Mechanism

and
Machine Theory
Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032
www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmt

Synthesis of cams with negative radius follower

and evaluation of the pressure angle
S. Carra, R. Garziera *, M. Pellegrini
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Universita di Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 181/A, 43100 Parma, Italy
Received 6 May 2003; received in revised form 21 April 2004; accepted 10 May 2004

Abstract
Cam mechanisms with a negative radius roller-follower allow designing simple machines exerting
remarkably high forces. On the other hand, specic synthesis problems arise particularly for this type of
cams. The present work deepens a numerical study developed by the same authors, studying the inuence of
many variables upon the pressure angle. The results yield to a cam design where the pressure angle is
optimized, allowing a quick identication of its range of values. In particular, an undercutting lower limit
of the rise angle for dierent lifts is highlighted.

2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Cams; Negative radius follower; Pressure angle; Synthesis

1. Introduction

Cam/follower devices are used in a great variety of applications where a simple and economic
control system, having a small number of parts in motion, is needed; they can be frequently found
in automatic and textile machinery, cutting and forming presses, engines, fast manufacturing
equipment.
Literature reports a lot of studies related to the dynamic of cams and cam proles generation.
In particular, cam optimization [1] deals with determining cam prole for a given follower lift.
Optimization may also minimize costs (such as material volume or inertia of moving parts) or
maximizes a certain prot (such as force transmission, life span, etc.).

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-0521-905894; fax: +39-0521-905705.
E-mail address: garz@garz.net (R. Garziera).

0094-114X/$ - see front matter
2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2004.05.001
1018 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032

Cardona and Geradin [2], Fissette et al. [3], Kisu-Lee [4] studied the dynamic of cam/follower
mechanisms developing dierent formulations for modeling the contact and studying the dynamic
behaviour with multibody systems.
Demeulanaere and De Schutter [5] proposed a design procedure to perform the synthesis of
cams that compensate the uctuation of the camshaft speed, especially for high-speed system.
Demeulanaere and De Schutter [5], Yao et al. [6,7], Yan et al. [8], proposed an alternative
method for improving motion characteristics of the follower by actively varying the input speed of
the cam.
Wu et al. [9], Yan and Cheng [10], Baxter [11], Kloomok and Muey [12], Yonggang [13]
analyzed deeply the curvature of a cam/follower mechanism.
Lampinen [14,15] and Lampinen and Alander [16,17] optimized the cam shape using genetic
algorithm.
The procedures to generate the cam prole are deeply explained in Tsai [18], Molian [19], Chen
[20], Rothbart [21], Magnani and Ruggieri [22], Tesar and Matthew [23], where the authors also
underline the inuence of various parameters on under-cutting and pressure angle problems.
Nevertheless, not many studies are available about cam mechanisms with negative radius roller-
follower. The classic studies are extended to this kind of cams starting from Garziera and Garziera
[24], where the potentialities of these new applications are shown.
Some numerical simulations of negative radius follower cams are reported in Carra et al. [25].
The present paper overviews and deepens an analytical approach and numerical results ob-
tained from the same authors in [25]. The main target of this paper is to get a design nomograph
and a synthesis procedure that allows nding a suitable combination of parameters (base radius,
roller radius, lift angle, etc.) in order to generate the correct motion law without under-cutting
problems. This has been obtained by a series of numerical simulations, worked out through a
dedicated code especially developed for this specic application.
The second aim of this research is the prompt determination of the range of values that the
pressure angle may assume in this kind of mechanisms. Consequently, some advices and veri-
cation graphs are provided to the designer in order to manage particular situations and needs; for
example, when an optimization of the pressure angle is specically required, in order to reduce the
contact pressure.

2. Cam mechanisms with negative radius follower

The use of cams still shows a lot of advantages compared to other classes of modern actuators.
Particularly, a good working speed and a high eciency can be reached without excessive costs.
Cams with negative radius roller-followers work using the inner rings of commercial roller
bearings as roller-followers: the cam ts inside the inner ring as shown in Fig. 1. This kind of
solution can bring advantages in a lot of industrial cases, with respect to traditional cams. The
use of such mechanisms is valuable in applications where space is constrained and very high forces
are involved. Fig. 2 gives a picture of the big dimensions of a typical camshaft for an industrial
press.
Using negative radius roller-followers, the total dimensions of the mechanism and the total
number of bearings can be drastically reduced, as deeply underlined in [24].
 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032 1019

Fig. 1. Example of special cam (the white one) with the correspondent negative radius follower (the roller bearing).

Fig. 2. Example of a camshaft realized for a cam mechanism with negative radius follower used in an industrial paper
dinking press.

Fig. 3 shows two possible solutions for the realization of a 700 kN paper dinking press. In case
(a), the slider housing the dinking die is moved by a classical crank system, with the crankshaft c,
two supporting bearings for the crankshaft b, two supporting bearings for the connecting rod big
end a, two supporting bearings for the connecting rod small end f , two connecting rods d and the
thrust pivot e. In case (b), the slider moves jointly with the roller-follower and it is guided by four
linear bearings. The system is made by two supporting roller bearings b for the cam shaft, one
central roller bearing a (the follower) and the cam shaft c. Comparing the two cases, it appears
that solution (b) reduces the number of bearings and simplify the structure.
The other signicant advantage of this kind of mechanism is related to the value of the contact
pressure p between the cam and the follower; this can be limited also for high loads.
The Hertz formula is expressed by Eq. (1), where m and E are, respectively, the Poissons ratio
and the Youngs modulus (supposing that the cam and the roller-follower are both made of steel),
s is the thickness of the contact, S is the force exchanged, Rc is the negative radius of the follower
and q is the local curvature radius of the cam prole.
s
 
ES Rc
p 0:175   1 : 1
b  Rc q
1020 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032

Fig. 3. Comparison between two dierent mechanisms used for the same application: (a) classical crank system; (b) cam
mechanism with negative radius follower. It is easy to underline the system simplication obtained with the new cam
system.

Following the convention that assumes Rc and q to be positive when the two centers of curvature
are on the two dierent sides of the common tangent in the contact point, the factor 1 Rqc
presents a minus sign in the case of a negative value of Rc . Consequently, the use of negative
radius roller-followers brings to a reduction of the problems of excessive contact pressure.
A nal check of the values assumed by the pressure angle is anyway necessary, in order to avoid
the crawling of the mechanism and to reduce the maximum pressure in the case of applications
with extremely high loads.
The design phase of these special cams needs care for the geometrical problems typically in-
volved in the design of cams with positive radius follower. The undercutting problem becomes
very critical for a cam with negative radius roller-follower.

3. Cams synthesis procedures

Classical methods of cam proles synthesis must be modied when negative radius roller-fol-
lower mechanisms are considered.
The rst step toward the synthesis is generally the choice of the acceleration law of the follower:
it has to lead to a good control of inertia forces and vibrations. Velocity and motion laws can be
obtained by numerical integrations, imposing for instance maximum lift h and zero velocity at the
end of the rise.
In the case of positive radius follower, the motion law is added to the base circle Rb to obtain
the cam pitch curve, by summing to the base radius, at every angular position, the correspondent
lift. The cam prole is obtained from the cam pitch curve as envelope of the circumferences that
represent the follower during the motion.
The dierence between this classic procedure and the new one used for cams with negative
radius follower is that, in the second case, the motion law is subtracted from the base circle
(equivalent to an addition of the same law with negative lift). The module of the negative radius
jRc j is always bigger than Rb h (see Section 4.1), so during the enveloping process a particular
 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032 1021

Fig. 4. Synthesis of cam proles. (a) Classical procedure used for a positive radius follower; (b) new procedure
overviewed for a negative radius follower cam.

condition is reached: every point of the cam prole is on the opposite side of the cam rotation
center with respect to the corresponding point of the pitch prole (Fig. 4).

4. Numerical simulations

4.1. Denitions, notations and hypotheses

In the present study cam proles are computed by using a modied trapezoidal acceleration
law; this procedure allows obtaining excellent results in the control of inertia forces and
vibrations [24]. The same analytical formulation and numerical procedures could be use for other
motion law. Acceleration law is taken symmetric in the rise and return phases. The positive and
the negative zone of each phase are subdivided in three equal angular steps, respectively, named
Da and Da (Fig. 5).
The main problem is undercutting [9,22,24,25]: during the generation of the cam prole as
envelope of the follower, one may obtain imaginary proles (usually as a swallow-tailed pro-
le). This problem is much more critical for negative radius followers.

Fig. 5. Example of the selected acceleration law with the notation used.
1022 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032

Undercutting is avoided, in normal cams, when the curvature radius q is higher than the
follower radius. In the case of special cams with negative radius follower, where a positive motion
law is subtracted from the base circle radius, the no-undercutting condition becomes
0 < q < jRc j: 2
In order to reduce undercutting, an optimization of the acceleration law can be performed
choosing the most appropriated values for some characteristic parameters of the law: the cut angle
Dat and the ratio between Da and Da (see Fig. 5).
The total rise angle aS and the lift h are design parameters, so they cannot be changed during
the optimization phase.
Finally, the cam prole also depends on the base circle radius Rb and on the follower radius Rc .
It is useful to dene the corresponding nondimensional parameter CR
Rb
CR : 3
jRc j
A nondimensional lift is introduced by a new parameter h dened as
h
h : 4
jRc j
Obviously, the undercutting problem is independent of a scale factor on the linear dimensions.
Relations (5a) and (5b) report the ranges of values for the two parameters. These relations
based on pure geometrical constraints
0 6 h 6 0:2; 5a
0:2 6 CR 6 0:9: 5b
Values in range (5a) run with step 0.005 in numerical simulations; values in range (5b) run with
step 0.05.
Cases that t in relation (6) are always aected by undercutting problems
CR h P 1: 6

4.2. Optimization of cut angle Dat

Analytical studies related to traditional cams [22] prove that both acceleration and velocity laws
inuence prole curvature radius q. This can be stated as in Eq. (7), where y, y 0 and y 00 are,
respectively, displacement, velocity and acceleration of the follower versus rotation angle
h i32
y 02 Rb y2
q : 7
Rb y2  Rb yy 00 2y 02
For cams with negative radius roller-follower, the relation (8) becomes
h i32
y 02 Rb  y2
q : 8
Rb  y2 Rb  yy 00 2y 02
 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032 1023

Excessive values of negative acceleration can cause an increase of q and lead to undercutting, as q
could reach or exceed the value of jRc j, thus overcoming the limit given by condition (2).
The cut angle must be chosen in order to reduce negative acceleration peaks. Simple ana-
lytical considerations, also supported by numerical simulations, show that the best solution is to
reduce Dat as much as possible. In this study it is always assumed
Dat 0: 9
Dat also inuences the maximum of pressure angle h. h is dened as the angle between the dis-
placement direction of the follower and the perpendicular direction to both proles [22]. An
excessive value of h increases in general the contact pressure. The expression of the pressure angle
is reported in (10), where plus sign and minus sign refer, respectively, to the case of an added or
a subtracted motion law
y0
tgh : 10
Rb
y
The choice expressed in Eq. (9) produces an increment of the maximum velocity, as explained in
[22]: that causes a bad increase of the contact pressures angle, as shown by Eq. (10).
In the case of negative radius follower cams, the negative eects generated by the increasing of
pressure are generally not signicant, but in some applications an additional pressure angle check
is necessary, to keep the working pressures under a xed limit.

4.3. Pressure angle

Relation (10) shows that an increase of the base circle radius Rb can lead to a reduction of h.
Also the displacement y and the velocity y 0 of the follower have inuence on the pressure angle,
though the designer cannot change their values as his will. Varying the rise angle aS can make the
only possible change on velocity.
The inuence of aS and jRc j on the maximum value of the pressure angle h has been veried by
several numerical simulations. These aspects will be investigated in Chapter 5.

4.4. Ratio k

An excessive value of the maximum negative acceleration leads to undercutting, as shown by

Eq. (8). Also an excessive value of the maximum positive acceleration may have negative eects,
generating intolerable inertial forces.
This induced to study a possible optimization of the ratio k between Da e Da (see Fig. 5),
dened as
Da
k : 11
Da
There is a straight connection between the angular range Da and Da and the peaks of accel-
eration. Imposing aS , making Dat and velocity equal to 0 at the end of the motion law, we note
that the larger is Da , the smaller is the positive acceleration peak; at the same time, the smaller is
1024 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032

Da , the higher is the negative acceleration peak. For a xed k there is a precise ratio between the
maximum negative acceleration and the maximum positive one.

5. Numerical results

5.1. Optimal value of ratio k

Some numerical simulations have been performed in order to evaluate the maximum values of

h that is reachable without undercutting problems, varying k, the rise angle aS and with Dat 0.
Fig. 6 shows the curves obtained by varying aS between 10 and 180, for several values of k and
for a xed value of CR (CR 0:55).
Similar graphs were obtained for dierent values of CR , but they always exhibit a constant
trend: for every aS , the maximum value of h increases with k decreasing. This trend is asymptotic
starting from the value of k 0:1, corresponding to the thick line in Fig. 6.
This value of k has been assumed as the optimal one in the choice of the motion law. A lower k
could mean in fact an increase of the maximum positive acceleration, yielding excessive inertial
forces. Moreover, no signicant increase of the maximum allowed lift could be obtained.

5.2. Synthesis simulations

In order to obtain a useful instrument for negative radius follower cams design, several
numerical simulations have been carried out. A trapezoidal modied acceleration law has been
adopted and k and Dat have been xed to their optimal values (see Sections 4.2 and 5.1). Varying
CR and aS , a series of numerical curves have been obtained, representing the maximum reachable
values of h without undercutting.
These data are shown in a design nomograph (Fig. 7) that allows verifying the presence of
undercutting in these special cams for a xed kind of acceleration law and for a desired lift. It

Fig. 6. Undercutting limit of nondimensional lift, for CR 0:55, varying the rise angle, for k 2 (+), k 1

(N), k 0:2 (M), k 0:1 (d), k 0:033 ( ) and k 0:011 ( ).
 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032 1025


Fig. 7. Undercutting limit of the nondimensional lift, obtained varying the rise angle, for CR 0:2 ( ), CR 0:25
(), CR 0:3 (M), CR 0:4 ( ), CR 0:65 (  ), CR 0:75 (j), CR 0:9 (d); k 0:1 for
all cases.

represents a useful instrument to nd out the best values of the design parameters CR and aS that
guarantee a right cam prole and a reasonable limitation for the mechanism dimensions.
In Fig. 7 the original nomograph has been simplied, reporting only some curves, corre-
sponding simulated values of CR . The complete nomograph is in [25].
The designer can enter the graph with the rise angle value on the aS -axis and then take the rst
(lower) curve of the nomograph, corresponding to a particular value of CR jRRbc j. The reached
point represents the maximum lift h , for that values of CR and aS .
Since the required lift h is typically known as design parameter, the follower radius jRc j can be
obtained from Eq. (4). The value of jRc j represents a measure of the total dimensions of the
mechanism.
Finally, starting from jRc j and from CR , it is possible to obtain the value of the base circle radius
Rb , using relation (3).
If the follower size (represented by jRc j) results excessive for the requirements, it is necessary to
move on the nomograph towards upper curves, using the same method to calculate h , jRc j and Rb .
In this case, the designer will obtain higher values of h and smaller dimensions of the follower
(lower value of jRc j), for the same value of the imposed nal lift h.
The use of a dierent curve on the nomograph gives a variation of the coecient CR and this
aect also the pressure angle.
If the value of CR decreases, the numerical simulations have shown an increase of the pressure
angle: this aspect will be better investigated in Section 5.3.
It is possible to divide the nomograph into three dierent families of curves, characterized by
dierent ranges of CR , which can be, respectively, used for dierent targets.
A comparison with two analytical studies has been carried out, following [22].
Inserting expression (8) of the prole curvature radius q into the no-undercutting condition (2),
it is possible to note that the denominator of expression (8) must necessarily be positive, in order
to have a positive value of q, as required by the rst part of condition (2). The respect of the
second part of condition (2) brings to the following expression
1026 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032
h i32
y 02 Rb  y2 2y 02
y 00 >  Rb  y  : 12
jRc jRb  y Rb  y
In actual applications, the variable y varies between 0 and the required nal lift h. In the same
way, the negative acceleration and the velocity vary between 0 and their respective maximum
values.
In order to make a very safe project, it is possible to substitute the variables y, y 0 and y 00 with
their extreme values, corresponding to the worst possible case in expression (12).
It is useful to use two typical nondimensional parameters, namely the velocity coecient Cv and
the negative acceleration coecient Ca , dened in expression (13a) and (13b), following reference
[22]:
00 a2S
Ca jyNEG;MAX j ; 13a
h
0 aS
Cv yMAX  : 13b
h
00 0
In these expressions, yNEG;MAX and yMAX represent, respectively, the maximum value of the neg-
ative acceleration and the maximum value of the velocity (versus the rotation angle).
Substituting parameters (13a) and (13b) into expression (12) we get
h i32
Cv2 h2 2
Ca h a2S
Rb  0
 >  Rb  h  0: 14
a2S jRc jRb  h
Inserting in expression (14) the other nondimensional parameters h and CR , we have
" 2
#32
Cv2  h Ca 
CR2  CR  h 2  h  CR < 0: 15
a2S a2S
In Figs. 8 and 9 the numerical data, obtained, respectively, in the case of CR 0:2 and CR 0:9,
are compared to the result obtained from the Eq. (15).
It is evident how the analytical results are always too safe particularly with high value of aS .
This brings to a choice of lower h , with bigger dimensions of the follower, increasing needed
space and costs.
In order to better-t numerical results, a less safe approximation can be extract from [24], where
condition (16) is assumed
equivalent to CR  h CR : 16
Though this assumption is classical in cams design, it is not always correct in the ranges (5a) and
(5b). Inserting the condition (16), Eq. (15) becomes
" 2
#32
Cv2  h Ca
2
CR2  CR2 2  h  CR < 0: 17
aS aS
 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032 1027

Fig. 8. Undercutting limit of the nondimensional lift, varying the rise angle, for CR 0:2: (d) numerical results,
(- - - -) analytical results using condition (15).

Fig. 9. Undercutting limit of the nondimensional lift, varying the rise angle, for CR 0:9: (d) numerical results,
(- - - -) analytical results using condition (15).

Figs. 10 and 11 show the comparison between the numerical data, obtained for the two cases of
CR 0:2 and CR 0:9, and the result from the second approximation (17). Where condition (16)
is always valid (case CR 0:9) the analytical curve is still too safely (Fig. 11); where the
approximation is not correct (particularly evident in case CR 0:2), the analytical curve gives
1028 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032

Fig. 10. Undercutting limit of the nondimensional lift, varying the rise angle, for CR 0:2: (d) numerical results,
() analytical results using condition (17).

Fig. 11. Undercutting limit of the nondimensional lift, varying the rise angle, for CR 0:9: (d) numerical results,
() analytical results using condition (17).

incorrect results, with a limit curve higher than the real (numerically obtained) undercutting limit
(Fig. 10).
Numerical simulations are therefore necessary in order to perform a correct design of negative
radius follower cams.
 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032 1029

5.3. Numerical evaluation of pressure angle

Most cams applications with negative radius roller-follower do not present particular problems
in relation to the maximum contact pressure: all the simulated cams are in fact characterized by
limited values of the pressure angle h (always less than 41).
An additional check of the pressure angle is often necessary to avoid the crawling of the
mechanism, especially in case of applications with very high loads, where a lower value of h could
be required.
The inuence of aS and of jRc j on the maximum value of the pressure angle h has been veried.
The highest values of the pressure angles h for dierent values of the rise angle aS and of
the nondimensional ratio CR have been numerically calculated and are reported in the graph
reported of Fig. 12. These data have been obtained considering the undercutting limit con-
dition, which corresponds to the maximum allowed lift for a xed acceleration law and for a
specic CR .
Fig. 12 shows how an increase of the ratio CR leads to a decrease of the pressure angle. This can
be obtained not only by a smaller follower, with a smaller radius jRc j, but also using a larger base
circle radius Rb .
The inuence of the total rise angle aS cannot be easily deduced from Fig. 12, since a double
trend can be observed on the graph: the pressure angle seems to increase with the rise angle for
low values of aS ; this trend is reversed for higher values of aS .
This is strictly related to the nature of the graph, which refers just to the undercutting limit
condition, so the nal lift h is not xed for dierent values of aS : the bigger is aS , the bigger is the
maximum reachable nal lift h .
For a better evaluation of the pressure angle trend it is necessary to analyze it for xed values
of h .
Fig. 13 reports the value of h for dierent rise angles and for h 0:06.

Fig. 12. Pressure angle h [] at the undercutting limit obtained varying the rise angle aS [] and for CR 0:2 (j),
CR 0:4 ( ), CR 0:5 (h), CR 0:6 (  ), CR 0:75 (N), CR 0:9 (d).
1030 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032

Fig. 13. Pressure angle values on the undercutting limit obtained for h 0:06 and CR 0:2 (d), CR 0:3

(N), CR 0:4 (j), CR 0:5 (), CR 0:6 ( ), CR 0:7 ( ), CR 0:8 ( ), CR 0:9
(h).

Only the decreasing trend of h is shown, because only this part of the graph does not present
undercutting. It represents the best range of aS for optimal design. The rise angle is characterized
by a left limit (the lowest reachable aS for a xed h ): it marks the entrance into the limited-lift
zone. The use of lower values of aS could give a cam with undercutting.
A global optimal zone can be located between the highest curve and the lowest one, as shown in
Fig. 14 for the case of h 0:06; this area is limited on the left side by the thick curve that
interpolates the highest values of h.
The same procedure can be followed for all the lifts in the range (5a), obtaining several graphs.
Extracting the left-limit curves from these graphs, the global graph shown in Fig. 15 is ob-
tained. The inferior limit moves to higher aS as h increases.

Fig. 14. Limit curve and working area for pressure angle versus rise angle; h 0:06. Graph is obtained as connection
of limit points of the curves shown in Fig. (13).
 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032 1031

Fig. 15. Limit curves in the chart pressure angle versus rise angle, for dierent values of h : h 0:005 (d),

h 0:015 (N), h 0:025 (j), h 0:045 ( ), h 0:065 ( ), h 0:085 (M), h 0:125
(h), h 0:155 ( ), h 0:200 (+).

This graph can help in choosing the best value of the rise angle aS , in order to modify h without
exiting from the no-undercutting zone.
Each one of these curves represent the left-limit of the best working zone for a xed h , so they
show the range of the possible pressure angle values for an imposed nal lift.

6. Conclusions

Cams with a negative radius roller-follower can be a very economic and eective choice in a
number of applications when particularly high forces are required by simple mechanisms with
space restrictions, a limited lift not being a hindrance.
By use of numerical simulation, a possible synthesis procedure has been developed. For this
particular class of cam mechanisms, a symmetrical modied trapezoidal acceleration law, with
Dat 0 and k 0:1, appears to be the best solution in order to avoid undercutting and to limit
inertial forces. In addition, a synthesis nomograph has been plotted to facilitate the design.
As a second issue, the analysis has been focused on the determination of the pressure angle,
making it possible to identify the best solutions according to a design optimized regarding the
pressure angle itself. The possible range of variation of the pressure angle has been graphically
represented, showing the inuence of Rb , jRc j and aS on its maximum value.
Finally, a lower limit for the total rise angle, required to avoid undercutting, has been deter-
mined for every imposed lift.
1032 S. Carra et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 39 (2004) 10171032

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