Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
2013
Inline
Viscosity
www.che.com Measurements
PAGE 34
PAGE 17
Direct Fired
Heaters
Shell-and-Tube
Heat Exchangers
Facts at Your
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Mixing
Compressors: Combustible
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Circle 29 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-29
www.che.com
COVER STORY
17 Cover Story Petroleum Refining Outlook
Petroleum from shale and oil sands offers opportunities for North
American refiners, but the shifting crude diet also presents challenges
NEWS
11 Chementator A waste-free monomer recovery process is licensed;
Gas-phase option for NOx abatement; A step closer to commercializa- 22
tion for a new green solvent; Bioengineers make an ideal
hydrogel for antimicrobial applications; Detecting bioparticles;
Dandelion rubber; Biodegradable anti-scalant; and more
ENGINEERING
32a Facts at Your Fingertips Control Valve Performance
This reference summarizes important aspects of control valve perfor-
mance, including parameters for both static and dynamic responses
31 New Products Monitor cell growth with this sensor; Position this safety
light curtain anywhere; Get touchscreen navigation with this viscometer;
This dust-collection system has a low profile; and more
32I-1 AchemAsia Show Preview This event is expected to have more than
400 exhibitors from over 20 countries, and draw about 12,000 visitors.
As in previous years, AchemAsia 2013 includes a congress program cov-
ering areas such as chemical separation technology, alternatives to pe-
troleum, environmental protection, industrial water treatment and more.
A sampling of the equipment and services to be at the show is given in
this preview
28 COMMENTARY
5 Editors Page Recognizing Excellence Excellence and inspiration are
found at many levels, from the recipient of prestigious awards to the co-
worker who is doing a great job
DEPARTMENTS ADVERTISERS
6 Letters 61 Gulf Coast Section
8 Bookshelf 71 Product Showcase/Classified
72 Reader Service 73 Advertiser Index
74 Whos Who
31 75 Economic Indicators
COMING IN JUNE
Look for: Feature Reports on Automation Standards; and Measuring Volume;
Engineering Practice articles on Process Development; Vapor Depressuriza-
*ONLY ON CHE.COM
tion; and Gas Seals for Compressors; a Focus on Explosion Protection;
Look for New Products;
News articles on Air-Pollution Control; and Sonochemistry; and more
Latest News; and more
Cover: David Whitcher
Circle 44 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-44
Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal
Awards for Editorial Excellence
Editors Page
A
PUBLISHER ART & DESIGN
MICHAEL GROSSMAN DAVID WHITCHER try (SCI; London, U.K.; www.soci.org), America International Group
Vice President and Group Publisher Art Director/
mgrossman@accessintel.com Editorial Production Manager
awarded the SCI Chemical Industry Medal to an individual whose
dwhitcher@che.com leadership, commitment and contributions have been responsible for sub-
EDITORS
PRODUCTION stantial progress and performance in the chemical industry. This years
DOROTHY LOZOWSKI recipient, Andrew Liveris, received the medal in March at a dinner in his
Executive Editor JOHN BLAYLOCK-COOKE
dlozowski@che.com Ad Production Manager honor at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York.
jcooke@accessintel.com
GERALD ONDREY (Frankfurt) Liveris is the chairman and CEO of The Dow Chemical Company
Senior Editor INFORMATION
gondrey@che.com SERVICES
(Dow; Midland, Mich.; www.dow.com). His impressive 37-yr career with
SCOTT JENKINS CHARLES SANDS
Dow has spanned roles in manufacturing, engineering, sales, market-
Senior Editor Senior Developer ing, business and general management. His career has also spanned
sjenkins@che.com Web/business Applications Architect
csands@accessintel.com
the globe, with beginnings in Australia and formative roles in Asia that
CONTRIBUTING included 14 years in Hong Kong, general manager for the companys
EDITORS MARKETING
MICHAEL CONTI
operations in Thailand, and president of all Asia-Pacific operations. Liv-
SUZANNE A. SHELLEY
sshelley@che.com Marketing Director eris was named CEO of Dow in 2004, and was elected as chairman of
TradeFair Group, Inc.
CHARLES BUTCHER (U.K.) michaelc@tradefairgroup.com the Board in 2006.
cbutcher@che.com Liveris also served as co-chair of President Obamas Advanced Engi-
JENNIFER BRADY
PAUL S. GRAD (Australia)
pgrad@che.com
Assistant Marketing Manager neering Partnership in the U.S., and is the author of Make It in America,
TradeFair Group, Inc.
TETSUO SATOH (Japan) jbrady@che.com a book released in 2011. The book presents a set of practical policy solu-
tsatoh@che.com tions and business strategies that outline the Dow vision for an advanced
EDITORIAL
JOY LEPREE (New Jersey)
jlepree@che.com
ADVISORY BOARD manufacturing economy. The Chemical Industry Medal was presented to
GERALD PARKINSON JOHN CARSON Liveris in recognition of his leadership skills, public policy advocacy and
Jenike & Johanson, Inc.
(California) gparkinson@che.com many contributions to applied chemistry that have contributed to the
DAVID DICKEY
AUDIENCE MixTech, Inc. progress of the industry.
DEVELOPMENT MUKESH DOBLE Readers of this magazine may be particularly interested to know that
SARAH GARWOOD IIT Madras, India Liveris graduated with a bachelors degree in chemical engineering. He is
Audience Marketing Director HENRY KISTER
sgarwood@accessintel.com Fluor Corp.
a chartered engineer and a fellow of The Institute of Chemical Engineers,
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Fulfillment Manager Loughborough University, U.K. and Engineering.
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JEN FELLING DECHEMA e.V.
List Sales, Statlistics (203) 778-8700 RAM RAMACHANDRAN that excel above others. This year, Chemical Engineerings Kirkpatrick
j.felling@statlistics.com (Retired) The Linde Group Award will be honoring those who have developed the most-notewor-
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Dorothy Lozowski, Executive Editor
Lessons learned
Your Editors Page in todays Chemical Engineering
[March 2013, p.5] intrigued me because I too served
as a TA in a physical chemistry lab but long before
1980 and we did not have the luxury of a Fourier-
transform infrared spectrometer. But you certainly
have the experience to comment on the following:
The earth, according to Weils law at an average tem-
perature of 15C, radiates heat at 10 m, which Planck
teaches is a 330 m band centered around 10 m. The
principal CO2 absorption bands are at 14.99 and 4.26 m.
But spectroscopic studies indicate that atmospheric
transmittance of infrared radiation is about 80% from 8
to 12 m. That is the so called longwave window where
the earth is said to vent off excess energy.
It appears that the importance of CO2 as a greenhouse
gas may be overstated. . .
Gerald McDonald
Look what goes into a Metso valve. It starts with a long track record of delivering engineered
performance and legendary reliability with premier products such as Neles, Jamesbury
and Mapag. But the numbers really paint the picture. In almost 90 years, Metso has delivered
globally millions of valves, control valves and on-off valves. We have also become one
of the leading suppliers of smart positioners. All backed by field service expertise from over
55 automation service hubs and over 30 valve service centers around the world. We see it
this way: keeping oil and gas producers working safely and reliably protects investments,
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Circle 30 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-30
Bookshelf
P
rofessors Uttam Ray Chaudhuri from Calcutta set of worked examples in each chapter. The book also
University (Kolkata, India; www.caluniv.ac.in) and includes an appendix containing problems and worked
Uptal Ray Chaudhuri from Jadavpur University solutions in process control from previous versions of the
(Kolkata, India; www.jadavpur.edu) have authored a Indian Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE).
preparatory textbook on automatic process control. The Some suggestions for the next version of the book in-
target audience for the book seems to be students in an clude the following. The preface states that cost of con-
introductory process-control course. trolling instruments at a plant is about 4060% of the
After an opening introduction, the book offers an open- initial investment of the plant. Automation costs for large
loop-system dynamic analysis using Laplace analysis and continuous-process plants in the chemical process indus-
continuous time differential equations. This analysis is tries (CPI) actually are typically 35% of the total capital
followed by material on closed-loop-control dynamic analy- investment. Also, the photographic reproductions in the
sis and PID (proportional-integral-derivative) tuning. The book are of low quality and difficult to interpret.
book includes a chapter on advanced single-loop regula- While practitioners may have differing opinions on
tory control techniques, such as cascade, feed-forward, the proper approach to PID tuning, there are much
adaptive and fuzzy logic, among others, as well as a chap- more widely accepted and newer methodologies than the
ter on computer control. Ziegler-Nichols and Cohen-Coon techniques presented
Circle 1 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-01
8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
in the book. In the reviewers opinion, since virtually all
process-plant control systems execute digitally, students
should have an introduction to discrete time dynamic
analysis. Very few loops in the plant are fully standalone,
and some introduction to interacting and multivariable Visit us!
analysis should also be part of the curriculum. Total Processing & Packaging
Birmingham, UK
Fundamentals of Renewable En- 4 6 June 2013
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Styrenic Polymers. By Norbert
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WE THINK
The Elements of Polymer Science
and Engineering. 3rd ed. By Al-
fred Rudin and Philip Choi. Elsevier
DIFFERENT.
Science and Technology, 30 Corpo-
rate Drive, Burlington, MA 01803.
Web: elsevier.com. 2012. 584 pages.
$119.00.
Challenge us today
and well have your towers productive tomorrow.
Circle 42 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-42
Edited by Gerald Ondrey May 2013
PSA Nitrogen
A waste-free monomer
recovery process is licensed Water
CW
wash
Mechanical
refrigeration
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process equipment supplier Cryo Technolo- Mechanical
gies (Allentown, Pa.; www.cryotechnologies. Feed refrigeration
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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 13
C HEMENTATO R (Continued from p. 12)
a domesticated crop for the
U.S. and europe; the origin
One-pot synthesis of sugars from biomass of the species is the south-
eastern part of Kazakhstan.
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Cover Story
PETROLEUM
REFINING
1,500
Tight Oils
but the shifting crude diet also presents challenges,
as refiners look to match product output with demand 500
Oil sands
I
ncreasing production of crude oil 0
an
n
sia
n
ria
da
il
S.
a
al)
from shale deposits in the U.S. and
az
ija
sta
an
U.
ud
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Sy
lob
lay
Br
ba
Gh
kh
Ca
hS
(g
Ma
er
za
Az
ut
ls
ue
So
of
14,000 5,000
12,000
4,000
10,000
Thousands of bbl/d
Thousands of bbl/d
3,000
8,000
6,000 2,000
4,000
1,000
2,000
0
0
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Bakken Niobrara
Conventional L48 Tight Oil Gulf of Mexico Alaska NGLs Eagle Ford Bone Springs/Wolfcamp
Other established tight plays Emerging/new tight plays
FIGURE 2. The largest fraction of the tight oil increase in the coming years will be from the Bakken and Eagle Ford formations
Basin in Texas, which contains the stream processing, he says, because [by refineries] before starting to erode
Eagle Ford formation. According to of the potential for fouling due to wax its value.
the U.S. Energy Information Adminis- deposition. Tight-oil crudes also gener- A wave of pipeline investment has
tration (EIA; Washington, D.C.; www. ally have a minimal asphaltine phase, ensued to address the logistics chal-
eia.gov), annual production of crude and varying amounts of filterable sol- lenges. A host of new pipelines have
oil from the Bakken formation already ids, hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans. either been recently completed or are
more than doubled between 2010 and Aside from paraffin wax deposits, tight under development, including several
2012. Other areas that are attract- oils can also create difficulties with projects to transport crude oils to and
ing significant investment for tight corrosion, bacteria growth and desta- from the major petroleum supply hub
oil production include Niobrara shale bilized asphaltenes, Wright points out. of Cushing, Okla. For example, phase
in Colorado and Wyoming, the Utica 2 of the TransCanada Keystone pipe-
shale, especially in parts of Ohio, the Pipeline infrastructure line, completed in 2011, delivers crude
Permian Basin in West Texas and the Aside from technology concerns, tak- oil from Hardisty, Canada and the
Monterrey shale in California. ing full advantage of tight oil requires Williston Basin to Cushing, while the
The new technologies for extracting corresponding transportation-logistics Enbridge/Enterprise Seaway expan-
oil and gas from shale have radically infrastructure, several speakers at the sion was completed earlier this year
changed the oil-and-gas supply picture AFPM meeting indicated. Currently, to expand an existing pipeline that
in the U.S., says Daniel Lippe, founder existing pipeline infrastructure for brings crude oil from the Cushing hub
of Petral Consulting Co. (Houston; transporting petroleum is not suffi- to the U.S. Gulf Coast. Other pipelines
www.petral.com). U.S. petroleum re- cient to handle the surging volumes to further increase take-away capac-
finers stand to benefit, because of the of crude oil from shale deposits in the ity from Cushing are planned to begin
steady supplies that will be available U.S., particularly from Bakken and service in late 2013 (TransCanada
to them via pipelines, rather than re- Eagle Ford. This situation is placing Gulf Coast Project) and early 2014
lying on imports shipped by sea. the shale oil at a discount compared to (Seaway Twin), according to the EIA.
Despite the opportunities, however, other benchmark crudes.
tight-oil crudes present unique tech- Because of the dramatic growth in Declining gasoline demand
nological challenges to petroleum re- tight-oil production from Bakken and The market for petroleum-derived
finers. Unlike most crudes, tight-oil Eagle Ford shale plays, there have been products is also shifting. A number
crudes tend to be light, sweet crudes pipeline pinchpoints that push people of factors, including increased CAFE
with high paraffin content and low toward non-traditional modes of trans- (corporate average fuel economy) stan-
acidity, according to a presentation port for crude, such as rail and barge, dards for automobiles in the U.S., man-
from Bruce Wright, a senior techni- says Wood Mackenzies Wojciechowski. dates for including ethanol in gasoline
cal engineer from Baker Hughes Inc. The market needs more relief as well as other factors have combined
(Houston; www.bakerhughes.com). valves to ease bottlenecks at pipeline to create the conditions for a projected
The significant molecular weight hubs, Wojciechowski comments. The decline in gasoline demand in the U.S.
distribution of paraffin in tight oil is question is becoming, how much do- Some estimates, including those from
a major potential problem for down- mestic tight-oil crude can be absorbed the EIA, project a decline in gasoline
18 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
MIST ELIMINATORS
Mesh-numerous alloys-plastics Vane (Chevron) Multi-Pocket Vane Insertion Mistx
RANDOM PACKING
demand at an annual rate of about 1%. Wide variety of random packing types, sizes and materials in stock! Ask us how our
patented SuperBlend 2-Pac can increase your capacity and efciency.
At the same time, diesel fuel demand
will grow by about the same rate.
For petroleum refiners, this shift
means closer attention must be paid
to the amounts of gasoline and diesel WEDGE WIRE SCREEN
they produce, relative to the crude Catalyst bed supports Basket strainers Nozzles Outlet/Inlet baskets Distributors
they are processing. As Vantage Hub and header laterals
Points Guneseelan says in a discus-
sion of his presentation at AFPM, As
diesel crack spreads are expected to be
superior to gasoline and U.S. diesel de-
mand is expected to increase as gaso- Your Single Source for New or Retrot Internals
line demand shrinks, U.S. refiners that Why wait 10, 15 or 20 weeks for your delivery! Ask AMACS about our Fast
choose to process increasing amounts Track delivery for trays and a complete range of tower internals. With complete
of tight oil will need to consider the po- in-house engineering and fabrication, we can use your existing drawings or
tential impact on the gasoline-diesel modify them to improve your process.
ratio and optimize their facilities and Trays (numerous options) | Sieve or perforated
operations appropriately to align with | Bubble cap trays | Cartridge trays
market demand. | Dual ow | Bafe | Valve
John Boepple, a principal at Nex-
ant, Inc. (San Francisco, Calif.; www.
nexant.com) says, Maximizing diesel
production will be important for refin-
ers using tight oils in their crude feed-
stock diet.
To navigate the gasoline-to-diesel
demand shift, as well as increased
price volatility and low natural-gas
costs, Daniel Thomas, from UOP (Des
Plaines, Ill.; www.uop.com) emphasized
the importance of flexibility and agil-
ity of refineries to be able to take ad-
vantage of price differences of gasoline
and diesel. At AFPM, he discussed the
approach of converting hydrotreater Visit our new website at
units into mild hydrocracking opera- www.amacs.com
tions to achieve the flexibility to opti-
mize overall product mix. He discussed
examples of refineries that have taken
that approach using UOP technology. www.amacs.com 24hr EMERGENCY SERVICE 281-716-1179
Low-sulfur fuels
Worldwide, fuel-quality standards DISTRIBUTORS & SUPPORTS
are tightening, and sulfur content of Manufactured to customer specications or engineered to meet
performance requirements.
fuels has been steadily declining. It is
likely that eventually, sulfur content
in fuels will settle around 10 ppm for
most of the world. The need to further
reduce sulfur in transportation fuels COALESCERS
is driving the need for additional Oil water separations Haze removal from fuels Removal of tower wet reux
Caustic treater applications
hydrotreating capacity to produce
ultralow-sulfur diesel and gasoline.
Hydrotreating refers to the removal
of heteroatoms (effectively sulfur and
nitrogen) and the saturation of olefins STRUCTURED PACKING
and aromatic compounds. Woven, sheet metal, and knitted structured packing.
Jean-Luc Nocca, CEO at Axens S.A. Built to spec or performance requirement.
(Rueil-malmaison, France; www.axens.
Circle 6 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-06
Cover Story
net) points to technologies that add hy- hydrotreating catalysts is now being atoms available for incorporation into
drogen and remove sulfur compounds, manufactured at full scale. Impulse is mixed cobalt-molybdenum active sites,
such as thiols, thiophenes and organic a series of a cobalt-modified, molybde- which have the highest catalyst activ-
sulfides, as growing in importance. num-based catalysts for hydrotreat- ity, Axens says. Also the companys
Several new announcements made at ment of refined product streams. Impulse technology forms smaller-
the AFPM have relevance for produc- The Impulse catalysts are designed sized MoS2 slabs, which increases the
tion of low-sulfur fuels with hydrodes- to minimize the occurrence of inactive number of mixed active sites without
ulfurization catalysts. Axens recently Mo- and Co-containing compounds at increasing the total number of atoms.
announced that its Impulse brand of the catalyst surface, making more Mo With the new Impulse catalysts, Axens
also narrowed the distribution of pore
sizes in the catalyst support material,
fostering maximum activity towards
refractory species, the company says.
In pilot- and full-scale tests of ul-
tralow-sulfur diesel fuel, Axens says
it confirmed an increase in hydrodes-
Were Big
ulfurization activity with the Impulse
technology compared to its previous
catalyst product.
Haldor-Topse A/S (Lyngby, Den-
mark; www.topsoe.com) discussed a
without the burdens recent offering to its hydrotreating
catalyst product line that is designed
to improve the companys existing hy-
drotreating catalyst technology. Hy-
Brim catalyst is produced using a pro-
prietary preparation step that leads
to optimal interactions between the
active metal structures and the cata-
lyst carrier, the company says, leading
to higher activities.
Criterion Catalysts and Technolo-
gies (Houston; www.criterioncatalyst.
com) announced the first commercial
application of a product desinged to
prevent poisoning of hydrotreating
catalysts by arsenic, a potent poison
for hydrotreating catalysts. The prod-
uct, MaxTrap[As]syn, traps the arse-
nic that can be present sometimes
in high levels in some crude oils,
such as those from the Athabasca re-
As a Top 10-ranked firm in refineries and petrochemical plants by gion in Canada.
Engineering News-Record, we have the expertise and international Max Ovchinikov, a senior research
presence to execute and deliver your project anywhere in the world. chemist at Criterion, says that the de-
And with a flexibility and responsiveness that belies our size position of only 0.1 wt.% arsenic on a
thats why were big without the burdens. hydrodesulfurization and hydrodeni-
trogenation catalyst reduces catalyst
activities by as much as 50%. His-
torically, arsenic poisoning has been
treated as a part of natural catalyst
deactivation, Ovchinikov noted. For
People Oriented...Project Driven the past nine years, his company has
introduced a series of arsenic guard
catalysts, and its MaxTrap[As]syn is
For more information, contact us at
the latest offering. The catalyst ex-
processplants@mustangeng.com, call 713-215-8000
hibits a 70% better volumetric arsenic
or visit www.mustangeng.com/process. uptake capacity compared to its prede-
cessor, Ovchinikov says. The improve-
Circle 43 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-43
20 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
Easy Easy
way in way out
UnRived Zeolite
FIGURE 3. The first commercial results for Rive Technology's Molecular Highways
technology, where networks of larger-sized pores are integrated into the zeolite struc-
ture, were announced at the AFPM meeting in March
COMBUSTIBLE
solid that presents a fire or deflagration
hazard when suspended in air or some
other oxidizing medium over a range
of concentrations, regardless of particle
size or shape.
DUST SAFETY
The most common categories of com-
bustible dust include organic dusts, such
as sugar, flour, paper, soap and dried
blood; wood dusts, including sawdust;
metal dusts, such as aluminum and mag-
United Air Specialists nesium; plastic dusts and carbon dusts.
When it comes to knowing how to
handle these dusts, there are four main
While understanding standards for a variety of industries and
several consensus standards related to
combustible dust equipment that apply.
The four main combustible dust stan-
dards are as follows:
regulations can be Standard for the Prevention of Fires
difficult, experts stress and Dust Explosions in Agricultural
and Food Processing Facilities (NFPA
the importance of 61-2008)
Standard for Combustible Metals,
compliance Metal Powders and Metal Dusts (NFPA
484-2009)
Standard for the Prevention of Fires
and Dust Explosions from the Manu-
T
he U.S. Occupational Safety and FIGURE 1. Reputable air-pollution-con-
Health Admin. (OSHA; Wash- trol experts can recommend appropriate facturing, Processing and Handling of
ington, D.C.; www.osha.gov) has systems like United Air Specialists SFC Combustible Particulate Solids (NFPA
cartridge dust collector, which can be 654-2006)
flagged combustible dusts as one equipped and installed to safely handle
of its top issues since the Imperial hazardous dusts Standard for the Prevention of Fires
Sugar Mill explosion in Port Went- and Dust Explosions in Wood Pro-
worth, Georgia, that killed 14 em- inspectors can also cite hazards not cessing and Woodworking Facilities
(NFPA 664-2007)
ployees and injured many others in addressed in consensus standards
February 2008. Combustible dust is, under the General Duty Clause. This Additional Combustible dust consensus
in fact, one of OSHAs National Em- includes the statement that employ- standards are as follows:
phasis Programs (NEPs). ers must furnish each employee with a Explosion Protection by Deflagration
place of employment that is free from Venting (NFPA 68-2007)
The situation today recognized hazards that are causing, Explosion Prevention Systems (NFPA
Despite the attention, however, OSHA or are likely to cause, death or serious 69-2008)
does not yet actually have its own physical harm. Classification of combustible Dusts
standard pertaining to combustible According to the Status Report on and Hazardous (Classified) Locations
dust (see sidebar, Combustible Dust the Combustible Dust NEP, 11% of (NFPA 49902008)
101). Instead, the agency cites com- combustible-dust-related violations
bustible dust hazards including pertain to the General Duty Clause.
fire deflagration, explosion and re- Citations can also be issued for arent in compliance with relevant
lated hazards under its General deflagration, explosion or other fire NFPA standards during routine in-
Duty Clause (5(a)(1)). General Duty hazards that may be caused by com- spections or inspections under the
Clause citations related to combus- bustible dust within a dust collection NEP, which generally occur in facilities
tible dust may be issued for deflagra- system or other containers, such as that have accidents, fatalities or com-
tion, explosion or other fire hazards mixers and bins. In addition, citations plaints related to combustible dust or
that may be caused by combustible can be issued for conditions such as in industries with a higher potential
dust within a dust collection system improper deflagration venting, duct- for combustible dust explosions and
or other containers, such as bins or work-related problems, make-up air fires. (And, you can bet many chemical
mixers. Compliance officers may rely system and improper work practices. processors are in this category.)
upon National Fire Protection Agency What this means, in a nutshell, is Confused? You arent alone. Sup-
(NFPA; Quincy, Mass.; www.nfpa.org) that although there is currently no pliers of dust collection equipment
standards for evidence of recognition OSHA standard for combustible dusts, and systems say the uncertainty
of the hazard, as well as consult rel- based upon a National Emphasis Pro- surrounding combustible dust com-
evant NFPA standards for evidence of gram established by OSHA and Con- pliance is the biggest challenge the
feasible means of abatement. OSHA gress, OSHA can fine facilities that chemical or any other combus-
22 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
LEADING EMISSIONS CONTROL
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FOR INNOVATIVE
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Company LLC. HAMWORTHY COMBUSTION is a registered trademark of Hamworthy Combustion Engineering Ltd. COEN is a registered trademark of Coen Company, Inc. AIROIL-FLAREGAS
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Aerodyne
Newsfront
Circle 2 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-02
24 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
Camfil APC
Newsfront
ducting design and equipment type fits-all solution. Each material, each
can be discussed. Keep in mind that process and each facility has different
different dusts require different solu- dust-collection and dust-safety needs
tions when selecting and configuring and requirements, explains Caulfield.
equipment. And, of course, combusti-
ble dusts require adequate means of Other issues to keep in mind
protection, such as explosion venting However, experts warn that even a
or suppression systems. properly selected, sized and installed
API Max CE
Unfortunately PM
theres not aDuster
one-size- 040113v4_Layout
dust-collection 1 4/1/13 4:06 PM Page 1
system is not enough.
FIGURE 4. Camil APCs Integrated
Safety Monitoring Filter (iSMF) requires
no additional loor space and prevents
collected dust from re-entering the work-
space should there be a leak in the pri-
mary iltering system
Other steps are needed to achieve
complete compliance, and to protect
employees and assets.
Housekeeping is the first line of de-
fense in fighting the dust battle, no
matter the type of dust. Fugitive dust
is often a problem because it collects
on hung or dropped ceilings, flat duct-
ing and flat hanging lights, says Scott.
Anywhere that dust can accumulate
1971 Plymouth Duster out of sight is a problem because if
there is a fire or explosion in a facility,
API Maxum
the initial explosion shakes the build-
CONTOUR transmits a 3D
graphical display to capture
powerful consumption data.
Mixing Chemineer
A laboratory mixer that supplies
data for scaleup
The L5 Series laboratory mixers
(photo) are suitable for R&D, qual-
ity analysis and standard laboratory
work. The mixers have a capacity
Sharpe Mixers
range from 1 mL up to 12 L, and are
able to mix inline with flowrates up Silverson
Machines
to 20 L/min. Each machine is con-
structed with wetted parts in grade
316L stainless steel. The L5M-A lab-
oratory mixer features touchscreen
control with digital tachometer, pro-
grammable integral timer and am-
perage display, which is invalu-
able in scaling up production,
where validation and reproduc-
ibility are crucial, says the company.
Silverson Machines Inc., East
Longmeadow, Mass.
www.silverson.com
torque gun
tm
TM
company
AR
PR
rotation precision (+5%) torque mode for make-up and
TM
2013
break-out, free of reaction arm, inger pinching and
destructible side load. PATENTS RECEIVED & PENDING
Circle 22 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-22
ft3/h without sacrificing retention time sizes from 2- to 60-in. dia. Westfall
for homogeneous blending or coating, Manufacturing Co., Bristol, R.I.
says the manufacturer. Homogeneous www.westfallmfg.com
blends can be achieved in 1560 s resi-
dence time, depending on the material This mixer is also
characteristics. Munson Machinery an energy-efficient dryer
Company, Inc., Utica, N.Y. The Pegasus Mixer features a double-
www.munsonmachinery.com shaft paddle mechanism that gently
throws powders, granules and granu-
Munson Machinery
A static mixer for adjusting lates into the air during mixing. The
bitumen viscosity and density fluidized zone created allows the mul-
This company has introduced a static tifunctional processing unit to mix
mixer for bitumen processing that ingredients extremely gently, quickly
mixes multiple diluents to the correct and energy-efficiently, says the com-
viscosity and density, which allows pany. The new drying functionality
pumping over a wide range of flow- built into the mixer also takes ad-
rates. The Model 290 Variable Flow vantage of this fluidized zone, and
Static Mixer (photo) is combined with prevents agglomeration during the
the companys wafer-style static mixer drying process. Dinnissen B.V.,
to achieve a low coefficient of variation Sevenum, the Netherlands
(CoV) of injected diluents. Capable of www.dinnissen.nl
Westfall Manufacturing achieving a uniform concentration of
injected materials within a short down- Mix solids of modest bulk
abrasive, sticky or tacky compounds, stream distance, while meeting the density with this ribbon blender
slurries, emulsions and pastes that maximum pressure-loss criteria, this The 42B Model Ribbon Blenders
require heat to maintain consistency. mixer reduces consumption of the bitu- (photo) are used for blending of pow-
The units horizontal, cylindrical vessel men diluents, says the company. Accom- ders or other solid raw materials with
with a single agitator is supported by modating flowrates at up to a 20-to-1 a bulk density of 35 lb/ft3 or lower. The
externally mounted flange-block bear- turndown ratio, the mixer is made from blender features stainless-steel wet-
ings. It can blend at rates up to 2,000 316L stainless steel and is available in ted parts (polished to 60-grit finish);
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 29
Charles Ross & Son
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Chemical
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Suitable for a range of CPI applications
MineARC Chemical Safe Havens offer a safe, eficient and cost effective muster point alternative
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Circle 32 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-32
30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
Endress + Hauser
New Products
Amplitude
static-response parameters for control valves understand the static-
include travel gain, dead band and resolu- and dynamic- response
tion (Figure 1). metrics are defined by
Travel gain (Gx). This term represents the ANSI/ISA standards: Time
change in position of the valve closure Small input steps (Re- Dynamics are not shown
member divided by the change in input gion 1) that result in no
FIGURE 1. Dead band and resolution, illustrated here, are
signal. Both quantities are expressed as measurable movement
of the closure member key static-response parameters for control valves
a percentage of the full valve span. The within the specified
closure member is part of the valve trim (the wait time 39
combination of flow-control elements inside Initial overshoot to 38.11 = 23% Final steady-state
Input step changes average values
a valve). Travel gain measures how well the that are large enough input = 37.84, stem = 37.65
valve system positions its closure member to result in some 38 Stem
compared to the input signal it receives. control-valve response
Input, stem %
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Inline Viscosity
Measurements FIGURE 1. A Couette-
style viscometer with
defined shear rate
measurements is
typically used when
Process viscometers can help keep measurements that
can be compared to
laboratory-type
process control and product quality in check measurements
are needed
Steve Cicchese Plant personnel may have an indica- simulate, in part, what is happening
Brookfield Engineering Laboratories tion of the viscosity or consistency of to the fluid during processing. This
a material by looking at it, rubbing it analytical procedure for simulating
I
nline viscosity measurements can between their fingers, or having it drip the shearing action with an instru-
give continuous, realtime read- off a stick or shovel. This type of prac- ment is the key to predicting flow
ings of a fluids viscosity during tical measurement of a materials behavior.
processing and consequently, can characteristic was eventually devel- Rotational viscometers (Figure 1)
provide a means to automate the vis- oped into a somewhat more scientific are widely accepted tools for the mea-
cosity control of process fluids. While approach by using cups with holes in surement of viscosity across most in-
it is difficult to control all factors in the bottom and a stopwatch to measure dustries. The spindle of a rotational
the process that can affect a fluids how much time it would take to drain viscometer, when inserted into the
viscosity (such as temperature, air the fluid. The cups (for example efflux liquid, rotates at various fixed speeds,
bubbles, shear history, turbulence cups) are relatively inexpensive and thereby shearing the material contin-
and so on), if these factors are kept easy to use. This type of test uses the uously at defined shear rates. Simul-
relatively constant, then good control force of gravity to drain the fluid out taneously, the viscometer measures
can be achieved. This article presents of the cup. The shearing action on the the amount of torque resistance expe-
the applications for inline viscos- fluid takes place at the orifice on the rienced by the spindle at each speed
ity measurement and the means by bottom of the cup. As the level in the of rotation. This torque measurement
which they are achieved. Lets first cup goes down, the shear rate at the is quantified as a shear stress, which
discuss the subject of viscosity. orifice decreases because the weight of acts across the surface area of the im-
the fluid remaining in the cup is lower. mersed portion of the spindle. These
The basics This type of measurement is referred two key concepts torque resistance
Viscosity is a property that is often con- to as kinematic viscosity. This method and shearing action are combined
sidered by process engineers, but sel- was one of the earliest quality control in an equation that defines apparent
dom completely understood. It is gen- (QC) tests that checked viscosity in a or dynamic viscosity as the ratio of
erally not a subject that is covered in quantifiable way. shear stress to shear rate.
much detail in many engineering cur- But the cup method could not al- The unit of measurement used to
ricula. Most engineers know what vis- ways discriminate successfully be- quantify rotational viscosity is the
cosity is, but may have trouble explain- tween materials that proved accept- centipoise (cP) in the western hemi-
ing it or even understanding the full able and those that were marginal or sphere, and the milliPascal second
implications of the measured number. even poor performers because of the (mPa-s) in other countries, although
Scientifically, viscosity is the property varying shear rate. Understanding a there is some degree of overlap in
of a fluid that causes it to resist flow. defined shear rate and how it can useage. The good news is that the two
For materials that flow, either while affect the viscosity of the fluid is im- units are interchangeable because
being processed (for pumping, spray- portant. Imagine that the fluid you 1 cP equals 1 mPa-s. There is a way
ing or coating) or in an end-use (like want to test is sandwiched between to correlate viscosity measurements
shampoo, detergent or paint), it is im- two plates separated by a known dis- made with dynamic and kinematic
portant to think about the materials tance. Keeping the bottom plate sta- methods for materials that are New-
flow characteristics or viscosity. En- tionary and moving the top plate at tonian, using the following equation:
gineers and quality-control personnel a defined velocity, shear rate is the Dynamic viscosity = kinematic vis-
need ways to measure viscosity so that ratio of the moving plate velocity, V, cosity density (for more on the fun-
they can quantify whether a material to the distance separating the plates, damentals of viscosity, see Viscosity:
will flow the way it needs to for the X. The use of a rotational viscome- The Basics, Chem. Eng., August 2009,
process or for the application. ter running at different speeds can pp. 3439).
34 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
Viscosity
Viscosity
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Circle 39 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-39
36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
FIGURE 6. This vibrational viscometer is commonly
used in printing and coating applications
oil must be atomized (dispersed into sign considerations, which may also cations include shampoos, detergents
the furnace as a fine mist). This as- be of interest to other spray-type ap- and yogurts to name a few. In these
sures high-speed vaporization and plications, such as spray-drying oper- cases, too thin a product might ap-
ignition. Most burners atomize oil by ations. Some of these considerations pear to be of poor quality (such as a
shearing the oil into small droplets. are the following: runny yogurt, or a shampoo that pours
Burner manufacturers recommend Bypass loop for viscometer installa- like water, without any body). Here it
that the oil be supplied to the burn- tion for fail-safe operation is a matter of consumer perception
ers at a specific viscosity to main- Use of viscosity feedback to control where specifications of final products
tain consistent atomization. Failure the heat rate to the oil-feedline heat are written by companies based upon
to maintain proper atomization re- exchanger consumer test groups, and the product
sults in the following: poor fuel burn- Output from the viscometer may go must fall within these specifications
ing due to carbon and soot buildup; to a single-loop controller that in- in order to be shipped.
higher fuel consumption and costs; stantly responds to inline viscosity Other quality-related applications
increased stack emissions and possi- changes where viscosity is important are in
ble fines from government agencies. Quality control. To ensure consis- coatings, such as paint applications. A
The inline process viscometer mon- tent quality of many different prod- few more examples follow.
itors and controls viscosity and tem- ucts, it is important that the viscosity Roll-coating thickness control.
perature in pressurized oil-delivery be constantly measured and controlled When dealing in any large-volume
systems. Repeatable viscosity mea- during the production process. In- coating and printing applications
surements are necessary to maximize line measurement ensures consistent where millions of products are being
the efficient atomization and delivery quality control in realtime. It saves on printed per day, the payback on the
of a variety of paraffin-based oils, laboratory testing times, and reduces cost of inline control can be very
asphaltic-based oils, as well as heat- hold-up of product in tanks waiting short when measured against costs of
ing fuels and waste oils. The process for evaluation. Examples of quality- wasted ink, varnishes, or coatings from
viscometer can include additional de- control and quality-assurance appli- too high a viscosity or from wasted
product if the viscosity (and hence the sistency of a fluid is controlled so that For food batter applications, too thin
color) are too light. when something is dipped in it and a batter will mean improper coating
In printing applications, constant pulled out, it is uniformly and consis- and product quality. Too thick a batter
maintenance of proper ink viscosity tently coated. will mean bad product quality, longer
ensures the quality of the printing, Dipping applications are designed in cook and dry times, and raw mate-
which reduces rejects and waste, while automated systems whereby an item rial waste. You can easily imagine a
also keeping ink costs to a minimum. is brought over a tank or pan, dipped chicken nugget with too much batter.
To assure the uniform application of into the bath, removed and allowed This can be from too viscous a batter
inks on a variety of substrates (boxes, to drip dry before proceeding through during the coating process.
newspapers, cartons) it is necessary the process. The main problem with Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
to control viscosity. Continuous moni- the open tank or pan is with the evap- Author
toring and control of the ink reservoir oration of fluids to the environment. Steve Cicchese is the gen-
viscosity using an inline viscometer Viscosity control is used for addition eral manager of process sales
and marketing for Brookfield
(Figure 6) can provide viscosity mea- of water, solvents or other modifiers Engineering Laboratories
surement and control at multiple sta- as needed to control viscosity to a set (11 Commerce Blvd., Mid-
dleboro, MA, 02346; Email:
tions and save money by using less point. In pharmaceutical capsule man- s_cicchese@brookfieldengi
ink. Similar controls are needed in the ufacturing, for example, if the fluid is neering.com; Phone: 508-946-
6200) where he has worked
coating of, and the printing on soda too thin, the capsule will break during for the past 12 years. Prior to
that, he spent 15 years with
and other beverage cans. filling, or dissolve too soon when swal- Bird/Baker Process, a manu-
Dip-coating thickness control. The lowed, which would release medicine facturer of liquid-solid separation equipment.
Cicchese holds a B.S.Ch.E. from Northeastern
thickness or consistency of a fluid is in the throat instead of the stomach. If University, an MBA from Babson College and a
controlled to provide a dependable and it is too thick, then there is raw mate- certificate in business administration from Har-
vard University. He is a member of the AIChE
uniformly coated item when dipped, rial waste on millions of capsules that and Society of Petroleum Engineers, and has
then removed, from a coating tank. In will raise product costs, and it may not written numerous articles on process viscosity
measurement in various industries, including
this application, the thickness or con- dissolve properly when swallowed. food, printing, asphalt and oil and gas.
Circle 5 on p. 72 or go to adlinks.che.com/45772-05
38 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
Feature Report
Correcting Improper
Performance of
Direct Fired Heaters
A practical, step-by-step approach for finding the
root cause and troubleshooting burner problems FIGURE 1. Faulty burner performance
and continuous flame impingement have
caused excessive tube-metal tempera-
tures and coke buildup in heater tubes
Babak Maghbooli and Afshin Bakhtiari
Tarahan Naftoon Arya Engineering Co.
Hamidreza Najafi
Farayand Sabz Engineering Co.
O
ccasionally, direct fired heaters be caused by heating surface burner-
that have operated satisfac- flame impingement, improper excess
torily for long periods of time air-fuel ratios, damaged burner tiles
subsequent to startup develop or tiles of improper diameter, improper
operating problems that do not allow burner spacing and other causes.
for operation at design conditions, as For example, continuous flame im-
specified in the manufacturers API pingement with heater tubes in places
data sheets for the heater. where no tube-skin thermocouple is in-
Performance that may be guaran- stalled can be the cause of unexpected
teed, or otherwise specified by the coke buildup, as shown in Figure 1. In
supplier would include the type and cases such as this, the main question is:
characteristics of the feedstock pro- Why has the operator ignored the prob- FIGURE 2. Faulty burner performance
cessed, the heater duty, inlet and out- lem for such a long period of time so and improper flame-shape problems
let temperatures and pressures, heat that it has eventually led to disastrous could not be solved by operators for a
long period of operation time due to lack
flux, tube-metal temperature and coke buildup and heater shutdown? of troubleshooting knowledge
any other process conditions that are For the most part, human factors,
measurable by instrumentation pro- such as inadequate training, improper for performing root-cause analysis);
vided with the heater or calculable scheduling of visual inspections and and second, they didnt know how to
through the use of the heater instru- the lack of troubleshooting skills are treat the problem following a logical,
mentation data. to be blamed. While many firms do be- stepwise procedure (in other words, a
In many cases, operators cannot lieve that the first two reasons are the lack of knowledge for taking correc-
identify the cause of an operating most important, one should not forget tive action).
problem by simply comparing the the significance of effective trouble- Such situations are not unfamiliar
specified data and faulty data obtain- shooting procedures, too. for fired heater operators and field en-
able from the heater instrumentation. In many cases, recognizing the gineers, because these problems hap-
For example, although the measured problem and observing indications pen frequently in many petroleum re-
tube-metal temperatures demon- of it are not enough, because without fineries or petrochemical plants.
strate no significant increases, an un- proper knowledge and understanding A proper root-cause analysis of
expected pressure drop may occur in of the troubleshooting sequence, any burner performance problems and
heater passes because of internal attempts to solve the problem will a proper troubleshooting algorithm
fouling, mainly caused by coke for- fail. For example, in one of our expe- can be a great help to operators for
mation. In many cases, operators are rienced case histories, despite many overcoming problems. In this article
unable to achieve the design heater trial-and-error efforts, operators were we have proposed a simple root-
duty and overall thermal efficiency, unable to tune improper flame shapes cause analysis and also a computer-
while the cause of faulty performance (Figure 2) because of two reasons. ized troubleshooting algorithm that
is unknown to them. Most of these First, they couldnt diagnose the root sequentially directs the heater op-
cases may be due to faulty burner cause of the problem according to its erator from one burner problem to
performance. Such performance could symptoms (that is, a lack of knowledge another, indicating how each of the
39 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 39
TABLE 1. TYPICAL FIRED-BURNER PROBLEMS AND ROOT CAUSES
Electrical problem
Cloudy flame
Non-definitive shape
Flame flashback
Flame impingement
improper performances for a given problems can be classified into the fol- Each of these categorized problems
cause is to be corrected, and con- lowing eight main categories: can be divided into many subcategories.
tinues in this vein until all possible 1. Unsteady flame pattern In order to analyze each category and
causes for improper burner perfor- 2. Undesirable flame height its subcategories in the most concise
mance are corrected. 3. Undesirable flame color and efficient way, a root-cause-analysis
4. Flame liftoff or blowoff table has been proposed (Table 1).
Typical problems & root causes 5. Flame flashback
Based on our field experience and the 6. Flame impingement Troubleshooting actions
valuable information found in Refer- 7. Mechanical problems & damages Understanding the root causes of
ences 13, typical fired-heater-burner 8. Burner extinguished burner operating problems is the
40 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
Feature Report
A-1
Measure combustion air, in case of low Specify your problem Check burners fuel pressure,
combustion air, increase excess air amount. in case of low pressure,
I III Yes
I- Erratic flame pattern adjust fuel pressure if possible.
Is your problem solved? II- Pulsating flame
III- Loose or hazy flame pattern Is your problem solved?
See also: How to adjust draft
and excess air? (Reference 1) II No
No Yes
Go to Point T Is burner tip Measure combustion air, in case of low combustion air, Measure fired heaters draft and excess air,
in Figure 8 damaged? increase excess air amount. in case of low excess air and low draft,
Yes Caution: Reduce fuel flow before increasing air flow, adjust damper and registers.
No danger of explosion or flame flashback exists. Yes
Is your problem solved?
Is your problem solved?
See also: How to adjust draft and excess air? See also: How to adjust draft
Go to Point BT Is burner tile (Reference 1) and excess air? (Reference 1)
in Figure 9 Yes damaged?
No Yes No No
FIGURE 3. Troubleshooting
algorithm for unsteady lame End troubleshooting
pattern (Part 1) procedure
A-2
FIGURE 4. Troubleshooting
algorithm for unsteady lame Specify your problem
pattern (Part 2) I II
I- Cloudy flame
II- Non definitive flame shape
Yes
Low air-to-fuel ratio. Go to Point T Is burner tip
Adjust fuel pressure Too much atomizing steam, in Figure 8 damaged?
and air flow by adjusting adjust steam pressure in
accordance to fuel oil pressure. Yes
damper and
burner registers. No No
Is your problem solved?
Is your problem solved?
See also: How to adjust Measure fired heaters draft and
draft and excess air? excess air, in case of improper
No Yes
(Reference 1) excess air or draft, adjust damper
and registers.
Yes Low air-to-fuel ratio. Adjust fuel Is your problem solved?
pressure and air flow by See also: How to adjust draft
adjusting damper and and excess air?
burner registers. (Reference 1)
Seek No
engineering Is your problem solved?
consultancy No
See also: How to adjust draft
and excess air? (Reference 1) Seek
engineering
consultancy
Yes
End troubleshooting
procedure
Check burners fuel pressure, in case of high pressure Check burner fuel pressure, in case of low pressure
Yes (over fire), adjust fuel pressure if possible. (low fire), adjust fuel pressure if possible. Yes
No No
Inspect primary air registers, in case of low primary air, Inspect primary air registers, in case of too much primary
increase primary air amount. air, decrease primary air amount.
No No
No No
No Seek engineering No
consultancy.
End troubleshooting
procedure.
FIGURE 5. Troubleshooting algorithm
for undesirable lame height
C
The burners are designed to work with limited range of fuel The burners are designed to work with limited range of
compositions, too much fuel switching during operation can fuel compositions, too much fuel switching during operation
Yes can cause flame misbehaviors, such as flashback or lift Yes
cause flame misbehaviors such as flashback or lift off. If
your facility switches fuel composition frequently, solve this off. If your facility switches fuel composition frequently,
problem in the first step. Then follow other steps. solve this problem in the first step. Then follow other steps.
No No
Fuel speed is more than flame speed. Check fuel pressure, Flame speed is more than fuel and air mixture speed.
Yes Check fuel pressure, increase fuel pressure if possible. Yes
reduce fuel pressure if possible.
No No
Measure fired-heaters draft and excess air, in case Measure fired-heaters draft and excess air, in case
of too much draft, adjust damper and registers. of low draft, adjust damper and registers.
Yes Yes
Is your problem solved? Is your problem solved?
See also: How to adjust draft and excess air? See also: How to adjust draft and excess air?
(Reference 1) (Reference 1)
No No
No No
Seek engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
Low excess air or low draft can cause non-suitable flame shapes. Measure fired
heaters draft and excess air. In case of low excess air or low draft, adjust damper
Feature Report and registers. Yes
Is your problem solved? See also: How to adjust draft and excess air? (Reference 1)
No
primary step of burner troubleshoot-
ing. Now what matters the most is Check burner tips. Are they installed according to the burner installation manual?
the proper sequence of troubleshoot- If not, correct burner tip installation angles. Yes
ing actions, which are provided by a
Is your problem solved?
set of comprehensive algorithms pre-
sented here. No
These troubleshooting algorithms
are based on the logic depicted in Fig- Yes Check nozzles of burner tips.
Go to Point DA
ures 3 to 12, and have been success- in Figure 8 Are the drilling angles correct?
fully used to both recognize what a
burner problem might be, indicate the No
cause of the problem and correct the Go to Point T
Yes
Check burner tips. Are they damaged?
burner defect, so as to achieve the de- in Figure 8
sired heater performance.
No
A practical example In case of fuel oil burning, poor atomization can cause flame No Seek
Lets assume that an operator tries impingement. Correct poor atomization problems. engineering
consultancy
to solve a burner firing problem like Is your problem solved? See also: How to solve poor
the one depicted in Figure 1. As it can atomization problems. (Section PA in Figure 11)
be seen, the firebox of the specified
fired heater (which is a crude charge Yes End troubleshooting
procedure
heater) has suffered from long-term FIGURE 7. Troubleshooting
flame impingement to tubes and algorithm for lame impingement
E-1
Yes Yes
Please specify If you are using fuel oil, do you Analyze fuel for content
your mechanical experience poor atomization of impurities dissolved in
problem: problems? If so, solve poor fuel stream. If content of
Burner tip problems atomization problems first. Impurities is high, schedule
Adjust atomizing steam ratio No
regular burner cleaning
to fuel oil properly. program and seek
P
engineering consultancy
Is your problem solved? to solve your fuel problem.
I See Also: How to solve Is your problem solved?
atomization problems?
Please specify burner tip (Point PA in Figure 11) No
problem:
II
T I- Burner tip plugged DA If you experience regular
II- Improper drilling angel refractory and burner tile
III- Damaged burner tip damage, broken tiles or
IV- Unsuitable drilling diameter Contact burner designer and refractory pieces can plug
ask for after-sale services. Done burner tips.
The burner design must be Solve this problem.
IV III Yes
revised under engineering
supervision. Is your problem solved?
See also:
How to solve damaged
Replace burner tip with spare one, if damage is tile problems?
caused by incorrect mechanical installation (Point BT in Figure 9)
practice, follow correct installation procedures.
If damage is caused by continued burner-tip
plugging, solve the root cause of tip plugging in Done No
order to avoid further damage.
If pilot ignites by means Analyze fuel In case of fuel oil firing, If you experience The fuel
of automatic electrical composition. In case oil spoilage can plug regular refractory and ring of pilot
ignition system, first of Improper fuel pilot tips. This happens burner tile damage, is choked,
become sure that composition (according when burner suffers broken tiles or clean fuel
system works properly. to design conditions) from problems caused refractory pieces ring and try
If any electrical or high content of by poor atomization. can plug pilot tips. to ignite
problem exists, No impurities, pilot tip No Correct atomization No Solve this problem. No pilot again. No Seek
eliminate it in first step. can plug frequently. problems in first step. engineering
Clean tips and revise Is your problem Is your consultancy
Is your problem fuel composition. Is your problem solved? solved? problem
solved? See Also: How to solve See Also: How to solved?
Is your problem atomization problems? solve damaged tile
solved? (Point PA in Figure 11) problems? (Point BT)
Yes Yes
needs immediate corrective action to Occasionally, some refineries try to the simplest solution, which is tuning
prevent further tube damage and pos- process as much crude oil as the equip- excess air and draft amounts. Low ex-
sible internal coke buildup. ment can withstand during operation. cess air or low draft can cause unde-
By taking a look at Table 1, one This means pushing the equipment to sired flame patterns, which can lead
can find the root causes of flame im- its overdesign limits. For fired heaters, to flame impingement. It should be
pingement problems, which are as this limit is often 20% over normal op- noted that excess air and draft are in-
follows: erating conditions. In many cases this terrelated and should be tuned simul-
1. Improper amount of air or draft means excessive firing. It is impracti- taneously to achieve proper results,
2. Burner tip problems (either dam- cal to ask the operator to reduce the therefore the operator is asked to use
aged or plugged) firing rate in order to tune flame pat- the procedures described extensively
3. Poor installation or maintenance terns, while the vapor quality of out- in Ref. 1 to tune draft and excess air to
practices let stream and its temperature limit proper amounts.
4. Improper fuel oil atomization are vital to downstream separation If the problem still exists, the op-
5. Excessive firing. processes. In such cases engineering erator is asked to check burner-tip in-
Except for Point 5 (excessive firing) precautions must be given to the re- stallation practices and their drilling
in some cases, all the other causes can finery management team. If the fur- angles according to burner tip gen-
be treated by stepwise troubleshooting nace design parameters show limita- eral drawings and data sheets. Some-
procedure outlined in Figures 312. As tions for satisfactory operation within times after overhaul or maintenance
for the excessive firing, if it happens demanded new heat release amounts, services, burners are assembled in a
only in few burners or in combination solutions like building parallel fired rush in order to startup fired heat-
firing cases, the operator can easily heaters must be taken into account. ers as soon as possible. This rush
tune fuel pressure and control exces- In order to solve flame impingement can lead to poor assembly or instal-
sive firing rate; but if it is due to heater problems, the operator can start with lation practices. Such shortcomings
overdesign operating conditions, the the troubleshooting procedure given could be solved according to guidance
solution would not be that easy. in Figure 7. This procedure starts with given in the specified troubleshoot-
44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
F-1
Feature Report
Specify your fuel type
II Go to Point F-2
I- Gaseous fuel in Figure 11
II- Fuel oil or combination firing
I
Measure fired-heater excess air, Measure fired-heater excess air,
in case of too much excess air or in case of low excess air or draft,
draft, adjust damper and registers. adjust damper and registers.
Yes Specify flame color Yes
Is your problem solved? 1 2 Is your problem solved?
1-Luminus blue
See Also: How to adjust draft 2- Yellow See also: How to adjust draft
and excess air? (Reference 1) 3- Dark orange or brown and excess air? (Reference 1)
3
No
Lack of combustion air. Increase
combustion air amount by opening No
registers and main damper
immediately. After stabilizing
Seek No condition, adjust draft and
engineering excess air. Yes
Go to Point T Is burner tip
consultancy
Is your problem solved? in Figure 8 damaged?
Seek
Yes engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
FIGURE 10. Troubleshooting algorithm
for undesirable lame color (Part 1)
F-2 Lack of combustion air. Increase
combustion air amount by opening
registers and main damper and
adjust excess air and draft
Yes
No 1 Specify flame color: 2 according to proper instructions.
Do you see sparks
in the flame? Is your problem solved?
1-Luminus yellow
2- Dark orange or light brown
Yes See also: How to adjust
draft and excess air?
(Reference 1)
Too much atomizing steam is used, Yes No
balance atomizing steam to fuel oil ratio.
No
No
Measure fired-heater excess air, in
case of too much excess air or draft,
No
adjust damper and registers. Seek Poor atomization, because of
engineering Yes plugged oil guns. Check oil guns,
Is your problem solved? consultancy if they are plugged clean them.
See Also: How to adjust draft
and excess air? (Reference 1) Is your problem solved?
Yes No
G
References
1. American Petroleum Institute, Burners for
Measure fired-heater draft and excess air. In case Fired Heaters in General Refinery Services,
of low excess air or low draft or high excess air Publication No. 535, API, Washington, D.C.,
and high draft, adjust damper and registers. Yes July 1995.
End troubleshooting
procedure 2. Witte R.H., and Barrington E.A., Trou-
Is your problem solved? bleshooting, Chapter 17 in Baukal C.E.,
See also: How to adjust draft and excess air? Schwartz R.E., eds., The John Zink Com-
(Reference 1) bustion Handbook 1st ed., CRC Press, New
York, N.Y., 2001.
No 3. Patel S., Typical Fired Heater Problems and
Root Causes, Hydrocarbon Process., 86 (3),
pp. 6869, March 2007.
Yes
Are burner tips Go to Point P
plugged? in Figure 8
Authors
Babak Maghbooli works as
No a member of the research and
development team of Tara-
han Naftoon Arya Engineer-
Does the operator inspect Yes Seek ing Co. (No.75, Radafzoon
burners frequently? engineering Street, Tehran, Iran; Email:
consultancy maghbooli@xthermo.com).
With more than six years of
experience in the field of tun-
No
ing process fired heaters and
troubleshooting their prob-
lems, he has provided con-
sultancy services for more than five petroleum
refineries in the field of troubleshooting, main-
tenance and analyzing mechanical and thermal
Prepare a suitable burner behavior of fired heaters and boilers. He also
has practical and professional experience in the
inspection time schedule for field of process simulation and developing root-
each shift or ask the operator No
cause analysis procedures for chemical process
to follow regular inspection problems. He is an advanced VBA programmer
due to inspection work order. and has developed many process simulation so-
lutions in MS-Excel for various consulting proj-
Is your problem solved? ects. Maghbooli holds a B.Sc.Ch.E. degree from
Arak University.
Yes
Hamidreza Najafi works
as the head of the research
and development team of
Farayand Sabz Engineer-
ing Co. (No.117, Somaye
FIGURE 12. Troubleshooting algorithm for burner goes out Street, Tehran, Iran; Email:
hrnajafi@xthermo.com). He is
a professional object-oriented
ing algorithms. If the problem is still this program in industrial environ- programmer and his main
not solved, operators can check the ments, like petroleum refineries and interest is developing simu-
lator packages for industrial
burner tips for damages, either by petrochemical plants, operators have processes by means of mod-
mechanical or thermal means. If this been able to identify and correct the ern programming techniques. With more than
12 years of experience, he has practical and
is the case, proper guidance is given burner operating problems faster and professional experience in the fields of thermal
in Figure 8. In case of fuel oil or com- more efficiently. There were fewer radiation especially for design and simula-
tion of thermal cracking furnaces and process
bination firing, poor atomization can complaints about faulty burner op- fired heaters and also development of chemical
kinetics and thermodynamics framework for
be the cause of flame impingement, erations, and, as result, less mainte- simulator software. He has provided numerous
and proper corrective actions are nance operations were needed. solutions for process problems in these fields for
various oil and petrochemical companies. Najafi
given in Figure 11. It should not be forgotten that the has a B.Sc.Ch.E. degree from Sharif University
Following this procedure will usu- main cost-saving benefits of this pro- of Technology and a M.Sc.Ch.E. degree from
Shiraz University.
ally eliminate flame impingement gram are the following:
problems. For the situation shown in Less fuel consumption due to proper Afshin Bakhtiari is founder
Figure 1, tuning the amount of draft levels of excess air and draft and CEO of Tarahan Naftoon
Arya Engineering Co. (same
and excess air solved the problem Less damage due to overheated address as Maghbooli; Email:
totally. In exceptional cases where a tubes abakhtiari@naftoonarya.
com). With more than 12
problem cannot be eliminated by fol- The possibility of increasing through- years experience, he has pro-
lowing the steps described in this put and decreased downtime for de- vided numerous solutions for
process problems of different
paper, professional engineering con- coking operations petroleum and gas refineries.
His company has done more
sultancy must be sought. Edited by Gerald Ondrey than three consultancy proj-
ects for troubleshooting process fired heaters at
three different refineries and has also developed
Computerized algorithm Acknowledgment simulator software for process fired heaters.
A computer program (computer wiz- The authors wish to thank the help and contribu- Bakhtiari holds B.Sc.Ch.E. and M.Sc.Ch.E. de-
tion of Mr. Alan Cross. He gave us the motivation grees from Tehran University. He has also served
ard) was developed based on logic de- for preparing and submitting our experiences in for two years as the head of the project manage-
scribed in Figures 3 to 12. By using the current article. ment team of the National Iranian Gas Co.
Specifying Shell-and-
Tube Heat Exchangers
Understand what heat exchanger design Shellside
fluid
Asif Raza
S
hell-and-tube heat exchangers temperature change re- FIGURE 1. Which luid goes on the shellside and
are one of the most important quired. Refer to heat and which on the tubeside? There is no straightforward
and commonly used process material balances. answer, but the guidelines presented here will help
you decide
equipment items in the chemi- 2. Process fluid properties
cal process industries (CPI). If you density, viscosity and thermal con- sible to clean the tubes by water jet-
are working on a project during either ductivity at the operating tem- ting, having simply opened the head
the basic or the detailed engineering perature and pressure. of the exchanger, without needing to
phase, there is a good chance that you remove the tube bundle. The shell
will need to specify one or more shell- Which fluid on which side? and the outside of the tube bundle,
and-tube exchangers and perhaps Next comes your first design deci- on the other hand, are harder to
many of them. sion: Which fluid goes on the shellside clean mechanically, and chemical
While the actual design will likely and which on the tubeside (Figure 1)? cleaning is often the only option.
be done by a specialist at an equip- There is no straightforward answer, The shellside offers a larger cross-
ment vendor or within your own com- but some considerations and rules of section for vapor flow, and hence
pany, you still need to fill out a process thumb outlined in an online reference lower pressure drops. Process va-
datasheet for each heat exchanger and (http://smartprocessdesign.com) and pors to be condensed are therefore
in due course, review the vendors de- incorporating the authors experience normally placed on the shellside,
tailed proposal. You know your process are summarized here: though the tubeside is generally
best, and it is a bad idea to rely on the Corrosive fluids are best kept to the used for condensing steam.
vendor always to make the right deci- tubeside. Since the tubeside has less The baffles on the shellside help to
sions. This article shows you the basics metal than the shellside, this will ensure good mixing, which reduces
of specifying and selecting shell-and- minimize the use of expensive met- the effects of laminar flow and there-
tube heat exchangers: the process in- als that may be needed to withstand fore tends to increase heat-transfer
formation and preliminary design deci- the fluids corrosive properties. coefficients. Hence you will get bet-
sions needed to fill out the datasheet, Fluids at extreme pressures and ter heat transfer if viscous fluids are
and how to check any corresponding temperatures are preferably kept to kept on the shellside I confirmed
assumptions made by the vendor. Al- the tubeside, because they are likely this recently on a project involving a
though it does not go into detail on the to require a greater metal thickness, very viscous polymer.
design procedure, the article is also a or more expensive materials of con- Twisted tubes, static mixers or tube
good starting point if you intend to de- struction. The tubes, being smaller inserts increase turbulence and
sign the heat exchanger yourself. in diameter than the shell, with- thus heat-transfer coefficients on
stand higher pressures. the tubeside by reducing the effects
Datasheet information Fluids that need to be kept at a high of laminar flow. Because these are
Though every company is likely to have velocity, such as water or propylene usually proprietary technologies,
its own heat exchanger datasheet, glycol for cooling, should be kept on however, your ability to check the
most of them look much like the the tubeside. vendors performance claims may be
sample shown in Figure 2 (p. 49). To Dirty fluids, or streams that are oth- limited. If you think you would ben-
complete the datasheet you will need erwise likely to cause fouling, should efit from one of these technologies,
to know: go on the tubeside. This is because work closely with the vendor and be
1. The composition and normal flow- the tubes are easier to clean than sure to evaluate all the options.
rate of the process fluid(s), and the the shell. For instance, it is often pos- In heat exchanger designs that fea-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 47
TABLE 1. TYPICAL FOULING FACTORS
Fluid Typical foul-
Engineering Practice ing factor
(ft2Fh/Btu)
Source: TEMA
E L
A Fixed tubesheet
One pass shell like A stationary head
Channel and
removable cover F M
Two pass shell Fixed tubesheet
with longitudinal baffle like B stationary head
B
G N
Fixed tubesheet
like N stationary head
Bonnet (integral cover) Split flow
P
H Outside packed
Removable floating head
C tube
bundle Double split flow
only
Channel integral with tube- S
sheet and removable cover
J Floating head
with backing device
Divided flow
N T
Pull through floating head
K
Channel integral with tube-
sheet and removable cover
U
Kettle type reboiler
U-tube bundle
D X
W
Externally sealed
Special high pressure Cross flow floating tubesheet
closure
FIGURE 3. TEMA exchanger-type codes provide a shorthand for different basic designs and construction methods
expected in service. Consider the fol- must be at least 77% of the tubeside such as steaming of the heat ex-
lowing guidelines: design pressure (the 10/13 rule). changer during maintenance.
1. To arrive at the design temperature, For instance, if the tubeside design Design codes. Under ASME rules, if
add a margin of 30C (50F) to the pressure is 500 psig, the minimum the operating pressure is higher than
maximum allowable operating tem- shellside design pressure should be 15 psig, then the heat exchanger is
perature of the exchanger. 500 10/13 = 385 psig. The logic of considered a pressure vessel, and the
2. Similarly, the design pressure can be this is that ASME codes require the pressure-vessel design code ASME
calculated by adding an appropriate shell to be hydraulically tested at section VIII, Div. 1 or 2 applies. Simi-
margin to the maximum allowable 1.3 times its design pressure, so tube lar logic applies to different pressure
operating pressure. rupture which is generally con- vessel codes used outside the U.S. and
3. If the process hazard analysis has sidered an unlikely event would Canada; make sure you use the code
identified tube rupture as a hazard, not pressurize the shell beyond its appropriate to the country in which
to avoid the need to design a pres- test pressure. the equipment will be used.
sure relief valve for the tube rupture 4. When deciding the design tempera- The Tubular Exchanger Manufactur-
case, the shellside design pressure ture, consider routine operations ers Assn., Inc. (TEMA; Tarrytown, N.Y.;
50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
chemicals and petrochemicals at higher
TABLE 2. TYPICAL DESIGN HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
temperatures and pressures. TEMA R,
Hot fluid Cold fluid Ud (Btu/hFft2) for severe service involving high pres-
sures and temperatures, is widely used
Water Water 250500 in petroleum refineries, and is the most
Aqueous solution Aqueous solution 250500 expensive option. Inappropriate TEMA
ratings will significantly increase the
Light organics Light organics 4075 cost of a heat exchanger, so choose
carefully based on existing plant data
Medium organics Water 50125
or suitable guidelines.
Heavy organics Heavy organics 1040 Keep in mind that you do not nec-
essarily have to design your heat
Heavy organics Light organics 3060 exchanger to TEMA standards. In
particular, TEMA B and R standards
Light organics Heavy organics 1040
enforce a minimum tube diameter
If a vendors calculated heat-transfer coefficients are reasonably close to reliable which could lead to too-low velocities
published values, the thermal design is probably correct. Do not expect an exact if the tubeside flowrate is small. The
match. Light organics are fluids with viscosities less than 0.5 cP. Medium organics resulting low heat-transfer coefficient
are 0.51 cP, and heavy organics are above 1 cP.
may require a large and expensive
Source: Process Heat Transfer, Donald Q. Kern, McGraw-Hill Companies, 1950. heat exchanger. In such situations, it
may be best not to design your heat
www.tema.org) issues its own design to water, oil and air at low or moderate exchanger to TEMA standards.
and manufacturing codes. There are pressures and temperatures, and is the Heat exchanger type. It is very im-
three categories: TEMA C, B and R. In most cost-effective standard in cases portant to specify the correct type of
simple terms, TEMA C applies mostly where it is applicable. TEMA B is for heat exchanger for the application
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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 51
Engineering Practice
(Figure 3, p.50), and in this case there rating on the shellside and cooling Material of construction. Do not
are no right or wrong answers. Here is a process fluid on the tubeside, con- trust the vendor to pick the right ma-
a list of criteria that will help you in sider a heat exchanger of type BKU. terial of construction for your service.
making a decision: 4. Similarly to Point 2 above, if the dif- That is your job. That said, do not take
1. If the fluids are relatively clean and ference in operating temperature responsibility for the material of con-
the difference in temperature between between shellside and tubeside is struction unless you have agreed it
the shellside and the tubeside is not more than 100C (200F), consider a with the user or verified it with an ap-
very high (around 100C / 200F), then design with hairpin tubes, a floating propriate expert.
consider a BEM (fixed tubesheet) head or a floating tubesheet (types Tube-to-tubesheet joints. These de-
design. Typical applications are con- PW). These types are best suited to termine the integrity of your shell-
densers; liquid-liquid, gas-gas, and dirty fluids, and may be either hori- and-tube heat exchanger. The basic
gas-liquid heating and cooling; and zontal or vertical. guidelines are the following:
vertical thermosyphons. 5. If you encounter a temperature 1. For a design pressure of less than
2. If the heat exchanger must accom- cross that is, if the outlet temper- 300 psig and a design temperature
modate a significant amount of ther- ature of the hot fluid is below the below 180C (350F), use rolled and
mal expansion between shell and outlet temperature of the cold fluid expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints.
tubes (more than 100C / 200F), con- then you cannot use a single These are used primarily for water,
sider type BEU, in which the tubes BEM or BEU type heat exchanger. air and oil service.
are free to expand. Keep in mind Consider a BFS type with a two- 2. For higher design pressures or tem-
that BEU exchanger tubes can only pass shell and a longitudinal baffle, peratures, use grooved, rolled and
be cleaned chemically, not mechani- or two shells in series. Other types expanded tube joints.
cally, so these exchangers are best of heat exchanger, such as spiral 3. When dealing with light hydrocar-
suited to clean service on both the and plate types, are fully counter- bons or other flammable fluids, even
shellside and the tubeside. current and so better suited to han- at low pressure and temperature,
3. For a chiller with refrigerant evapo- dling temperature crosses. consider seal welding.
Workson3phase,xedorvariable 18
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52 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
4. For hydrocarbons or flammable va- ferent vendors will propose differ- of heat-transfer coefficients, fouling
pors at high pressures and tempera- ent values based on varying ex- factors and so on, you will be on the
tures, consider additional welding changer geometry and calculated right track to design and select the
for strength. heat-transfer coefficients. Pick a most appropriate heat exchanger for
Special instructions. This category geometry that meets your require- your process.
covers specifications including the ments best. Edited by Charles Butcher
tube pitch, baffle type, minimum tube Check the heat duty and make sure
diameter, tube length and orientation it matches your specified value.
Author
of the heat exchanger. Use customer Check the code requirements.
Asif Raza (Mississauga, Ont.,
specifications or guidance where Check that the vendor has com- Canada; Phone: 905607
available, and ask vendors whether plied with any special instructions 1335; Email: asifraza_us@
yahoo.com) is an equipment
these will have any implications. If no including tube diameter, tube pitch, design engineer at Praxair
Canada. His work involves
specifications are available, use your tube length, baffle type, baffle pitch, the design and specification
judgment. For instance, if your shell- and excess area. of major equipment, such as
cryogenic centrifugal pumps,
side fluid is very fouling, use a square Check the price and delivery shell-and-tube heat exchang-
tube pitch to aid cleanability. Decrease schedule for the heat exchanger. ers, vessels and vaporizers.
He has more than 15 years
baffle spacing to increase turbulence, Weigh all the options and select of experience in process design. His interests
and thus heat-transfer coefficient, a vendor. include sizing and specifying major equipment,
P&ID development, process simulation and se-
on the shellside. If you have a height Close coordination with the heat ex- lection of control logic. Before joining Praxair he
was lead process engineer at Zeton Inc., where
limitation, ask the vendor to limit the changer vendor and a solid under- his work involved design and fabrication of pilot
tube length. standing of the process requirements plants for research and development. Previously
he worked with companies including Bantrel
are essential to heat exchanger de- and SNC Lavalin. He holds a B.Tech degree in
Reviewing vendor quotes sign and selection. By understanding chemical engineering from Amravati University,
India. Raza is a registered professional engineer
After you have received your quotes different kinds of heat exchangers in the province of Ontario and is also a member
it is time to review them and select a and developing a solid understanding of Ontario Society of Professional Engineers.
Compressors:
Pursuing Lowest
Cost of Ownership FIGURE 1. This centrifugal compres-
sor is an electric-motor-driven machine
Proper specification, purchase, mechanical-run that uses a gear unit for the speed match
A
variety of technologies, methods may be well suited for any given CPI following facts in mind during com-
and best practices are available application. For example, many mod- pressor specification:
to obtain the lowest total cost of ern CPI applications can use either the 1. The compressor manufacturers spe-
ownership for compressors used integrally geared centrifugal compres- cialize in compressor design and
in plants throughout the chemical pro- sor or the conventional-type centrifu- manufacturing and they are not
cess industries (CPI). This article dis- gal compressor. Thus, the reliability focused on the intricacies of CPI
cusses several critical areas in which and efficiency of the various competing processes.
concerted effort can help to reduce the compressor types should be evaluated 2. If engineers at the vendor company
overall cost of ownership. early in the specification process. have experienced a problem in an-
Know the operating scenario. The other customers process that is simi-
Specifying compressors first cost (that is, the initial purchase lar to the current job, he or she may
The ability to carry out proper shop- price) is an important factor that be able to share that experience (by
based performance tests and mechani- should always be considered during raising questions and seeking solu-
cal run tests that is, testing that is compressor selection. However, on- tions) during the development of your
carried out by the vendor, before the going costs related to operation and specification. However, considering
unit is delivered to the CPI facility maintenancemust also be evaluated to vendor-staffing policies, the vendors
can provide tremendous value for assess the total cost of ownership. overall philosophy in that regard,
users. Shop-based performance test- The operating conditions (as de- the fact that vendor engineers often
ing is of particular necessity for any scribed in the compressor data sheet only know a small part of any process
CPI compressor, because it allows for and specification) should be divided (that is, the part of the process that is
careful analysis of the compressor into two types those that charac- related to their machine), and many
under conditions that closely simulate terize normal operation, and those different processes (and process li-
those of the actual installation, to help that characterize operating conditions censes) that exist for most CPI units,
detect potential malfunctions and that deviate from normal. The entire the ability to rely on the vendor for
other problems before the compressor anticipated range of operating condi- process-specific input tends to be the
has been delivered. This is important tions should also be defined, either by exception rather than the rule.
because corrections and modifications range limits or by alternative operat- As a result, it is important that the
at the CPI plant site tend to be costly. ing conditions. compressor purchaser use its own deep
A solid compressor specification A common example of off-design knowledge of the process in terms
outlines for the vendors what the com- conditions is the scenario in which of the potential scenarios that could
pressor package must have, and how the compressor encounters deviations lead to unusual conditions or process
reliable the unit must be. Key aspects in the molecular weight of the com- upsets that could impact compressor
to be addressed in the specification in- pressed gas, as might be encountered operation during the life of the unit
clude the following: in a CPI plant during startup. Another during compressor specification. A
Proper sizing. Before the start of any situation that could lead to off-design good example is the gas-temperature
compressor specification, the equip- conditions is the equipment holding runaway potential in hot-gas units.
ment must be sized, at least in a pre- period when a part of a process is not The specification should set forth the
liminary manner. For example, speci- yet in operation. Such anticipated sce- expected maximum temperatures, and
fying a single-stage compressor when narios must be evaluated and noted ask the vendor to verify the maximum
a multi-stage compressor is needed during the specification stage. temperature the unit can handle.
54 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
Another example is the potential requirements can help the vendor are usually supplied with sole plates.
of sudden dead-ending of a compres- during the machine design phase. Large steam turbines or gas turbine
sor during switching of operations in However, the specifications set forth drivers are most often installed on an
the batch-type reactors. Generally, by the purchaser should not be so rig- individual base-plate-mounted skid.
compressor operation in batch-type orous that they prohibit the vendor Control considerations. The control
processes requires careful attention, from drawing from its vast experience panels that are required to integrate
and this potential impact of plant op- with many materials. Such a limita- compressor control and operation
eration should be brought forth during tion (imposed by the purchaser) may into CPI facilities are typically quite
the development of the specification. lead to operating problems later. By complex, because a great amount of
Minimizing fouling. By accurately properly wording the specification, the coordination is required to have them
noting the likely opportunities for minimum material requirements can conform to CPI plant panel standards.
fouling, the compressor vendor may be spelled out while still allowing the Today, large CPI companies typically
be able to incorporate a relevant solu- vendors experience with the materi- prefer that vendors only supply the
tion into the compressor offering (such als to come into play. sensors, and that the purchaser sup-
as a washing procedure and required A large number of unscheduled plies the control panel, the condition-
provisions, the establishment of ad- shutdowns can be traced to issues that monitoring system and the control
ditional head margins or materials of the vendor is responsible for, such as units. Small companies prefer to leave
construction). the compressor design, the material all items (control panels, condition
Incorporate startup and shutdown selection, the component selection (for monitoring, and other items) in the
conditions. Startup and shutdown instance, seal and bearings), excessive vendor scope.
considerations also influence various fouling, degradation, corrosion, erosion
compressor components (and their or similar. However, such problems are Evaluating competing bids
specifications), particularly seals and often more accurately a reflection of a A side-by-side comparison of compet-
thrust bearings. Regarding several lack of application knowledge and im- ing bids should be made, considering
design parameters (for example, the proper material selection, which could such important aspects as the energy
allowable speed), whatever is set forth have been prevented if the purchaser cost, the purchase cost and the reli-
in the specification is often consid- had communicated the specification ability issues using suitable economic
ered by vendors to be the target. For more thoroughly. criteria. If data are available, the total
some parameters, vendors will test A good example is the use of auste- cost of ownership can be estimated by
the approximate value given by the nitic stainless steels. These premium evaluating competing bids.
purchaser, and then exceed it by some materials are often used for applica- However, it is absolutely necessary
margin to see if a deviation in perfor- tions that require good corrosion re- to fix all items and clarify all issues
mance will result. sistance. However, an austenitic stain- before placing the purchase order.
As a practical step, the maximum- less steel cannot be used if chlorides Until the vendor is certain that it has
allowable parameter values should may be present, because inter-granu- the order, the purchaser will remain in
be given by the compressor purchaser lar corrosion and subsequent cracking an advantageous trading posture.
after thorough research and evalua- problems will result. The winning bidder will be the ven-
tion has been carried out of the most Packaging and assembly consid- dor for the project once a contract has
recent technology options and modern, erations. The purchaser must also been written and accepted. This is im-
reliable installations. These maxi- make a number of decisions related to portant because the clock is started
mum allowable values for key param- the compressor package arrangement, at this time and all future dates will
eters should be supplied consistently, delivery conditions, and extent of pre- be referenced back to this date. This
from vendor to vendor, to allow for an fabrication and packaging. This part is also the date from which delivery
apples-to-apples comparison among of the process begins with the speci- is counted.
competitive bids. fication of a sole plate versus a base
In general, high speeds in compres- plate. The first option (sole plate) is Practical notes on compressors
sors can increase the overall efficiency often specified for packages that must Variable-speed centrifugal compres-
of the unit. However, high operating be delivered in pieces and assembled sors (Figure 1) are the backbone of the
speeds can also raise the stresses on onsite. The second option (base plate) CPI compression industry. This type
the system and could decrease the re- will result in skid-mounted compo- of compressor should be considered as
liability of the unit over the long run, nents; for this scenario, installation the first option for most CPI general
so a tradeoff must often be evaluated. is typically easier. This important applications.
High operating speed may also lead decision should be noted in Performance curves. Centrifugal
to bearing and seal problems, particu- the specification. compressors exhibit a relatively flat
larly if the speed exceeds the speed of For large compressor trains, the typ- curve of head versus flow compared to
similar compressors used in previous ical recommended arrangement is to other compressors. Compared to the
applications) install the compressor (and gear unit, steep curves of the axial compressors
Consider materials of construc- if applicable) on a heavy-duty base and positive-displacement compres-
tion. Stating the minimum material plate. Large electric-motor drivers sors, the flat curves of most centrifugal
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 55
Engineering Practice
cussed after the compressor order or following limits should be confirmed: tee, elbow or other obstruction. The
even near the test time. This delay can 1. Head and the capacity: Zero neg- temperature-measurement accuracy
usually cause considerable change-or- ative tolerance (In other words, the has one of the largest effects on com-
der costs or can lead to an unsuitable head and the capacity in the shop pressor power calculations because of
Type-2 test. test should be equal to or more than its direct influence on the calculated
Ideally, the Type-2 test is most use- expected ones) enthalpy rise.
ful if a suitable substitute gas (one 2. Power: The consumed power should An incorrect flow measurement
that closely approximates the actual not exceed 104% of the predicted could cause the compressor to appear
gas) is used and the test procedure power. Often, when the CPI plant at the shop test with a head that is ei-
details (such as pressures, compressor efficiency is critical, lower limits for ther too low or too high because the
speed, capacity, power and others) are the power tolerance for instance, operating point could be indicated in-
properly matched within the specified even 2% or 1.5% limits instead of correctly on the performance map. The
ASME-PTC-10 limits and as close as the 4% power tolerance could be best way to determine if a flow mea-
practical to the actual operating con- negotiated before the compressor surement is incorrect is to obtain sev-
ditions. When this is done, the Type-2 order eral data points to compare against
test can yield very useful predictions 3. Surge: The stable operation should the entire curve.
on the future compressor behavior, be maintained near the calculated Seal leakage is normally around
such as potential performance prob- surge (typically around 610% 12% or even less in the normal opera-
lems, operations close to the surge above calculated surge flow). tion (as a rough estimation), but this
point, some types of aerodynamic ex- can easily be calculated using proper
citations, and other performance and Practical notes instruments.
operational effects. Pressure and temperature transmit- The shop test uncertainty should
Establishing proper test con- ters should be located within around be calculated considering all test pa-
ditions. For performance testing 0.51 m of the compressor nozzles, at rameters. The required uncertainty
Chemical Engineering e 1.2 86x123 2013
Mu?llerGmbH_Chemical Engineering_e_86x123_2013.qxd:MllerGmbH_Chemica
(whether Type-1 or Type-2 is used), the least 10 pipe diameters from any valve, limits should be understood prior to
For perfect
methods
production
Handling equipment
Lifting, weighing, blending,
pallet transfer
Mobile or stationary
Manual or fully automatic
Loads up to 2500 kg handled
Hygienic stainless steel
GMP-compliant design
ATEX conformity
moved, inspected, and reassembled. casing is gas-leakage tested to evalu- When users and vendors work to-
However, removal and inspection of ate the joints and the seals. The as- gether as a team, and when all engi-
the dry gas seal is not recommended. sembled compressor is tested to the neers involved give sufficient atten-
Many dry gas seals (particularly car- maximum operating pressure for a tion to the important details, changes
tridge-type seals) require that the seal minimum of 30 minutes. The inert gas and requirements, it is possible to
be returned to the seal manufacturer with MW less than the actual gas MW specify reliable, high-performance
if removed for inspection. If traditional should be used for this test. Helium is compressors. n
(old-fashioned) oil seals are used, they usually employed as a substitute for a Edited by Suzanne Shelley
should be removed for inspection after low-MW gas and nitrogen (or an inert
the test (Note that such mechani- refrigerant gas) is typically used as a
cal, oil-film-type shaft end seals are substitute for a high-MW gas. Author
Amin Almasi is a rotat-
not typically used today for dynamic Varying the lubrication-oil condi- ing machine consultant in
compressors). tions (such as the oil pressure and Australia. He is a chartered
professional engineer of En-
Minor scuffs and scratches may the temperature at the minimum and gineers Australia (MIEAust
occur on the bearings. Subsequent maximum values) during the shop test CPEng Mechanical) and
IMechE (CEng MIMechE).
minor cosmetic repairs of these parts is strongly recommended to evaluate He holds an M.Sc. and B.Sc.
do not justify repetition of the test. the impact of these changes on com- in mechanical engineering
and RPEQ (Registered Pro-
However, if melting or smearing, over- pressor performance. This will help to fessional Engineer in Queen-
sland). He specializes in ro-
heating or distinct wear occurs in the evaluate correctly the mechanical op- tating machines including centrifugal, screw and
Babbit layer of bearing shoes, then eration of the machine. reciprocating compressors, gas turbines, steam
turbines, engines, pumps, subsea, offshore rotat-
these parts should be replaced or re- It is not recommended to perform ing machines, LNG units, condition monitoring
paired. The cause of the defect should a post-test-inspection of the inter- and reliability. Almasi is an active member of
Engineers Australia, IMechE, ASME, Vibration
be investigated and eliminated, so the nal casing, because most operators Institute, SPE, IEEE, and IDGTE. He has au-
test can be repeated. prefer to receive a proven-run and thored more than 80 papers and articles dealing
Chemical Eng.1-4pgKrytox Ad 2012:Layout
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FREE PRODUCT INFO 14 engineering, Design & Construc- 29 10 to 49 employees 47 Pollution Control equipment
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vices 32 250 to 499 employees 49 Safety equipment & Services
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12 Stone, Clay, glass, Ceramics EMPLOYEE SIZE 45 motors, motor Controls 58 materials of Construction
13 metallurgical & metal Products 28 less than 10 employees 46 Piping, Tubing, Fittings 59 Compressors
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151 166 181 196 211 226 241 256 271 286 301 316 331 346 361 376 391 406 421 436 451 466 481 496 511 526 541 556 571 586
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See bottom of oposite
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sales representatives' Send Advertisements and Box replies to: Diane Burleson
Chemical Engineering, 11000 Richmond Ave, Houston, TX 77042
contact information
E-mail: dburleson@che.com Tel: 512-250-9555
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 73
People
Steve Edwards will become chairman, Nuclear and chemical-process safety John M. Brown joins General Elec-
president and CEO of global company Fauske & Associates, LLC trical Co. (GECO; St. Louis, Mo.) as
engineering-and-construction com- (Burr Ridge, Ill.) welcomes the return vice president of industrial and
pany Black & Veatch (Overland of Michael Grolmes, one of its found- instrumentation.
Park, Kan.), when Len Rodman ing principals and current owner of
retires at the end of 2013. Centaurus Technology, as an exclu- ValvTechnologies, Inc. (Houston),
sive consultant. manufacturer of severe-service isola-
John Rolando becomes president of tion valve solutions, names Julie
specialty chemicals company Evonik Richard Grenville joins Philadelphia Bodine global director of marketing.
Corp. (Parsippany, N.J.), succeeding Mixing Solutions, Ltd. (Palmyra,
Tom Bates, who is retiring. Pa.) as director of mixing technology. Bryan Burns becomes president
and COO for DeZurik, Inc. (Sartell,
Henri Haggblom becomes manag- SVF Flow Controls, Inc. (Santa Minn.), a global maker of municipal
ing partner of consultancy Sinclair Fe Springs, Calif.) appoints Russ and industrial valves.
Group (The Woodlands, Tex.). Chomiak director of sales. Suzanne Shelley
S U
om s
Focus
on Ga
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Dispen
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To Fit Right
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FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 75
Economic Indicators 2011 2012 2013
Annual
Feb. 13 Jan. 13 Feb. 12
(195759 = 100) Index:
Prelim. Final Final 600
CE Index 569.9 571.2 596.3 2005 = 468.2
Equipment 690.9 692.8 730.6 2006 = 499.6
Heat exchangers & tanks 627.3 630.1 689.9 550
Process machinery 653.6 657.6 677.7 2007 = 525.4
Pipe, valves & fittings 887.6 890.4 933.5 2008 = 575.4
Process instruments 417.1 416.5 433.8 500
2009 = 521.9
Pumps & compressors 917.4 913.9 919.6
Electrical equipment 513.5 513.3 514.2 2010 = 550.8
Structural supports & misc 739.3 741.6 772.9 450
2011 = 585.7
Construction labor 318.9 319.2 321.7
Buildings 531.0 530.9 524.4 2012 = 584.6
Engineering & supervision 326.6 326.8 328.4 400
J F M A M J J A S O N D
CPI output index (2007 = 100) Mar. '13 = 88.3 Feb. '13 = 88.7 Jan. '13 = 88.2 Mar. '12 = 87.0
CPI value of output, $ billions Feb. '13 = 2,218.0 Jan. '13 = 2,195.4 Dec. '12 = 2,164.3 Feb. '12 = 2,199.3
CPI operating rate, % Mar. '13 = 74.7 Feb. '13 = 75.1 Jan. '13 = 74.9 Mar. '12 = 74.6
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Mar. '13 = 313.5 Feb. '13 = 314.2 Dec. '13 = 299.7 Mar. '12 = 327.3
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2007=100) Mar. '13 = 95.7 Feb. '13 = 95.9 Jan. '13 = 95.0 Mar. '12 = 93.4
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Mar. '13 = 155.2 Feb. '13 = 155.2 Jan. '13 = 155.0 Mar. '12 = 157.3
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Mar. '13 = 105.5 Feb. '13 = 105.1 Jan. '13 = 105.6 Mar. '12 = 106.3
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2007 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
120 2500 85
110 2200 80
100 1900 75
90 1600 70
80 1300 65
70 1000 60
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Current Business Indicators provided by IHS Global Insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
CURRENT TRENDS
Equipment Cost Index Available P reliminary data for the Febru-
ary 2013 CE Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI; top), which is the most re-
Exclusively from Marshall & Swift cent available, indicate that capi-
tal equipment prices declined from
January to February, by 0.2%. The
current February 2013 preliminary
Plant Cost Index stands at 4.4%
lower than the PCI value from a
year ago (February 2012). Within
the equipment subcategories, costs
for pumps & compressors, process
instruments and electrical equip-
ment edged higher, while costs
in other areas, including process
machinery and heat exchangers
& tanks, fell. Meanwhile, the Cur-
rent Business Indicators from IHS
Quarterly updates of our industry-leading Equipment Cost Index Global Insight (middle), show that
the latest CPI output index value
are now available at www.equipment-cost-index.com. (March 2013) increased from the
previous month.
The Emerson logo is a trademark and a service mark of Emerson Electric Co. 2012 Emerson Electric Co.