History of Environmental Engineering

"Everything seems new if you are ignorant of history" (1). With that
as a preamble I would like to discuss with you our profession, the
fields of sanitation and public health; the roots of today's field of
Environmental Engineering. Our profession has had a long history
and has long been associated with the medical fields. I want to
share with you today how our profession developed and also the
many contributions by the faculty and alumni of Washington
University.

Environmental Engineering "One of World's Oldest Professions"

Presented by, Charles A. Buescher Jr., PE, DEE

Early History
In early Egyptian Civilizations (2) excavations have been found, showing
arrangements were made for the collection of rainfall as well as the use of copper
pipe for the disposal of sewage. This dates from 3400-2450 B.C. Irrigation was also
widely used later during the new Egyptian Empire 1580-1200 B.C.
The Knossian (2) (3) (4) or the Minoan civilization was located in the Aegean Sea
on the Isle of Crete and flourished between 1850-1400 B.C.

This island is now a part of Greece. Excavations have revealed evidence of devices
for sanitation, ventilation, drainage and latrines. The Queen even had a bathtub.

In early Greek history, (2) (3) there are many instances of sanitation and medicine
being used. Temples located near springs and woodlands hills were used as
Sanatoria and health resorts. These can be seen today at Epidauros on the
Peloponese peninsular in southern Greece. Today this still remains a beautiful
place and has one of the world's finest acoustical (non-electric) theatres still in use
seating 14,000 persons.

For protection, the Greek populace lived near fortified heights. These fortresses are
referred to as Acropolises, and located throughout the Greek Empire. The most
famous is the Acropolis in Athens, where the Parthenon is located. All of these
areas required protected water supplies so that people could survive during long
periods of siege. Water and waste disposal were thus a significant aspect in
choosing proper location.

The Hindus (3) recorded in Sanskrit about 2000 B.C., their collection of medical
lore, Ousruta Sanghita, the following concerning water. "It is good to keep water in
copper vessels, to expose it to sunlight and filter through charcoal." Additionally in
the Susruta Samhita, dating back to 2000 B.C., it was stated "impure water should
be purified by being boiled over a fire, or being heated in the sun, or dipping a hot
iron into it, or by filtration through sand and coarse gravel and then allowed to cool."
The Hindu's in addition discussed the use of Gomedka, a type of rock, and
vegetable substances, most notably the seed of Strychnos Potatorum for treatment
of drinking water. Today we would consider these to be coagulants or polymers.

During the period of the great Roman Civilization, 900 B.C. to 476 AD, many of the
Roman hygienic achievements were associated with military objectives. (3) Some
examples were the great aqueducts, sewers, drains and public baths. Additionally
the Romans reported the use of many natural chemicals to improve the taste and
clarity of water such as:

1. Diophannes (1st Century B.C.) advised putting macerated laurel in rainwater.

2. Paxamus (1st Century AD) proposed that bruised coral or pounded barley, in a
big and this bag be immersed in bad tasting waters to improve the taste.
3. Vitruvius(15 B.C.) recommended that cisterns be constructed with two or three,
separate compartments and the water transferred from one another, thus allowing
the mud to settle and insure clarity.
4. Pliny (77 AD) Said that POLENTA, a kind of food, added to bitter waters would
render it potable in two hours. He also stated that this could also be achieved by
the addition of chalk from RHODES and the argilla from ITALY. This is the first
mention of lime and aluminous earth as precipitants.
5. Socrates (469-399 B.C.) The use of wicks as siphons to transfer water was well
known. Additionally filtration through porous vessels was also known.
6. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) It was common knowledge that filtration could be done
through earthen vessels that were not thoroughly baked.
7. Hippocrates (460-354 B.C.) the father of medicine, wrote in Air, Water and
Places, the first treatise on public hygiene, that, "whoever investigate medicine,
properly should consider the seasons of the year, the winds and the waters in
relation to health and disease." It was pointed out that "Qualities of water differ from
one another in taste and weight" as well as other qualities. One should "consider
the waters which the inhabitants use, whether they be marshy and soft, or hard and
running from elevated and rocky situations, and then if salty unfit for cooking.....for
water contributes much to health." Hippocrates also asserted that rain water should
be boiled and strained to prevent the water from having a bad smell. For the
straining process a specific cloth bag was to be used, and this was referred to as
the "Hippocrates Sleeve."

In discussing the Roman Empire we would be remiss if the aqueducts were not
examined more thoroughly. (5) "The hills surrounding Rome provided excellent
locations for outposts, prompting the shepard and farmers to build a walled city for
their protection and to use the fertile countryside for their subsistence." As the
population grew so did the need for additional water and means of disposing of
wastes. Additionally their limited water supplies made Rome more vulnerable to
their enemies. However, Typhoid and Malaria were even worse enemies. To cope
with these problems the Romans designed and constructed a sewage system,
which served two purposes, carry away the wastes from the city as well as storm
water. This required larger sewers along the roadways. Surface water provided by
rainfall was inadequate to carry away the ever-increasing amounts of waste. Poison
gasses constantly belched from the sewer openings and polluted kitchens and
bathrooms. And when nightfall occurred, thousands of screeching rats leaped from
the maze of sewers and took over the streets. Additional water was required.

The Romans determined that any new source water had to pass a quality
inspection. The initial steps were to find springs that were visibly pure and clean,
were safe from pollution and free from moss and reeds. Secondly the local users of
these springs had to undergo an examination in which the eyes, bones and
complexion were of main interest. Cloudy eyes, weak bone structures, and poor
complexions were symptoms of bad water. If there were no users of the water for
local purposes the water then was tested for corrosion, suspended solids, boiling
characteristics and clarity. Corrosion studies were made by filling a bronze
container with the water sample, letting it stand for a given period of time and
testing the water to determine any signs of discoloration.

After reviewing many locations a spring was found meeting all requirements. The
spring was located 5 miles east of Rome above the Via Callatina and the first
aqueduct was completed in 312 B.C. To protect the water from their enemies the
aqueduct was buried, additionally since they did not have modern day construction
equipment they were forced to go around obstacles. The aqueduct ended up being
10.29 miles in length. This first aqueduct "Aqua Appia" provided 16 million gallons
of water per day. Over the next 364 years eight more aqueducts were built
providing Rome with more than adequate water for drinking, flushing, fountains and
fire fighting. This was a remarkable feat.

In 97 AD Sextus Julius Frontius (3) became curator aquarium or water

commissioner and his dedication to his work permits him to be called an Engineer.
His background was military; however he had served in many important civil
positions. His belief was that he had to learn thoroughly what he had undertaken.
By 98 AD Frontinus had completed his studies and produced two books on the
water supply of Rome. It is the first known detailed description of a water works
system. This report (6) was so detailed that it even gave the gallons per capita of
water use of these early Romans of 38/gal/day/person. This was very high when
you consider that PARIS in 1550 AD was only 0.25/gallons/day/person.

Biblical References
The early HEBREWS (3) had a very strong code for sanitation and hygiene and it
is described in detail in the Old Testament Book of Levictus. If there were to be a
mention of water supply one would think it would be there, but it isn't. There are
three incidents describing the quest for pure water.

1. Moses is said to have sweetened bitter waters by casting into them a tree shown
to him by the Lord. (Exodus 15:22-27)
2. During Moses' 40 years of wandering it is said that the Lord told Moses exactly
where water could be found such as Moses smiting a rock and bringing forth
waters (Exodus 17:1-7).
3. Much later, Elisha is said to have "healed unto this day" the spring water of
Jericho by casting salt into it. (II Kings 2:19-22).

In the Bible there are many instances of the use of the word "water" (7). In fact the
word water is used 694 times in 620 verses. For an example, Hebrews 10:22 let us
draw near with a true heart in full assurance of faith, with our hearts sprinkled clean
from an evil conscience and our bodies washed with pure water. There is no
comment on how to make pure water.

There were many other civilizations also practicing sanitation such as Assyria,
Babylonia, China, Japan and parts of Asia and Africa. So worldwide it appears
sanitation was an important part of creating and maintaining a civilization.
The Dark Ages
With the fall of the Roman Empire around 400 AD, began the Dark Ages (2).
Instead of water being boiled to make water pure it was "the age of Mysticism"
where witches were boiled in water. Consequently, filth, pestilence, and plague
came back and continued until the 18th century.

Age of Enlightenment
Sir Francis Bacon, an English philosopher (3) began writing a reorganization of all
human knowledge including an "inductive method of modern experimental
science." In 1627, a year after his death, his last book was published Sylva
Sylarum or a "Natural History in Ten Centuries." This compendium of knowledge
described the thousand experiments that he had recorded, ten of which pertained
to the treatment of water, including percolation or filtration, boiling, distillation and
clarification by coagulation. He also dispelled a popular belief of the Romans that
sea water could be desalinated by moving water through soil. Bacon proved that a
well, placed near the sea would get natural ground water from a high elevation
rather than from the sea and that is why the water found in such wells were fresh
water.

During the next two centuries health matters and water treatment were still
empirically done. By the late 1700s scientific experiments began (3) (8), chemists
began systematically to weigh, to measure and test. Henry Cavendish isolated
hydrogen. Joseph Black discovered carbon dioxide. Antoine Lavoisier discovered
the doctrine of oxidation by proving that matter cannot be created or destroyed it
changes form. He also proved that water was a compound and not an element; as
water was formed by combining two elemental gases hydrogen and oxygen. To
prove this Lavoiser placed these two elements into a proper vessel, and ignited this
mixture with an electrical spark, the mixture exploded and water was formed.
Lavoisier, who was first to recognize the distinction between elements and
compounds he also introduced quantitative chemical methods and has been
referred to by many as the Father of Modern Chemistry.

The biggest change to move sanitary engineering forward was the development of
the science of bacteriology. (2) Leprosy became endemic about 1300; also
between 1348 and 1350, the bubonic plague or Black Death caused the death of
nearly one quarter of Europe's population, nearly 60 million persons died. It was
unknown how to counteract these so-called "Acts of God." Finally in the 17th
Century, scientific study was beginning. Names like Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, the
inventor of the microscope Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur all did work in the
development of the science of bacteriology, but yet the science was not perfected.

With the development of large cities, furthered by the Industrial Revolution, people
moved to urban areas and lived more in crowded conditions and the frequency of
epidemics increased. In 1854 (9), a localized outbreak of Asiatic Cholera broke out
in London. Through careful examination by John Snow and John York, they
demonstrated, with the science available to them, that the source of pollution had
to be from the Broad Street Pump Station. It was later found that a nearby broken
sewer was the source of the contamination into this drinking water source. Finally it
was correlated to an English soldier who had just returned from India and carried
the cholera bacteria. This incident was a milestone as it was the first proof that
water could be a vehicle for disease such as Asiatic Cholera.

It wasn't until the 1870s that Robert Koch (2) (3) (9), a German scientist, trained as
a medical doctor, turned to the new field of bacteriology. He discovered and
developed the methodology of the use of solid culture media to separate or isolate
pure cultures from mixed cultures. He also set forth criteria for establishing the
etiology of disease. These axioms are referred to Kochs Postulates and are as
follows:

1. A specific organism must always be associated with a given disease.

2. It must be able to be isolated in pure culture.
3. When inoculated into a healthy, susceptible animal it must always produce the
same disease.
4. It should then be able to again be isolated in pure culture.

Today, these postulates have been modified somewhat and not all of the 4 criteria
are needed to prove a causal relationship. Later Koch discovered that hypochlorous
acid (HOCL) could be used as a disinfectant. Today this compound is an integral
part of nearly all water plants using disinfection as a part of their treatment scheme.
For these very important discoveries, Robert Koch has been designated as the
Father of Bacteriology. The 1880s were known as the "Golden Years of
Bacteriology," during this time nearly all known communicable diseases were
isolated; identified and the vector of disease determined. Now the World was ready
to move forward to improve sanitation; as Sanitary Engineers now had the
sciences of Chemistry and Bacteriology to add to their knowledge of Engineering.

Environmental Improvements in the United States

In the United States in the early 1800s (10) it can be said that hydraulic
engineering was environmental engineering. As early communities grew they
needed more water. Each area was different where a good quality and abundant
supply of water could be found. For an example, the City of New York in 1832
retained Colonel De Witt Clinton, an Army Engineer and son of a former New York
Governor, to develop the Water Resources Plan for the City. His plan was to dam
the Croton River and water would be delivered to the City by a 40-mile aqueduct.
By 1842, the City was receiving up to 95 million gallons per day of good quality
water.

This plan worked so well that other cities soon followed this approach. The City of
Boston built a similar aqueduct from Lake Cochituate to the City. Ellis S.
Cheseborough was hired as Chief Engineer of the Western Division of the Boston
Water Works and responsible for the construction of this new aqueduct. It was
completed in 1848. Cheseborough later became the City's Chief Engineer and
responsible for the collection of sewage and storm water. It was decided that the
most practical method to control these waste flows would be through the use of
combined sewers. That is a sewer large enough to carry the flow of liquid sanitary
wastes and storm flows and then transporting them to the ocean or to a nearby
river. Most large cities favored this approach because of the lower costs of
constructing two sewerage systems; treatment was not considered important at this
time. Cheseborough, in 1855 resigned his position and moved to Chicago where
he developed Chicago's sewerage system.

As the demands for water increased throughout the country, there became a
concern for the quality of the water used for public use. The Massachusetts State
Board of Health (10) in 1873 asked Professor Wm. Nichols, the head of Chemistry,
at the then infant Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), to analyze the water
quality of the waters within the state. To do this Professor Nichols in 1878
established the first Sanitary Chemistry Laboratory in the United States. Next this
new laboratory had to be staffed and Professor Nichols hired a recent MIT
graduate Ellen Swallow (10) (11). She was the first coed at MIT and to graduate,
however she was not allowed to earn her Doctorate there but her work at the
Laboratory made her one of the foremost sanitary chemists in the world.
The state of Massachusetts in 1887 established the Lawrence Experiment Station
as a research center for sanitary engineering. This combined the disciplines of
Engineering, Chemistry, and Biology for the solution of sanitation problems
affecting public health. This center was professionally staffed and was also
augmented with the use of MIT professors, such as Professor Wm. Sedgwick, a
biologist. Professor Sedgwick, by 1900 was instrumental in the development of
wastewater treatment by using the recently developed bacteriological techniques
by Dr. Robert Koch of the University of Berlin. MIT was the first college in the
United States to train students jointly in the fields of Engineering, Chemistry and
Biology. Thus, many of the early professionals in Sanitary Engineering received
their training at MIT.

St. Louis Environmental Challenges

Environmental problems were occurring throughout populated United States and
St. Louis was no exception; as it had similar problems to other large cities. Water
supply, wastewater disposal and storm water disposal were a common bond
between all growing communities.

A. St. Louis Public Water Supply

From its founding in 1734 until 1835 St. Louis depended for its water supply upon
springs and cisterns (12). In 1835 the city developed its first public water supply
system. This plant consisted of a pump station to lift Mississippi River water into a
settling basin, which was the only form of treatment. After settling, the water was
pumped through a cast iron distribution system to the public. It is interesting to
note, that the pipe had to be installed at least 3 feet 6 inches deep: this is exactly
the same depth as of today. This plant was located in downtown St. Louis in an
area now popularly known as Laclede's Landing. From 1835 until after the Civil
War this water supply was plagued with many operation problems including high
silt loads from the river and too small of piping in its distribution system.

In 1863 the state of Missouri passed legislation authorizing the City to build a new
water facility on the Mississippi River but further upstream. On March 27th, 1865,
Mr. James Pugh Kirkwood was appointed to be the Chief Engineer of the City of St.
Louis. As Chief Engineer he was charged with the task of developing a new water
supply for the City of St. Louis which was to be located upstream at Bissels Point.
This plant was supposed to have a 40 million per day (MG) capacity, without the
use of filters. Mr. Kirkwood was a Scottish born railway engineer who came to the
United States in 1832 and worked on many large railroad bridges and tunnels in
northeastern United States. Mr. Kirkwood moved to St. Louis in 1850 to become
the Chief Engineer for the newly formed Pacific Railway. This was a very important
position as the railways were expanding to the west. New cities were formed along
these new routes, to provide services to the railways. The first of these bears the
name of Kirkwood, Missouri.

The City of St. Louis wanted to be sure that their new water plant would be
designed using the latest concepts. Kirkwood was sent to Europe to visit and learn
from other water systems. In his 1866 report to the City Administration, Kirkwood
recommended that the plant should be located further upstream, at a location
known as the Chain of Rocks, with four settling basins using the "fill and draw"
method, to handle the silt load and 6 to 8 slow sand filters. Each slow sand filter
was to be 260 feet by 150 feet and to have 30 inches of sand, 24 inches of gravel,
and 24 inches of stone. Based upon his judgment this facility was projected to
require ten filters to produce twelve million gallons per day (MGD). This system was
to be designed using a per capita use of 30 gallons per day usage, which was less
that water usage of the early Romans. This plan was rejected by the City Council in
May of 1866. Once again the City Administration directed the Chief Engineer to
design a water plant to be located at Bissels Point without filtration. Kirkwood
defended his position on the use of slow sand filters. He said the turbid western
waters had sediment, "though trifling in weight, renders the water very
objectionable in appearance, very objectionable in its application to any of the Arts
or manufacture, and no acquisition certainly as regards to health and cleanliness. "
Kirkwood further stated that eh custom of using "western waters may reconcile
persons to its presence."

There is a story attributed to Mark Twain (12) who said it was easy to recognize a
stranger to the St. Louis area by offering him a glass of water. The stranger waits
for the mud to settle while the native stirs it up and drinks it immediately to secure
the full power of its life giving properties.

Mr. Kirkwood revised his report to meet the CITY'S demands and lost his position
as Chief Engineer in 1867. He then moved to New York City and later in 1867 was
elected to be the President of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). He
died in 1877 at an age of 70. Mr. Kirkwood was vindicated in his recommendation
for the use of slow sand filters to treat Mississippi waters, as in 1871, slow sand
filtration was selected as the treatment process for the city of Poughkeepsie, New
York. Kirkwood's successor as Chief Engineer was Thomas Jefferson Whitman,
who was the brother of the famous poet Walt Whitman. Thomas Whitman oversaw
the construction of the Bissels Point water plant, the way the City wanted and this
plant became operational in 1871. The City had adequate water, which was still
muddy.

In 1873, the City of St. Louis withdrew from St. Louis County and the City
boundaries were locked in. Many other changes also occurred including the shifting
of the supervision of city water to a Water Commissioner. In 1877, Mr. Minard
Holman, an 1874 graduate of Washington University joined Mr. Whitman as an
assistant.

During the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, at a meeting of Engineers

(13), it was suggested that there should be a meeting of Water Supply
Professionals to share their knowledge of waterworks operations. After
considerable planning this meeting was finally held beginning March 29th 1881.
This meeting was held at Washington University in St. Louis, this University was
founded in 1853 and its Engineering school began in 1870 (14). Mr. Whitman and
Mr. Holman from the City of St. Louis were in attendance. This meeting was the
founding meeting of the American Water Works Association (AWWA). This 100
plus year old organization today is the leading source for development standards,
exchange of design and operational data for public water suppliers, and today this
organization has over 50,000 members. Members came from all over the world.

In 1894 a new water plant was needed and this time it was to be built at the Chain
of Rocks, under the supervision of Mr. Holman; filters however were still not in the
treatment process and the public still had muddy water. With the occurrence of the
upcoming World's Fair in 1904, the Mayor of St. Louis, Rolla Wells, in 1901 (15)
proclaimed the City would have clear water for the Fair. This was a must to be able
to invite world travelers to the St. Louis World Fair or s it was officially known the
Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904.

The City had tried many schemes over the years to improve the quality of the
settled water; but none were found to be better than the "fill and draw" method
originally recommended by Kirkwood. The City turned to a brilliant, but somewhat
eccentric chemist, Mr. John F. Wixford, an 1886 graduate of Washington University.
A new treatment process using lime and ferrous sulfate was being used in Illinois
and Ohio, but it had not been able to perform in St. Louis. Wixford, after much
experimentation demonstrated that the use of "milk of lime," that is calcium oxide,
slaked at a temperature of 190 degrees F and applied to the water after the
addition of ferrous sulfate gave consistently good coagulation results. Using this
new treatment process the problems with mud disappeared and the City had clear
water. The City did not add until 1915 filters to this treatment process (12). When
completed this was the largest filtration plant in the world; with 40 filters and over
700 feet in length and designed to produce 160 MGD. It was and is impressive.

In the early 1900s (16) the population of St. Louis County was also beginning to
grow including the need for public water supply. After several attempts to form a
private company to supply water, "The West St. Louis Water and Light Company"
was formed. The Company succeeded in obtaining the needed financing and its
facilities, including filtration, became operational on April 1, 1904, just 30 days prior
to the opening of the World's Fair. This system has grown over the years and
became what we know today as the St. Louis County Water Company. The
shareholders in 1946 elected Mr. W. Victor Weir as President of the Company. Mr.
Weir was a Washington University Civil Engineering Graduate. Since 1946 the
President or the Chairman of the Board of the Water Company, the largest investor
owned individual water company in the United States, has been a Washington
University graduate.

Well, the Fair was held and it was a monumental success and the City had its world
class water system thanks to Wixfords process; A process which is still in use
today, at both the City and County Water Plants. From 1904 until today the St.
Louis area has been supplied with safe and adequate water supply so that growth
could occur. Since the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in 1974 this
basic treatment process is still providing exceptional results.

B. St. Louis Sewers

St. Louis was destined for growth because of its location and with more than ample
supply of water from the Mississippi River; this flow is also augmented from the
flows of the Missouri, Illinois and Meramec Rivers (17). The City is surrounded by
water. However the geologic features of the area threatened to impede urban
growth. The surface topography was misleading. The watercourses did run
downhill, however beneath the soil there was underlying limestone strata which
rose and fell in ridges running roughly parallel to the Mississippi River; and any
construction of drainage would require tunneling. Additionally, this limestone was
also attacked by chemical weathering from rain water percolating through the soil
with weak acids from carbon dioxide in the air and organic acids in the soil. Thus,
the St. Louis landscape was full of sinkholes. These sinkholes were used by the
early populace to dispose of storm water as well as draining the effluents from local
sewers, as there was no overall sewerage system to drain water away from the City
(17). As population increased these sinkholes soon became open cesspools.

During this period, the rapid increase in the population of the City was mostly
German emigrants. In 1832 there was a major cholera outbreak in the City and
nearly 4% of the population died. This epidemic was blamed on the emigrants. The
City then built a hospital next to the Mississippi River just a little south of where the
present Jefferson Barracks Bridge crosses the river. This was done to intercept the
packet boats, bringing the emigrants up the river. All passengers were quarantined
until there was proof of their wellness.

In 1849 there was another very serious cholera outbreak and nearly 10% of the
population (6,000 persons) died. However, this time the occurrence information
indicated the cholera epidemic origin pointed to a particular sinkhole. Thus, the
draining of sinkholes, swamps and water catch basins had to be done to improve
the public health of the City. Major trunk sewers had to be built. The City voted a
tax increase to begin the sewerage system. A West Point Engineer, Samuel Curtis
installed the first major trunk sewer. This sewer was a 12-foot arch type structure
and completed under budget. This was remarkable because of the unknown costs
of the tunneling required to get through a 40-foot rocky bridge at Broadway (17).

Curtis next devised an elaborate master plan to drain all of St. Louis, the north, the
central and the south areas to promote public health. In the mid 1850s, this plan
was approved. The first area to receive trunk sewers was the central area, where
the majority of the populace lived. Through this area ran Mill Creek, which became
a swampy area referred to as Chouteau's Pond. The Mill Creek watershed
contained 6,400 acres. This construction of a new sewerage system was slow. In
1866 once again there was a cholera outbreak killing about 300 people. The
people once again voted higher taxes. The City was growing very rapidly and it
appeared that regardless whatever was built, it still was not enough. The City then
built a relief sewer to take the waste water to a further western watershed, the River
Des Peres, which formed the City's western border, and merged into the
Mississippi River just south of the City.

One of the major problems of that time was that lateral sewers could be added
even though there was no trunk sewer available to safely carry away the wastes.
The lateral between the trunk sewer and the house or building, was to be paid for
by the individual user deriving the benefits. So laterals were built and their effluents
were dumped wherever. In 1891 more monies became available to increase sewer
construction due to the possibility of a future World's Fair.

By 1894, the River Des Peres (18) was described as nothing less than a monster
open sewer, poisoning the air with the most dangerous corruption and a menace to
public health. In 1901 more taxes again provided additional monies to construct a
better sewerage system for the central area; and by the time of the World's Fair in
1904, many new trunk sewers had been added. However, the River Des Peres
remained a relief sewer for the City with all of the problems previously noted.

Mr. W.W. Horner, a 1905 (19) graduate from Washington University in Civil
Engineering, went to work for the City immediately upon graduation. In August
1915 (18), a major rainstorm hit St. Louis; with 10.6 inches of rainfall occurring in
17 hours. This deluge caused 11 deaths and over one million dollars in property
damage. The City demanded that a plan of action be prepared so that the City
could be able to handle this type of natural disaster. Mr. Horner was selected as
Engineer in Charge to prepare this plan; and Mr. Horner's plan which was
completed in late 1916, outlined the plan to redo the River Des Peres. In 1918, Mr.
Horner became the City's Chief Engineer and was responsible to oversee the work
outlined in his report. In a 1923 election, the voters overwhelmingly passed a new
bond issue including the River Des Peres work of 87.4 million dollars. This gave the
City the money needed to solve the River Des Peres problems as well as other
needed sewers. Mr. Horner received much notoriety for the design and construction
of the River Des Peres, through the use of innovative engineering concepts. The
plan was basically to bury this river through the city and allow it to empty
harmlessly into the Mississippi River. This project nearly 20 miles in length began
construction in 1924 and was completed in 1933. On October 27, 1988 the River
Des Peres was declared a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.

In 1932 (19), with a change of administrations Mr. Horner and his Assistant were
asked to leave their positions with the City. Shortly thereafter, in 1933 Mr. Horner
along with his able assistant, Mr. Hyman Shifrin started the consulting firm of
Horner and Shifrin. The City later asked Mr. Horner and Mr. Shifrin to return to their
former positions with the City, however they declined.
In 1934, Horner began teaching municipal and sanitary engineering course s at
Washington University; in 1937 he was named as a Professor.

The Horner and Shifrin consulting firm hired its first engineer in 1933 and it was a
Washington University graduate in civil engineering; Mr. Stifel Jens who graduated
in 1932 with a BS and in 1933 with a MS degree. Mr. Jens stated later in his life
that he believed that Mr. Horner was perhaps one of the most outstanding storm-
water drainage hydrologists in the country. Both Mr. Horner and Mr. Jens made
many contributions to Urban Hydrology. In 1963 (20), Mr. Jens cofounded the
Urban Water Resources Council of the American Society of Civil Engineers. His
leadership of this program brought him international acclaim. In 1970, Mr. Jens
received a Presidential Commendation for his "many contributions to environmental
excellence through his work in urban hydrology and engineering."

C. Air Pollution in St. Louis

By 1873 (17) St. Louis had become an industrial city and many of the businesses
caused considerable pollution and nuisance. One in particular was a rendering
plan, which had a contract with the city to collect dead animals from the streets.
These dead animals were boiled to extract fat, grease, and bone material. The
adjacent community was outraged with these odors; the City's immediate solution,
a compromise between politics and local pressure, required this boiling to be done
on a boat furnished by the city in the Mississippi River. This problem eventually
lead the way toward a long-term solution and this was to develop a city-wide zoning
plan. When this was finally done in 1918 (17); St. Louis became the second city,
next to New York City to have such a plan.

Another significant aspect of the air pollution problem was smoke. St. Louis had a
distinct advantage in the use of cheap energy for businesses and home because
the availability of coal from Southern Illinois. The bad news was that this
bituminous coal caused considerable smoke and fly ash. By the 1920s (17),
Engineers in St. Louis had calculated that the City's smoke deposited about 900
tons of solids annually per square mile and cost the City's populace annually
approximately $15,000,000; a staggering sum. After many attempts by the City to
control smoke, the City in 1933 appointed a mechanical engineering professor from
Washington University, Mr. Raymond R. Tucker, to control the smoke. It was seven
years later in 1940 when the city finally acted by passing an ordinance changing
how fuel was to be burned and the fuel to be used. This was done after the "Black
Tuesday" event in 1939 when the City's air was so bad at noon it looked like
midnight. After the smoke abated Mr. Tucker returned to Washington University and
became the Department Chairman of Mechanical Engineering from 1942-1953 (14)
(15). In 1953, Mr. Tucker was elected to become the Mayor of the City of St. Louis.
Mr. Tucker's leadership and the models of engineering and legislation to remove
the smoke and ash became a national model for industrial cities.

The 1950s and Environmental Engineering

After World War II, the emergence of synthetic chemicals became common place in
the marketplace. One prime example was the new synthetic detergents. Shortly
after the distribution of these new home use products many of the nation's
waterways began to foam. These new detergents were not biologically degradable
and existing sewage treatment facilities could not break down these wastes (21).
This foam thus became a visual indication of pollution and the public quickly
became aware of pollution. Additionally, Dr. Rachel Carson in 1962 wrote in her
book, "Silent Spring" (22), which foretold of the future in vivid details if
environmental controls were not developed. These incidents helped to pave the
way for "Earth Day" and the significant changes in environmental legislation which
took place nationally.

Environmental change was also taking place in St. Louis. In 1954, (15) the
Metropolitan Sewer District (MSD) was formed. Thus wastewater and storm water
in St. Louis, both City and County, were to be under the control of one organization
and this organization was to be under the leadership of a Professional Engineer.
Sewage treatment also was to begin, instead of relying on the Mississippi River to
be the area's sewage treatment facility.

In 1956, leading engineers in St. Louis saw the need for engineers to be better
trained in the field of sanitation, public health and engineering. To fill this need
Washington University created a new Program to develop Sanitary Engineers (23).
This program became to be referred to as "The Envirsan Program." This program
can best be described from a plaque dedicated in April 1997 which states the
following: "After World War II, demand for industrial and consumer goods caused
increased production. Many new compounds, formulated with wartime research,
began entering the environment. To solve problems associated with these new
chemicals, as well as others that resulted from industrial and consumer growth
required trained engineers and scientists who specialized in solving environmental
problems. Visionaries at Washington University, included Don Fisher, Dean of
Engineering; Henry Reitz, Chairman, Department of Civil Engineering; Dr. Carl
Tolman, Vice Chancellor: and alumni Stifel W. Jens and W. Victor Weir, were
instrumental in 1956, of recruiting, Dr. Devere W. Ryckman to be chairman of a
new department of Environmental and Sanitary Engineering within the Sever
Institute of Technology. The beginnings were humble; a laboratory in a kitchen in
the basement of Liggett Hall. In the next few years Dr. Edward Edgerly, Jr. and Dr.
Nathan C. Burbank joined the staff. By 1959 the program, referred to as the
Envirsan Program, occupied spacious laboratory facilities in the new Engineering
Building which is now Urbauer Hall. Dr. Henry Tomlinson and Dr. Rolf T. Skrinde
joined the program in the early 1960s, and Dr. Jim Buzzell joined the program in
1966. Between 1958 and 1975, the Envirsan Program with its motto of "Restless
Research" conferred 115 graduate degrees to environmental engineering leaders
who have gone on to make their mark in industry, government, research and
teaching." It is of interest that most of these professors had earned a graduate
degree from MIT.

In the mid 1950s (24) national leaders in environmental engineering saw the need
to move the profession to a new level. It was agreed that what was needed was
specialty certification, similar to that of the medical profession. Leaders of all major
environmental fields in 1955 decided that what was needed was a new
organization embracing all fields of Environmental Engineering; The Academy of
Sanitary Engineering Intersociety was founded. The founding organizations were
the American Public Health Association (APHA), American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and the Water
Pollution Control Federation (WPCF). In 1966, the American Society of Sanitary
Engineers changed their name to the American Academy Environmental Engineers
(AAEE). By 1986 additional sponsors included the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers (AICHE), American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE), American Public Works
Association (APWA), and the Solid Waste Association of North America. The
mission of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE), is to
enhance the profession and to provide a better quality of life for all. This
philosophical view is the same one that has been shared by all, even back to the
days of the early Egyptians. The Academy is doing this through a certification
program where Environmental Engineers are tested in their specialty, those who
succeed are conferred as Diplomats, Environmental Engineering (DEE). Today,
there are approximately 2,400 Engineers worldwide who have been conferred as
Diplomats, Environmental Engineering.
In my view there are several areas where I see that our field and you as future
leaders will be challenged.

1st. The replacement of old infrastructure using modern technology; taking costs
into affect.

2nd. Continued research and development of new measurement techniques to

further study the impact of pollutants in the Environment. And when cost is justified,
taking into account the entire environment, to proceed with making changes.

3rd. Addressing Governmental laws, rules and regulations to ensure clarity and
reducing the conflicts between them. Presently, much of the control of the
environment has been focused toward each type of pollution without looking for
what is best overall for the environment. Money is also a natural resource and its
expenditure must be wisely done to obtain what is the best for the environment, at
the least cost. Dr. Murray Weidenbaum, Chairman of the Center for the Study of
American Business located at Washington University, is a national leader in
attempting to develop these issues and discuss alternatives and options. Truly is a
challenge!

Finally, our Profession has been around for over 5 millenniums, ever since known
civilizations began. Yet it was only 125 years ago that science became the basis for
our Profession. Coincidentally this was about the same time when the Washington
University School of Engineering was formed. Also it was only 40 years ago that
our profession was properly named and became a profession of its own with the
formation of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers. As we look back
we can see the many contributions made by so many and we can also be proud of
the contributions made by the graduates and faculty of Washington University.

I hope this history of Environmental Engineering gives you a "new" perspective on

your profession. The best of luck to you as you leave here and go forth to be the
environmental leaders of the future.