Short Paper

Proc. of Int. Conf. on Advances in Civil Engineering 2012

Geopolymer Paver Blocks

Aaron Darius Vaz1, Donal Nixon DSouza2, Noothan Kaliveer2, Satish K.T2 and Amar S.M2
1
M.S.Ramaiah Institute of Technology/Student of Civil Engineering Department, Bangalore, India
Email: aarondariusvaz@yahoo.com
2
M.S.Ramaiah Institute of Technology/Student of Civil Engineering Department, Bangalore, India
Email: donalnixon@gmail.com
Email: dabu.kaliveer@gmail.com
Email: satishanaji@gmail.com
Email: amarsm90@gmail.com

AbstractGreen paver blocks is an ecofriendly method of
making concrete paver block using geopolymer concrete. Paver
blocks have been in use since thousands of years. Due to
rapid infrastructure development cement concrete is the
second most consumed commodity on earth today. Portland
cement generates large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO 2)
which is responsible for global warming since it is a
greenhouse gas. Environmental responsibility has initiated
research in sustainability and ecofriendly methods for
infrastructure development. The other great problem today
is disposal of solid waste. Coal fired thermal power plants
generate solid waste in the form of fly ash and pond ash.
Disposal of these wastes is a major engineering challenge
today with more stringent environmental laws. Today research
has combined sustainability with waste management leading
to a wonderful product called geopolymer concrete. This paper
reports on the use of geopolymer concrete in precast concrete
paver blocks and compares the performance with the
commercial available OPC paver blocks of the same mix
proportions. The mix design with a target strength of 47 MPa
was developed to create paver blocks suitable for highways.
The tests were done and the results tabulated.
Index Termsgreen paver blocks, Portland cement concrete,
geopolymer concrete, precast concrete paver blocks.
I. INTRODUCTION
Green paver blocks have got nothing to do with color,
but is an ecofriendly method of making concrete paver block.
Paver blocks made of different materials have been in use
since thousands of years. The Romans built roads with stone
based paver blocks which are still intact today. However
greater revolution in paver blocks took place in Holland in
1940s with the making of cement concrete paver blocks. After
World War II, most of Europe was in ruin and reconstruction
began. Cement concrete paver blocks became an ideal choice
because of its easy and faster laying, better looks and finish.
Today precast concrete paver blocks are the most preferred
choice for paving of footpaths, parking lots, bus stops,
industries, etc. More advanced interlocking designs have
increased the public appeal due to its aesthetic beauty.
Due to rapid infrastructure development taking place,
today Portland cement concrete is the second most consumed
commodity on earth. Manufacture of ordinary Portland
cement generates large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2)
which is then released into the atmosphere. About 900kg of
CO2 is released for every ton of OPC manufactured [1]. CO2 is
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a major greenhouse gas which is responsible for global
warming. As of 2010 the world production of OPC was 3300
million tons accounting for 5% of global man-made carbon
emissions [2] [3]. Today there is a great environmental
responsibility, which has initiated research in sustainability
and eco-friendly methods for infrastructure development. The
other great problem today is disposal of solid waste. Coal
fired thermal power plants generate solid waste in the form of
fly ash and pond ash. Disposal of these wastes is a major
engineering challenge with more stringent environmental
laws. Today research has combined sustainability with waste
management leading to a wonderful product called
Geopolymer concrete.
In 1978, a French scientist Joseph Davidovits developed
a binder called Geopolymer by polymerization of source
materials rich in silicon and aluminium with alkaline solutions
[4]. Most commonly used source materials are fly ash and
blast furnace slag. Geopolymer made of waste materials like
fly ash have smaller carbon footprint compared to OPC [5].
According to Davidovits Geopolymer technology was used
by Egyptians to build pyramids [6]. Modern day geopolymers
are mostly made from low calcium fly ash activated by alkaline
solutions (NaOH or KOH) to liberate Si and Al with an
additional source of silica (usually sodium silicate or
potassium silicate). These are thermally activated along with
aggregates to obtain geopolymer concrete. Water is not
involved in chemical reaction of geopolymer concrete and is
expelled during curing where as in ordinary Portland cement
concrete, water is necessary for hydration to occur.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Fly ash can be converted to a binding material by
activating with alkaline solution [7]. It is observed that higher
concentration of sodium hydroxide and high ratio of sodium
silicate to sodium hydroxide liquid by mass results in higher
compressive strength [8]. The strength of the geopolymer
concrete decreases with the increase in ratio of water to
geopolymer solids by mass [9]. Increase in curing temperature
increases the compressive strength. It was found that 24
hours of steam curing at 60 to 80C provided enough energy
to aid geopolymerization [10]. Geopolymer concrete has
excellent resistance to chemical attack and is an ideal option
for use in aggressive environments [11].
Although the term geopolymer is generically used to
describe the amorphous to crystalline reaction products from
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synthesis of alkali aluminosilicates upon reaction with alkali
hydroxide/alkali silicate solution, geopolymeric gels and
composites are also commonly referred to as low-temperature
aluminosilicate glass [12], alkali-activated cement [13],
geocement [14], alkali-bonded ceramic [15], inorganic
polymer concrete [16], and hydroceramic [17]. Despite this
variety of nomenclature, these terms all describe materials
synthesized utilizing the same chemistry, which can be
described as a complex system of coupled alkali mediated
dissolution and precipitation reactions in an aqueous reaction
substrate.
Alkali-activation of blast-furnace slag has been used as
an alternative means of cement production for over 65 years
[18, 19], and slags are often used as a component of
geopolymeric systems.
Typical image illustrating the microstructures of
geopolymers synthesized from metakaolin and Class F fly
ash is presented in fig 1. and the Process showing
geopolymers synthesized from metakaolin and class F ash in
fig 2.
Fig 1. Microstructures of geopolymers synthesized from
metakaolin and class F ash
Fig 2. Process showing geopolymers synthesized from metakaolin
and class F ash
This geosynthesis involves the chemical reaction of
geopolymeric precursors such as aluminosilicate oxides with
alkali polysilicates yielding polymeric Si-O-Al bonds as
shown in (1).
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Proc. of Int. Conf. on Advances in Civil Engineering 2012
(1)
Gourley and Johnson have developed geopolymer precast
concrete products for commercial scale. These include sewer
pipes, railway sleepers and wall panels [20]. Precast reinforced
geopolymer concrete culverts developed showed promising
results on a commercial scale [21]. Geopolymer concrete can
be effectively used as a substitute for OPC in precast concrete
products. Geopolymer concrete is a feasible option for waste
stabilization [22]. Several studies have been conducted across
the world for effective use of geopolymer in various
construction and infrastructure elements; this paper reports
on the use of geopolymer concrete in precast concrete paver
blocks and compares the performance with the commercial
available OPC paver blocks of the same mix proportions.
The superior properties of geopolymer concrete, based
on Prof. B.V. Rangan and Hardijito, are
a. Sets at room temperature
b. Nontoxic, bleed free
c. Long working life before stiffening
d. Impermeable
e. Higher resistance to heat and resist all inorganic solvents
f. Higher compressive strength
Compressive strength of geopolymer is very high
compared to the ordinary Portland cement concrete.
Geopolymer has also showed very high early strength hence
it is used in the precast industries. Geopolymer Concrete
showed good workability as of the Portland cement concrete.
Despite the many advantages the limitations are as
follows:
a. Bringing the base material fly ash to the required location
b. High cost for the alkaline solution
c. Safety risk associated with the high alkalinity of the
activating solution
d. Practical difficulties in applying steam curing/ high
temperature curing process. [23]
Considerable research is ongoing to develop geopolymer
systems that address these technical hurdles.
III. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The experimental program consisted of the following
steps:
Preliminary investigation of materials used.
Development of mixed design for OPC paver blocks
based on IS 10262:2009 [25] confirming to the
standards of IS 15658:2006 [24] and hence to arrive
at the base proportion.
Development of GPC paver blocks of the above base
proportions with different strengths of activators
and steam curing at 60C for 24 hours
Studies on mechanical and physical properties on
paver blocks on 28th day as per IS 15658:2006 [24]
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and ASTM C936 [26] (for durable studies) m3. They were free from deleterious matter confirming to IS
The base proportion was 1:1.2:2 with a water to 383-1970 [28].
cement ratio of 0.35 using codal provisions. In
D. Water
geopolymer paver blocks, cement was replaced by
fly ash and water is replaced by activator alkaline Tap water was used for mixing and curing. It was free
solutions. from deleterious materials confirming to IS 456-2006 [29] and
IS 3025-1964 [30] specifications.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE MIXES E. Fly ash
Based on base proportion of OPC mix as show in table I, Fly ash for the experiment was obtained from Raichur
the geopolymer mix of fly ash, fine aggregate and course Thermal power station, Raichur, Karnataka. The lime reactivity
aggregate was taken. Ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash was as per IS 1727-1967 [32] is 7.1 MPa. The physical properties
taken as 0.35. Ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide are as below:
was taken as 2.5. The concentration of sodium hydroxide
Specific gravity 2.35
was varied from 8M to 12M. For good casting slump values
Fineness modulus 9.8%
need to be between 0 to 10cm or 100mm. Super plasticizer
(Passing 45)
may be added to get the required workability.
Chemical composition of fly ash
TABLE I. BASE PROPORTIONS FOR GEOPOLYMERMIX
SiO2 54.6%
Al2O3 28.8%
Fe2O3 7.9%
CaO 1.9%
L.O.I 2%
As per IS 3812-1981 [31], fly ash is grade 1 with low calcium
F. Sodium Hydroxide
3
GPC 3 had 2.65 kg/m of super plasticizer. Commercially available sodium hydroxide flakes with a
purity of 98% were used.
V. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
G. Sodium Silicate
A. Cement Commercially available sodium silicate solution supplied
Birla 53 grade Portland cement, conforming to IS to the industries was used.
12269:1987 [27]. The properties are as shown in table II.
Chemical properties are as below:
TABLE II. PROPERTIES OF 53GRADE PORTLAND C EMENT SiO2 to Na2O ratio by mass 2 (approx.)
Na2O 15.3%
SiO2 30%
Water 53.2%
Assay min 97%
Super plasticizer Glenium B233 was used

VI. OPC PAVER BLOCKS MIX DESIGN

B.Fine aggregates (sand)
Naturally locally available river sand was used as fine
aggregate. Material passing 4.75mm sieve and retained on 75
m sieve was used. The fineness modulus was 3.40 and
specific gravity was 2.67. Water absorption was 1.68 %
C. Coarse aggregate (stone chips)
Crushed stone from granite was used as course aggregate.
Material passing 10mm sieve and retained on 4.75mm were
used. Specific gravity was 2.7 with bulk density of 1980 kg/
The mix design with a target strength of 47 MPa was
developed to create paver blocks suitable for highways. The
proportioning was done based on IS 10262:2009 [25]. The mix
proportions of OPC paver blocks was taken as base
proportion. 530 kg cement, 636 kg fine aggregate and 1060 kg
of coarse aggregate for 1m3 of concrete were mixed with 0.35
water to cement ratio.
VII. CASTING OF PAVER BLOCKS
Both OPC and GPC paver blocks were mixed in a concrete
mixer. In GPC the mixing is done as specified by B.V. Rangan
[9]. The fly ash and aggregates were dry mixed for two minutes
followed by addition of activator solutions i.e. sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate mixed 24 hours prior. It was

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wet mixed for another 4 minutes, if plasticizer was required it

should be added along with the alkaline solution.
The paver blocks were casted using a hydraulic
automated paving block machine with pressing force of
70tonnes. I section specimen mould of 80mm thickness was
used as shown in fig 3.
The OPC paver blocks were cured in water for 28 days
and GPC paver blocks were steam cured at 60C for 24 hours.

Fig 4. Compressive strength of paver blocks versus age

IS 15658:2006 [24] specifies minimum compressive
strength of 47.2 N/mm2 of 80 mm thick heavy traffic paving
blocks.
GPC paver blocks have high compressive strength
compared to OPC. They also have high early strength gain.
Fig 3. I section GPC paver block
All paver blocks satisfied the compressive strength
VIII. TESTING AND RESULTS requirement for heavy traffic paving. Increasing the strength
of NaOH increased the compressive strength of paver blocks.
A.Mechanical and physical properties
C. Flexural Strength
The Mechanical and Physical properties of paving blocks
casted are as given in the table III. Flexural strength is express in term of flexural stress or in
form of breaking load. GPC was found to have better flexural
TABLE III. MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CASTED PAVER B LOCKS strength compared to OPC. IS 15658:2006 [24] specifies a
breaking load of 7 kN. All blocks satisfied the specification
for heavy traffic paving.
D. Split Tensile Strength
Split tensile strength was found in accordance to IS
15658:2006 [24]. GPC paver blocks were found to have high
split tensile strength compared to OPC. As per IS 15658:2006
[24] there are no acceptance limits. As per Turkish standards
TS- 2824 [33], individual splitting tensile strength should be
greater than 2.8 MPa. All blocks satisfied the specifications.
E. Abrasion
Abrasion test for paving was done in accordance to IS
15658:2006 [24]. GPC paver blocks were found to have superior
abrasion resistance. As per IS 15658:2006 [24] Annex E
B. Compressive Strength abrasion value should be less than 2 mm for 80 mm block and
3 mm for 60 mm blocks. OPC paver blocks have lower abrasion
Compressive strength of paver blocks were determined resistance than specified by the standards.
at 1 day, 3 days, 7 days, and 28 days in accordance to IS
15658:2006 [24] are as shown in table IV and the compressive F. Water absorption
strength versus age as shown in fig 4. As per IS 15658:2006 [24], 24 hour water absorption should
TABLE IV. C OMPRESSIVE STRENGTH O F PAVER B LOCKS be less than 7% for individual blocks. GPC paver blocks had
very less water absorption. All blocks met the specifications.
G. Weight Loss in Acid Solution
The samples were immersed in 10% H2SO4 solution for 30
days. The weight loss in OPC was found higher than GPC
paver blocks. Weight loss increased with increase in
concentration of NaOH in GPC. GPC was found to possess
excellent sulphate resistance properties making it ideal for
aggressive marine environment.
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H. Density
The key for strong paver blocks is the density, high dense
paver blocks can resist abrasion better and have better
resistance to freezing and thawing. GPC paver blocks were
found to have higher density than OPC paver blocks. Increase
of NaOH concentration increased the density of paver block.
I. Slump
As per IS 15658:2006 [24] concrete paving blocks should
be a stiff mix with zero slump. However for practical
applications concrete with slump between 10 to 50 mm is
required.
Increasing the concentration of NaOH solution reduces
the slump. If the slump reduces too much super plasticizers
may be added to reduce water demand and increase
workability of concrete. GPC 3 mix was found to have zero
slump and was too stiff. 0.5% of super plasticizers was added
to increase the workability.
J. Weight Loss in Alkali Solution
The samples were immersed in 4% NaOH solution for 30
days. Weight loss was found to be very less in GPC paver
blocks compared to OPC paver blocks. This makes GPC paver
blocks more suitable for aggressive soil environments with
high alkali.
K. Freezing and Thawing
This test was done as per ASTM C 67 method. Pavers
were placed in a tray with 13 mm deep water. The unit was
subjected to 50 freezing and thawing cycles with one cycle
consisting of 20 hours of freezing at -9C and 4 hours of
thawing at 24+5.5C. Weight loss after 50 cycle was
determined. As per ASTM C 67 the loss in weight should not
be greater than 1%. OPC paver blocks have poor resistance
to thawing and freezing and do not meet ASTM C standards.
GPC paver blocks were found to have superior resistance to
freezing and thawing and thus an ideal option for paving of
roads in the cold climate regions.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental study conducted geopolymer
concrete can be effectively used for manufacture of
precast concrete paver blocks.
GPC paver block have high compressive strength for the
same mix proportion and high strength to gain. This can
save lot of curing time and space at manufacturing units.
GPC paver blocks have superior resistance to chemical
attack making them suitable for aggressive soils.
GPC paver blocks outperform OPC paver blocks under
freezing and thawing conditions. This makes them
suitable for arctic environments where OPC based
products deteriorate rapidly.
Geopolymers made out of waste materials like fly ash not
only have smaller footprints but help reduce the footprint
of other industries namely, coal fired power plants.
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