CURRICLUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

FEBRUARY 2009

PART A (4 Marks each) Answer all 5 questions.

Question 1
What is the hidden curriculum?
*1.2
Hidden curriculum not just transmit the knowledge, students actually also learn
things that are not taught in formal curriculum. It involves learning such things as
how to respond to and cope with authority, example is involve the students in
school prefect board.

Hidden curriculum refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended

lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school.

Hidden curriculum consists of the unspoken or implicit academic, social, and

cultural messages that are communicated to students while they are in school.

The hidden-curriculum concept is based on the recognition that students

absorb lessons in school that may or may not be part of the formal course
of studyfor example, how they should interact with peers, teachers, and other
adults; how they should perceive different races, groups, or classes of people; or
what ideas and behaviors are considered acceptable or unacceptable.

The hidden curriculum is described as hidden because it is usually

unacknowledged or unexamined by students, educators, and the wider
community.

And because the values and lessons reinforced by the hidden curriculum are
often the accepted status quo, it may be assumed that these hidden practices
and messages dont need to changeeven if they are contributing to
undesirable behaviors and results, whether its bullying, conflicts, or low
graduation and college-enrollment rates, for example.
Question 2
Briefly state the differences between a curriculum based on perennialism and a
curriculum based on progressivism.
*2.4, 2.6
Perennialism is the oldest method of learning and teaching and theories of this
method is still alive that learners need follow all the teaching, if not the learner
will not reach the goal.

In perennialism students no students task to correct, just listen students pray

lesson in class only. For example, no have homework or assignments to correct.
That can make them easy with their learning; otherwise less of knowledge and
less of experiences also did not get the real knowledge.

Progressivism is the modern method that philosophers and educators try find out
the best ways of learning and teaching to be effectively in the modernization.

In the progressivism student is more experiences than perennialism because of

flexible, creativities, and freedom of learning, activities, assignments, group
discussion, more researches, survey, and interviews.

Teacher just gives them assignments and students will do the research and
spread the ideas what they have got from their research they will understand the
real life of living. For example, in Personal Growth and Development classes, for
the last six years ago, I have learned in this class. Professors just taught and
explained in the theories of knowledge and a little of assignment.

Progressivism students spend time and money for doing research. And
perennialism spends less time and less money or material. In contrast, students
of perennialism are less challenge in social activities because of the way of
teaching less activity in classroom
Question 3
What is the difference between formative evaluation and summative evaluation?
*8.2
Question 4
Why is it important that you evaluate a curriculum that has been implemented?
*8.1
Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a programme to determine its
value or worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject, or revise the
programme.
Programmes are evaluated to answer questions and concerns of various
parties.
The public want to know whether the curriculum implemented has achieved
its aims and objectives;
Teachers want to know whether what they are doing in the classroom is
effective;
The developer or planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum
product.

Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to

identify its weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in
implementation;
to improve the curriculum development process;
to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance
allocated.

Question 5
Describe how teaching in the classroom will be different if the curriculum is based
on constructivism?
*3.4
Constructivism gives importance to learner as the agent who plays pivotal role in
the learning process, rather than trying to get the power from the teacher.
However within the constructivist paradigm, the stress is placed on the learner
than the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with his or her environment and
thus gains an understanding of its features and characteristics. The learner
constructs his own conceptualizations and finds his own solutions to problems,
mastering autonomy and independence. According to constructivism, learning is
the result of individual mental construction, whereby the learner learns by
matching new against given information and establishing meaningful
connection, rather than by internalising mere given information to regurgitate
later on.
Part B (10 Marks each) Answer 2 questions
Question 1
Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) proposed the following FIVE criteria that may be
used to guide what should be included in a curriculum: Significance, Utility,
Validiy (Credibility), Learnability, and Feasibility (consider constraints). Briefly
describe how you would use these five criteria when selecting content for a
curriculum that you are developing. (10 marks)
6.2.3
Significance: It is obvious that content selected should be significant. But, the
definition of significance varies with an individual,s beliefs. For example,
curriculum developers who favour subject matter designs think of significance in
terms of the concepts and principles of each subject area. Those who favour
learner-centred designs think of significance in terms of the needs and interests
of the learner. While those who favour a problem-centred design would regard
the problems and issues in society as significant. Taba (1962) further argues that
we should not just select content based on the cognitive aspects of learners, but
also on their affective dimensions.

Utility: Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This again depends on your
philosophical beliefs. If you subscribe to the subject-centred design, then you
believe that the content learned from the various subject areas will be useful in
the workplace. If you subscribe to the learner-centred design, then you will take
into consideration the needs and interests of learners which will enable them to
realise their potential to function effectively in the workplace. Alternatively, if you
subscribe to the problem-centred design, then you believe that learning about
societal issues will enable students to apply directly what they have learned to
their daily lives and the world of work.

Validity: Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is

authentic and obtained from credible sources. This is especially significant today
with the deluge of information that is easily accessible which may not necessarily
be credible or reliable. How much of the billions of pages on the internet are
credible? Content needs to be checked to determine its accuracy and constantly
updated.

Learnability: It may seem strange that anyone would select content that is not
learnable. Unfortunately, it does happen. Can you give examples of this
happening? For example, the content selected for a particular age group might
be too difficult and teachers need more time but insufficient time is allotted.
Eventually, teachers will end up rushing through the material and some students
left behind not understanding the content.

Feasibility: Educators who select content have to take into consideration the
constraints of time, expertise of staff, funding and other educational resources
that schools might face when implementing the curriculum. For example, the
number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the content
because schools have to allocate time for extra-curricular activities and other
schools events. Content selection has to be considered within the context of
existing reality of economics and the role of the government.
Question 2
According to McNeil (1990), curriculum change is a complex and difficult
process requiring careful planning, adequate time, funding, support of
teachers, administrators and the community.
(a) Suggest 4 possible reasons why teachers may resist the
implementation of a curriculum. How would you overcome such
resistance?
7.4

Reason 1:
People resist because they do not understand they simply do not follow what is
being introduced. They do not understand where they are going. They are not
clear as to what is required of them.
Overcome:
The key is communication. You have to explain to them Why. You have to
answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions. Remember, the
effectiveness of communication is not the message sent but of the message
received

Reason 2:
People resist because of lack of ownership Individuals will not accept change if
they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them. Unfortunately, most
curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the outside which may be at the
national, state or district level.
Overcome:
You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside, their
view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design stages of
curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the relevance of the new
curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the new skills needed for
utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will get them to feel that they are an
important part of the curriculum implementation process.
Reason 3:
People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes It
is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and skills to
cope with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are incompetent. There
is the likelihood that the implementation of the new curriculum has been rushed
or due to budgetary constraints, the training period has been greatly reduced and
teachers are not adequately equipped.
Overcome:
Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training of teachers
involved in implementing the new curriculum.

Reason 4:
People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits If teachers are
unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students (in
terms of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or reward),
they are likely to resist the suggested change.
Overcome:
Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum change are
rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their efforts need to
be given due recognition.

Reason 5:
People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change Teachers
find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change handling their
current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change activities, may run the
risk of neglecting their current responsibilities.
Overcome:
Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Reprioritise their
work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this means
failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.

(b) Suggest ways of getting parents and the community to accept a new
curriculum.
7.6.4
One way of getting parents and community to accept a new curriculum is to
organise workshops for them focusing on the new curriculum. The workshops
should be designed to help them better understand the content and philosophy of
the new curriculum. Parents and community need an opportunity to share their
concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These workshops should be
conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is really going on in the
classroom.

Another approach parents and community to accept a new curriculum is to make

available information on curriculum change on the internet. For example, the
government of the province of Alberta in, Canada has on its website a curriculum
handbook for parents containing information on subjects offered, programmes
and courses available in all schools. The information is updated each year as
changes are made to the curriculum.

Lastly, print-based newsletters can be made available to parents informing them

of the changes that are taking place with the introduction of the new curriculum.
Question 3
The Tyler Model introduced in 1949 continues to be widely used in developing
curriculum. In his model., Tyler asked the following FOUR questions that has
proven to be useful in helping curriculum experts design and develop curriculum:
What educational purposes should the institution seek to attain?
What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes?
How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Briefly discuss what he meant by asking these four questions?

5.2.1
Tylers questions represent the four-step sequence of
(1) identifying purposes or objectives,
(2) selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives
(3) organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences, and
(4) evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or achieved.

By purposes, Tyler was referring to objectives and when developing

curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the
subject area (eg. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (eg.
economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying mental awareness, employment,
market needs). After identifying the objectives, the curriculum developer has to
pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen and the psychology
screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives which state the
kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable.

The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the
attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take
into account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning
experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human
learning and human development.

Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning
experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised
so as to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills
be used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements
would serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (eg. history,
economics, science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of
content.

Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the

curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know
whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For
example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the
learning experiences selected achieve this objective. Through evaluation it will be
possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective.
Question 4
Discuss how the changing economy, changing family institution, cultural diversity
and special interest groups are influencing the design and development of school
curriculum.
4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5
The curriculum was primarily didactic,apprenticeship and focused on basic skills
for living for agrarian society. The learning was less book-based. For example, in
the latter part of the 19 th century, life in the United States was farm based and
schools mirrored that lifestyle. By the beginning of the 20 th century, the industrial
revolution brought about drastic changes in the economy of many countries. As
a consequence new skills were needed in an industrial society. However,it still a
didactic teaching but more to factory emerged.The curriculum was
compartmentalized and taught in separated bits and pieces. Multimedia
innovations and the growth of the internet have transformed our ability to access
information.In information society, a new curriculum will be needed, which will be
more personalized, instead of still educating students in factory-model schools.
This will challenges the students with higher expectations of learning, and
encouraged to think critically and creatively as they solve problems.

In agrarian society, gender determined the role of individuals.The families were

large and the extended family where parents lived with their adult children was
common. Family, religion and school complemented each other as social
institutions and they had relaxed in the early days. The shift to the industrial
economy brought about changes to the family institution from extended kinship
family to a nuclear family. As parents worked away from home, children suffered
because of strained relationship between father and mother which leading to
stress in them affecting their performance in school. The shift in values has
resulted in changes in the relationship between family,education and religion and
these social institutions are increasingly loosing their ability to guide the
behaviours desired of todays generation.Parents are distancing themselves from
schools and are passing on the task of educating their children to the school.
This cause the schools difficult to cope with the job of educating the next
generation.

As the world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even
more diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new way
of life. It was hoped that a national identity would evolve from these varied
attributes, but in reality the culture of the majority became dominant. So, it may
be necessary to have different programmes, different pedagogical approaches,
flexible curriculum and even varied educational environments to address the
needs of all students.

Curriculum decision making is political by various special interest groups. These

special interest groups such as environmental groups, substance abuse concern
of society, consumer advocates, health groups, sex education, crime prevention
and governments continually propose what should be included in school
curriculum. The topics range form substance abuse to the rights and
responsibilities of citizens.