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5. Force - the push or pull action on an object. Force is required to start an object in
motion from rest, or stop an object that is moving, or cause a moving object to
speed up or slow down.
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The SI unit of pressure is the pascal, symbol Pa, the special name
given to a pressure of one newton per square metre (N/m2). The
relationships between the pascal and some other pressure units are
shown in the table but note that not all are, or can be, expressed
exactly. Note also that the term standard atmosphere is not a pressure
unit(5).
conventional millimetre of
mmHg 133.322... Pa
mercury(2,3)
conventional inch of mercury(2,3) inHg 3 386.39... Pa
101325/760 Pa
torr(4) torr
(exactly)
pound-force per square inch lbf/in2 6 894.76... Pa
C. Kinematic (Measurable) Physical Quantities (kinematic = "in motion")
4. Power P = W/t (work per unit time) units: J/sec = watt (W)
** dimensionless quantities are ones that have no units (e.g. a "dimensionless ratio" is a quantity in
which all units "cancel out" **
B. Heat Flow
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2. Heat Flow : An Equilibrium Process
a. Temperature Imbalance Causes Heat to Flow or Transfer
b. Substances at Same Temperature = Temperature Equilibrium
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C. Heat, Expansion, Contraction
1. Expansion of Hot Matter
a. Increase heat, increase temperature, increase vibrational kinetic energy of
atoms / molecules
(1) atoms/molecules vibrate faster - move farther apart to make room
(2) Net Result: Expansion and Volume Increase
b. Heat Loss = Cooling = < kinetic energy = < volume = > density
c. Heat gain = Warming = >kinetic energy = > volume = < density
(1) e.g. Hot Air Balloon: Hot Air = volume increase = density decrease
(a) less dense hot air rises relative to more dense cold air
(3) Why? Because the crystal structure of ice takes up more space
(greater volume) than the structure of liquid water molecules
c. Importance: A good thing, otherwise oceans and lakes would freeze from the
bottom - up... resulting in destruction of all aquatic life!!!
(1) Luckily: Lakes / oceans freeze with ice on the surface, and liquid
water insulated from freezing at depth.
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D. Heat Transfer
(3) Examples
(a) Good conductors of heat = iron / metal (rapidly transmit heat)
(b) Poor conductors of heat = adobe / brick, fiber glass insulation
(c) Poor conductor = "good insulator"
1. Three physical states of matter (water in this case) - dependent on amount of heat
energy (vibrational kinetic energy) contained within matter
a. solid (low energy)
(1) crystalline atomic structure
b. liquid (medium energy)
(1) fluid - material changes shape easily
c. gas (high energy)
(1) fluid - material changes shape easily
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ICE ----------HEAT----- WATER-------HEAT -------WATER VAPOR
(<32 degrees) (32-212) (>212 degrees F)
4. Freezing- process of transforming water from liquid to solid state (Heat Loss)
2. Heat Energy
a. measured in calories
(1) amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water 1 degree C
b. Condensation: water vapor to liquid = system must lose 600 Cal of energy
(1) < vibratory motion
(2) latent heat of condensation
(3) Condensation/heat transfer
(a) drives storm systems
(b) affects climate
(c) transfers heat from equator to poles
(d) results in cloud phenomena
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e. Sublimation: solid to gas or gas to solid = system must gain 680 cal of
energy or lose 680 cal of energy respectively for transformation to occur
(1) e.g. dry ice sublimates to gaseous carbon dioxide with no intervening
liquid phase
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Example Conservation Equation in Hydrology
thus,
I - Q = S
where I = water into a system, Q = water flow out of a system, S = change in storage of system
Example Problem: A reservoir is full to the brim and holds 10 km3 of water. During the course of a given
year, the reservoir receives 0.58 km3 of water via rainfall. Meanwhile, a local city uses 2.3 km3 of water,
what is the net change in reservoir storage for the year?
What is the absolute volume of water in storage at the reservoir after the year in question?
_________________________________________________________________________
A. Can exist in all three physical states: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapor)
B. Transformation Processes related to energy input and entropy of water: heating of water,
> atomic activity of the water molecules, i.e. > vibrational energy of water atoms.
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C. Water is one of few earth substances that remains in a liquid state at the operating surface
temperatures of the earth.
1. The liquidity of water makes it a dominant and pervasive component of all earth
processes
D. Water has High Heat Capacity- it has a capacity to absorb and hold energy with only a
small amount of temperature rise.
1. Result Density of ice < Density of water: thus ice floats on water
F. Water strongly influenced by the force of gravity, constantly driven downward, and can
possess great erosive/ landscape carving force
G. Water has property of high surface tension, ability to have strong molecular attractive
forces (sticks to itself and electrostatically attracts ionic forms of elements)
1. Capillarity- phenomena of water moving upward against the force of gravity, due to
strong electrostatic adhesive forces, most notable in narrow, restricted pore
spaces where surface to surface contact in high.
H. Water acts as a "universal solvent" and can dissolve most any substance over time.
Water + carbon dioxide forms a mild carbonic acid solution naturally in hydrosphere, as
an acid can result in cationic exchange with positive ionic species, and result in chemical
breakdown of substances.
2. Covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen (strong bond, via sharing of
electrons)
a. Hydrogen: 1 valence electron (atomic no. of 1)
b. Oxygen: 6 valence electrons (atomic no. of 8)
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3. Hydrogen bonds- given a mass of water molecules, the opposite ends will attract
molecularly, forming hydrogen bonds
a. hydrogen bond between molecules is weaker than covalent within molecules
(1) water mass is fluid, but molecules are difficult to dissociate
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Overview of Physical Properties of Water
A. Temperature-Density-Viscosity Relations
5 0.999965 1.5188
10 0.997000 1.3097
15 0.999099 1.1447
20 0.998203 1.0087
25 0.997044 0.8949
30 0.995646 0.8004
35 0.99403 0.7208
100 0.95865
-1000 213.8
0 121
5000 202.9
10,000 193.7
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In-Class Exercise - Examining the Physical Properties of Water
Draw two generalized graphs depicting the relationship between water temperature (x axis) vs.
density (y-axis) and viscosity (y-axis).
Describe the general relationships between water temperature, density, and viscosity.
What effect will the temperature-density relationship have on ocean circulation? Discuss and
draw a cross-sectional diagram to support your discussion.
How many pounds will 500 gallons of water weigh? Show all of your math work.
If someone were to give you 3000 pounds of water, how many gallons would you have?
How many cubic feet? Show all of your math work.
Draw a generalized graph of elevation (y-axis) vs. air pressure (x-axis). On the same graph, but in
a different color (or line style), graph the boiling points of water (x-axis). What is the general
relationship between elevation, air pressure, and the boiling point of water? Given these
relations, what is the temperature of boiling water inside a pressure cooker, compared to that in a
sauce pan on the stove?
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