen. 3:16) are in view. A lthough th e LXX uses X.wn ra th e r th a n (frSiv fo r the
pains o f c h ild b irth , Paul m ay have th o u g h t o f th is m etaphor fo r the pains o f the earth because
Gen. 3 was in h is m ind. Nevertheless, the pains of ch ild b irth in Rom. 8:22 are clearly
m etaphorical ra th e r than the lite ra l b irth pangs o f Gen. 3:16.
B irth pangs are often used as an eschatological sym bol in both the B ible and non-
canonical Jew ish lite ra tu re . In the OT, eschatological suffering is often com pared to the pains
o f c h ild b irth (Is. 13:8; 21:3; 26:17-18; 66:7-8; Jer. 4:31; 22:23; Hos. 13:13; M ic. 4:9-10). In
th e NT, M k. 13 and M t. 24 are especially sig nifica nt, because they refer to such cosmic
disasters as earthquakes and fam ines th a t w ill precede C h rists second com ing (cf. 1 Th. 5:3).
M any scholars believe the concept o f cosm ic suffering in Rom. 8:20-22 is sim ila r to th e 'b irth
pangs o f the Messiah" (BPM) in the OT and Jew ish lite ra tu re . This concept refers to a period
o f cosm ic disasters and suffering th a t w ill occur a t the end o f the age as a prelude to the
com ing o f the M essiah.214 There is m uch in com m on between Rom. 8:20-22 and these
passages: (1) They speak o f eschatological cosmic disasters th a t precede the com ing o f the
Keesmaat, "Exodus," 392.
213Keesmaat, "Exodus," 392, also sees a s im ila rity to the Exodus accounts o f Israels
groaning in bondage (Ex. 2:23-24; 6:5; cf. Jer. 38:19).
2l4The concept is found in Q um ran and Jew ish apocalyptic (e.g. 1QH 3:7-18; 1 En. 62:4; cf.
the C h ristia n addition to 4 Ezra in 16:37-39). However, S track and B illerbeck, 3:1:950, 4:564,
1042, 1067, show th a t it is more fu lly developed in rabbinic lite ra tu re ; e.g. Tg. Ps. 18:4; Pro.
on 2 S. 22:5. Nevertheless, m any p o in t to the sim ila ritie s between Rom. 8:22 and these BPM
passages. C ranfleld, Romans, 416; Bruce, 173; Best, 98; Francis, 155; Kasemann, Romans,
232; Vdgtle, "R6m 8,19-22," 191, 198, 206; R ichard Batey, The Letter o f Paul to the Romans
(A ustin, Texas: R. B. Sweet, 1969), 114; Gerber, 61, 75; Balz, 52; Schlier, "W orauf," 600, 606;
M ichel, 175.
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glorious new age. (2) In m any passages the cosm ic disasters are a consequence o f an increase
In hum an sin.
The differences, however, are sig n ifica n t enough th a t Rom. 8:20-22 cannot be used as
an exam ple o f BPM: (1) In the BPM passages, the Intense cosmic trib u la tio n occurs over a
sh o rt period p rio r to the com ing of the M essiah. B y contrast, in Rom. 8:20-22 the creation
suffers thro ugho ut the age from the F a ll to the end tim es.215 T his is shown by the phrase
d%pi to o v6v. (2) In m ost of the OT and rabbinic passages, the focus is the suffering of
hum ans ra th e r th a n the n a tu ra l w o rld .216 Jew ish apocalyptic goes fu rth e r In looking at the
eschatological sufferings o f nature, b u t the em phasis is s till on how th is leads to hum an
suffering. (3) In la te r Jew ish passages, the trib u la tio n s are p a rt o f a process of bringing about
the M essianic age, a concept th a t Is less clear In Rom. 8 and n o t a t a ll developed in the
OT.217 A lthough Pauls idea of cosmic groaning and b irth pangs is not exactly the same as
BPM, it Is a closely related concept o f cosm ic trava il.
The significance o f the truv- com pound verbs (mxTTevd^co and ouvoSivo) has been
understood In various ways: (1) Tholuck, Fitzm yer and others believe th a t the subhum an
creation groans w ith believers, In lig h t o f v. 23, w h ich describes the believers groaning fo r the
redem ption o f th e ir bodies.218 V. 23, however, seems to contrast believers from the creation
zl5C f. Meyer, Romans, 2:326; B. W eiss, Romer, 366; Lange, Romans, 273.
216E.g. Is. 26:17; 66:8; Jer. 4:31; Hos. 13:13; M ic. 4:9-10; 1 En. 62:4; bKet. 111a; bSanh.
98b; 118a. Bertram , "flS iv," TDNT, 9:672; Joseph Klausner, The M essianic Idea in Israel From
Its Beginning to the Completion o f the M ishnah, 3 rd ed., trans. W. F. Stinespring (New York:
M acm illan, 1935), 440-50.
217E.g. R Eliezer (c. A D . 90) says the goal Is preservation through the sorrows and
a fflictio n s o f the la st tim e. Loane, 88; B ertram , "18iv," TDNT, 9:672.
218Tholuck, 263; Fitzm yer, Romans, 509; C alvin, Romans, 302-3. According to Meyer,
Romans, 2:326, Ew ald also took th is position. S chlatter, 269-70, says it refers to the common
com pla int o f hum an ity, w h ich yeam s fo r redem ption. He rejects the cosmic in terpretation of
Kxiaiq.
399
o f v. 22 ("not only th is b u t we also," ov jlovov Se, aXXa m i a u ro i)219 (2) The m a jo rity o f
scholars believe th a t the trov- com pounds in dica te th a t creation in its entirety suffers
"together" o r "in one accord."220 T h is is supported by the subject "a ll creation" (n&oa
K tu ru ;). The <ruv- com pound verbs point to th e so lid a rity o f creation in its suffering due to
hum an sin and reinforce the universal im pact o f the Fall.
The phrase axpi too vov indicates th a t the suffering and groaning of creation has been
continuous th ro u g h o u t the age since the F all. The expression im plies th a t th is state o f affairs
has been in existence co n tin u o u sly fo r a long tim e .221 The only other NT usage is in P hil.
1:5, where it means "rig h t u p to th e present tim e ." T h is expression shows th a t the suffering o f
creation is n o t an eschatological increase in tria ls ju s t p rio r to the end o f the age (unlike M t.
24:6-8, 29 and BPM passages). R ather the suffering is a characteristic o f th is age and w ill
continue u n til believers are g lo rifie d (v. 21).
Ksem ann, B a rre tt, Balz and D u n n see a n eschatological m eaning in vov. Kasemann
says it refers to "the eschatological m om ent w h ich precedes the parousia," when the suffering
o f creation w ill end.222 The strong eschatological context in Rom. 8 suggests an eschatol
ogical nuance m ay be im plied in th is w ord. The passage has an undertone th a t the prom ised
redem ption o f creation is im m inent. Yet a t the present tim e the new w orld order has not
arrived, so th is eschatological dim ension m u st n o t be overplayed.223 Believers (v. 23) along
219Sanday and Headlam, 209.
220D unn, Romans, 472; C ranfleld, Romans, 417; Moo, Romans, 555; Schneider, TDNT,
"Stevd^co," TDNT, 7:601, n. 5; Boylan, 145; M urray, 305; Denney, 650. Kasemann, Romans,
236, "the chorus from the depths fills the w hole w orld."
221C ranfleld, Romans, 417. The expression refers to the "u ninterrup ted nature o f the
process" (G. S ta h lin , "Nov," TDNT. 4:1007).
222KSsemann. Romans, 236. S im ila rly B a rre tt, Romans, 166, says it is "the decisive
m om ent, w hen Gods purposes are fu lfille d ." Cf. Balz, 52; D unn, Romans, 473; St&hlin, "N6v,"
TDNT. 4:1110; Nelson, Groaning, 217.
223M urray, 305.
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w ith a ll creation are s till part o f the suffering, corrupted state o f affairs, looking forw ard to the
tim e o f cosmic tran sform ation and deliverance. In Phil. 1:5, the phrase does not Indicate the
state o f affairs Is ending. Furtherm ore, the fa c t th a t the suffering of creation Is self-evident
("we know") w ould be m eaningless, unless it was equally apparent th a t the change had already
begun. The purpose o f &%pi to o v6v Is to stress th a t the long anticipated transform ation of
creation has not yet come, even though there Is a basis fo r hoping th a t it w ill come soon. The
phrase denies an overly realized eschatology, since the prom ised redem ption of creation has
n ot yet occurred. I t is the "not yet" aspect o f the present ra th e r th a n the fu lfillm e n t th a t is in
view both here and In v. 18.224 Nevertheless, the contin uin g sufferings o f creation are a
basis fo r hope, because the b irth pangs, w h ich anticipate the redem ption o f creation, have not
ceased thro ugho ut th is age225
H . Sum m ary o f M ajo r Them es in Rom . 8:19-22
T his passage is the fu lle s t discussion o f the corru ption and redem ption of the n atural
w orld in Pauls letters. In both the LXX and th e NT, xrim q can refer to a ll o f creation or any
p art, depending on the context. In Rom. 8:19-22, the w ord refers p rim a rily to the subhum an
creation, both anim ate and Inanim ate, or roughly equivalent to "nature." Thus Rom. 8:19-22
has Im portant im plicatio ns fo r the present and fu tu re state of the n a tu ra l w orld.
1. The C orruption o f C reation
1. The hum an F a ll had cosmic consequences. Creation was subjected to fu tility and is
enslaved to death and decay as a re su lt o f the F all o f Adam. This passage extends the
p rin cip le s o f the Im pact o f the F all described In Rom. 5:12-21. Adams sin not only
brought sin and death to hum anity, b u t it also brought the entire created order under
224C ranfleld, Romans, 416, n. 2.
225M urray, 305.
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bondage to death, decay, co rru p tio n and fu tility . The passage has m any allusions to the
consequences o f the F a ll described in Gen. 3:15-18.
2. C reation is not presently in the state in w hich it was o rig in a lly created. In some profound
sense, nature is different now th a n p rio r to the Fall. Nature was n o t always subject to
death, decay and fu tility . C o rruptio n is n o t p a rt o f "createdness" its e lf b u t a consequence
o f Gods curse afte r the Fall.
3. C reation its e lf is n o t fallen, in the sense o f being evil or disobedient to God. The n a tu ra l
w orld is a v ic tim o f the hum an F a ll and ongoing hum an sin. A lthough nature has been
damaged by sin, it is n o t evil. The subjection o f creation was "not due to its own w ill" (v.
20), b u t it was due to the curse on nature in response to the F all o f Adam.
4. C reation was subjected to fu tility , w hich im plies th a t the n a tu ra l w o rld no longer is able to
fu lfil the purpose fo r w hich it was made. This alludes to Gen 3:17-18, where the ground
was cursed afte r the F all, w ith the re su lt th a t the ground brings fo rth weeds more easily
th a n food crops and produces crops only in response to fru s tra tin g hum an labor. The
fu tility o f life apart from God described in Ecclesiastes m ay also be p a rt o f the background.
It m ay also refer to the apparently m eaningless cycle of death and the struggle fo r exist
ence th a t characterizes the present patterns o f nature.
5. Creation is enslaved to corru ption. A ll life in the n a tu ra l w orld is subject to a cycle of
death and decay. A lthough co rru p tio n is not used in a m oral sense here, the physical
aspect o f co rru p tio n is a consequence o f the m oral evil o f the Fall. T his m ay allude to Gen.
3:19, where death is the punishm ent fo r the disobedience o f Adam and Eve. The suffering
o f believers (Rom. 8:17-18) is not isolated, b u t it is related to the c o rru p tio n of creation th a t
I is characteristic o f th is age.
j 6 . God subjected creation to fu tility as p a rt o f the curse due to the F all. The subjection of
creation is a ju d ic ia l pronouncem ent described in Gen. 3:17-18, where God cursed the
ground in response to Adam s disobedience. A lthough in one sense Adam s sin brought the
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created order under death, decay and corru ption, God Is p rim a rily the one w ho subjected
creation to Its present fu tility In an act o f judgm ent. O nly God could subject creation In
hope w ith a view to its fu tu re redem ption (v. 20; cf. Gen. 3:15).
7. The n a tu ra l w o rld suffers due to hum an sin. Creation is groaning in agony and in deep
distress o f s p irit due to its slavery to co rru p tio n and its subjection to fu tility . The groaning
o f creation, however, does not indicate despair, b u t a longing fo r a glorious futu re.
8 . The present suffering o f creation is interpreted as p art o f the b irth pangs leading to a
glo rio u s new w orld, ra th e r th a n the death pangs o f a (tying creation. The b irth pangs
m etaphor in S cripture is a b ip o la r m etaphor in dica ting an intense, prolonged pain th a t
leads to a jo y fu l and positive outcome. The m etaphor ties together both m ajor themes of
the passage: present suffering and hope fo r a glorious fu tu re . The groaning and suffering
o f creation w ill n o t be in vain. A lthough the suffering o f creation is due to th e F all, it also
can be seen as a hopeful sign th a t glorious changes are com ing to the w orld. U nlike the
b irth pangs o f the M essiah concept in the OT and Jew ish non-canonical lite ra tu re , the
b irth pangs are n o t eschatological cosm ic disasters preceding the com ing o f the Messiah,
b u t they have been contin uously present since the Fall.
9. The c o rru p tio n o f creation due to hum an s in is a consequence o f the fact th a t hum anity
was given dom inion over the earth (Gen. 1:26). Since Adam had stew ardship over the
earth, h is disobedience had an effect on the earth. There is a so lid a rity between hum anity
and th e n a tu ra l w orld. B oth the subhum an creation and believers groan fo r deliverance
from th e co rru p tio n o f the physical w orld.
2 . The Redem ption o f C reation
1. The redem ption brought by C h rist w ill have cosmic consequences. God plans th a t the
|
n a tu ra l order w ill be restored to its proper operation so th a t it m ay fu lfil the purpose for
| w h ich it was created.
403
< .
2. The subjection o f creation to fu tility was done w ith a view to the hope fo r the fu tu re
redem ption o f creation. T his m ay be based on Gods prom ise th a t the seed of the wom an
w ould crush th e head o f the serpent (Gen. 3:15).
3. C reation eagerly aw aits the eschatological revelation o f the ch ild re n o f God. A t th a t tim e
the n a tu ra l w orld w ill be set free from its fu tility and slavery to co rru p tio n and it w ill share
in the fin a l glory o f the ch ild re n of God.
4. The redem ption o f creation is associated w ith the Resurrection and eschatological g lo rifica
tio n o f believers. Due to the s o lid a rity between hum anity and the n a tu ra l w orld, the
redem ption of the n a tu ra l w o rld is dependent upon the fin a l redem ption of the ch ild re n o f
God. The redem ption o f creation w ill only occur when hum anity assumes its proper role in
Gods plan and appears w ith C h ris t in glory.,
5. The eschatological freedom o f creation to share in the glory o f the children of God is
contrasted w ith its present slavery to corru ption. T his freedom involves both negative and
positive dim ensions: (1) freedom from slavery to co rru p tio n and the end of the ongoing
cycle o f death and decay; (2) sh a rin g in the eschatological glory of the children of God and
a freedom and g lo rifica tio n appropriate to its non -ration al nature. C reation w ill become a ll
th a t God intended it to be, w ith o u t the lim ita tio n s brought by hum an sin.
6. The redem ption o f the bodies o f believers is one aspect of the redem ption o f the whole
m a te ria l w orld. The glorified, redeemed n a tu ra l w o rld in w hich righteousness dw ells w ill
be a suitable dw elling fo r the redeemed and glorified hum anity.
7. The passage does n o t describe the destruction o f the present w orld o r the creation o f a new
heaven and earth. R ather it suggests the redem ption and transform ation o f the present
m a te ria l w orld. N ature w ill enjoy lib e rty and glory, and there w ill be fundam ental changes
in th e operation o f nature.
8. The fin a l state o f creation w ill n o t be sim ply a restoration o f the pre-F all conditions o f
nature, b u t it w ill be even greater th a n the o rig in a l creation. C reation w ill gain m ore in the
404
new age than it lost due to the Fall of Adam.
1. The personification o f nature is frequent in th is passage, p a rticu la rly anthropom orphism
and anthropopathism . C reation is described w ith emotions, in te lle ct and w ill. The n a tu ra l
w orld has eager expectation (v. 19), fru s tra tio n (v. 20), the a b ility to choose (v. 20), hope for
fu tu re redem ption (v. 20), longing fo r fu tu re freedom (v. 21), groaning in agony (v. 22), and
suffering pain lik e c h ild b irth (v. 22).
2. The subhum an creation as a whole is personified, ra th e r than in d ivid u a l p a rts of nature,
such as the sun, stars or w ind.
3. The personification of creation is central to the message of the passage and serves to
h ig h lig h t m ost o f the central themes:
a. Hum an sin and the F a ll caused extensive and intense damage to the cosmos. Creation
suffers due to hum an s in and longs fo r release from fu tility and slavery to corruption.
b. Creation is not fallen o r disobedient to God. C reation eagerly aw aits the revealing o f
the sons o f God and has hope th a t it w ill be set free to share in the glory o f the children
of God.
c. Personification emphasizes the so lid a rity between hum anity and the rest o f creation.
Both h um an ity and the n a tu ra l w orld suffer and groan together due to sin , and both
long fo r release from th is present state o f corruption.
d. The n a tu ra l w orld p rim a rily acts according to Gods design, except where it has been
damaged as a re su lt o f hum an sin. The corru ption o f creation is not due to the
disobedience o f the n a tu ra l w orld.
e. The n a tu ra l w orld has a ce rta in ty o f its fu tu re redem ption and looks forw ard w ith hope
to th a t day.
f. There is a close relatio nship between the eschatological redem ption o f the whole
405
creation and the glorification of believers.
406
CHAPTER 8:
COMPARISON OF ROMANS 8:19-22 AND JEWISH

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE ON THE CORRUPTION
AND REDEMPTION OF CREATION
The survey o f past research has shown th a t scholars frequently consider Rom. 8:19-22
to have an apocalyptic theology. T his study o f apocalyptic m aterials, however, shows th a t it Is
n o t enough sim ply to say th a t Rom. 8:19-22 expresses an apocalyptic theology, since the
them es o f th e co rru p tio n and redem ption of creation are treated in diverse ways w ith in the
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s. It is im p o rta n t to determ ine th e p a rticu la r stream o f apocalyptic
th o u g h t th a t is reflected in the passage and to notice the differences between Pauls approach
to the subject and a Jew ish apocalyptic approach.
A . The C orruption o f C reation
1. The Im p act o f Sin on th e N atu ral W orld
T h is study has show n th a t w ith in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s there are three
stream s o f th o u g h t about the im pact o f s in on th e n a tu ra l w orld: (1) The n a tu ra l w o rld has
been severely corrupted b y sin (BW 6-16; AA; 1 En. Noah; 4 Ez.). (2) C reation operates
co n siste n tly and obeys Gods laws (BW 1-5; BP 1; AB, except 80; BD 83-84; Ep. En.).
(3) A lth ough creation generally operates consistently, there is a lim ite d co rru p tio n o f creation,
e ith e r in some parts o f th e n a tu ra l w o rld (BW 17-36; Ju b .; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE) o r a t certain
tim es, such as p rio r to th e Flood or in the la st days (AB 80; Jub.; 2 En.; BP 3; 2 Bar.).
Rom. 8:19-22 a ffirm s the co rru p tio n o f creation, w hich corresponds to the firs t position
quite closely. The F all o f h u m a n ity had severe cosm ic consequences. C reation was subjected
to fu tility and is now enslaved to co rru p tio n , death and decay. The corru ption o f creation is an
407
J ongoing characteristic of th is age and is not sim ply restricted to a tim e o f cosm ic disasters
| near the end o f the age, as suggested b y some apocalyptic w orks o f the th ird stream o f thought
described above.
The diversity o f views in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s reflects a tension between two
ideas: (1) the be lie f th a t the n a tu ra l w orld is und er Gods co n tro l and therefore operates
consistently: and (2) the view th a t th is w orld is corrupted and o u t of order because o f hum an
ity s sin. E ven those apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t stress the consistent (even m echanical)
operation o f na tu re acknowledge th a t there are tim es when the n a tu ra l w o rld deviates from its
consistent operation due to the im pact of increased and widespread sin. The pre-Flood era
(BW 6-16; BP 3; 1 En. Noah; 2 En.; 2 B ar.; Jub.) and the la st days (BW 17-36; AB 80; 4 Ez.; 2
B ar.; Jub.) are seen as tim es of severe and widespread sin, and so have experienced, or w ill
experience, a severe d isru p tio n o f the n a tu ra l order. The im pact o f sin on the n a tu ra l w orld is
acknowledged b y m ost o f the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs.
There is no discussion in Rom. 8:19-22 concerning the consistent operation o f the
n a tu ra l w orld. C ertainly Paul teaches elsewhere th a t God is in control o f a ll o f h isto ry. This is
even affirm ed la te r in th is chapter in w . 28 and 38-39, although Pauls interest in these la tte r
verses concerns the im pact of Gods sovereignty on believers. The general tone o f Rom. 8:19-
22, however, indicates th a t creation is not at present com pletely as God w ants it to be, due to
th e im pact o f hum an sin. The "fu tility " of creation indicates th a t it is n o t able to achieve the
purpose fo r w hich it was created. The expectation is th a t one day God w ill tra n sfo rm creation
so th a t its co rru p tio n and fu tility w ill be elim inated, and so th a t the creation w ill achieve the
purpose fo r w hich God made it. T his picture o f a damaged creation closely fits the m ost com
m on Jew ish apocalyptic perspective on the n a tu ra l w orld.
| 2 . The Cause o f Cosm ic C orruption
In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s there are tw o com m on com peting theories as to the
408
i
. . _ .
cause of the corruption of creation: (1) human sin (BW 17-36; AB 80; Jub.; BP; 2 En.; 4 Ez.;
2 Bar. ; AP. M os./LAE); and (2) the sin o f the fallen angels o r "W atchers" (BW 6-16, 17-36; AA;
1 En. Noah; Ju b .; BP). In addition, (3) some w orks refer to b o th hum an sin and angelic s in as
an explanation fo r the co rru p tio n o f creation (BW 17-36; AB 80; Jub.; BP 3). W hen taken
alone, the fallen W atcher view point largely absolves hum an ity of responsibility fo r the origin of
sin and the co rru p tio n in th is age. Yet it s till establishes a strong cause-efFect relationship
between sin and the co rru p tio n o f the n a tu ra l w orld.
There are several aspects o f hum an sin th a t b rin g damage to the n a tu ra l w orld,
according to the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritings: (1) the F all of hum an ity (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap.
M os./LAE); (2) widespread evil in the pre-Flood generation (Jub,; BP 3; 2 En.); (3) ongoing
hum an sin thro ugho ut h isto ry (BW 6-16; AB 80; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.); and (4) the increase in sin th a t
w ill occur at the end o f th is age (AB 80; Jub.; 2 Bar.). M any o f the w ritin g s combine several of
these causes (AB 80: ongoing, eschatological; Ju b .: a ll four; 4 Ez.: F all, ongoing; 2 B ar.: Fall,
ongoing, eschatological). The general principle throughout these Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials
is th a t tim es o f increasing s in b rin g increased d isru p tio n to the cosm ic order.
Paul agrees w ith the Jew ish apocalyptic perspective th a t there are cosmic conse
quences of sin. He traces the corru ption of creation to the F a ll o f hum anity. Rom. 8:19-22 is
consistent w ith th a t strand o f Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials th a t emphasizes hum an responsi
b ility fo r the co rru p tio n o f the w orld, ra th e r th a n blam ing it on fallen angels. Rom. 8:19-22
contains num erous allusions to the divine curse in response to the F all (Gen. 3:15-19). The
F a ll had cosmic consequences, in clud ing enslaving creation to death and decay and subjecting
it to fu tility . A lthough Romans, p a rticu la rly in 1:18-3:20, places a strong emphasis on the
ongoing sinfulness o f the hum an race, 8:19-22 traces the co rru p tio n o f creation to a specific
sta rtin g point (v. 20). This is consistent w ith Pauls teaching in 5:12-19 th a t death was
introduced to th e hum an race through Adam s transgression. Furtherm ore, the corru ption of
creation is not an eschatological state associated w ith a widespread increase in human evil,
409
b u t a general characteristic o f the period from the F a ll to the Second Coining. Like those
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t refer to the F all as the cause o f the co rru p tio n o f creation,
Rom. 8:19-22 teaches th a t co rru p tio n w ith in creation is an ongoing characteristic o f life in th is
w orld.
Paul indicates th a t the present state o f creation is not as God o rig in a lly created it. The
n a tu ra l w o rld , w ith its fu tility and slavery to co rru p tio n , presently is profoundly different than
, it was p rio r to the Fall. The subjection o f creation happened a t a p o in t in h isto ry. T his agrees
I
w ith the m ost common Jew ish apocalyptic perspective. For the apocalyptic w ritin g s say th is
! age is characterized b y decay, disease, death (or a shortened lifespan) and suffering, w h ich are
I
not as God intended (Jub.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). A t tim es such cosmic disrup
tio n s extend even to the movements o f the stars, sun and m oon, w hich do n o t follow th e ir
divinely ordered paths. These problem s are generally traced to specific h isto rica l causes, and
so to have a specific sta rtin g point in history; e ith e r (1) the F all o f hum anity (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2
Bar.; Ap. M os./LA E); or (2) the sins o f the W atchers p rio r to the Flood (BW 6-16; BW 17-36;
AA; Ju b .; BP 3). The Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s also look forw ard to a new w o rld or to the
tra n sfo rm a tio n o f creation, w hich often involves a restoration o f the original Paradise th a t was
lo st due to th e Fall (BW 1-5; BW 6-16; 17-36; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 3: 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE).
The contrast o f the present state o f the w orld w ith these descriptions o f Paradise also confirm s
th a t the n a tu ra l w o rld is not now as it was o rig in a lly created.
The one exception to th is connection between sin and the corru ption o f creation, is the
theory in 4 Ezra th a t the advanced state o f the earth has led to the m oral and physical decay
in the w orld. This, however, is a secondary feature even in 4 Ezra, w h ich p rim a rily empha
sizes the im pact o f the F all and ongoing hum an wickedness on th is age. There is nothing
| com parable to th is approach in Rom. 8:19-22.
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.... < . _____
3 . Is Creation Its e lf Fallen or a V ictim o f Sin?
A n im p o rta n t question is w hether the corru ption o f creation im plies th a t the n a tu ra l
order its e lf is fallen, in the sense of being evil or disobedient to Gods design. The Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s are am bivalent about th is issue. (1) The m a jo rity o f w orks do not present
creation as fallen. Those w ritin g s th a t describe a consistent operation of nature, often under
the guidance o f angels, stress Gods co n tro l over the n a tu ra l order and the perfection o f its
operation (BW 1-5; AB, except 80; BD 83-84; Ep. En.; BP 1). Am ong the w orks th a t refer to
the co rru p tio n o f creation, th a t co rru p tio n is generally a ttrib u te d to sins o f hum ans or the
W atchers, ra th e r th a n to anything in h e re n tly wrong w ith creation. The n a tu ra l w orld is the
v ictim of the sins o f hum ans and W atchers (BW 6-16; BW 17-36; AA; Jub.; BP 3). This is
freq uently shown by the personification of creation, in w hich the n a tu ra l w o rld cries out fo r
release from oppression (BW 6-16; AA) and even has sorrow due to hum an s in (Ap. M os/LAE).
In th is stream o f apocalyptic w ritin g s, the m aterial creation is n o t its e lf evil o r fallen, even
though it is damaged b y sin.
(2) O n the other hand, in some apocalyptic w ritin g s ce rta in p a rts of th e n a tu ra l w orld
disobey Gods p la n (BW 17-36; AB 80; Jub.; Ap. M os./LAE), especially in the pre-Flood era
(BW 17-36) or at the end of th e age (AB 80; Jub.). W hen these parts o f nature disobey Gods
design, they are held m o ra lly accountable and w ill be punished. In a few instances the
n a tu ra l w orld even in itia te s disobedience on its own (BW 17-36). T his suggests th a t in these
apocalyptic m aterials at least p a rts o f the n a tu ra l w orld are fa lle n and disobedient to God.
Nevertheless, th is disobedience o f the n a tu ra l w orld is generally associated w ith hum an
o r angelic sin, and is viewed as a reflection o f the d isru p tio n of th e norm al operation of
creation. W hen n a tu ra l objects in itia te th e ir own disobedience, it is an in d ica tio n th a t creation
has been corrupted b y sin. Even in BW 17-36, the clearest example o f a disobedient creation,
the disobedience o f the w andering stars is associated w ith disobedient angels. Both the stars
and the disobedient angels who co n tro l them w ill be eternally punished. T his is probably an
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allusion to the W atcher tra d itio n , and therefore suggests th a t the problem o f the wandering
stars is due to the fa ll of the W atchers. Thus th e general p a tte rn o f Jew ish apocalyptic is th a t
the n a tu ra l order is a victim o f hum an o r angelic sins.
In Rom. 8:19-22 Paul presents the n a tu ra l w orld as a v ic tim of hum an sin , p a rticu la rly
due to th e Fall. C reation is n o t its e lf fallen, in the sense o f being disobedient to God. T his is
consistent w ith the view o f the m a jo rity of Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s and d iffers from those
apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t present n a tu ra l objects as sometimes disobedient on th e ir own.
There is n othing in Rom. 8:19-22 com parable to the concept expressed in BW 17-36 th a t
creation rebels. P aul e xplicitly says th a t creation was not subjected to fu tility as a re su lt o f its
own w ill (v. 20). C reation is a v ic tim o f sin, n o t an in itia to r o f wrongdoing.
B oth Paul and the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s use the personification o f creation to
support the idea th a t nature is basically obedient to God and a v ictim o f sin. In the Jewish
apocalyptic m aterials, the n a tu ra l w o rld cries o u t fo r release from the oppression it suffers
because o f the sins o f hum ans and the W atchers (BW 6-16; AA). Furtherm ore, the n a tu ra l
w orld has sorrow about hum an s in (4 Ez.; Ap. M os/LAE). S im ila rly in Rom. 8:19-22, creation
groans in deep distress and suffers because it is enslaved to co rru p tio n and fu tility . Creation
eagerly aw aits the revealing o f the sons of God and has hope th a t it w ill be set free to share in
the glory o f the children o f God.
4 . Aspects o f th e C orruption o f C reation
In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, the co rru p tio n o f creation due to s in com m only
involves several changes to the n a tu ra l w orld: (1) Most frequently, sin brings to the w orld
corru ption, disease, death, decay, suffering and sorrow (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; BP 3; Ap.
M os./LAE). Due to the sins o f hum an beings (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE) or the
W atchers (BP 3), these features characterize life throughout th is age. A lthough in m ost o f the
apocalyptic w ritin g s, death becomes a p art o f th e cycle of nature and hum an experience, in
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Ju b . and 2 Bar. the hum an lifespan is also shortened because o f the F all. Thus Jub. and
2 Bar. hold In tension prem ature death and death in general as the consequence o f sin.
(2) A nother common re su lt of sin is the va n ity of life in th is age due to the problem s of
life (4 Ez.; 2 Bar. Ap. M os./LAE). Labor is fu tile since hardship and fa ilu re are inevitable (Ap.
M os./LAE). 2 Bar. says th a t even the best thing s in th is life, such as beauty, youth, strength,
w ealth and happiness, are subject to lim ita tio n s and w ill eventually pass away in death. 2 En.
speaks of "th is va in w orld" in a different sense: It is fu tile to follow the path o f sin, because it
w ill not lead to eternal life.
(3) S in also bring s about m ajor disruptions in the orderly operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld
(Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE). A nim als changed th e ir behavior afte r the F all, so th a t
they were no longer as obedient to hum ans, n o r could they speak (Jub.; Ap. M os/LAE). The
earth its e lf was corrupted by the s in of h u m a n ity at the Fall (Jub.; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE) o r the
s in of the W atchers (BW 6-16; 1 En. Noah; Jub.). Numerous cosmic irre g u la ritie s occur during
tim es of extensive sin, such as du rin g the pre-Flood era (BW 6-16; BW 17-36; 1 En. Noah;
Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 3) and in the la st days (AB 80; Ju b .; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). These cosmic changes
include aberrations in the patterns o f heavenly lum inaries, earthquakes, widespread crop
fa ilu re , plagues, b irth defects and disturbances among animals.
Rom. 8:19-22 is in general agreement w ith these apocalyptic m otifs, b u t Paul does not
unpack the aspects o f the co rru p tio n o f creation to the same degree as the Jew ish apocalyptic
w ritin g s. He sim ply describes the present state o f creation in tw o general ways; C reation is
(1) enslaved to corruption, and it is (2) subjected to fu tility . Rom. 8:19-22 has no detailed
descriptions o f the nature o f the co rru p tio n and fu tility of creation. Paul apparently assumes
th a t the features of co rru p tio n and fu tility described b y the apocalyptic w rite rs w ould be
understood by h is readers.
The m eaning o f co rru p tio n and fu tility in Rom. 8:19-22, therefore, is cla rifie d against a
background of Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re . In Rom. 8:19-22, as in the Jew ish apocalyptic
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w ritin g s, co rru p tio n Involves the p a tte rn of death and decay th a t characterizes the n a tu ra l
w o rld since the F all. In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, corru ption has a m oral dim ension
(widespread evil) as w ell as a physical dim ension (death, decay, disease and suffering). These
tw o dim ensions o f co rru p tio n are generally closely linked, so th a t when there is m oral
co rru p tio n , physical corru p tio n generally follow s. In Rom. 8:19-22, the focus is on the
physical co rru p tio n of creation. Nevertheless, ju s t as in the Jewish apocalyptic m aterials,
physical co rru p tio n Is lin ke d to m oral corru ption, .which is due to the F all o f hum anity In Rom.
8:19-22.
Paul also speaks o f the fu tility to w hich creation is subjected. M uch like th e Jewish
apocalyptic w ritin g s, in Rom. 8:19-22 fu tility carries the Im plications o f Gods curse on the
ground based on Gen. 3:17-18, as w ell as the fu tility o f life apart from God as described In
Ecclesiastes. As In the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials, th is fu tility is closely related to the
co rru p tio n o f creation, so th a t the n a tu ra l w orld is subjected to an apparently m eaningless
p a tte rn o f death and struggle fo r existence.
There is nothing In Rom. 8:19-22, however, th a t Is com parable to the detailed descrip
tio n o f cosm ic disorder found in m any Jew ish apocalyptic w orks. Paul does not describe any
disturbances In th e heavenly lu m inaries n o r any changes In the anim al world. T his is
consistent w ith the generalized discussion o f the co rru p tio n and fu tility o f creation In th is
passage. Furtherm ore, there is no discussion o f cosmic disasters in the pre-Flood o r eschatol-
ogical eras, since Paul focuses on the co rru p tio n o f creation as a general characteristic of
creation since the Fall.
5 . The Period D uring W hich C reation is Corrupted
In the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials, the period o f tim e durin g w hich creation is
corrupted varies, depending on the cause o f the corru ption: (1) W hen creation is corrupted
because o f pre-Flood sin, either th a t o f the fallen W atchers o r widespread hum an evil, the
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co rru p tio n u su a lly ends after the Flood (BW 6-16; AA; 1 En. Noah; AB 80; Jub.). N ature
suffers in ten sely due to th is sin, b u t the changes and suffering are n o t perm anent. (2) 2 En.
and BP 3 are im p o rta n t exceptions to th is p a tte rn o f pre-Flood sin. In these w orks the sin s of
the W atchers introduce fundam ental changes to the operation of the cosmos, so th a t nature
i
j no longer operates as God o rig in a lly designed. (3) W hen the focus is on the re su lts o f the F all
j o f h u m a n ity, the co rru p tio n of creation becomes a characteristic o f th is age (Jub.; 4 Ez.;
I
2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LA E). T h is co rru p tio n w ill end when the new w orld/age comes. (4) W hen the
co rru p tio n is due to ongoing hum an sin, co rru p tio n is a characteristic o f th is age (BW 6-16;
I
1 AB 80; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). (5) W hen the co rru p tio n is due to widespread eschatological hum an evil,
there are num erous cosm ic disasters and disru p tio n s o f the norm al operation o f nature th a t
are lim ite d to th is eschatological period and w ill end w hen the new w o rld/a ge comes (AB 80;
Ju b .; 2 B ar.). The general p a tte rn is th a t tim es o f increasing sin are accompanied b y d isru p
tions in the operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld. C ertain events, however, such as the F all o f
h u m a n ity and, in some w orks, the sin s o f the W atchers, produce perm anent changes in the
n a tu ra l w o rld , w hich w ill not be reversed u n til th e new age comes.
U n like m any Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, Rom. 8:19-22 does not address the question
o f pre-Flood o r eschatological cosm ic disasters. The focus is e n tire ly on co rru p tio n and fu tility
as ongoing characteristics o f creation. T his is consistent w ith the association o f the co rru p tio n
o f creation w ith the F all. The F a ll was a p rim o rd ia l event th a t su b sta n tia lly changed the
created o rd e r w hen God pronounced a curse on the earth (Gen. 3:17-18). T h is corrupted state
w ill contin ue u n til creation is transform ed by God in the eschaton.
O n the surface it m ight appear th a t the b irth pangs m etaphor in v. 22 points to a
tem porary, eschatological period o f intense suffering, as described in M k. 13:8, ra th e r th a n the
| co rru p tio n o f creation as a feature o f creation since the F all. The use o f b irth pangs im agery to
| refer to a period o f eschatological su ffe rin g (the 'b irth pangs o f the Messiah") is com m on in
ra b b in ic lite ra tu re . T h is use o f the b irth pangs m etaphor, however, is n o t fu lly developed in
415
the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s .1 W hen the b irth pangs m etaphor is used in the Jewish
apocalyptic m aterials to refer to suffering, it focuses on hum an suffering, ra th e r than on the
suffering o f creation (e.g. 1 En. 62:4; cf. M k. 13:8).2 In Rom. 8:22, however, th e b irth pangs
m etaphor stresses the in te n sity o f the suffering o f the n a tu ra l w o rld and p oints to a positive
outcome, when the w orld w ill be transform ed in the eschaton. It does not refer to the
eschatological hum an suffering im plied b y the "b irth pangs o f the Messiah" concept.
6 . The S o lid arity Betw een H um anity and th e N atu ral W orld
Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re frequently points to a so lid a rity between hum anity and
the n a tu ra l w orld (BW 6-16; Ju b .; 2 Bar.; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE). T his is due to several factors:
(1) hum anity was made from the d ust of the earth (4 Ez.); (2) h um an ity was given dom inion or
stewardship over the earth (4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE); and (3) the w orld was made fo r
hum anity, p a rtic u la rly the righteous people o f God (4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Not only the earth and
anim als b u t even the heavenly bodies were made to serve h um an ity (4 Ez.).
This so lid a rity im plies th a t hum an sin profoundly affects the creation, since everything
hum an ity does has an im pact on the w orld. W hen Adam sinned the ground w as cursed. The
prom ised la nd was cursed o r blessed several tim es in Israels h isto ry depending on w hether
the people o f Israel were obedient to God (BW 6-16; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Jub.). T his is rooted in
b ib lic a l passages th a t indicate th a t sin defiles the la nd (e.g. Lev. 18:25-28; Num . 35:33-34;
Deut. 24:4; Jer. 2:7). In the OT prophets, th is idea is extended fu rth e r so th a t hum an sin
'4 Ez. 16:37-39 m ight appear to be an exception, since it says "the w orld w ill groan" when
eschatological calam ities come on the earth and it compares these sufferings to the pains of
ch ild b irth . T his p a rt o f the book, however, is a la te r C h ristian add ition (5 Esdras ch. 15-16),
w hich appears to be dependent on Rom. 8:22 and M k. 13.
. 2The b irth pangs m etaphor is used in 4 Ez. 10:6-16 to refer to the earth as the m other,
w hich brought fo rth h um an ity (an allu sio n to Gen 2:7, where hum ans were form ed by God
from the dust of the earth). In 4 Ez. 4:40-42 it indicates th a t the righteous w ill only have to
w a it in Hades fo r a lim ite d tim e before they w ill receive th e ir rew ard (stress on short period
and certainty o f the outcome in the proper tim e). The concept o f p a in recedes in both
m etaphors.
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causes damage to the entire earth, n o t sim ply the land o f prom ise.3 The Jew ish apocalyptic
w ritin g s also follow th is cosmic pattern. S o lid arity Is often reflected in the personification of
creation, so th a t the n a tu ra l w orld has pain and sorrow about hum an sins (BW 6-16; AA; Jub.;
2 En.; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE) and Intercedes on behalf o f h um an ity (Ap. Mos.).
Rom. 8:19-22 also presupposes a so lid a rity between hum anity and the n a tu ra l w orld,
as shown b y the ffuv-com pound verbs. T his so lid a rity explains w hy the F all subjected creation
to fu tility and corru ption. As In the Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s, th is so lida rity Is often based
on the dom inion th a t God gave hum anity over the w orld (Gen. 1:26, 28), so th a t w hen Adam
fell, the w orld fo r w hich he was responsible also suffered.
B. The Redem ption o f C reation
1. The Hope o f the Eschatological Redem ption o f C reation
The redem ption o f creation Is an Im portant and frequent them e In m ost o f the Jewish
apocalyptic w ritin g s (BW 6-16; 17-36; AB; AA; AW; 1 En. Noah; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 1-3; 4 Ez.; 2
Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE). God does not p lan to leave h is creation In its present damaged state. He
w ill either create a new heavens and earth, o r he w ill transform the existing creation to become
even m ore glorious. Even some w ritin g s th a t do not refe r to the corru ption o f creation refer to
a new creation (e.g. AB).
Paul has the same perspective in Rom. 8:19-22. The redem ption th a t C h rist brings Is
not sim ply fo r hum an ity, b u t also has cosmic consequences. The present fu tility o f nature w ill
be removed so th a t it fu lfills the purpose fo r w hich it was created. The theme o f hope fo r the
fu tu re o f creation ru n s strongly through the passage. Even when God subjected creation to
3Keesmaat, "Exodus," 43-4, fo r a discussion o f the effects of Israels obedience on the

fru itfu ln e ss o r desolation o f the land. The OT prophets extend the concept to the rest o f
created order, w hich becomes desolate or fru itfu l depending upon Israels obedience (Is. 7:23-
25; 8:21-22; 9:18-21; 13:9-13; 24:4-6; 33:7-9; 32:9-14; 34:8-17; Jer. 4:23-26; Amos 4:7-9;
Hos. 4:1-3). The renew al of creation is lin ke d to the renewal of people o f God In prophetic
lite ra tu re (Is. 11:6-9; Jer. 50:34; Ez. 34:25-31; Hos. 2:18-23; Zech. 8:12)
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fu tility as a ju d ic ia l act in response to the F a ll o f h um an ity, he gave creation the hope th a t th is
co n d itio n w ould be reversed in the fu tu re (w . 20-21). T h is m ay allude to the prom ise th a t God
gave along w ith the curse after the F all, th a t the serpent w ould ultim a te ly be crushed (Gen.
3:15).
2 . The R elationship Betw een th e O ld and the New Creations
There are tw o m a jo r stream s o f tho u g h t w ith in the Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s about
the relationship between the present creation and the fu tu re creation: (1) God w ill create a new
creation, i.e. a new heaven and a new earth (AB; AW; BW 3): o r (2) God w ill renew the present
creation (BW 1-5, 6-16; BP 2). Several w orks h o ld both ideas in tension (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.),
although usually one idea dom inates in a p a rtic u la r w ork. In Jub. and 4 Ez. the
tran sform ation o f the present creation dom inates, whereas in 2 Bar. the new creation m o tif
dom inates.
W ritings th a t refe r to a new creation tend to refer to the end o f the present w o rld in
term s o f its de stru ctio n (AW (?); 2 En.: 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). U sually there is an eschatological
cataclysm at the end o f th is age, w ith cosm ic disasters and radical changes in the norm al
operation of nature (BW 1-5; BD 83-84; 2 E n.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.).
Yet n o t a ll o f th e Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s refe r to the destruction o f th is w o rld and
the creation o f a new w orld. A n equal num ber refer to the transform ation of the present
creation and stress the c o n tin u ity between the present and the fu tu re creation. Even when
the language of the "end o f the w orld" is used, it can refe r to a tra n sitio n to a new age, ra th e r
th a n the destruction o f the present created order (e.g. 4 Ez.).
The follow ing m o tifs stress the c o n tin u ity o f the new and old creation: (1) T his w orld,
in clu d in g nature, w ill be transform ed and perfected, ra th e r than destroyed and recreated (BW
1-5, 6-16; Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; BP 2). (2) God w ill reverse the damage th a t the F all, the sin of
the W atchers, and ongoing hum an sin have bro u g h t to the created order (BW 6-16; Ju b .; 4
418
Ez.; 2 B ar.; BP 3). (3) There is c o n tin u ity between Eden and the fu tu re Paradise (BW 17-36;
AB; 2 En. 4 Ez.: 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LA E; BP 3). (4) The present earth w ill be restored to its
perfect pre-F all cond ition (AA* 2 En.; 4 Ez. (?)) o r it w ill be transform ed to a n even greater state
(BW 6-16).
Rom. 8:19-22 is consiste nt w ith th a t stream o f Jew ish apocalyptic th o u g h t th a t looks
forw ard to a renovation o f the present creation. There is n o th in g in th is passage th a t suggests
the destruction o f th e w o rld and the creation o f a new w orld. C reation eagerly looks forw ard to
the fu tu re changes, w hich w ould be u n lik e ly i f the w orld were to be destroyed and recreated.
The present creation w ill be delivered from its slavery to co rru p tio n and fu tility . It w ill be set
free to share in the glory o f the glorified ch ild re n o f God. Thus th e present creation w ill be able
to fu lfill the purposes fo r w hich it was created, b u t w hich were blocked by th e damage th a t
hum an s in brought to the whole created order.
Rom. 8:19-22 has forw ard looking expectation of the great eschatological glory o f
creation. Even though it traces the present p lig h t o f creation to the F all, it does n o t use the
language o f a re tu rn to Paradise o r the resto ratio n o f pre-Fall conditions. The redem ption of
creation w ill n o t involve a re tu rn to the pre-F all conditions, b u t ra th e r creation w ill gain more
th a n it lo st due to the F all. The n a tu ra l w o rld w ill share in the greater g lo ry o f the resurrected
and glorified ch ild re n of God.
3 . The T im e o f th e R edem ption o f C reation
The m a jo rity o f the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s view the tran sform ation o f creation as
an instantaneous and clim a ctic event th a t God w ill perform at the end o f h isto ry. The only
exception is Jubilees, w hich describes a gradual renewal o f the w orld, w herein the benefits to
hum an ity and the changes in the n a tu ra l w orld w ill progressively increase in the la st days.
Rom. 8:19-22 is consistent w ith the m a jo rity apocalyptic perspective th a t the tra n s
form ation of creation w ill be a decisive eschatological event. A lthough the passage does n o t
419
describe a precise tim etable of eschatological events, as can be found in m any of the apocalyp
tic w orks (Jub.; 2 En.; BP 2; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE), the passage clearly im plies th a t the
redem ption o f creation w ill be p a rt o f the clu ste r of eschatological events th a t surround the
com ing o f C h rist. The transform ation o f creation is associated w ith the "revealing o f the sons
o f God" (v. 19), w hich refers to the appearing o f believers w ith C h rist at the Parousia. The
redem ption o f the bodies o f believers, w hich is p a rt o f the redem ption of the m aterial w orld,
also occurs in th a t same clu ste r o f eschatological events (v. 23).
4 . The R edem ption o f C reation and th e Eschatological D estiny o f th e People o f God
In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs, the redem ption o f creation is often associated w ith
the eschatological righteousness o f the people o f God, ju s t as the corruption o f creation is
associated w ith sin. A t the tim e w hen evil people are sent to eternal punishm ent and only the
righteous dw ell on the earth, the whole created order w ill fu n ctio n in a more harm onious
m anner (AW; Ju b .; BP 2; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE). Passages th a t refer to a tem porary eschatol
ogical golden age or m essianic kingdom also describe nature in idealized term s - the e lim in
ation o f suffering and disease, prolonged hum an lifespan, superproductivity o f crops, harm oni
ous anim al behavior, and the perfection of other aspects o f the n a tu ra l order (e.g. BW 6-16).
Rom. 8:19-22 has th is same perspective. C reation looks forw ard to "the revealing o f
the sons o f God," because when they appear in eschatological glory, then the creation its e lf w ill
be delivered from its fu tility and corruption. C reation w ill share in the freedom of th e glory of
the ch ild re n of God. T hus when redeemed h u m a n ity assumes its proper place in Gods order
and experiences the fu ll benefits o f redem ption, the damage to the created order caused by the
F a ll w ill be reversed and a ll o f creation w ill become w hat God intended it to be. The underly
ing assum ption o f both Paul in Rom. 8:19-22 and the various Jew ish apocalyptic authors is
th a t there is a so lid a rity between hum anity and the n a tu ra l w orld, so th a t when hum an ity is
redeemed, the m ate rial w orld over w hich hum an ity has dom inion also w ill be redeemed.
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5. Eschatological Changes in the N atural World
M any Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s describe fundam ental changes th a t w ill occur to the
operation of the n a tu ra l w orld when creation is redeemed. The damage th a t the n a tu ra l w orld
suffered because o f the curse after the F a ll and the s in o f the W atchers w ill be reversed.
A pocalyptic m aterials often have detailed descriptions o f the transform ed creation. The
eschatological changes fa ll in to several basic categories: (1) The elim ination o f death w ill be the
m ost fundam ental change (BP 6-16; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Some w ritin g s describe
the com plete elim ination o f death (2 E n.; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.), w hile others believe the hum an
lifespan w ill be sig n ifica n tly lengthened (BW 6-16; Jub.). (2) Suffering and disease w ill not be a
p art o f life in the fu tu re w orld (BW 1-5, 6-16; Jub.; 2 En.; BP 2, 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). (3) C orrup
tio n w ill be elim inated, both in term s o f s in and in term s o f the disease and decay th a t afflicts
the w o rld due to sin (2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). (4) C reation w ill no longer be subject to
fu tility and vanity, so it w ill be able to achieve the purpose fo r w hich it was created (2 En (?);
2 B ar.; 4 Ez.). (5) The earth and nature w ill undergo significant changes, so th a t plants w ill
become superproductive and anim als w ill undergo m ajor behavioral changes (BW 6-16; Jub.;
BP 2, 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). O ften these changes are a reversal o f the changes th a t nature
underw ent as a re su lt of the curse on the ground after the Fall (BW 6-16; 2 En.; 2 Bar.; Jub.).
M any w orks depict nature as p a rt o f the new creation and the eternal dw elling place o f
hum an ity (BW 1-5, 6-16, 17-36 (?); Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 2, 3(?); 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). S im ilarly, Paradise
is often described in term s o f idealized aspects of nature (BW 17-36; 2 En.; 2 Bar.; Ap
M os/LAE). Even m any w ritin g s in w hich Paradise is portrayed as a heavenly place o f blessing
include descriptions o f an idealized nature (BW 17-36; 2 En.; BP 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). (6) The
entire cosmos w ill be transform ed to greater glory. The heavenly lum inaries w ill shine w ith
greater brightness and w ill become perfectly consistent in th e ir operation (AW; Jub.; BP 2).
Even heaven w ill be transform ed to greater glory (Jub.; BP 2) or recreated (AW). (7) The bodies
o f the righteous w ill be resurrected to dw ell in th is perfect new w orld of glory (AA; AW; BP 2, 3;
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4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap M os/LAE).
One fundam ental difference between Rom. 8; 19-22 and the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s
is th a t Rom. 8:19-22 does n o t include sig n ifica n t descriptive details about the fu tu re changes
in the transform ed creation. Nevertheless, th is passage refers to a ll o f the basic categories of
changes described above: (1) Creation w ill be set free from slavery to corru p tio n (v. 21). Death
and decay, w h ich are so pervasive in nature, w ill be elim inated, and so creation w ill no longer
be enslaved to them . Pauls statem ent encompasses in a concise fashion the types o f changes
spelled out in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s (item s 1, 2 and 3 above). (2) There w ill be an
end to the fu tility th a t is a re s u lt o f the cycle o f death, decay and corru ption (v. 20). The
n a tu ra l w o rld w ill be able to achieve the purpose fo r w hich it was created, b u t w hich it could
n o t achieve due to hum an sin . T his corresponds exactly to a m ajor Jew ish apocalyptic pattern
(item 4 above). (3) The n a tu ra l w orld w ill be transform ed in to great glory (v. 21). A lthough
Rom. 8:19-22 does n o t describe th e transform ed glory o f creation in detail, the concept m ay be
s im ila r to the Jew ish apocalyptic expectations o f a glorified cosmos and a perfected nature
w ith superabundant pro d u ctivity (item s 5 and 6 above). (4) Creation w ill enjoy freedom as a
re s u lt o f the end o f co rru p tio n and sharing glory w ith the glorified children o f God. T his hope
fo r freedom from the old enslaving patterns of th is age lies behind m uch o f the Jew ish apoca
ly p tic expectations fo r the eschatological changes th a t God w ill b rin g to th e w orld. (5) The
bo d ily resurrection o f believers is an aspect o f the redem ption of the m aterial w orld (v. 23) and
is also a frequent them e in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re (item 7 above).
In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, these eschatological changes in the n a tu ra l w orld
are frequently eternal (BW 1-5, 6-16; AB; AA; AW; Ju b .; 2 En. 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Some w orks also
describe changes th a t w ill take place in a tem porary m essianic kingdom o r golden age on earth
| (BW; AA; AW; 1 En. Noah; BP 2; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Rom. 8:19-22 does not e xp licitly say w hether
i
i
I th e changes in the n a tu ra l w orld w ill be eternal. Yet the fact th a t the transform ation o f
creation is associated w ith the eschatological g lo rifica tio n and bodily resurrection of believers
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(w. 19, 23) suggests that the transformation of creation will be permanent.
6 . Tw o Age D ualism
M ost scholars consider tw o age h is to ric a l dualism to be one o f the defining characteris
tics o f Jew ish apocalyptic theology.4 There is a sharp d is tin c tio n between th is present evil
age, w h ich is corrupted by sin , and the fu tu re perfect age o f righteousness and glory. The
co rru p tio n o f creation in th is age was caused b y the F a ll (Jub.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LAE),
ongoing hum an sin (BW 6-16; AB 80; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.) and the sin o f the fa lle n W atchers (BW 6-
16, 7-36; AB 80; AA; 1 En. Noah; Ju b .; BP 3). Life in th is age is characterized b y va n ity due to
the problem s o f life (4 Ez.; 2 B ar.; Ap. M os./LA E).
A lth ough the Jew ish apocalyptic m a te ria ls are pessim istic about th e w o rld in th is age,
they are hopeful about the fu tu re perfect age. Frequently the end o f th is age is m arked by an
eschatological cataclysm , w ith cosm ic disasters and ra d ica l changes in the norm al operation o f
nature (BW 1-5; BD 83-84; 2 E n.; 4 Ez.; 2 B ar.). In the new age evil people w ill be sent to
eternal punishm ent and only the righteous w ill dw ell o n the earth. A ll co rru p tio n and evil w ill
be removed, and the whole created order w ill be transform ed so th a t it fu n ctio n s in a harm oni
ous and perfect m anner (AW; Ju b .; BP 2; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LA E). W ith the exception o f
Jubilees, the tra n sitio n from th is corru pt age to the new age is depicted in the apocalyptic
w ritin g s as an instantaneous and clim a ctic event at th e end o f history. T h is tra n sitio n
involves (1) a recreation or tran sform ation o f heaven and earth by Gods divine act, and (2) a
decisive change from the present age o f e vil and co rru p tio n to a new eternal age o f
righteousness and blessing.
A lth ough the com mon apocalyptic te rm "age" (od<6v) does not appear in Rom. 8:19-22,
Paul uses the w ord elsewhere.5 The im m ediate context uses language th a t is quite close to
E.g. Koch, Rediscovery, 28-33; V ielhauer, 581-607; Beker, Paul the Apostle, 136 and
M orris, Apocalyptic, 34-67.
sA lth ough tw o age language is n o t as do m in a n t in P aul as it is in the Jew ish apocalyptic
423
. .
the apocalyptic language o f two ages: The expression "the sufferings of th is present tim e" (v.
18, xa naftfipaxa xaO vfiv Kcapou) parallels the apocalyptic language o f th is age o f suffering (e.g.
4 Ez.). Rom. 8:19-22 expresses concepts th a t agree w ith the essence o f an apocalyptic two age
theology. C reation is now corrupted and fu tile (w . 20-21). The present state of creation is not
as it was o rig in a lly created, because creation was corrupted at a p a rtic u la r p o in t in h isto ry by
hum an s in (v. 20).
Furtherm ore, th is present tim e o f suffering (cf. v. 22) is contrasted to the fu tu re tim e of
glory (v. 21). Not only w ill believers be glorified w ith C h rist at th a t tim e, b u t a ll o f creation w ill
share th is glory (w . 17-18, 21, 23). The suffering, co rru p tio n and fu tility th a t are characteris
tic o f life a t th is tim e w ill be brought to an end (w . 19, 21). Thus even though Paul does not
e xp licitly use aixov in th is passage, concepts norm ally associated w ith tw o age dualism are
dom inant in the passage - in clu d in g creations present corru ption, suffering and fu tility , as
contrasted w ith its fu tu re glory and freedom .6
7 . The S o lid arity Between H um anity and th e N atu ral W orld
The so lid a rity between hum an ity and the n a tu ra l w orld plays an im portant p art in the
redem ption o f creation. The eschatological fate of the n a tu ra l w orld and th a t o f the righteous
are closely related. Since the w orld was made fo r hum anity, in the la st days when the people
of God re tu rn to righteousness and obedience to Gods Law, the w o rld its e lf w ill be redeemed
and perfected, and nature w ill become more fru itfu l (BW 6-16; Ju b .; BP 2; 4 Ez.). The
w ritin g s, he does speak of tw o ages (using otuBv), even in the undisputed Pauline w ritings:
Rom. 12:2; 1 Cor. 1:20; 2:6-8; 3:18; 10:11; 2 Cor. 4:4; Gal. 1:4. A lthough Beker is correct th a t
some o f the apocalyptic new age expectation has been transform ed in to realized eschatology
(Beker, Paul the Apostle, 145), yet m any o f these passages s till view believers as livin g in an
evil age, looking forw ard to a perfect fu tu re age. Beker notes th a t tw o age theology is present
in Paul in other language (p. 146). The apocalyptic tw o age theology is also clear in Eph. 1:21
("this age and the one to come"); 2:2, 7 and 3:9, passages th a t Beker does not accept as
w ritte n b y Paul.
6Cf. Keck, 235-6; Beker, Paul the Apostle, 137.
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personification o f creation is often associated w ith the com ing of the righteous people o f Israel
w ith the M essiah in the last days (AA; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Sometimes nature rejoices when
hum an ity is restored to righteousness in the new w orld and the Messiah comes (BP 2). A t
other tim es n a tu ra l objects intercede for hum an sins (Ap. M os./LAE) and the land protects the
l
I righteous fro m eschatological trib u la tio n (2 Bar.).

I
J In Rom. 8:19-22 the so lid a rity o f hum anity and the n a tu ra l w orld in redem ption is
indicated in several ways: (1) The redem ption o f creation is associated w ith the tim e when "the
sons o f God" w ill appear w ith C h rist (v. 19). Thus creation eagerly aw aits the revelation o f the
ch ild re n o f God in glory, because a t th a t tim e the creation its e lf w ill be delivered from the
I
co rru p tio n it suffers due to sin. (2) Creation w ill share in the freedom o f the glory o f the
children o f God (v. 2 1). (3) The redem ption of the bodies o f believers is p a rt o f the redem ption
o f the m a te ria l w orld (v. 23). (4) M uch of the personification of the n a tu ra l w orld focuses on
the sin and eschatological glorifica tio n o f redeemed hum anity. Creation eagerly awaits the
revelation o f believers, and it hopes to share in the freedom and glory o f those resurrected and
glorified believers. Thus the entire creation w ill only achieve its fu ll potential when redeemed
h u m a n ity is resurrected and glorified. The redem ption o f creation is p art o f the eschatological
scenario th a t creation w ill share w ith redeemed hum anity.
C. The Personification o f C reation
1. Aspects o f th e N atural W orld Personified
The personification o f the n a tu ra l w orld is frequent in both the Jew ish apocalyptic
w ritin g s and Rom. 8:19-22. This stylis tic feature plays an im portant role in com m unicating
the apocalyptic message.
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s personify nature in several ways: (1) M ost frequently such
I
| n a tu ra l objects as stars, the earth and anim als are given in d ivid u a l personalities (BW 1-5; 6-
I 16; 17-36; AB 80; AA; Ep. En.; 2 En.; BP 1, 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE). Nearly every part
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o f nature is personified in one or more w orks: the earth, heavenly lu m inaries (sun, moon,
stars), weather (lightning, ra in , h a il, snow, w ind), seasons, m ountains, trees and anim als. (2)
Less often the n a tu ra l w o rld is personified together as a whole (BW 1-5; BP 1). (3) In several
w ritin g s angels w o rk behind the scenes to co n tro l the operation o f n a ture and to ensure th a t it
| operates according to Gods w ill (BP 1, 3; AB, in clud ing 80; Ju b .; 2 E n .).7 Some w orks
j com bine both th e control o f nature by angels and the personification of in d ivid u a l aspects of
I
1 n a ture (AB 80; BP 1, 3; 2 En.).
The personification o f nature also plays an im portant role in com m unicating the
I
1 message of Rom. 8:19-22. The only type o f personification used in th is passage is the
I
personification o f creation as a whole. C ollectively creation eagerly aw aits, was subjected,
w ills , hopes, groans and suffers. There is no personification o f In d ivid u a l parts o f the n a tu ra l
w o rld in the passage in contrast to Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re . In w hich th is is the prim ary
type o f personification. There is also n o th in g in th is passage com parable to the apocalyptic
concept th a t angels control the operation of the n a tu ra l w orld.
2 . Types o f P ersonification
A nthropopathism is the m ost frequent type o f personification in the Jew ish apocalyptic
w ritin g s. A va rie ty of em otions are ascribed b oth to inanim ate objects and to anim als: (1) fear
o f God (BW 1-5; Ep. En.; 2 Bar.) ; (2) great jo y in the proper fu lfillm e n t of Gods design fo r them
(2 E n.; BP 2; 2 B ar.); (3) sorrow about hum an s in (4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE); (4) the suffering of
oppression, fear and pa in due to th e sins of th e W atchers (BW 6-16; AA) and hum ans (BW 6-
16; Ju b .; 4 Ez.), accom panied by crying o u t fo r release fro m the im pact o f th is s in (BW 6-16;
AA; Jub.); (5) great fear concerning the com ing eschatological cosmic disasters (BW 1-5; Ep.
En.); (6) re lie f in the eschatological tim e w hen evil w ill be removed in the new age (4 Ez.);
7In AB 80, however, th is concept explains the eschatological co rru p tio n o f creation, since
the angels behind nature begin to disobey God.
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(7) hope fo r the day o f Judgm ent when the w icked w ill be judged and th e righteous rewarded,
and when the earth w ill be relieved o f the stress o f wickedness on it (4 Ez.); and (8) great jo y
w hen the M essiah comes and the righteous dw ell on the renewed earth (BP 2).
A lthough in d iv id u a l p a rts o f the created order are n o t personified in Rom. 8:19-22, the
range o f em otions ascribed to the n a tu ra l order is s im ila r to th a t found in the Jew ish apoca
lyp tic m aterials: (1) Paul says th a t creation groans in agony because o f the corru ption of
creation and th a t it suffers the pains o f c h ild b irth in a n ticip a tin g the renewal of creation
(v. 22). A s im ila r sense o f th e suffering o f creation is found in m any apocalyptic w ritin gs.
C reation has sorrow about hum an s in (item 3 above) and suffers oppression, fear and pain due
to the sins of the W atchers and hum ans (item 4 above). As a re su lt, it cries o u t fo r release
from the im pact o f such s in (item 4 above). This sense of th e intense suffering o f creation
because o f hum an sin is the strongest p o in t o f correspondence between Paul and the Jewish
apocalyptic w ritin g s in the use o f personification. (2) C reation eagerly awaits the eschatol
ogical revelation o f the ch ild re n o f God (v. 19). This expresses a delight in the righteousness o f
hum an ity th a t is related to th e jo y o f the w o rld in the m essianic age (item 8 above) and to the
hope o f the earth fo r the day o f Judgm ent w hen the righteous w ill be rewarded (item 7 above).
There is nothing in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, however, th a t is exactly com parable to the
concept th a t the created order eagerly looks forw ard to and anticipates the coming o f a new
w orld and the com ing o f the righteous. (3) C reation has hope th a t its present state o f fu tility
and fru s tra tio n w ill come to an end (w . 20-21). In 4 Ez. the earth looks forw ard w ith hope fo r
the day o f Judgm ent w hen th e w icked are punished and the righteous rewarded (item 7
above). This w ill be the tim e when the co rru p tio n o f creation w ill end and when righteousness
w ill reign on the earth, so th a t the earth "m ay be refreshed and relieved" (4 Ez. 11:46).
C reation cries o u t fo r release from its suffering due to sin (item 4 above).
Some types o f anthropopathism found in the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials do not have
a strong correspondence w ith Rom. 8:19-22: (1) Rom. 8 does not describe the created order as
427
.. . .
j having a fear o f God (item 1 above) or as expressing jo y in the fu lfillm e n t o f Gods design (item
I
! 2 above). T h is them e fits , rather, th a t stran d o f apocalyptic thought th a t stresses the
II
I perfection and consistent operation o f the created order. Nevertheless, there Is the underlying
sense in Rom. 8:19-22 th a t the created order is a v ic tim of sin and th a t its subjection to fu tility
I
was not due to any disobedience o f the subhum an creation (v. 20, "not o f its own w ill"). In
i
I add ition , creation looks forw ard to a tim e w hen th e damage o f s in w ill be removed, and when
both the n a tu ra l order and h u m a n ity w ill be restored to th e ir proper places. (2) Rom. 8 has
nothing corresponding to the fear of creation about the com ing eschatological cosm ic disasters
(item 5 above). T h is is consistent w ith the focus of th is passage on the co rru p tio n and
suffering o f creation as an ongoing feature o f th is age, ra th e r th a n on an eschatological crisis.
Furtherm ore the tone of Rom. 8 expresses hope and a positive expectation th a t God w ill
reverse the damage to creation, ra th e r th a n fear o f th e process o f bringing about th is new
cosmic order.
A n other type o f personification com m on in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s is th a t of
ascribing in te lle c tu a l and m oral capabilities to anim als and inanim ate objects. These
capabilities include: (1) in te lle ctu a l understanding, in clu d in g the a b ility to understand speech
(2 En.; BP 1, 3; 4 Ez.; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE): (2) th e power o f conscious m oral choice (BW 1-5;
17-36; AB 80; BP 1, 3; 2 Bar.; Ap. M os./LAE), w hich u su a lly results in obedience to God (BW
1-5; Ep. En.; 2 En.; BP 1, 3; 2 Bar.), b u t a t tim es re su lts in disobedience (BW 17-36; AB 80);
(3) intercession fo r sin fu l hum ans (Ap. M os./LAE); (4) speaking a b ility on the p a rt o f anim als
(2 En.; BP 1, 3; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE), who praise God and give thanks (2 En.; BP 1, 3), cry out
fo r release from the sin of hum ans and the fa lle n W atchers (BW 6-16; AA; Jub.), and te stify at
the Judgm ent against hum ans who tre a t them im properly (2 En.).
The personification of the n a tu ra l w o rld in Rom. 8:19-22 suggests in te lle ctu a l and
| m oral capabilities, although the concept is n o t as thoroughly developed as in m any Jew ish
apocalyptic w orks. (1) The created order has consciousness, w hich is reflected in its aware-
428
. _ .
ness o f its present state o f co rru p tio n and fu tility and its longing fo r release fro m th a t state.
(2) The created order has a m oral w ill (v. 20), w hich it chose not to exercise in rebellion against
God. Its present state is one of slavery to corru ption and fu tility so th a t it cannot achieve the
fu ll purpose o f its existence (w . 20-21).
There are also significant differences in the in te lle ctu a l personification o f creation: (1)
There is no sense th a t creation intercedes on behalf o f hum an sins (item 3 above), even though
creation longs fo r the day when redeemed hum anity w ill be revealed in its fu ll glory (w . 19,
21). (2) Rom. 8:19-22 does not refer to natures a b ility to speak or understand hum an speech
(item 4 above), although the idea th a t creation cries out fo r release from the im pact o f sin (BW
6-16; AA; Jub.) is close to the sense th a t groans and anxiously longs fo r release from its
present state o f corru ption and fu tility . The difference is th a t there is no sense o f actual
speech involved in Rom. 8, as in some apocalyptic w ritings. (3) The in te lle ctu a l personification
o f creation is collective in Rom. 8 , ra th e r th a n a self-awareness o r an in te lle ctu a l capability o f
in d ivid u a l anim als o r inanim ate objects, as in m any Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s. The focus of
Rom. 8:19-22 is th a t creation as a whole suffers and longs fo r release from its co rru p tio n due
to hum anitys sin.
3 . The Functions o f Personification
In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs, the personification of the n a tu ra l w orld is closely
related to the message about the present and fu tu re state o f nature. Personification has
several m ajor functions in conveying the apocalyptic message, w hich vary w ith the purpose o f
the in d ivid u a ls w ritin g s: (1) It stresses the regularity o f the operation of the n a tu ra l w orld in
those w orks th a t m inim ize the co rru p tio n o f creation (BW 1-5; AB; Ju b .; 2 En.; BP 1, 3;
2 Bar.). (2) The obedience o f nature to Gods w ill serves as a m odel fo r hum ans to emulate
(BW 2-5; Ep. E n.; BP 1). W hen p a rts of nature disobey Gods w ill, nature serves as a model o f
accountability fo r s in (BW 17-36). (3) Personification stresses the co rru p tio n o f creation due to
429
hum an or angelic s in (BW 6-16; 17-36; AA; AB 80; Jub.; 4 Ez.; Ap. M os./LAE). (4) Personifica
tio n stresses the so lid a rity between h u m a n ity and the rest o f creation, in clud ing the conse
quences of sin fo r the whole created order. T his is shown by the p a in and sorrow o f the
n a tu ra l w orld because o f the sins of hum ans (BW 6-16; AA; Ju b .; 2 En.; 4 Ez.), the interces
sion o f the subhum an creation fo r hum an sins (Ap. M os./LAE), and the jo y o f creation when
hum an ity is restored to righteousness in the new w orld (BP 2). (5) Personification h ighlights
eschatological events. The n a tu ra l w o rld has fe a r about the im pending cosmic disasters (BW
1-5; BP 2; 4 Ez.), b u t it w ill have jo y when creation is transform ed and hum anity is restored to
righteousness (BP 2).
The personification of creation also is closely related to the central them es of Rom.
8:19-22 and serves to convey these ideas. M any o f the functions o f personification are nearly
id entical to those in the Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s: (1) The p rim a ry function o f personifica
tio n in Rom. 8:19-22 is to stress the extensive damage th a t the F a ll and ongoing hum an sin
have caused to the created order (item 3 above). H um anitys sin has corrupted creation, so
th a t creation cries o u t in agony and longs fo r release. (2) As in the Jewish apocalyptic
m aterials, personification in Rom. 8 points to the solida rity between hum anity and the n a tu ra l
w orld, both o f w hich suffer together in th is age due to hum an sin (item 4 above) and both of
w hich w ill be redeemed together. (3) M uch o f the personification in Rom. 8:19-22 looks ahead
to eschatological events. Creation eagerly looks forw ard to the revelation of redeemed
hum an ity w ith C h rist, and its hope fo r redem ption is centered in sharing eschatological
freedom and glory w ith the glorified ch ild re n of God (w . 19, 21). The difference in Rom. 8 is
th a t the tone is one o f hope for the eschatological deliverance o f creation, ra th e r th a n fear
about the eschatological cosmic disasters th a t precede it. Personification serves, therefore, to
stress the ce rta in ty o f the redem ption o f the w hole n a tu ra l w orld.
Since Rom. 8:19-22 focuses on the co rru p tio n o f creation ra th e r than on the perfection
and consistency o f the n a tu ra l order, personification types 1 and 2 are not found in th is
430
passage. N ature is n o t a m odel fo r obedience, n o r is its jo y in obedience described. Neverthe
less, there is a sense th a t the n a tu ra l w orld w ants to operate according to Gods design, since
the co rru p tio n o f creation was due to hum an sin and n o t due to the disobedience o f the
n a tu ra l w orld its e lf
D . The Fun ction o f th e C orruption and Redem ption o f C reation Them es
A lthough there are m any sim ila ritie s in perspective between Paul and the Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s concerning the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation, Pauls purposes in
in tro d u cin g these them es are n o t entirely th e same as those of Jew ish apocalypticism .
To a large degree, Jew ish apocalypticism was anthropocentric in its approach to the
created order. Several apocalyptic w ritin g s e xp licitly say th a t the w orld was created fo r
hum anity, p a rtic u la rly fo r the righteous people o f God (4 Ez.; 2 Bar.). Thus the apocalyptic
concern fo r the redem ption o f the n a tu ra l w o rld is often th a t there w ill be a perfected physical
environm ent in w hich the righteous w ill dw ell, either in the m essianic kingdom o r in the new
age.
Yet the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s also reflect a divine concern fo r the cosmos itself.
Those apocalyptic w orks th a t stress the re g u la rity o f the operation o f nature emphasize Gods
concern fo r the perfect operation o f h is creation. The apocalyptic w ritin g s are also concerned
th a t th is w orld is corrupted and o u t o f order, not as God intended it to be. God cares enough
about the physical order to reverse th is co rru p tio n o f creation and to redeem the entire
creation, n o t sim ply hum anity, so th a t a ll creation can become w h at God originally intended it
to be. Redem ption in the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs, therefore, is a cosm ic event. W hen God
gives the righteous the eschatological benefits o f th e ir redem ption, the cosm ic order w ill also
benefit.
In the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs, th e stress on the corru ption o f the w orld reinforces
the widespread im pact o f sin. S in is not o n ly pervasive in the hum an race, b u t its effects have
431
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permeated the entire created order In th is age. One o f the fu n ctio n s of m entioning the cosmic
effects of s in is to emphasize th e im pact and significance of m oral corru ption. M oral corrup
tio n re su lts in th e physical co rru p tio n of the n a tu ra l w orld. In w ritin g s th a t stress the Fall
and ongoing hum an sin, the cosm ic disrup tions reinforce the problem o f hum an sin. In
passages based on the W atcher tra d itio n , however, there is a tendency to absolve hum anity of
blame fo r the present co rru p t state o f affairs. Yet even m any passages th a t reflect th is
W atcher tra d itio n indicate th a t widespread hum an s in q u ickly followed the Flood. A lthough in
these w ritin g s the W atchers started the problem o f sin , h um an ity continued to become more
corru pt, even afte r the W atchers and th e ir evil offspring were judged and removed from the
scene. Hence the s in fu l pre-Flood era functions as a type o f the eschatological s in fu l gener
ation, in w h ich the apocalypticists believed them selves to live. The Flood fu nctions as a type of
the fin a l Judgm ent in w hich hum an s in w ill be judged and after w h ich the cosmic damage of
sin w ill be reversed.
M ost of the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s studied here are n o t w orld-denying. They
stress th a t th is w orld is out of order and n o t as God intended it. Yet there is nothing inherent
ly evil about the m aterial creation. Its present state is the consequence o f sin th a t has
corrupted the w orld. Jew ish apocalyptic w rite rs looked forw ard to the tim e when either th is
w orld w ill be perfected and glorified, or a new perfect m a te ria l w o rld w ill be created for
hum anity to enjoy. A lthough the hope of some apocalyptic w ritin g s focuses on a transcenden
ta l, heavenly state fo r redeemed hum anity, m ost describe a m ate ria l environm ent fo r the
glorified hum an existence. Even some w orks th a t depict a heavenly fin a l state fo r the
righteous refer to certa in aspects o f nature in the eternal state or the p o ssib ility th a t the
righteous can tra ve l between heaven and an earthly Paradise. The n a tu ra l order, therefore, is
not destroyed b u t perfected.
T hus an em phasis on th e corru p tio n and redem ption o f creation in the Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s leads to placing one's hope in a fu tu re perfected world-age ra th e r th a n in
432
th is world-age, w hich is thoroughly corrupted b y sin. The hope Is founded on the expectation
th a t God w ill dra m a tica lly intervene in the near fu tu re and w ill transform the w orld through
the exercise o f divine power in an act o f recreation. The ce rta in ty o f the com ing transform ation
o f creation provides hope to the suffering people o f God In the m idst o f a s in fu l and corrupt
w orld th a t seems hopeless. Despite the damage o f sin, God has not abandoned h is creation.
He w ill one day redeem it, so believers can enjoy a life o f blessing in the m idst o f a perfect
w orld, free fro m co rru p tio n and sin.
P aul agrees w ith the Jew ish apocalyptic w rite rs th a t there is a cosm ic Im pact o f sin.
One purpose o f Rom. 8:19-22 is to show th a t the entire created order suffers because of the
Fall. Thus the Im plications o f the F all described In Rom. 5:12-21 are extended to encompass
not only death in the hum an race, b u t also co rru p tio n and fu tility in the n a tu ra l order.
Paul, however, also w ants to p u t the suffe ring of C hristians in to a cosmic context. The
p rin cip le th a t suffering leads to glory applies not sim ply to the redeemed, b u t is also p a rt of
the cosm ic pattern. For ju s t as God w ill not abandon h is creation, b u t w ill deliver it from its
present co rru p tio n and suffering, so he w ill g lo rify h is children who suffer w ith C h rist (w . 17-
18). The discussion of th e cosmic effects of s in and of the hope fo r cosmic redem ption
reinforces the prin cip le s o f suffering and glory in the C h ristian life , w hich Is a m ajor theme o f
the larger context In Rom. 8:17-39.
P aul also emphasizes cosmic hope In th is passage. Gods plan encompasses his entire
creation, n o t sim ply hum anity. The concern fo r the redem ption o f creation fo r its own sake is
stronger in Rom. 8:19-22 than In m ost Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs. For although the
eschatological redem ption of the n a tu ra l w orld Is connected w ith the resurrection and
g lo rifica tio n o f believers a t C h rists second com ing (w . 19, 21, 23), Paul does not go so fa r as to
say th a t the w orld only has value because it was made fo r hum anity. God w ants to reverse
the Im pact o f hum an sin , w hich resulted in th e fu tility o f creation, so h is creation can become
w hat he intended it to be. The fact th a t th is day is surely com ing provides hope fo r believers
433
. < > . . -
th a t th e ir eschatological gloxy w ith C h rist is com ing as well. Thus even the suffering of
creation is transform ed Into a basis for C h ristian hope, w hich is a reversal of the apocalyptic
theme o f the corru ption of creation. The groanings of creation are not sim ply a sign o f the
im pact of sin. They are also like b irth pangs in trodu cing a new cosm ic order. The theme o f
hope, bo th fo r the cosmos and fo r the people o f God. is more e xp licit In Rom. 8:19-22 th a n in
m ost o f the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t discuss the co rru p tio n and redem ption of
creation.
Thus although the m ajor m o tifs are sim ila r, the emphasis in Rom. 8:19-22 is different
th a n in the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials. Both agree th a t sin has corrupted th is w orld and
both agree th a t God w ill redeem h is creation and remove the co rru p tin g results o f s in on the
cosmic order. Jew ish apocalypticism uses the corru ption of creation to stress the seriousness
o f sin and to urge the righteous to focus th e ir hope on the fu tu re perfect world-age ra th e r than
on th is present corrupted world-age. Paul, however, uses the m o tifs to provide a cosmic
context fo r understanding suffering and to give hope to suffering believers th a t God w ill reverse
the im pact o f the F all, Including th e patterns o f suffering, corru ption, death and fu tility th a t
are characteristic o f th is w orld because of hum anity's sin.
434
CONCLUSIONS
T his study has shown th a t there are m any close sim ila ritie s between the concepts o f
the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation found in Rom. 8:19-22 and the Jew ish apocalyptic
lite ra tu re . In addition, both Romans and the Jew ish apocalyptic m aterials personify the
n a tu ra l w orld in order to emphasize these theological perspectives. The num erous points of
contact in m ost fundam ental theological points show th a t Pauls perspective in th is passage
m ay be reasonably labeled "apocalyptic".
A. A pocalyptic Theology o r L ite ra ry Genre?
The s im ila ritie s between Rom. 8:19-22 and the Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s are not so
m uch in the form o r lite ra tu re genre as in the content o f the message and the theological
outlook. Paul did not w rite an apocalypse in Rom. 8:19-22, yet he expresses an apocalyptic
perspective sim ila r to th a t found in m any Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s.
Paul does not incorporate m any of the common lite ra ry features of apocalypses, such
as a heavenly jo u rn e y to view the hidden operation o f the w orld, angelic revelation, vaticinta ex
eventu prophecy, or v iv id sym bolic language describing eschatological events. He does not
describe in detail the operation o f the present w orld n o r the changes th a t w ill take place in the
fu tu re w orld.
Yet in the central theological teachings o f the passage, Paul is rem arkably close to a
Jew ish apocalyptic perspective on the co rru p tio n and redem ption o f creation. The corru ption
and redem ption o f creation are central concepts in the theology o f a wide range o f Jew ish
apocalyptic w ritin g s. Thus Rom. 8:19-22 shares a com mon theological perspective w ith m any
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s on several im portant issues.
435
B. The Q u e s t io n o f lite ra ry Dependence
A lthough there are m any sim ila ritie s between the concepts in Rom. 8:19-22 and the
Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s, there is no clear evidence in the passage o f lite ra ry dependence
upon one o r more p a rtic u la r apocalyptic w ritin g s, at least in the precise phrasing o f ideas.
V arious attem pts to fin d specific lite ra ry allusions to know n Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s have
n o t been successful.1 C hristofferson correctly concludes th a t "Pauls allusions are not made
in w ords w hich can be proved to be dependent on any know n specific text w hich represents
th e Flood tra d itio n .2 This conclusion can also be extended to other strands o f Jewish
apocalyptic w ritin g s to w hich Pauls thought is sim ila r, n o t sim ply to the Flood tra d itio n .
The lin k between Rom. 8:19-22 and Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re is not one o f direct
lite ra ry borrow ing b u t one of a shared theological outlook. Paul uses num erous apocalyptic
them es and m o tifs in th is passage w hich are com m only found in a wide range o f Jewish
apocalyptic w ritin g s. M uch of the term inology is sim ila r as w ell, yet he does not appear to
have used a p a rtic u la r know n te xt as a model. The p rim a ry lin k is in a p a rtic u la r way of
view ing (1) the n a ture of the w orld, (2) the present problem w ith the w orld, and (3) the
eschatological changes th a t w ill reverse th is problem . Pauls basic perspective o f the present
state and fu tu re hope of creation follow s th a t stran d o f Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t sees
th e w o rld as corrupted b y the F a ll o f Adam and looks forw ard to the eschatological transform a
tio n and perfection o f creation th ro u g h a decisive divine act. Rom. 8:19-22 is p art o f the same
th o u g h t w o rld as Jew ish apocalyptic lite rature. Yet Paul did not directly borrow from any
^ .g . Biederm ann, 40-47, lis ts num erous apocalyptic parallels b u t fin a lly rejects a lite ra ry
connection to these texts. W ilckens, RQmer, 148-150, fin d s no coherent background fo r the
passage, b u t finds th a t Paul alludes to m any m o tifs in Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re . C hristof-
fersson, 138-139, sees a religious-historical background in the Jew ish apocalyptic develop
m ent o f the Flood tra d itio n , b u t he does not fin d dependence upon any specific text, even
though he claim s th a t a ll m otifs in the passage n o t otherwise found in the NT are in BW 1-36.
See chapter 2 above.
2C hristoffersson, 138.
436
known apocalyptic work for his literary expression of these concepts.
C . The Strands o f Jew ish A p ocalyptic Thought Closest to Rom . 8 :1 9 -2 2
The dive rsity o f th e Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s shows th a t it is n o t enough sim ply to
label the theology o f Rom. 8:19-22 as "apocalyptic". Rather, it is im p o rta n t to id e n tify the
p a rtic u la r type of apocalyptic though t closest to Pauls ideas. The Jew ish apocalyptic
m aterials represent several d is tin c t stran ds o f though t, a ll o f w h ich are "apocalyptic" in
perspective, despite th e ir diversity. These ideological strands can be distinguished b y th e ir
treatm ent o f three key issues: (1) the c o rru p tio n o f creation in th is age: (2) the cause o f the
co rru p tio n o f creation: and (3) the fu tu re hope fo r the redem ption o f the m ate rial creation.
(1) There is a tensio n in m any Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin gs between the creation as
under Gods co n tro l and th e creation as damaged by sin. A lthough a few w ritin g s stress the
perfection and consistent operation o f the n a tu ra l w orld, the m ajority describe creation as
corrupted due to sin. Even m any w ritin g s th a t emphasize the norm ally consistent operation of
creation indicate th a t at least p a rts o f creation are corrupted or th a t creation is corrupted at
specific tim es in history. Rom. 8:19-22 follow s th a t m a jo rity stream o f Jew ish apocalyptic
w ritin g s th a t stresses th a t creation has been corrupted by sin.
Not corrupted Corrupted Not discussed
Nature consistent Nature obeys By angelic sin By human sin AW

BP 2
B W 1-5 Parti ally Watcher's Eschatological Fall Pre-Flood Ongoing
BD
Jub B W 17-36 BW 6-16 Jub Jub BWB-18 A B80
2En EpEn Jub B W 17-36 4 El 2En AB80 2 Bar
BP1 2En 2 Bar BP 3 Jub
BP 3 BP 3 BPS ApMos/LAE 4Ez
2 Bar 1 En Noah 2 Bar
ApMos/LAE
Rom. 8:19-22
Figure 4: The Corruption of Creation in Jewish Apocalyptic Writings and Rom. 8:19-22
437
(2) Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s are divided concerning the cause of the co rru p tio n of
creation. The source o f the co rru p tio n o f creation m ay be the sins of th e fallen W atchers,
hum an sins, o r both. Among those w orks th a t focus on hum an sins, th e co rru p tio n m ay
either be due to the F all, ongoing hum an sins throughout history, o r eschatological hum an
sins. Rom. 8:19-22 focuses on the decisive damage th a t the F a ll o f h u m a n ity brought to the
created order, re su ltin g in the present enslavem ent of creation to c o rru p tio n and fu tility .
(3) The m a jo rity o f Jew ish apocalyptic w ritin g s lo o k forw ard to an eschatological
redem ption o f creation. Some anticipate a new creation, w hile others expect the transform a
tio n o f the present creation - either to its pre-Fail condition o r to a perfect state th a t exceeds
w hat it lost due to sin. A tem porary, earthly golden age w ith a perfected n a tu ra l w orld is also
found in m any o f these works.
Redemption of Creation
Redeemed Not Discussed
New creation Same creation BD 83-84

AB 80
AB Transformation Continuity Restore pre-Fall E pE n
AW of Paradise conditions BP 1
Jub (2)
2 En (?) BW 1-5 BW 17-36 AA
BP 3 B W 6-16 AB 2En
4 E z (2 ) Jub (1) 2 En 4 Ez
2 Bar (1) BP 2 BP 3
4 E z (1 ) 4 Ez (?)
2 Bar (2) 2 Bar
Ap Mos/LAE
Rom. 8:19-22
Figure 5: The Redemption of Creation in Jewish Apocalyptic Writings and Rom. 8:19-22
In Rom. 8:19-22 Paul follow s th a t stream o f apocalyptic th o u g h t th a t looks forw ard to
the transform ation o f the existing creation, w ith the rem oval o f the damage o f sin and the
perfection o f creation in lin e w ith the glory and freedom o f the glorified ch ild re n o f God. Paul,
however, does not describe the exact types o f eschatological changes th a t the n a tu ra l w orld
w ill undergo, in contrast to the vivid descriptions found in m any Jew ish w ritings. Like the
stream o f Jew ish apocalyptic lite ra tu re th a t looks forw ard to an eternal tran sform ation of
438
creation, Rom. 8:19-22 im plies th a t the eschatological perfection o f creation w ill be perm anent,
since it accom panies the eternal g lo rifica tio n of th e resurrected people o f God.
In sum m ary, Pauls perspective o f the present state and fu tu re hope o f creation is
s im ila r to th a t stream o f Jew ish apocalyptic th o u g h t th a t believes th a t the Fall o f Adam cor
rupted the w o rld and th a t looks forw ard to an eschatological transform ation and perfection of
creation thro ugh a decisive divine act.
439
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I INFORMATION TO USERS

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Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by

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AN EXEGETICAL STUDY OF ROMANS 8 :1 9 -2 2 IN LIGHT OF

JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

A Thesis subm itted to the Faculty of W ycliffe College and the

B ib lica l Departm ent o f the Toronto School of Theology.

In p a rtia l fu lfilm e n t o f the requirem ents fo r the degree o f

awarded by W ycliffe College and the U niversity o f Toronto.

copyright 1997 H arry A lan Hahne

Acquisitions and Acquisitions et

The author retains ownership of the Lauteur conserve la propriete du

fo r the eschatologlcal g lorification o f the ch ild re n o f God, because a t th a t tim e th e n a tu ra l

w orld w ill be transform ed to freedom and glory.

theology o f Romans 8:19-22 have been acknowledged even by m any scholars w ho do n o t

passage is "apocalyptic" w ith o u t clearly in d ica tin g w h at is m eant b y th a t term .

th is passage is compared to the approaches taken in the Jewish apocalyptic w ritin g s to

| Jew ish apocalyptic theology.

m aterials represent several stream s of thought, a ll o f w hich are "apocalyptic" in perspective,

despite th e ir diversity. These ideological stream s can be distinguished by th e ir treatm ent of

the n a tu ra l w orld indicate th a t a t least parts of creation are corrupted o r th a t creation is

apocalyptic w ritin g s th a t stresses th a t creation has been corrupted by sin.

created order, re su ltin g in the enslavement o f creation to corruption and fu tility .

TABLES AND FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... v ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................. vUi

ACKNO W LEDG M ENTS...........................................................................................................................ix

INTR O D UCTIO N................................................................................................................................... 1

SECTIO N I: HISTO R Y OF RESEARCH ON ROMANS 8:19-22

CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF THE INTERPRETATION OF ROMANS 8 :1 9 -2 2 ............................... 8

CHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON TH E APOCALYPTIC

SECTION H: TH E CORRUPTION AND REDEM PTION OF CREATION

CHAPTER 3 : EARLY JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE .................................................... 139

CHAPTER 4: 2 ENOCH (SLAVONIC E N O C H ).................................................................................214

CHAPTER 5: JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY: THE CORRUPTION AND REDEMPTION OF CREATION IN JEWISH

SECTIO N m : INTERPRETATION OF ROMANS 8:19-22 IN TH E LIG H T OF

CHAPTER 7: EXEGESIS OF ROMANS 8:19-22 ......................................................................... 347

CHAPTER 8: COMPARISON OF ROMANS 8:19-22 AND JEW ISH APOCALYPTIC

CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 435

B IB LIO G R A P H Y ................................................................................................................................... 440

TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1: P a tristic Views o f Krtaiq in Rom. 8:19-22 ..................................................................... 24

Figure 1: A pocafyptic Views of the C orruption o f C re a tio n ......................................................... 323

ANF A . Roberts and J. D onaldson, eds.. The Ante-Nicene Fathers

Jo u rn a l abbreviations taken from the Jo u rn a l o f B ib lica l Lite ra tu re Instructions fo r

1 En. F irst (Ethiopic) Enoch

I w ant to th a n k m y thesis supervisor, D r. R ichard Longenecker, fo r h is m any h e lp fu l

McLaverty. I p a rticu la rly appreciate D r. Tom Sappington, who le t me bounce ideas o ff h im in

progress every week.

1 am very grateful fo r the prayers o f m y parents. The prayers o f m y m other-in-law ,

year I w ould graduate, despite m any obstacles.

More th a n anything, I th a n k God fo r m y dear w ife, Elizabeth, who always believes in

th is long process, even w hile com pleting her own PhD.

F inally I th a n k God fo r giving me c la rity o f though t and enabling me to persevere to

th is thesis to be used fo r h is glory.

A . The C orruption and R edem ption o f C reation in Pauls Thought

The m a jo rity o f w orks on Pauline and NT theology have no section on th e n a tu ra l w orld

p a rt in Pauls th o u g h t th a n has often been recognized. Although it is b y no m eans a central

2Santm ire, T ra v a il pp. 31-188.

In recent decades it has become a commonplace fo r NT scholars to claim th a t Pauls

K&semann started a m odem resurgence o f interest in th is idea when he claim ed th a t apocalyp

lyp tic w ritings.