Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Vol; 1 , Issue; 01, pp. 1-7, December, 2016, ISSN 2548-0960, Turkey,
DOI: Your DOI number
ABSTRACT: Cultural heritages due to have different natural characteristics, have different sizes, and heir complicated
structure should be measured and requires a more sophisticated measurement tools and techniques to documentation. One
of them aerial photos taken by UAV pictures to use in architectural photogrammetry.In this study, Photogrammetric
study was conducted in the ancient church next to the pothole. The study was completed with photographs taken from the
air with UAV and close range photogrammetry. The images obtained from both methods adjusted in photogrammetric
software and obtained a three-dimensional model of the church. Photography by UAV has proved to be a technical
supporters of close range photogrammetry. Also coordinates of the reference points on the images obtained through
photogrammetric software and compared with terrain coordinates. Point position accuracy of points mxyz = 2.1 cm were
found. In order to protect the world heritage of cultural heritage IHA help to be sensitive enough to measure derived from
aerial photographs taken, can be used as a base to work from different professional disciplines, The UAV was concluded
in anywhere near the height can be used for photogrammetric.
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 1-7, December, 2016,
2.STUDY AREA
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 1-7, December, 2016,
Figure 6.Target
Figure 7. FatShark
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 1-7, December, 2016,
Figure 10. Measuring point operations, and UAV Figure 13. Flying with UAV
Ground Control Points overview
After the flight the UAV, the aerial photography work
After measurement and rectification process, UAV flight has been completed. Aerial photographs obtained is
madefinal checks have been completed (Figure 11-12- exemplified below (Figure 14-15).
13).
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 1-7, December, 2016,
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 1-7, December, 2016,
Araziden Elde edilen Resimlerden elde edilen Farklar 1.4 0.9 1.4 2.0 0.8 2.0
N.N Y X Z Y X Z Y(m) X(m) Z(m) 1.2 0.2 0.7 1.4 0.0 0.5
1 1022.155 1012.437 1002.439 1022.141 1012.428 1002.425 0.014 0.009 0.014 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.4 1.7
9 1023.585 1024.625 1003.644 1023.574 1024.614 1003.633 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.8 -0.9 -1.1 0.6 0.8 1.2
16 1005.794 1025.177 1001.568 1005.782 1025.175 1001.561 0.012 0.002 0.007 0.4 -1.3 1.5 0.2 1.7 2.2
28 1013.200 1003.236 1002.686 1013.190 1003.224 1002.673 0.010 0.012 0.013 -0.7 -0.6 1.2 0.5 0.4 1.4
29 1013.426 1011.582 1001.702 1013.418 1011.591 1001.713 0.008 -0.009 -0.011 0.7 1.1 -1.2 0.5 1.2 1.4
30 1011.285 1010.104 1001.703 1011.281 1010.117 1001.688 0.004 -0.013 0.015 0.9 1.3 1.3 0.8 1.7 1.7
33 1014.052 1024.595 1001.635 1014.059 1024.601 1001.623 -0.007 -0.006 0.012 2.0 1.3 1.2 4.0 1.7 1.4
312 1015.556 1018.242 1006.739 1015.546 1018.229 1006.727 0.010 0.013 0.012
mxyz = 2.1
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 1-7, December, 2016,
REFERENCES
7
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1 , Issue; 01, pp. 8-17, December, 2016, ISSN 2548-0960, Turkey,
DOI: Your DOI number
Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Geomatic Engineering, 80000 Osmaniye,
Turkey, (nurierdem@osmaniye.edu.tr);
Trakya University, Edirne Technical Sciences Vocational School, 22020 Edirne, Turkey, hince@trakya.edu.tr
ABSTRACT: There is a proverb, that emphasizes the importance of sunlight for human health, which is Where the sun
does not enter the physician enters. It is one of the most important elements to see the sunlight of the buildings for both
healthy life and energy saving. The positioning may be desirable to take the advantage of the morning and evening
sunlight of the buildings to be constructed in the housing area. Indeed, in 1985 constructed blocks of buildings in
Eskisehir Yenikent in public housing projects, designed and applicated according to the this principle. This study was
made with the purpose of the application and to be designed to see the sunlight during the day of the blocks will be the
method of discrete structures in accordance with the development plan will be built the individual or collective housing
project in the Eastern Mediterranean. At the beginning of this study, the azimuth angles were calculated in the sunrise and
sunset in four provinces forming region, baseline, throughout the year and annual sun graphics arranged, by
meteorological data help received from meteorological stations in the region. Information of sun tanning about the
province of Adana was found sufficient to represent the region according to the results of the evaluation. It describes the
inning information building design and application in accordance with the principles for provinces in the region at the end
of the study.
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 8-17, December, 2016,
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 8-17, December, 2016,
4. AZIMUTH
Latitude (angle) : It is the angle of the line which Zenith angle (z): It is the angle of direct sun rays with
combines the aboveground N point to the centrosphere, the normal of horizontal plane (Figure 2). At sunrise and
with the equatorial plane. It is marked with a (+) from sunset z=90o. Zenith angle is obtained from the below
the Equator to north and with a (-) to south (nce, 2005). formula (Aksoy, 1975).
Hour Angle (h) : It is the angle between the line which cos z= cos cos cos h + sin sin
combines the longitude of the taken into account point (2)
on earth with the centrosphere and the longitude
indicated by the sun rays. Hour angle is calculated from Solar elevation angle (y): It is the angle of the
sun noon, when the longitude of the sun and the horizontal rays of the sun. As seen on Figure 1, z+y
longitude of the point which is being taken into account =90o. Solar elevation angle is obtained from the formula
are the same. The difference is marked with a () for (nce, 2005): y=90 - z.
before the local noon, and with a (+) for after the local
noon. Every one hour time difference is considered as a Solar azimuth angle () : This angle represents the
hour angle of 15o (nce, 2005). deviation of sun rays rotation compared to the clockwise
direction of north (Figure 1). as follows (nce, 2005);
Declination Angle () : It is the angle of the sun rays to
the equatorial plane (Figure 1). This angle results from Before the local noon (in degrees) =180o -o, (or in
23o 27 degree which is between the rotational axis of grade =200 -G )
the world and the normal of the orbital plane. Absolute (3)
value in solstices is maximum (June 21 summer solstice
= +23O.45, December 22 winter solstice = -23o,45). After the local noon (in degrees) =180o +o, (or in
Declination angle is obtained from the equation of (nce, grade =200+G )
2005): (4)
= 23o,45 sin (360 n 284 ) (1)
365 cos= cos cos cosh sin cos (5)
Here, n is the number of days. cos y
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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The annual sunshine duration of Hatay and its Figure 4. Sunshine duration of Adana Province (URL-
surrounding areas is around 2600-3000 hours. The 3).
annual monthly average sunshine duration has been
determined as 7.15 hours/day (Figure 3). Annual 5.3. Mersin Province
temperature average is of 18C. Maximum temperature
recorded in August as 34.0, the minimum is recorded in According to the measurements, annual number of days
December and January as of 2,0C. Lowest temperature with overcast weather is 25,3. Majority of the year
ranges between -4,-10C below zero in high and inlands. passes sunny and with some clouds. Mersin is one of the
The annual average temperature of Hatay and its provinces with the highest sunshine duration in our
districts are determined as 16C and more. Average country (Figure 5). Average daily sunshine duration is
relative humidity is around 67%. Annual average of 7,4 hours and this can change up to 8-10 hours on
foggy days is between 1-50 days (Erarslan, 2012). summer days (URL-3).
Figure 3. Sunshine duration of Hatay Province (URL-3). Figure 5. Sunshine duration of Mersin Province (URL-
3).
5.2. Adana Province
The average annual temperature in Mersin is 18,7C.
The number of summer days which the temperature rises Being detected in the 50-years long observation, the
to or above 25C is 179. Adana has fair weather. The highest temperature is 40C (21.06.1942), and the
annual average of sunshine duration in 2015 is 7.13 lowest temperature is -6,6C (06.02.1950). Average
hours (Figure 4), and the annual average of daily temperature of summer days ranges between 25- 33C.
sunshine duration is determined as 345.92 cal/cm/min. In winter the average temperature ranges between 9
Days of the overcast weather is 49,2. Lowland and 15C. Some years, the temperature goes below 0C.
seaside daily average of sunshine duration is 8,60 hours. Snowfall can not be seen in coastal areas. However,
Sunshine duration is at its maximum at July, and it is at there are varying amounts of snow at the Toros
its minimum at December and January. Relative Mountains piedmonts in winter days. Annual average of
humidity average is around 65%. According to the 67 relative humidity is 69%, and ranges between 65% -
years of annual measurements by Regional Directorate 75% through months. As a result of 50-years long
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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observations, there were snow cover of 2 cm thickness 1- As declination angle of the sun for a perscrutation
only in 01.01.1950 in city centrum. In the last 10-year values of 1. and 15. days of every months and June 21
period, a total of 27 days with fog incident have occured. and December 22 are calculated with relation no (1).
The annual average number of foggy days is
approximately 2 days (URL-6). 2- Eastern Mediterranean Region is between 32o 56
36o 42 longitudes and 35o 52 38o 00 latitudes. 36o,
5.4. Osmaniye Province 37o and 38o considered as latitudes, on an examination
of an example (Table 11), it has been seen that the
Since there arent any researches on annual average acquired solar azimuth angles are in a close range,
solar radiation and the annual total amount of solar thereby the mean for the region used as =37o.
energy have been made in this province, State
Meteorology General Directorate and Osmaniye 3- When sun is on the longitude of the considered point,
Directorate of Meteorology Station were not able to in other words in local noon, hour angle is zero. The
grant us any information. Highest temperature in 2007 differences between the local noon and the sunrise and
was recorded in May 29 is 42.5 (C), the lowest sunset are calculated as hour angles at sunrise and sunset
temperature is recorded in December 31 is -4.0C. (nce, 2005). Information about hour angles of sunrise
Maximum daily temperature difference is not recorded. and sunset of Eastern Mediterranean Region provinces
Annual average of sunshine duration is 7.45 hours (Adana, Hatay, Osmaniye and Mersin) are obtained
(Figure 6). Only the measured ones of the from the calendars showing the relevant time. In Table
meteorological elements like numbers of snowy, snow 3, the time of sunrise, sunset and noon in Adana, Hatay,
covered, foggy, frosty days and the highest snow cover Osmaniye and Mersin at June 21 and the hour angles
thickness in 2013 have been examined (Dolgun et al., and solar azimuth angles calculated from them have
2013). been given.
Sunrise Sunset
Provinces
and Hour Azimuth Hour Azimuth
Latitudes Angle Angle Angle Angle
(h) () (h) ()
12.48- 20.11-
Adana
5.12=7.36 57 g,6796 12.48=7.23 335g,1951
37 o
-114. 00 110 o.75
12.47- 20.07-
Osmaniye
o 5.09=7.38 59 g,4092 12.47=7.20 335 g,9738
37
-114,50 110 o,00
Figure 6. Sunshine duration of Osmaniye Province 12.48- 20.05-
Hatay
(URL-3). o 5.12=7.36 58 g,5893 12.48=7.17 335 g,4981
36
-114.00 109 o,25
It is concluded that in Eastern Mediterranean Region 12.54- 20.13-
annual sunshine duration is at its maximum on summer Mersin
o 5.16=7.38 59 g,0572 12.54=7.19 336 g,0029
months, at its minimum on winter months, number of 36
-114.50 109 o,75
foggy days is rather high in November, December,
January and February, number of the days with overcast In the examination at Table 3, it has been seen that there
weather is in its minimum in July and August. is only a 5 or 6 minutes of difference with every other
four provinces sunrise, sunset and noon times, and it has
6. CALCULATING THE SOLAR AZIMUTH not effected the solar azimuth calculation results
ANGLE IN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN significantly. In this respect, to easily calculate the solar
REGION AND DETERMINING THE SUITABLE azimuth angle for Eastern Mediterranean Region; angles
LOCATION FOR THE HOUSINGS of sunset and sunrise of Adana -which is located in the
middle of the region- have been used and the obtained
6.1- Calculating the Solar Azimuth Angle in Eastern results have been given in Figure 7.
Mediterranean Region
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 8-17, December, 2016,
HC=YBM+DC (19)
L CB=CB=CB*cos(+50G) (20)
BB=CB*sin(+50G) (21)
BB=BM+BB (22)
HB=HC+CB (23)
YA=YH+HA*sin(HJ)+AA*sin[(HJ)+300G]
XA=XH+HA*cos(HJ)+AA*cos[(HJ)+300G]
YB=YH+HB*sin(HJ)+BB*sin[(HJ)+300G]
XB=XH+HB*cos(HJ)+BB*cos[(HJ)+300G]
YC=YH+HC*sin(HJ)+CC*sin[(HJ)+300G]
XC=XH+HC*cos(HJ)+CC*cos[(HJ)+300G]
YD=YH+HD*sin(HJ)+DD*sin[(HJ)+300G]
J XD =XH+HD*cos(HJ)+DD*cos[(HJ)+300G]
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HA=AA=5.00 m
HD=HA+AD=6.737 m
HCHD+DC=26.433 m
HB=HC-CC=24.696 m
YA=YH+5.00*sin(HJ)+14.848*sin61.1134=520785.888
m
XA=XH+5.00*cos(HJ)+14.848*cos61.1134=4103406.67
9m
YB=YH+24.696*sin(HJ)+18.322*sin61.1134=520800.03
J 0m
XB=XH+24.696*cos(HJ)+18.322*cos61.1134=4103392.
Figure 10. Osmaniye Municipality construction plan 537 m
example.
YC=YH+26.433*sin(HJ)+8.474*sin61.1134=520792.959
Since the terminal points (H, J) of south-west side of the m
building block are not apparent, frontal lines of the XC=XH+26.433*cos(HJ)+8.474*cos61.1134=4103385.4
indicated building block has been made by crossing the 66 m
lines and quantitative results of the coordinates have
been given in Table 5. YD=YH+6.737*sin(HJ)+5.000*sin61.1134=520778.817
m
Point Y X XD=XH+6.737*cos(HJ)+5.000*cos61.1134=4103399.60
H 520770.857 4103402.259 8m
J 520820.798 4103330.930
Table 5. Coordinates of H and J points. And for the calculation of corner parcel E, F and G
coordinates;
Availing from the coordinates of the H and J points,
with geodetic basic relations, azimuth angle (HJ) is HE=HC+3.50=29.933 m.
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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Table 6. Application elements calculated from the H north side of the building and the corner which is
station point, for the applique of A, B, C, D, E, F, G located to its right side corner point should be
points with polar method. 150G, and the azimuth angle of the line that
connects the top corner to its left side corner point
Horizont Azimut Horizont should be 250G. The building can be applicated
D.N B.N
Y X al h al after the calculation of the applique elements that
. .
Distance Angle Angle belongs to the building corner points has been
H done using rectangular coordinate method or polar
161.113 coordinate method considering the garden
J 0.0000 distances of the building blocks, frontage length
4
A 15.667 81.7928 320.6794 and depth of the building.
120.478 6- If the corners of the building will be applicated
B 30.750 359.3653 using the polar method, necessary applique
7
141.363 elements should be gathered after their sketching
C 27.758 380.2504 on housings with computer, or after the calculation
8
120.466 of coordinates of the building corners.
D 8.390 359.3531 7- For the buildings that will be constructed in the
5
161.113 area, if the front of the development blocks
E 29.933 0.0000 planned as north-west or south-east, it will be
4
much more easier to applique the parcels and the
108.550
F 44.144 347.4367 corners of the buildings that will be constructed
1
on. Thereby the south side of the building can
G 32.446 61.1134 300.0000
benefit from the sunlight all year long much more
efficiently. It is suitable to locate active working
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
areas and living areas in south.
8- Because the solar energy is not taken into
The contribution of buildings being able to see the sun to
consideration, buildings facing to all directions
our countrys economy would be much higher than
started to emerge while we create our cities. This
annuity value of the land that the building in question be
is why while creating the new city blocks, new
found. In the study, it has been seen that the Eastern
systems should be designed to make an efficient
Mediterranean Region is located between the latitudes of
use of solar energy.
36o-38o, while it is not making major differences in solar
9- Annual air conditioning expenses can be lowered
azimuth angle calculations, calculations have been made
in new housing areas with this research in Eastern
with mean latitude value (37o). At the summer solstice
Mediterranean Region with its mean latitude of
of the year, the effect of the local noon and sunrise (and
37o and with a high solar energy potential. Also, it
sunset) time differences (thus hour angles) of Adana,
will provide a big economical gain, and the effects
Hatay, Osmaniye and Mersin provinces are not
of the combustion of typical fossil fuel gases and
important in the context of azimuth angle calculation,
other waste materials would be minimized.
thereby the calculations have been made with the hour
10- Humankinds biological clock is adjusted to the
angles of Adana for the region. Overall assessment of
sunlight. Inadequate natural lighting in an
the research results are summarized as follows:
environment of working and living can cause:
Drowsiness, laziness and depressive feelings. The
1- To be focused on the sun should not be considered
solution is to direct the buildings to the sun while
only as an energy based requirement. Because the
constructing them.
sun is not only an energy source, it is the source of
the life itself, unlike other energy sources.
REFERENCES
2- To make the housings in Eastern Mediterranean
Region benefit from the solar energy
Aknctrk, N., 1999a. Gne Inmlarnn Yapdaki
preeminently; the values of solar azimuth angle
Yararl Etkilerinin ncelenmesi, YT, Yap Fizii
should be at its maximum at sunrise, and its
Fiziksel evre Denetimi Kongresi, 18-19 Kasm,
minimum at sunset.
stanbul.
3- The researches about the sunshine duration in
Aknctrk, N., 1999b. Konutlarda Is Kaybnn
Eastern Mediterranean Region have showed us
Yaltmla Azaltlmasnn Enerji Tketimindeki
that the annual sunshine duration is at its
Olumlu Etkilerinin ncelenmesi, Enerji ve Tabii
maximum when it is summer, and at its minimum
Kaynaklar Bakanl, 17. Enerji Haftas
when is winter. And the number of sunny days in a
Etkinlikleri, Enerji Sempozyumu Kitab, YT, 9-
year is approximately 90%.
17 Ocak, stanbul.
4- The hour angle in solar azimuth angle calculation
Aksoy, A., 1975. Jeodezik Astronominin Temel Bilgileri
is zero at local noon time. Information about hour
(Kresel Astronomi), M. T. Basmevi, stanbul.
angles at sunrise and sunset are all obtained from
Deri, N., 1979. Gne Enerjisi Scak Su ile Istma
the calendars that indicates the time of noon and
Teknii, Sermet Matbaas, stanbul.
the time of the sunrise and sunset (nce, 2005).
Dolgun, A., ve dierleri, 2013, Osmaniye l evre
5- To make a building that will be constructed in
Durum Raporu, T.C. Osmaniye Valilii l evre
Eastern Mediterranean Region benefit from
ve Orman Mdrl, Osmaniye.
sunlight all year long, it is determined that the
azimuth angle of the line that connects the upper
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 8-17, December, 2016,
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1 , Issue; 01, pp. 18-23, December, 2016, ISSN 2548-0960, Turkey,
DOI: Your DOI number
ABSTRACT: Global geopotential models of spherical harmonic coefficients are used to determine the external
gravitational field of the Earth. These coefficients are derived from satellite orbit perturbations, terrestrial gravity
anomalies and altimeter data. Hundreds of thousands of coefficients and standard deviation values for these coefficients
are estimated from millions of observation. Measurement amount, homogenous distribution of the measurements of
global scale, different measurement types reflecting the different frequencies of the gravity signal and measuring-
assessment techniques affect the model accuracy directly. Starting from 1960s and lasts to the present day and also
gaining new acceleration with the satellite gravity field missions, every outcome of the studies related to the
determination of the global Geopotential model is experienced by a series of validation tests. Accuracy of the model can
either be determined from the estimated error degree variances concerning the coefficients (interior validation) or
comparison of geoid heights, gravity anomalies, gravity disturbances and components of vertical deflection calculated
from the model with terrestrial measurements directly (outer validation). In this paper, recent global geopotential models
are primarily explained. Global geopotential models are compared with GNSS/levelling data of the study area. The
objective of this comparison is to determine the best fit global geopotential model which will contribute to the study of
Turkish geoid determination.
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1 , Issue; 01, pp. 18-23, December, 2016,
approximation) with the following equation (Heiskanen Ellipsoidal heights at 87 points have been determined
and Moritz, 1967): using dual-frequency GNSS receivers and
antennas with respect to TNFGN (aligned to ITRF96)
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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EGM2008 geoid undulations are computed on a global In GGM evaluation, geoid heights based on GNSS-
spherical grid of resolution 0.5 x 0.5 by making a derived ellipsoidal heights and spirit levelled
synthesis from EGM2008 coefficients up to degree 359. orthometric heights at discrete points provide an
The GOCE geoid on the same grid are computed by estimated accuracy of the GGMs. The usual and
making a synthesis from the TIM R5 coefficients up to accepted practice is to adopt for a reference model that
degree 250. Two geoid grids are merged by least- GGM that is a best fit to the geoid height point estimates
squares adjustment. Finally, the GECO spherical determined from the GNSS/levelling. The evaluation of
harmonic coefficients are computed by making an GGMs focuses on the correspondent geoid height
analysis of the combined global geoid grid. The analysis differences between the GGMs and GNSS/levelling
is performed up to degree 359 (consistently with the 0.5 using the equation below:
x 0.5 resolution). From degree 360 to degree 2190 the N N GNSS / Lev N GGM
GECO coefficients are the same of EGM2008. The (3)
GECO coefficient errors are computed as a weighted where N is the geoid height residual, NGNSS/Lev is the
average of the coefficient errors of EGM2008 and the geoid height estimated from GNSS/levelling , and NGGM
TIM R5 solution (Gilardoni et al., 2016). is the geoid height estimated from GGMs. For the
statistical analysis of geoid height differences, minimum
The Combined Gravity Model GGM05C and maximum values of N are determined and the
GGM05C was estimated to spherical harmonic degree overall performance of GGMs is assessed through
and order 360 from a combination of GRACE and RMSE accuracy measure defined by:
GOCE gravity information (based on GGM05G) and
n
( N ) 2
surface gravity anomalies from DTU13. The 2 minute 1
resolution anomalies were used, assuming that they were RMSE (4)
n k 1
classical gravity anomalies (i.e., defined on the
ellipsoid). The first step was a low pass filter applied to where n is the number of the points used for the
the DTU13 global anomaly field. This was followed by accuracy verification and k refers to the residual
a spherical harmonic analysis of the gravity anomaly set sequence.
on the ellipsoid, where the coefficients were analytically
transformed to degree 540, but only the coefficients up 4. CASE STUDY
to degree 360 were used. Rather than reprocess the
surface gravity data, the full covariance from GGM03C For the evaluation process, the geoid heights based on
was adopted as apriori. The covariance was then GGMs are interpolated from the closest grid points using
modified so that, below degree 240, the terrestrial software obtained from International Centre for Global
information was severely downweighted in order to Earth Models (ICGEM) web page <http://icgem.gfz-
preserve the accuracy of the GRACE and GOCE gravity potsdam.de/ICGEM> using the Kriging interpolation
contribution. This artificial covariance was used to method and refer to the reference system World
combine the surface gravity information with GGM05G Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84).
to obtain the GGM05C solution (Ries et al., 2016).
The differences between GNSS/levelling based geoid
The Combined Gravity Model GOCO05C heights and GGM-based geoid heights may be affected
GOCO05C is a static global combined gravity field by datum inconsistencies. In order to minimize these
model up to degree and order 720 based on full normal offsets (i.e. bias and tilt) a 4-parameter transformation is
equation systems (more than 500000 parameters). It has used. The geoid heights obtained from GGMs are
been elaborated by the Gravity Observation compared with discrete geoid heights based on
Combination (GOCO) Group. GOCO05C is a GNSS/levelling data after fitting the tilt. The statistical
combination model based on the satellite-only gravity values of the height data sets that were used for GGM
field model GOCO05S and several gravity anomaly evaluation are given in Table 2.
datasets (Arctic, Australia, Canada, Europe, Oceans,
South America, USA), constituting a global 15'x15' data Std.
Height Min. Max. Mean
Dev.
grid. For the remaining land areas (Central America,
Asia, Africa, Antarctica) fill-in datasets (NIMA96, h 203.7893 1865.7583 1040.7602 308.9833
GOCO05S, RWI_TOIS2012) were used (Fecher et al., H 168.5663 1827.3193 1003.7240 308.8989
2016). NGNSS/Lev 32.1204 38.9270 37.0362 1.3207
NEGM2008 27.8353 40.1786 36.2804 2.1706
GGMs that are compared over the study area are listed NEIGEN6C4 27.8693 40.2083 36.2854 2.1619
in Table 1 with model characteristics. NGGM05C 27.8477 39.9013 36.2882 2.1506
NGOCO05C 27.9391 40.0077 36.2864 2.1600
Model Year Degree Data NGECO 27.9349 40.1837 36.2879 2.1605
EGM2008 2008 2190 S (GRACE), G, A Table 2. Statistics of height datasets over the study area
EIGEN-6C4 2014 2190 S (GOCE, GRACE, (units in m.)
LAGEOS), G, A
GECO 2015 2190 S (Goce), EGM2008 The graphical representations have been adopted for the
GGM05C 2016 360 S (GRACE, GOCE), G, A comparative evaluation of GGMs by producing a
GOCO05C 2016 720 S, G, A
residual map for each GGM (Fig. 4-8) that indicates the
Table 1. GGMs used for the evaluation occurrence and magnitude of geoid height differences.
(S: Satellite tracking, G: Gravity, A: Altimetry)
The residual maps are produced by the Surfer 13
software before fitting the tilt.
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1 , Issue; 01, pp. 18-23, December, 2016,
Gilardoni, M., Reguzzoni, M., Sampietro, D. (2016). Copyright International Journal of Engineering and
GECO: a global gravity model by locally combining Geosciences (IJEG). All rights reserved, including the
GOCE data and EGM2008. Studia Geophysica et making of copies unless permission is obtained from
Geodaetica, 60, 228-247. the copyright proprietors.
23
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1 , Issue; 01, pp. 24-33, December, 2016, ISSN 2548-0960, Turkey,
DOI: Your DOI number
ABSTRACT: Based on the Med-Atlas 20002 database data at Mediterranean Sea surface, analysis of spatial and
temporal variations of temperature and salinity, as well as, the search of its possible trends are the main goals of this work.
The used statistical techniques allowed us to obtain various climatological fields of temperature and salinity, on a period
of 45 years (1955-1999). Spatial and temporal analysis of those fields shows that the north-south gradient is weaker than
the east-west gradient. The strongest variability in both mean fields is sharper in downwelling areas than anywhere else,
showing the colder and less saline surface waters. Warmer and saltiest water surface are located in southeast of the
Levantine basin. The eastern Mediterranean Sea is generally more saline than the western basin. The temperature
seasonal cycle is more marked than the salinity seasonal cycle. The summer-winter thermal and saline fields are
completely contrasted, especially in the northern Adriatic Sea. The largest positive peak of inter-annual temperature
variability is encountered in 1994, the largest negative peak in 1992. Whereas those related to salinity observed in 1983
and in 1997 respectively. The decadal variations indicate a cooling of Mediterranean Sea surface in 1970s and a
northward warming since 1980s that accelerated in 1990s. The eastern Mediterranean Sea exhibits a higher warming rate
as compared to the western basin, but the average increase is about 0.2 C/decade. The Salinity rising corresponds to the
cooling periods and the decreasing is associated with the warming ones.
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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Here, we describe the main steps in our approach. changes heavily in the range of 13 to 27 C and increases from
As a first step, we adopted the 29 boxes defined by north to south and from west to east. While monthly salinity
MEDAR/MEDATLAS 2002. The choice of this zonation is changes more softly with values between 36 and 39 and
supported by the use of such areas in the quality control and increases eastwards, except for of Adriatic Sea surface.
regional parameterization of MEDATLAS data. These areas
represent the spatial grid with which one can filter the most Mean annual values of SST and SSS averaged spatially for the
details of ocean circulation characteristics and properties of the eighteen zones and corresponding limits are illustrated in figure
Mediterranean surface. We applied a variance-based analysis to 2. It shows that the mean surface temperature of Mediterranean
the temperature and salinity data from these 29 boxes. This waters ranges from 18 C (Z01: Western Alboran in the western
analysis helps to aggregate the dependant areas. The results of basin) to over 22.1 C (Z18: Levantine Basin in eastern basin).
this analysis allowed us to identify 18 independent zones (Fig. The warmest area is the Levantine Basin, with 22.1C. The
1). This grid is used for subsequent binning of the data and in coolest areas are the Gulf of Lions, the Ligurian Sea and
remaining processing and analysis. Data for each variable are northern Adriatic Sea, with a mean SST of 17.5 C (Fig. 2a).
then averaged monthly for all 18 zones for the period running
from January 1955 to December 1999. We note that before The surface salinity of the Mediterranean Sea softly increases
1955 and during 2000, the data are too scarce to be interpolated. from Gibraltar to Ligurian Sea (from about 37.4 in the western
Alboran to 38.5 in Ligurian Sea) with a decline in the Gulf of
Lions (about 37.2). From Sardinia Strait to northern Ionian Sea,
salinity shows a relative stability around 38.3. It strongly
decreases in the Adriatic Sea (about 36.8) and then rises to 39
and upwards in the eastern basin (Fig. 2b). Furthermore, figure
2 shows that these fields vary reasonably between the superior
and inferior regional limits.
Monthly climatologies spatially averaged over the whole Annual cycles of salinity show a minimum between two peaks
Mediterranean Sea surface show that the monthly temperature values, with salinities are subject to almost linear
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The annual SST anomalies chronology (Fig. 7a) shows that the
largest positive peak of inter-annual SST variability is
encountered in 1994, the largest negative peak in 1992.
Whereas those related to salinity are observed in 1983 for the
largest positive and in 1997 for the largest negative peak (Fig.
Figure 5. Spatial distribution of temperatures and its mean 7b).
standard deviations in Mediterranean Sea surface, averaged over The solid line (Fig. 7a) represents the 5-year running mean,
1955-1999 period. which highlights trends. It indicates a general cooling trend over
19631971 period and a general warming trend over 19721999
Concerning the salinity, Figure 6 shows that the continuous period. A more thorough examination of the time series
increase from Alboran Sea (37.2) to the southeast of Levantine reveals a very small SST cooling trend in the early nineties
basin (38.9) is the more remarkable characteristic, except that (1992-1993) and then a strong warming trend throughout the
the northern Adriatic Sea exhibits an averaged salinity of 36.5. rest of the record. Related to salinity (Fig. 7b), it shows a
The north-south gradient (0.3) is weaker than the west-east general rising trend in salinity over the whole 1963-1985 period
gradient (1.7). The relative increase shaped of an anticyclonic then a strong decreasing trend throughout the rest of the record.
cell (38) covers the southwestern Ligurian Sea and the The rising trend period is disconnected by a decreasing
northwest Tyrrhenian Sea. The less salty waters occupy the trend during the 1974-1979 period.
north Adriatic surface, with a net cyclonic cell (36.5). The
southern Aegean Sea surface maintains a salinity level
exceeding the 38, with a configuration relatively similar to that
of SST.
The less salty WMS surface waters are located in western
Alboran Sea and in the Gulf of Lions. This latter area also
exhibits the strongest variability. The most salty surface waters
and less variable occupy the southwest of Ligurian Sea. In this
basin, the north-south gradient is weaker than the west east one.
In CMS surface, the north-south salt gradient is stronger than
the west-east one. Saltiest surface waters occupy the Gulf of
Syrte. By cons, the less salty waters are located in the northern
Adriatic. The northern Adriatic holds also strongest variability.
The saltiest EMS surface waters and most stable are in the
southern Levantine basin. While, surface waters less salty and
strongest variables are located in the southern Aegean Sea, with
a maximum of 1.7. The north-south gradient is weaker than the
west-east one, exception for the northern Crete.
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29
Figure 8. Averaged SST (left panels) and SSS (right panels) in the Mediterranean Sea over the (a e) 1960s, (b f) 1970s, (c g)
1980s, and (d h) 1990s.
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International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
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In the Adriatic and the the abrupt decrease of both. This NAO variability
northwestern Mediterranean Sea, the surface salinity probably contributed to the change in the SST spatio-
contrast can be explained by the freshwater inputs from temporal variability pattern and it is associated with the
rivers (Rhone, Po) after the late spring merger of the change in the direction of the SST spatial increasing
reliefs snow (Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines). In the Aegean tendency in the Mediterranean Sea (i.e. from the
Sea, it can be explained by the water exchange between westward to the eastward direction).
Black Sea and Aegean Sea, also by the evaporation
increases in summer. The increase in surface salinity is The observed increase, since 1980s, in surface
in phase with the decrease in temperature during temperature is generally higher in northern than in
February that explains the downwelling of surface southern Mediterranean Sea, with a rapid warming since
waters denser in late winter. Thus, the seasonal the mid-1990s. Surface cooling along with the combined
differences in salinity and surface temperature clearly salt content increase of the Eastern Mediterranean
reflected the forcing that induces the vertically induced by increased net evaporation during this period
circulation in Mediterranean Sea. These findings are may gradually decrease stratification in the Aegean Sea
consistent with observations and modelling studies of resulting in larger deep-water formation rates favouring
the Mediterranean climate variability (Coll et al., 2010; the Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT). Those
Woodruff et al., 2008; Somot, 2005; Levitus et al., 2005, findings are consistent with recent observations (Russo
2009). et al., 2002) and the AtmosphereOcean Regional
Spatial distribution of both fields reveals a weaker north- Climate Models (Somot et al., 2008; Skliris et al., 2007).
south gradient than the east-west one and the strongest The strong negative anomaly salinity decrease observed
variability is sharper in downwelling areas than during 1996-1997 period, can probably reduce the
anywhere else. The external surface water masses input Aegean Dense Water Formation (DWF) efficiency and
mainly determines this spatial variability, also the spatial led to a long-term decay phase for the EMT. In general,
variability of air-sea heat fluxes and the upward vertical the temperature has fluctuated from cold conditions
transports of intermediate water due to turbulent mixing through the 1960s and 1970s to recent warming that
and/or upwelling processes (Mariotti, 2010). Our results commenced in the 1980s. These events are thought to be
highlight favourable areas for the existence of predominantly a consequence of climate change
convective processes in the Mediterranean Sea and the (Solomon et al., 2007; Hoegh-Guldberg & Bruno, 2010).
production of dense water masses with low temperature The long-term surface warming may have an impact on
and high salinity characteristics, and are consistent with the future thermohaline circulation of the Mediterranean
the existing knowledge and major experiments that led Sea. A significant increase of SST may diminish the
to the discovery of the sub-basin scale circulation and its dense water formation rates in the various
mesoscale features (Bergamasco & Malanotte-Rizzoli, deep/intermediate water formation sites of the basin and
2010). thus may slow down the thermohaline circulation.
The observed increasing warming of the Mediterranean Changes in the temperature and salinity of the
Sea surface can be related to the East Atlantic pattern outflowing Mediterranean water through the Gibraltar
index variability that seems to follow the global strait may influence the general circulation in the
warming trend, accelerated after the early 1990s. The North Atlantic, which is a major site of deep-water
SST yearly anomalies can be related to the Atlantic formation controlling the global thermohaline
Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) index yearly mean circulation.
variability. Our results are consistent with the study of
Mariotti and DellAquila (2011) who found a high
correlation between AMO and the Mediterranean SST 4. CONCLUSION
throughout the year over the period 18702009. The
brief surface cooling period occurred during the early Thanks to MEDATLAS 2002 database release, which we
1990s can be associated with a more prolonged cooling used to construct the various climatological fields of
in the Atlantic area west of Gibraltar. After the early temperature and salinity at Mediterranean Sea surface.
1990s, the SST warming rate becomes larger in the These climatology fields served as tools for spatio-
eastern than in the western basin. This behaviour can be temporal. The climatological characteristics can serve as
explained by the local ocean processes such as the heat benchmark for carrying out further analysis of the
horizontal advection (from the western basin) and/or changes in the oceanographic properties that may have
vertical mixing which probably control the accelerated occurred during the last years in the Mediterranean Sea.
surface warming in the eastern basin. Climatologies thus realized can contribute to improve
The enhanced variability shift observed in the ocean-atmosphere interactions at local scales,
Mediterranean SST in the early 1990s may be explained understanding the mechanisms causing interannual
partly by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index downwelling variations in the Mediterranean and
variations. The high positive NAO phase is associated improving the constraints for the ocean-atmosphere
with warmer conditions over the western sub-basin and coupled models.
cooler conditions over the eastern sub-basin, while the The Mediterranean Sea surface hydrology characteristics
contrary occurs during negative NAO phases. (temperature, salinity) show a high interannual
Atmospheric conditions seem to control the net airsea variability as well as long-term trends over the last
heat flux and SST variations. In particular, the large SST decades. During 19801990, there is a significant SST
increase in the western basin during the late 1980s rise in the western basin following a large warming of
seems to follow closely both NAO index and the net air the inflowing surface Atlantic waters and a long-term
sea heat flux increase. In the early 1990s, a large increase of the NAO index, whereas SST slowly
atmospheric variability shift occurred as evidenced by increased in the eastern basin. After a brief cooling
31
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1 , Issue; 01, pp. 24-33, December, 2016,
period in the early 1990s D'Ortenzio F. and M. Ribera D'Alcal, 2009. On the
for both sub-basins and a change from a high positive to trophic regimes of the Mediterranean Sea: a satellite
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changed from the westward to the eastward direction. Kushmaro A. et al., 2003. MEDAR/MEDATLAS 2002: a
The increasing trend in temperature encountered in the Mediterranean and Black Sea database for the
MEDAR/MEDATLAS 2002 data from the 1960s to the operational Oceanography. Proceedings of the third
1990s has to be confirmed by other datasets and/or if International Conference on Euro-GOOS, December
more recent data become available (e.g. 2000s and 2002, Athens, Greece. Oceanography Series 69, pp. 645-
2010s). If this trend persisted, it would most likely have 648.
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Mediterranean Sea marine ecosystems, as well as on the Meola B., Webster C., Claudet J., Chassanite A.,
marine biogeochemical cycles. Marinesque S., Robert P., Goutx M. and C. Quod, 2012.
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Hoegh-Guldberg O. and J.F. Bruno, 2010. The impact of
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From the preceding analysis, a number of research needs
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can be identified. These include the identification and
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Sanchez-Gomez E, Somot S and M. Dqu, 2008. Copyright International Journal of Engineering and
Ability of an ensemble of regional climate models to Geosciences (IJEG). All rights reserved, including the
reproduce weather regimes over Europe-Atlantic during making of copies unless permission is obtained from
the period 19612000. Clim. Dyn., 10, 1007/s00382- the copyright proprietors.
008-0502-7
Simmons A. J. and L. Bengtsson, 1984. Atmospheric
33
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 34-38,Decemberh, 2016, ISSN 2548-0960, Turkey,
DOI: Your DOI number
1Istanbul Technical University, Civil Engineering Faculty, Department of Geomatics Engineering, 34469, Istanbul,
Turkey (yolcucanan@gmail.com, kayasina@itu.edu.tr, seker@itu.edu.tr)
ABSTRACT: The usage of realistic three-dimensional (3D) polygon terrain models with multiple levels of detail (LOD)
is becoming widespread in popular applications like computer games or simulations, as it offers many advantages. These
models, which represent an actual location in the world, are essential for the simulation-based training of military
vehicles like planes, helicopters or tanks. Because training scenarios on this kind of simulations are used to observe or to
hit a target on the modeled location. In addition to that, driving the behavior of terrestrial vehicles is influenced by the
terrain properties like slopes, ramps, hitches, etc. because of the direct interaction with the ground. For this reason, the
terrain models in the simulation scene should not only display the textures realistically, but also represent an accurate
morphology; meaning the terrain altitudes should be modeled as correct as possible. Such terrain representations can be
created by using Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the geometry and satellite images for texturing. The geometry models
are in the form of polygonal meshes through the triangulation methods. However, the accuracy is influenced by some
parameters. Using insufficient (under-refined) triangles during the 3D modeling causes missing of some altitude vertices.
That means these points will not be present in the model. Consequently, it can be thought that the number of triangles
should be increased for a better geometrical fidelity. Nevertheless, it is not always correct as the usage of too much (over-
refined) triangles can also cause errors, especially in terrains with almost vertical faces (like cliffs). In addition to that, the
performance of the system deteriorates drastically through the increase in the number of triangles, as the computational
complexity is also getting higher.
Keywords: 3D, Accuracy, Simulation Model, Digital Terrain Model, Real Time Rendering
34
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 34-38,Decemberh, 2016,
1. INTRODUCTION
UTM projection coordinates have been selected for the
The convergence to the reality of 3D terrain models, outputs and WGS 84 ellipsoid has been taken as the
which could be created quickly with the help of satellite horizontal reference, therefore all data has been
images and DTMs, depends on not only the graphical converted to this system before utilizing.
quality but also the geometrical detail level of the
surface. The altitude information in the DTMS is used in The models have been created in three LODS. The
order to create triangular surface geometries during the number of the triangles for the LODs are given in
3D modeling with software tools (Smelik et al., 2009). Table1.
The terrain model can be produced with several sub-
models with different quality levels, which are called Table 1. Number of triangles for LODs
LODs (Level of Detail). The visual scene is switched
between these LODs to ease the representation of the
graphical environment (Pregasis, 2016a). There are Level of Detail
Triangle amount
different numbers of triangles in every LOD. The (LOD)
number and form of the triangles influence the surface Low (1) 121
structure, so the geometrical accuracy is affected by Middle (2) 527
them (Tariq, 2009). High (3) 7250
To display these influences, an example terrain from
Istanbul Bosporus area has been modeled as 3D using
three different level of details. In the study, ASTER
DTM with a 15m resolution for the altitude data and
Quickbird satellite images for surface texturing have
been used. Ground control points are selected for 3D
model and DTM data and the altitude differences are
measured in order to calculate Root Mean Squared
Error (RMSE) of 3D model LODs. The least error
measurement is gathered in the middle level of detail (2.
LOD). The interpretation of the error sources at every Figure 1. ASTER DTM data from the selected model
level has been provided at the conclusion. Presagis Terra surface and modeling process in Terra Vista software
Vista (Pregasis, 2016b), Creator (Pregasis, 2016a) and tool
Global Mapper (Blue Marble Geographics, 2016)
software tools have been used for the modeling and
analysis in this study.
35
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 34-38,Decemberh, 2016,
3D 3D 3D
3D 3D 3D Model Model Model
Model Model Model Source Aster Error 1 Error 2 Error 3
Ground control points
LOD2 LOD2 LOD3 DTM Z (m) LOD 1- LOD 2- LOD 3-
Z Z Z DTM DTM DTM
(m) (m) (m)
N1 109.13 53.64 53.64 66.28 42,85 -12,64 -12,64
N2 53.85 154.26 154.26 163.26 -109,41 -9 -9
N3 31.20 33.20 31.20 40.46 -9,26 -7,26 -9,26
N4 47.27 175.40 188.32 180.9 -133,63 -5,5 7,42
N5 19.10 155.10 166.31 163.505 -145 -8 3
N6 72.86 81.80 71.80 78.32 -5,46 3,48 -6,52
N7 164.84 160.52 166.85 168.77 -3,93 -8,25 -1,92
N8 150.99 132.00 128.00 134.62 16,37 -2,62 -6,62
N9 41.30 49.09 48.80 55.78 -14,48 -6,69 -6,98
N10 27.29 25.30 24.50 33.94 -6,65 -8,64 -9,44
N11 53.00 87.99 78.00 91.36 -38,36 -3,37 -13,36
4969,97 72,34
55,65
(Ln Dn) ^2 /n 3275 422045
19205
RMSE
( ( (Ln-Dn) ^2 /n ) 70,5 (m) 7,5 (m) 8,5 (m)
36
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 34-38,Decemberh, 2016,
37
International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences (IJEG),
Vol; 1; , Issue; 01, pp. 34-38,Decemberh, 2016,
There are two ways to avoid such surface defections. height maps are also an essential factor. Further
The first solution is to measure the resulting area after researches might be useful to find out the influence of
the optimization instead of the height difference. In such elements.
Figure 7, the dashed surface shows area before and after
assignment of the vertex . Vertex assignment reduces REFERENCES
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This paper has primarily researched the triangulation-
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