This article was downloaded by: [University of Sussex Library]

On: 04 February 2015, At: 16:43

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Ergonomics
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/terg20

Ergonomic Comparison of Seven Modes of Carrying

Loads on the Horizontal Plane
a a
S. R. DATTA & N. L. RAMANATHAN
a
Industrial Health Research Unit, All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health , 110
Chittaranjan Avenue, Caleutta, 12, India
Published online: 25 Apr 2007.

To cite this article: S. R. DATTA & N. L. RAMANATHAN (1971) Ergonomic Comparison of Seven Modes of Carrying Loads on the
Horizontal Plane, Ergonomics, 14:2, 269-278, DOI: 10.1080/00140137108931244

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00140137108931244

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 ERGONOMICS, 1971, VOL. 14, No.2, 269-278

Ergonomic Comparison of Seven Modes of Carrying Loads

on the Horizontal Plane
S. R. DATTA and N. L. RAMANATHAN*
Industrial Health Research Unit, All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health,
110 Chibtaranjan Avenue, Calcutta-12, India

A comparative study of seven modes of carrying an identical load on the level ground
wee conducted on seven normal, healthy volunteers. The modes of carrying were:
H cad, Rucksack, DoubLe Pack, Rico Bag, Sherpa, Yoke and Hands. The volunteers
marched with 30 kg at the rate of 5 kmrhr and the minute ventilation, oxygen con-
sumption and pulse rate were recorded during the steady state of work and a 5 min
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

recovery period after the work. Analysis of variance on the data established a
significant (p<OOl) difference ill the values of tho physiological parameters of
energy cost. cardiac rate and pulmonary ventilation due to a change in the mode of
carrying. Tho Double Pack mode was ergonomically the best mode, followed
closely by tho Head mode. Carrying by Hands was the worst method and the others
were intermediate as far as physiological economy is concerned. The merits and
demerits of these modes of carrying loads are discussed briefly.

1. Introduction
Manual load transport is widespread and indispensable in some cultures.
The number of persons earning their livelihood in India solely by carrying
loads is very large. They come from the lower economic strata, have generally
poor physique and nutrition and often labour in a most unorganized manner.
Scientific studies on the efficient and proper methods of carrying loads are
somewhat lacking, especially in the eontext of a developing eountry. More
than four deeades ago, Bedale (1924) investigated on one female subjeet, the
energy cost of carrying 20-501b (91-227 kg) in eight different ways. Since
then, very limited studies have been made on the problem (Durnin and Passmore
1967). In India, Malhotra and Sengupta (1965), Das and Saha (1966) and the
present authors (19fi7) have reported some data on three or four modes of load
carrying. These researches found respectively that pack carrying to be
economical in comparison to other modes amongst school-children carrying bags
weighing 6lb (2'72 kg), adults climbing a treadmill grade with a 27 kg load,
and laboratory subjects performing step test with loads of 12 and 16kg. In
order to evolve suitable methods for performing this decidedly heavy work, it
is desirable to undertake a controlled study of the ergonomics of load carrying
by various modes practised in India. The present investigation reports on
the relative physiological and practical merits and demerits of seven different
methods of carrying loads on the level. .

2. Methods and Materials

The experiments were performed on seven healthy adult subjects of whom
six were employed in sedentary jobs and the seventh in unskilled manual
(coolie) work, which is often heavy. Anthropometrieally, they conformed to
the type found amongst manual workers, with mean age, height, weight and

Present address: Senior Research Officer, Occupational Health Research Instituto, Ahmedu-
bad 16, India.
ERG. S
 270 S. R. Datta and N. L. Ramanathan

body surface area of 361 ( 8'5) years, 1663 ( 5,3) em, 500 ( 3,3) kg and
]53 ( 0,05) m 2 respectively. During the experiments the mean climatic
conditions were thermally 'just uncomfortable' (Rao 1952) with an air
temperature of 304 ( I. 43) c, a relative humidity of 76] ( 8,5) per cent
and an air velocity less than 50 cm/sec. .
The muscular work performed by the subjects was carrying a load of granite
chips weighing 30 kg over ten laps each 100 metres long, for a total distance of
I km at It speed of 5 krn/hr. The speed of walking was timed for every lap
and the subject guided to keep to a uniform rate of walking. Each subject
carried the load by seven different modes described in Table]. These are
illustrated in Figure 1 (a, b, c, d) and 2 (a, b, c). The modes of carrying during
each expcriment were assigned to the subjects in a random order by drawing
lots to avoid bias.,
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

Table 1. The seven modes of carrying loads

Modo Symbol Description of the mode

Double Pack ~11 The lond is equally divided in two packs and strapped across the
shoulder, one in front ami the other on the back. Bottom of the
packs tied together loosely. A relatively unusual mode.
Head M2 The load is carried in a basket on the head with a straw ring as
padding. One or both hands arc used for supporting tho load. A
most prevalent modo.
Rucksack M3 The loaded rucksack is strapped across the shoulder as a high pack.
Normally resorted to by Armed Forces personnel and some school-
children.
Sherpa 1\14 Similar to l\Hi, except that the bag is supported by a strap round the
forehead, thus freeing the hands. Used by hill-climbing sherpas,
tea-pickers and residents of sub-Himalayan regions.
Rico Bag 1\'15 The load in a gunny sack is supported on the back with the upper
two corners of the sack held by hands or hooks. Used by coolies
transporting heavy bags of ccroels, sugar, coal, etc.
Yoke MO The load, divided equally, is suspended by three ropes at each end of
8 resilient bamboo strip placed across the shoulder. The yoke is
held with one or both hands for balance. A mode peculiar to India,
vcry commonly used by villagers bringing produce to markets.
Hands ]\[7 The load is kept in two canvas bags with padded handles and carried
by both hands, as usually done when transporting liquids in buckets.

The physiological observations made during the experiments were the

energy expenditure and cardio-respiratory response of the subjects. The
oxygen consumption and energy expenditure were determined by collecting
expired air in a Douglas bag and Haldane analysis method according to stan-
dardized procedures (Consolazio et al. 1963). Heart rate was recorded by
timing 20 beats during the last 5 min of the rest period preceding walk, at
intervale during walking, every minute during gas collection and immediately
after cessation of work. Ventilatory rate was obtained during work and during
a 5 min recovery period after completion of the work. Thus, the physiological
parameters obtained were: oxygen consumption in l/min STPD (0); energy
expenditure in kcal/min (E); heart rate during work in beats/min (HR);
increment in heart rate due to work (HI); minute ventilation during work in
l/min BTPS (MV); and minute ventilation during recovery in I/min BTPS
(MV]~).
The subjects, who were given a prior indoctrination on the experimental
requirements so as to enlist their full co-operation, reported in the laboratory
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015
 Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

3. Results
 Seven M odes of Oarrying Loads on the Horizontal Plane 273

each mode. Thc trend observed in Table 2 is more clearly displayed in

Figure 3.

Table 2. Mean of the physiological parameters of subjects carrying load in seven modes

Parameter l\Iodc of carrying

~Il ~l2 M3 M4 M5 1116 H7
o I/min STPD 1010 1038 1106 1158 1221 1301 1464
B koaljmin 483 499 527 554 .')93 622 696
HI< beats/min 1365 1449 1462 137l 1425 1488 1660
HI beats/min 500 638 621 567 602 657 815
MV I/min BTPS 2808 2754 3018 3111 33'04 3529 3958
MVI< I/min BTPS 1l77 1122 1357 1382 1;;'47 1584 1905
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

The data on each parameter from the seven subjects and seven modes were
analysed for variance. Table 3 gives the results of this statistical test. It is
seen that the mode of carrying influences each of the six parameters very
significantly. On the contrary, the variation among the subjects is not at all
significant for the energy cost parameters (0 and E), but is significant for the
cardio-pulmonary parameters.

9- M7 IIANDS
0 M.

-
MEAN YOK
~ SO! _ M, RICE BAG TVP
2 6- N~PALI PORT~R TYPE
M.
.4.. M. SIiOULDf.R PACK

~ 7- M. I-IAD
M, FRONT l/<BACK
!
6-
III
a
.
~ f
Q
z 5-
..
III
Q

101
4-

~
z1M 3-
1M

"". Ms '-"4 '-"3 1101 2

MODES OF <:ARRVING

Figure 3. Mean energy expenditure in kealjmin of 7 subjects during walking with a load of
30 KG in 7 different modes.

Since the observations compared were on the same population, the inter-
mode differences in the six parameters were tested by the' paired t-test ' which
is more sensitive than the standard t-test. Table 4 presents the results of this
test showing the level of significance of the difference in the values of the
 274 S. R. Datta and N. L. Ramanaiham.

parameter for any two modes compared. The greatest frequency of significant
differences is seen when mode M! is compared with the others.

Table 3. Analysis of variance on tho physiological data from experiments of load carrying in
seven modes

Source of
variation DP E 0 HH HI 1I1V MVH
Subjects 6 P 21092 1732 6442 7474 3576 9465
P NS NS 001 001 001 001
1\:lod05 6 P 4'5128 4342 6620 5-438 6920 10938
P 001 001 001 001 001 001
Error 36 Not significant
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

Table 4. Significance of inter-mode difference III the physiological parameters. (NS=not

significant)

E HR 1I1V
J\'lodo A lIlode B p p P
1111 l\l2 NS NS NS
1113 31 <00\ NS 25 005
1114 28 002 NS NS
lIl5 60 <001 NS 48 <O{j]
1116 40 <001 NS 31 <ooi
]\\7 30 002 41 <001 36 <001

]\\2 1113 NS NS NS
]\\4 NS 89 <001 NS
1115 22 005 NS 34 <001
l\l6 NS NS 24 005
1\17 22 005 56 <OOl 35 <001

1II3 1\14 NS 22 005 NS

M5 4t) <001 NS 36 <001
1116 :15 <001 NS 28 002
1\17 25 005 39 <001 33 <001

1\14 lIl5 NS 25 005 NS

1116 NS :JO 002 24 005
1\17 NS 56 <001 28 002

M5 ]\\6 NS NS NS
1\17 NS 39 <001 22 005

]\\6 1117 NS 36 <001 28 002

4. Discussion
The analysis of variance, Table 3, establishes that there was a clear physio-
logical difference between the different modes of carrying the same load, which
is not dictated by chance. These variations in the values of the observed
parameters resulting from a change in the mode of carrying are all highly
significant, that is at the 1 per cent level. Mode of carrying affects all the
stress-strain parameters, whereas individual variations influence only the
cardio-pulmonary parameters. Oxygen consumption and energy expenditure
do not significantly vary among the subjects for the work level in these experi-
ments; therefore, the differences in the value of these parameters are due to
modes of carrying alone.
 Seven Modes of Carrying Loads on the Horizontal Plane 275

On the basis of the ascending oxygen consumption and cnergy expenditure,

therefore, the modes could be arranged as follows:
Ml: Double Pack; M2: Head; M3: Rucksack; M4: Sherpa; M5: Rice bag;
:M.5: Yoke; and M7: Hands.
Taking the energy expenditure for the double pack Ml mode as 100, the energy
expenditure for the other modes are:
M1=lOO; M2=103'3; M3=1091; M4=114'7; M5=1228; M5=1288;
and M7 = 1441.
Subscripts l to 7 were given after completion of the analysis.
The other parameters have also similar increases, barring one or two excep-
tions. The heart rate increment HI is the parameter which is least satisfactory
in this respect of a gradual and progressive increase from mode MI to M7.
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

These discrepancies do not affect the major inferences to any great extent and
are attributable to the fact noted above that individual variations also playa
significant part in influencing the oardio-pulminary parameters.
Load carrying, per se, is a strenuous muscular task and as such any economy
in the energy demand of this task would contribute to better performance of
the job and lesser fatigue. It is obvious that this work involves some measure
of static work due to muscle flexion. The differences in the isometric tension
required for the different modes of carrying could be one of the major causes for
the observed variation in the values of the physiological parameters.
The inter-mode comparison, Table 4, reveals that the most significant and
largest differences in the physiological values result when modes lIn (Double
Pack) and M7 (Hands) are compared. Oxygen consumption and energy
demand are always significantly less for mode M I relative to the other modes
employing the shoulder and back museles, namely Rucksack (M3), Sherpa
(M4), Rice Bag (M5) and Yoke (M5). The value ofthe physiological parameters
for the Head mode (M2) is greatcr than for the Double Pack MI, but surprisingly
the differences are not significant. According to Malhotra and Scngupta (op.
cit.) the head mode ought to result in the lowest energy cost' since muscular
effort is not required to carry the load, but only to maintain posture and
locomotion'. In this case the load is primarily supported. by the skeletal
system. It is also relevant that the subjects were generally familiar with
carrying loads on their head (M2) and may already have had some previous train-
ing whereas Double Pack (MI) was a totally new mode to all. This might also
account for the absence of significp.nt differences bctween these two modes.
Previously reported data on load carrying from Indian researchers are
comparable to the present results only to a limited extent. The observa-
tions on school-children carrying bags weighing only IO to 12 per cent of their
weight may not be strictly extrapolated to adults loaded with about 50 per cent
of body weight. Only two modes, employed by the other workers, ruck-sack
and hands, are common to the present study. Malhotra and Sengupta found the
rucksack method most efficient and the hands most unsuitable. The gross
oxygen consumption for hand carrying was 34 per cent more than for the
rucksack mode. These workers have computed the percentages alter deducting
the oxygen consumption for marching without load from the values for the
two modes. The percentage increase for the MI and 1\'1.7 modes is also of the
same order in the present experiment, being 441 per cent.
 276 s. R. Daua and N. L. Ramanathan

Das and Saha (op. cit.) have used only three modes, viz. Head (M2), Rucksack
(M8) and Sherpa (M4). They did not obtain any significant difference in
oxygen consumption and energy expenditure between the modes for carrying
27 kg at 822 km/hr on the level, although the Head method was not
equally advantageous, as the other two for gradients of 10 and 20 per cent
on the treadmill. The presents result also do not show any significant difference
in energy cost between these modes (Table 4) in spite of a higher speed of
walking. Datta and Ramanathan (1967) found that in performing step test
while carrying load in three different ways, viz. pack, head and hands, pack
carrying had the least energy expenditure. Bedale (op. cit.) found the shoulder
yoke across the shoulder most suitable for carrying loads, but then the yoke
worn by her is quite different from the type used in India and employed in the
present study.
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

The present results are, therefore, eonsistent with the previous findings in so
far as limitations permit a comparison.
The relative advantages and disadvantages of the seven modes studied may,
therefore, be summarized as follows .
.M] Double Pack. This mode is the most economical in energy cost and the
least stressful on the cardio-respiratory system of the seven modes employed.
It involves a large group of muscles and area of support, leaves the hands free,
ensures maintenance of balance and keeps the load nearer the centre of gravity.
As against these desirable qualities, the mode has the disadvantages that it
requires the load to be divided more or less equally in a special harness and that
the load cannot be fitted and removed with ease .. It is therefore, less attractive
for jobs involving repeated load transport over short distances, unless a harness
permitting quick replacement or unloading is designed.
lf2 Head. This is, by choice, the most prevalent mode and it is next only
to M L in physiological economy. The long thin muscles of the neck are,
however, in contraction and the stress is borne by the vertebral column and legs.
Soule and Goldman (19(;9) observe that' the limiting factor in carrying heavy
loads on the head does not appear to be in the energy cost but rather the
mechanical load tolerated by the musculature'. This mode requires training
in balancing the load on the head and is unsuitable for uneven terrain. Although
one arm may be freed, movement of the body as a whole is restricted. Never-
theless, it is very suitable for repeated short-distance carrying and for unwieldy
packages.
M8 Rucksack. The main advantage is that the arms are free. Shoulders
are constantly pulled back and the body is stooped. The straps of the pack
cut into the muscles. It is also not suitable for repeated short-distance carrying
and the magnitude of the load is limited by the physical dimensions of the pack.
M4 Sherpa. This mode requires practice. The idea of the strap round the
forehead is to free the arm for holding a stick while climbing hills. The body
is bent forward, but then, that is a normal and neeessary posture for climbing,
since the centre of gravity is both lowered and brought forward. It does not
offer any special advantage over the rucksack mode (Das and Saha op. cit.).
M5 Rice Bag. This is used by coolies for moving heavy loads weighing as
much as 60-100 kg, while loading or stacking grain and similar materials in
vehicles or godowns. The body is well stooped forward and the spinal column and
the adjoining muscles bear the brunt of the burden. It is a rather unsafe mode.
 Seven Modes ofOarrying Loads on the Horizontal Plane 277

M 6 Yoke. The bamboo yoke described here, which is used by villagers, is

rather uncomfortable to use without practice, for the load swings freely and is
likely to upset the balance. The neck and body is bent unnaturally to one
side and forward.
M7 Hands. By any yardstick this mode is the most inefficient in that
greater energy expenditure is required, greater strain and fatigue results.
Hand carriage is favoured by none of the investigators. Lind and McNicol
(1968) observed that load exceeding 10 kg produced fatigue response when
carried by hands. If the load is carried in one hand only, the situation becomes
even worse.
5. Conclusion
Thc Double Pack method is the most efficient for carrying loads and should
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

be resorted to wherever it can be practised. The energy cost is minimum, the

cardiac stress is least, postural balance is adequate and both hands are free.
Carrying on the head and in a rucksack follow as the next suitable modes.
For short distance repeat carriage, the head modality offers some advantages.
Carrying by hands is ergonomically most inadvisable. Other modes are
intermediate, and are useful in special cases, the Sherpa mode for climbing,
the Rice Bag mode for stacking heavy sacks and yoke for transporting some
types of produce to market.

Tho authors arc very grateful to the subjects for their unstmted co-operation and to Dr. 1\'1. N.
Rno, Director, All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health for encouragement and support,
and Dr. H. B. Chatterjee for valuable discussions. Technical assistance rendered by Sarvashri
B. N. Hoy, L. N. l\lullick, A. Chatterjee and R. C. Dutta during this experimental study is
acknowledged.

On a precede it, l'ctude comparative de sept modes de transport d'uuo charge ident.ique sur
sol pln.t; cctte recherche a porte sur sept sujcts volontnires ct en bonne sante. La comparaison
a porte sur les modes suivants: port sur In. tete, rucksack, sac dur- lo dos, deux sacs relies par uno
oourroio de part et d'uutre del 'epaulo, mode Sherpa, balanoier, deux valises portecs it la main.
Los aujote ont tra.nspor-te In charge de 30 kg it Ia vitcsso de .:; kmjheurc. landis qu'on mosurait lc
debit vont.iletoiro, In. consommebion cl'oxygene et al frequcncc cordiequc pendant In. phase de
steady-stato ot les f) premieres minutes de in. recuperation. L'analyso de variance effect.uec sur
los donnees a montre des differences significatives (p <00 I) entre lcs valeurs des parametres
physiologiques conaideres (cout, encrgetique, frequcnce ccrdtaque, debit ventilatoire) et lioos au
modo de transport de le charge. Du point de vue orgonomique, los deux sacs partes de part et
d'nutrc de I'cpaule apparaissent comme lc mode le plus economique su ivis de pres par le port sur
In tete. La transport n. Ia main apparait comme lc mode Ic plus coutcux , et nux aut.res modes
do transport correspondent des charges physiologiques intermediaries. Les avant-ages et
inconverricnte de cos diffcronts modes de transport sont discutces.

Das Tregen del' gloichen Last in del' Ebene auf aiebon verschiedene Arten wurde an aieben
norrnalem, gesundcn Personen vorgliohon. Die Tragartcn wnren: I. auf dom Kopf; 2. im Rucksack;
3. im Doppclpack (Sack hnugt, tiber die Schulter. halbe Last VOl', halbc hinter dern Trttgcr}:
4. Reiaeeck (Sack auf dem Rucken mit jcder Hand tiber die ont.sprechcndc Schulter gehalten);
5. Sherpa (wie 4., abel' Sack mit Stirnband vom kopf gehalten); 6. Joch (Bambusete.nge auf cincr
Schulter mit hal her Last an jedem Stangenende; 7. halbe Last in jeder harabhungenden Hand).
Die Personon trugcn 30 kg und gingen mit eincr Geschwindigkeit von 5 km/Sunde. Das Atem-
rnirruterrvolumcn, del' Suuerstoffvcrbrauch und die Pulsfrequenz wurdo wdhrond des steady state
und wdhrcnd der ersten 5 Erholungsminuten nach Arbeitscnde gcmceecn. Eine Varianzanalyso
der Daten ergab einen signifikanten Unterschied (p = <0,01) dol' Wert.e del' physiologischen
Parameter des Energicverbrauchs, del' Pulsfrequenz und der Lungenventilation durch die
vernnderte Trageweise. Die Doppelpuck-Mebhode war ergonomisch die beste, Tragen auf
dem Kopf nahezu glaioh gut. Tragen in den Hdnden war die schlechtesto Methode. Die
andcren Trugoarton lagon in ihrer physiologischen Okonomie dazwischen. Die Vorteile und
Nachteile del' verachiedenen Tragearton werden diskutiert.
 278 Seven Modes of Carrying Loads on the Horizontal Plane

References
BEDAI..E, 1\1., 1924, Comparison of the energy expenditure of a woman carrying loads in eight
different positions. Lndustriol Fatigue Research Board No. 29, Medical Research Council,
London.
CONSOLAZIO, C. F"I JOHNSON, R. E., and PECORA, L. J., 1963, PhyBioloyical Jt.feasurement8 oj
Metabolic Functions in Man (Now York: MCGRAW-HILL).
DAS, S. K., and SARA, H., 1964, Climbing efficiency with different modes of load carriage. Indian
Journal of Medical Research, 54, 866-87l.
DATTA, S. R., and RAMANATHAN, N. L., 1967, A preliminary investigation of the ergonomics of
load carrying. Indian Journal of Physiology and Allied Science, 21, 134-142.
DUHNIN,.J. V. G. A., and PASSMORE, R., 1967, Energy, lVork and Leisure (London: HEINEMANN).
LIND,.A. R., and :MCNICOL, G. W., 1968, Cardiovascular responses to holding and carrying weights
by hands and shoulder harness. Journal of Applied Physiology, 25, 261-267.
MAJ.HOTRA, M. S., and SENGUPTA, J., 196.5, Carrying of schoolbags by children. Journal oj
Al)]!lier) Physiology, 8, 55-60.
HAO, 1\1. N., 1952, Comfort range in tropical Calcutta. Indian Journal oj Medical Research, 40,
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 16:43 04 February 2015

45-52.
SOULE, R. G., and GOLDMAN, R. F., 1969, Energy cost of loads carried on the head, hands or feet.
Journal of Applied Physiology, 27, 687-690.