Construction Materials

Cement

USC
 CEMENT
Uses
Main use is in the fabrication of concrete and mortars
Modern uses
-Building (floors, beams, columns, roofing, piles, bricks,
mortar, panels, plaster)
-Transport (roads, pathways, crossings, bridges, viaducts,
tunnels, parking, etc.)
-Water (pipes, drains, canals, dams, tanks, pools, etc.)
-Civil (piers, docks, retaining walls, silos, warehousing,
poles, pylons, fencing)
-Agriculture (buildings, processing, housing, irrigation)
USC
Cement paste = cement + water
Glue (or binder) that bonds aggregates together to make
concrete

Mortar = cement paste + sand

Concrete = cement + water + sand + aggregates:
Portland cement (7.5% - 15% of volume)
Water
Aggregates (60% - 75% volume)
Air voids (1% - 15% of volume)
Sometimes admixtures
USC
 Portland Cement

PC is named after the limestone & chalk cliffs

on the Isle of Portland, where it was first
made in the early 1800s.
There are many types of cement, but portland
cement is so prevalent that in construction
cement is always assumed to mean portland
cement.
USC
USC
Portland cement is the basic ingredient of
concrete. Concrete is formed when portland
cement creates a paste with water that binds
with sand and rock to harden.
Cement is manufactured through a closely
controlled chemical combination of calcium,
silicon, aluminum, iron and other ingredients.

USC
Common materials used to manufacture
cement include limestone, shells, and chalk or
marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast
furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore.
These ingredients, when heated at high
temperatures form a rock-like substance that
is ground into the fine powder that we
commonly think of as cement.
USC
Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England
first made portland cement early in the 19th
century by burning powdered limestone and
clay in his kitchen stove. With this crude
method, he laid the foundation for an industry
that annually processes literally mountains of
limestone, clay, cement rock, and other
materials into a powder so fine it will pass
through a sieve capable of holding water.
USC
USC
 Cement
Cement is manufactured by heating a mixture
of limestone, iron ore, gypsum, clay and other
ingredients.

USC
USC
USC
USC
Two processes, namely dry process and wet
process are followed while manufacturing
cement.
Although the dry process is the most modern
and popular way to manufacture cement, some
kilns in the United States use a wet process.
The two processes are essentially alike except
in the wet process, the raw materials are
ground with water before being fed into the
kiln. USC
 Cement Production
1. Crushing and grinding of raw materials
Calcium Oxide (calcareous material)
limestone, chalk, or oyster shells
Silica & Alumina (argillaceous material)
clay, shale, blast furnace slag
2. Heat and melt in a kiln at 1400-1650oC (2500-
3000oF) which forms cement clinker
3. Add gypsum (delays set time) to clinker and
pulverize to fine powder
7 x 1011 particles / lb
small particles produce a large surface area for more complete
hydration USC
 Dry Process

In the dry process, the raw materials are

mixed in dry state, whereas in the wet process
raw materials are mixed in presence of water
to form slurry .

USC
The first step is to quarry the principal raw
materials, mainly limestone, clay, and other
materials.

USC
After quarrying the rock is crushed. This
involves several stages.
The first crushing reduces the rock to a
maximum size of about 6 inches.
The rock then goes to secondary crushers or
hammer mills for reduction to about 3 inches
or smaller.

USC
 Mhendislik Fakltesi, naat Mhendislii Blm, Yap Malzemesi

19.03.2015 19 USC
 Mhendislik Fakltesi, naat Mhendislii Blm, Yap Malzemesi

CRUSHING

19.03.2015 20 USC
 Mhendislik Fakltesi, naat Mhendislii Blm, Yap Malzemesi

19.03.2015 21 USC
The crushed rock is combined with other
ingredients such as iron ore or fly ash and
ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln.

USC
 After pre-heating, the raw material is passed
through rotating kiln inclined with a small
angle with the horizontal line.

USC
The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to
about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit in huge
cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special
firebrick.
Kilns are frequently as much as 12 feet in
diameterlarge enough to accommodate an
automobile and longer in many instances than
the height of a 40-story building. The large
kilns are mounted with the axis inclined
slightly from the horizontal. USC
The finely ground raw material or the slurry is
fed into the higher end. At the lower end is a
roaring blast of flame, produced by precisely
controlled burning of powdered coal, oil,
alternative fuels, or gas under forced draft.

USC
As the material moves through the kiln,
certain elements are driven off in the form of
gases. The remaining elements unite to form a
new substance called clinker. Clinker comes
out of the kiln as grey balls, about the size of
marbles.

USC
Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower
end of the kiln and generally is brought down
to handling temperature in various types of
coolers. The heated air from the coolers is
returned to the kilns, a process that saves fuel
and increases burning efficiency

USC
After the clinker is cooled, cement plants
grind it and mix it with small amounts of
gypsum and limestone. Cement is so fine that
1 pound of cement contains 150 billion
grains. The cement is now ready for transport
to ready-mix concrete companies to be used in
a variety of construction projects.

USC
The kiln is progressively hotter towards its
lower end, where the raw material gets
molten. From this clinkers are formed when
cooled, and after grinding the clinkers, cement
is produced.

USC
USC
 REACTIONS IN THE KILN
~100C free water evaporates.

~150-350C loosely bound water is lost from

clay.

~350-650Cdecomposition of
claySiO2&Al2O3

~600C decomposition of MgCO3MgO&CO2

(evaporates)

~900C decomposition of CaCO3CaO&CO2

(evaporates)
USC
USC
~1250-1280Cliquid formation & start of
compound formation.

~1280C clinkering begins.

~1400-1500C clinkering

~100C clinker leaves the kiln & falls into a

cooler.

Sometimes the burning process of raw

materials is performed in two stages:
preheating upto 900C & rotary kiln
USC
Basic principle of a wet-process.

USC
Basic principle of a dry-process.

USC
An animated description of the whole process
can be obtained elsewhere (cement.org 2006).

USC
 CEMENT
The Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most
popular, all-purpose cement.
There are various other types of cements (for
example, natural cement, Portland pozzolanic
cement, high alumina cement, expansive cement,
quick setting cement, high performance cement,
sulphate resistant cement, white cement etc.) and
are manufactured to serve specialized purposes.

USC
 HYDRAULIC CEMENTS:

Hydraulic lime: Only used in specialized mortars. Made

from calcination of clay-rich limestones.
Natural cements: Misleadingly called Roman. It is made
from limestones or interbedded limestone and clay or shale,
with few raw materials. Because they were found to be inferior
to portland, most plants switched.
Portland cement: Artificial cement. Made by the mixing
clinker with gypsum in a 95:5 ratio.

USC
 Portland-limestone cements: Large amounts (6% to
35%) of ground limestone have been added as a filler to a
portland cement base.

Blended cements: Mix of portland cement with one or

more SCM (supplementary cementitious materials) like
pozzolanic additives.

Pozzolan-lime cements: Original Roman cements. Only a

small quantity is manufactured in the U.S. Mix of pozzolans
with lime.
USC
 Masonry cements: Portland cement where other materials
have been added primarily to impart plasticity.

Aluminous cements: Limestones and bauxite are the

main raw materials. Used for refractory applications (such as
cementing furnace bricks) and certain applications where rapid
hardening is required. It is more expensive than portland.
There is only one producing facility in the U.S.

USC
 PORTLAND CEMENT
Most active component of concrete

The greatest unit cost in concrete,

Its selection and proper use are

important in obtaining most
http://www.cement.org/decorative/images/overview2.jpg
economically the balance of properties
desired for any particular concrete mixture.

USC
 PORTLAND CEMENT
The production process for portland cement first involves
grinding limestone or chalk and alumina and silica from shale
or clay.
Type I/II portland cements are the most popular cements used
by concrete producers
-Type I cement is the general purpose cement and most
common type. Unless an alternative is specified, Type I is
usually used.
-Type II cement releases less heat during hardening. It is
more suitable for projects involving large masses of concrete--
heavy retaining walls
USC
Cement
Types
Use
of Portland cement
type
I1 General purpose cement, when there are no extenuating
conditions
II2 Aids in providing moderate resistance to sulfate attack
III When high-early strength is required
IV3 When a low heat of hydration is desired (in massive
structures)
V4 When high sulfate resistance is required
IA4 A type I cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
IIA4 A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
IIIA4 A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

USC
 Chemical Composition of PC
Calcination in the kiln changes molecular structure of ingredients.

Main compounds: Minor compounds: small

tricalcium silicate (C3S) percent but can have strong
influences:
dicalcium silicate (C2S)
magnesium oxide
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) titanium oxide
tetracalcium aluminoferrite manganese oxide
(C4AF) sodium oxide
potassium oxide
Alkalis (Na2O, K2O) react with
silica causing disintegration &
expansion of concrete
USC
Chemical shorthand
Because of the complex chemical nature of cement,
a shorthand form is used to denote the chemical
compounds. The shorthand for the basic compounds
is:

USC
Compound Formula Shorthand form

Calcium oxide (lime) Ca0 C

Silicon dioxide (silica) SiO2 S

Aluminum oxide (alumina) Al2O3 A

Iron oxide Fe2O3 F

Water H2O H
Sulfate SO3 S

CaOlimestone
SiO2-Al2O3Clay
Fe2O3Impurity in Clays
SO3from gypsumnot from the clinker
USC
Chemical composition of clinker

The cement clinker Compound Formula Shorthan % by

d form weight1
formed has the Tricalcium Ca3Al2O6 C3A 10
following typical aluminate
Tetracalcium Ca4Al2Fe2 C4AF 8
composition: aluminoferrite O10
Belite or dicalcium Ca2SiO5 C2S 20
silicate
Alite or tricalcium Ca3SiO4 C3S 55
silicate
Sodium oxide Na2O N ) )Up to
2
Potassium oxide K2O K
Gypsum CaSO4.2 CSH2 5
H2O

USC
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
OF P.C.
Portland cement is composed of four major
oxides (CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 90%) &
some minor oxides. Minor refers to the
quantity not importance.

USC
 Oxide Common Name Abbreviation Approx. Amount (%)

CaO Lime C 60-67

SiO2 Silica S 17-25
Al2O3 Alumina A 3-8
Fe2O3 Iron-oxide F 0.5-6
MgO Magnesia M 0.1-4
Na2O Soda N
0.2-1.3
K2O Potassa K

SO3 Sulfuric Anhydride 1-3

CaOlimestone S
SiO2-Al2O3Clay
Fe2O3Impurity in Clays
SO3from gypsumnot from the clinker
USC
The amount of oxides in a P.C. Depend on the proportioning of
the raw materials and how well the burning is done in the kiln.
The chemical composition is found by chemical analysis.
A typical analysis of O.P.C.

C 63.6 Insoluble residue=0.2

S 20.7 Loss on ignition=1.4
A 6
F 2.4
2.1
M 2.6
N 0.1
K 0.9
Free C 1.4
Total 99.8

USC
CaO (C), SiO2 (S), Al2O3 (A) & Fe2O3 are the
major oxides that interact in the kiln & form the
major compounds.

The proportions of these oxides determine the

proportions of the compounds which affect the
performance of the cement.

SO3comes largely from gypsum

P.C. alone sets quickly so some gypsum is

ground with clinker to retard the setting time.
USC
If too much gypsum is included it leads to
distruptive expansions of the hardened paste
or concrete.

ASTM C 150 SO3 3% in O.P.C.

MgO+H2OMH
C+HCH volume expansion & cause
cracking.
ASTM C 150 M<6%
free C < 3%
USC
 Alkalies (Na2O & K2O) may cause some
dificulties if the cement is used with certain
types of reactive aggregates in making
concrete.
The alkalies in the form of alkaline
hydroxides can react with the reactive silica of
the aggregate & resulting in volume
expansion after hardening. This process may
take years.

Na2O & K2O 0.6%

USC
 Insoluble Residue (I.R.) : is that fraction of cement
which is insoluble in HCl. It comes mainly from the
silica which has not reacted to form compounds
during the burning process in the kiln. All
compounds of P.C. is soluble in HCl except the
silica.

The amount of I.R., determined by chemical

analysis, serves to indicate the completeness of the
reactions in the kiln.

ASTM C 150 I.R. 0.75%

USC
 Loss on Ignition (L.O.I.): is the loss in weight
of cement after being heated to 1000C. It
indicates the prehydration or carbonation due
to prolonged or improper storage of cement &
clinker.

If cement is exposed to air, water & CO2 are

absorbed & by heating the cement upto
1000C loose these two substances.

ASTM C 150 L.O.I. 3% for O.P.C.

USC
COMPOUND COMPOSITION OF P.C.
(OR CLINKER)
Oxides interact with each other in the kiln to
form more complex products (compounds).
Basically, the major compounds of P.C. can
be listed as:
Name Chemical Formula Abbreviations

Tri Calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S

Di Calcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S

Tri Calcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A

Tetra Calcium Alumino

4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
Ferrite
USC
 The degree to which the potential reactions
can proceed to equilibrium depends on:

1) Fineness of raw materials & their

intermixing.
2) The temperature & time that mix is held in
the critical zone of the kiln.
3) The grade of cooling of clinker may also be
effective on the internal structure of major
compounds.

USC
 There are also some minor compounds which
constitute few %, so they are usually
negligible. Moreover, portland cement
compounds are rarely pure.
For example in C3S, MgO & Al2O3 replaces
CaO randomly.
C3SALITE & C2SBELITE
Ferrite Phase: C4AF is not a true
compound. The ferrite phase ranges from
C2AF to C6AF. *C4AF represents an
average.
USC
 Methods of Determining Compound
Composition
Each grain of cement consists of an intimate
mixture of these compounds.
They can be determined by:

1) Microscopy
2) X-Ray Diffraction

But due to the variabilities involved the compound

composition is usually calculated using the oxide
proportions.

3) Calculations (Bouges Equations)

USC
 Assumptions
1) The chemical reactions in the kiln proceeded
to equilibrium.
2) Compounds are in pure form such as C3S &
C2 S
3) Presence of minor compounds are ignored.
4) Ferrite phase can be calculated as C4AF
5) All oxides in the kiln have taken part in
forming the compounds.

USC
USC
Influence of Compound Composition on
Characteristics of P.C.
P.C.+waterthe compounds in the cement
undergo chemical reactions with the water
independently, and different products result from
these reactions.
C3S C2S C3A C4AF

Rate of Reaction Moderate Slow Fast Moderate

Heat Liberation High Low Very High Moderate

Early Cementitious Value Good Poor Good Poor

Ultimate Cementitious Value Good Good Poor Poor

USC
 Average Compound
ASTM Type & Name Composition
of P.C.
C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Type I - O.P.C. 49 25 12 8 General Purpose

For Moderate Heat of

Type II - Modified 46 29 6 12 Hydration

Type III - High Early C3S&C3A increased, C2S

Strength 56 15 12 8 decreased

Type IV - Low Heat

P.C. 30 46 5 13 C2S increased

Type V - Sulfate Limit on C3A5%,

Resistant P.C. 43 36 4 12 2C3A+C4AF25%

USC
 PORTLAND CEMENT
Physical Properties of Portland Cements
1) Fineness,
2) Soundness
3) Consistency
4) Setting time
5) Compressive strength
6) Heat of hydration
7) Loss of ignition

USC
 Fineness
Smaller cement particles have more surface area to react with
water
fineness controls the rate of hydration (heat & strength gain)
too fine is more expensive and can be harmful
Surface area measured indirectly (cm2/g)
Blaine test Measures air Wagner Turbidimeter Measures
permeability against known sedimentation rate suspended in kerosene -
standard material finer settles slower

USC
 FINENESS OF CEMENT
As hydration takes place at the surface of the
cement particles, it is the surface area of cement
particles which provide the material available
for hydration. The rate of hydration is controlled
by fineness of cement. For a rapid rate of
hydration a higher fineness is necessary.

USC
However,

Higher fineness requires higher grinding (cost

)
Finer cements deteriorate faster upon
exposure to atmosphere.
Finer cements are very sensitive to alkali-
aggregate reaction.
Finer cements require more gypsum for
proper hydration.
Finer cements require more water.
USC
Fineness of cement is determined by air
permeability methods. For example, in the
Blaine air permeability method a known
volume of air is passed through cement. The
time is recorded and the specific surface is
calculated by a formula.

Fineness is expressed in terms of specific

surface of the cement (cm2/gr). For OPC
specific surface is 2600-3000 cm2/gr.

USC
 Sieving

Blaine Apparatus
USC
 Specific Gravity
Gcement 3.15
Measured for cement particles without air voids

Bulk unit weight (weight required to fill a

container) is highly variable.
Cement should not be measured by volume.

USC
 Hydration
Crystalline compound of calcium silicates and other calcium
compounds having hydraulic properties.
Considered hydraulic because of their ability to set and harden
under or with excess water through the hydration of the
cements chemical compounds or minerals

http://img.alibaba.com/photo/11654315/Portland_
Cement_42_5_N_R.jpg USC
When Portland cement is mixed with water its
chemical compound constituents undergo a
series of chemical reactions that cause it to
harden.
This chemical reaction with water is called
"hydration". Each one of these reactions
occurs at a different time and rate.
Together, the results of these reactions
determine how Portland cement hardens and
gains strength.

USC
Chemical reaction of cement with water
Hardening is not setting or drying
Drying = evaporation = no water
stops reaction
stops strength gain
Mechanisms:
Through-solution: dominates early stage of hydration
Topochemical: solid-state reaction at cement surface
Hydration rate: aluminates > silicates needs balance

USC
USC
Hydration of C3S & C2S:
produces C-S-H (calcium-silicate-hydrate) makes
paste strong
Primary Chemical Reaction
Chemical reactions that harden cement paste
Fast in the beginning but is long term (decades in
dams)
Causes heat, which can be a problem if theres too
much
Structure development in cement paste
USC
Hydration starts as soon as the cement and
water are mixed.
The rate of hydration and the heat liberated
by the reaction of each compound is different.
Each compound produces different products
when it hydrates.

USC
Tricalcium silicate (C3S). Hydrates and
hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for
initial set and early strength. Portland cements
with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit
higher early strength.

USC
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and
hardens the quickest. Liberates a large amount
of heat almost immediately and contributes
somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added
to Portland cement to retard C3A hydration.
Withoutgypsum, C3A hydration would cause
Portland cement to set almost immediately
after adding water.

USC
USC
 Dicalcium silicate (C2S). Hydrates and
hardens slowly and is largely responsible for
strength increases beyond one week.
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF).
Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to
strength. Its use allows lower kiln
temperatures in Portland cement
manufacturing. Most Portland cement color
effects are due to C4AF.

USC
USC
Ettringite, calcium sulfoaluminate, is found in
all portland cement concretes and is commonly
referenced in petrographic reports.

USC
Calcium sulfate sources, such as gypsum,
are added to portland cement to prevent
rapid setting and improve strength
development. Sulfate is also present in
supplementary cementitious materials and
admixtures.

USC
Gypsum and other sulfate compounds react with
calcium aluminate in the cement to form
ettringite within the first few hours after mixing
with water. Essentially all of the sulfur in the
cement is normally consumed to form ettringite
within 24 hours.

USC
USC
The formation of ettringite results in a volume
increase in the fresh, plastic concrete. Due to the
concretes plastic condition, this expansion is
harmless and unnoticed.
If concrete is exposed to water for long periods
of time (many years), the ettringite can slowly
dissolve and reform in less confined locations.
Upon microscopic examination, harmless white
needle-like crystals of ettringite can be observed
lining air voids.

USC
USC
Any form of attack or disintegration of
concrete by freeze-thaw action, alkali-silica
reactivity (ASR), or other means,
accelerates the rate at which ettringite
leaves its original location in the paste to go
into solution and recrystallizes in larger
spaces such as voids or cracks.

USC
Alkali-Silica Reactivity

USC
Both water and space must be present for the
crystals to form. The space is often provided by
cracks that form due to damage caused by frost
action, ASR, drying shrinkage, or other
mechanisms.

USC
Ettringite crystals in air voids and cracks
are typically two to four micrometers in
cross section and 20 to 30 micrometers
long. Under conditions of extreme
deterioration, the white ettringite crystals
appear to completely fill voids or cracks.
However, ettringite, found in its preferred
state as large needle-like crystals, should
not be interpreted as causing the expansion
of deteriorating concrete.
USC
 Hydration of P.C.
Hydration: Chemical reactions with water.

As water comes into contact with cement

particles, hydration reactions immediately
starts at the surface of the particles. Although
simple hydrates such as C-H are formed,
process of hydration is a complex one and
results in reorganization of the constituents of
original compounds to form new hydrated
compounds.
USC
USC
At any stage of hydration the hardened cement
paste (hcp) consists of:

Hydrates of various compounds referred to

collectively as GEL.
Crystals of calcium hydroxide (CH).
Some minor compound hydrates.
Unhydrated cement
The residual of water filled spaces pores.

USC
As the hydration proceeds the deposits of
hydrated products on the original cement grains
makes the diffusion of water to unhydrated
nucleus more & more difficult. Thus, the rate of
hydration decreases with time & as a result
hydration may take several years.

Major compounds start to produce:

Calcium-silicate-hydrate gels
Calcium hydroxide cement
Calcium-alumino-sulfohydrates gel

USC
At the beginning of mixing, the paste has a
structure which consists of cement particles with
water-filled space between them. As hydration
proceeds, the gels are formed & they occupy
some of this space.

1cc of cement 2.1cc of gel

Gel Pores: 28% of the total gel volume have

diameter of 0.015-0.020 m. (very small-
loss or gain of water is difficult)
USC
Capillary Pores: 12.5 m diameter, with varying
sizes, shapes & randomly distributed in the paste.

Volume of capillary pores decreases as hydration

takes place. Water in capillary pores is mobile, can
not be lost by evaporation or water can get into the
pores. They are mainly responsible for permeability.

- w/c ratio
capillary porosity
- degree of hydration

USC
C2S & C3S: 70-80% of cement is composed of these
two compounds & most of the strength giving
properties of cement is controlled by these
compounds.

Upon hydration both calcium-silicates result in the

same products.
2C3S+6H C3S2H3 + 3CH
2C2S+4H C3S2H3 + CH

Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (C-S-H gel) is similar to

a mineral called TOBERMORITE. As a result it
is named as TOBERMORITE GEL

USC
Upon hydration C3S & C2S, CH also forms
which becomes an integral part of hydration
products. CH does not contribute very much to
the strength of portland cement.

C3S having a faster rate of reaction

accompanied by greater heat generation
developes early strength of the paste. On the
other hand, C2S hydrates & hardens slowly so
results in less heat generation & developes
most of the ultimate strength.

USC
Higher C3Shigher early strength-higher
heat generation (roads, cold environments)
Higher C2Slower early strength-lower
heat generation (dams)

C3A: is characteristically fast reacting with

water & may lead to a rapid stiffening of
the paste with a large amount of the heat
generation (Flash-Set)-(Quick-Set). In
order to prevent this rapid reaction gypsum
is added to the clinker. Gypsum,
C3A&water react to form relatively
insoluble Calcium-Sulfo-Aluminates.
USC
C3A+CH2+10HC4AH12 (calcium- alumino-
monosulfohydrate)
C3A+3CH2+26HC6A3H32 (calcium-alumino-
trisulfohydrate ettringite)

When there is enough gypsum ettringite forms

with great expansion

If there is no gypsumflash-set
more gypsumettringite
formation increases
which will cause
cracking
USC
Also Calcium-Sulfo Aluminates are prone (less
resistant) to sulfate attack & does not contribute
much for strength. The cement to be used in making
concretes that are going to be exposed to soils or
waters that contain sulfates should not contain more
than 5% C3A.

C4AF: The hydration of ferrite phase is not well

understand. Ferrite phase has lesser role in
development of strength. The hydration products are
similar to C3A. Alumina & iron oxide occur
interchangebly in the hydration products.

C4AH12 or C4FH12
C6A3H32 or C6F3H32
USC
 HEAT OF HYDRATION
Hydration process of cement is accompanied by heat
generation (exothermic).
As concrete is a fair insulator, the generated heat in
mass concrete may result in expansion & cracking.
This could be overcome by using suitable cement
type.
It could also be advantages for cold wheather
concreting.
The heat of hydration of OPC is on the order of 85-
100 cal/gr.
About 50% of this heat is liberatedwithin 1-3 days &
75% within 7 days.
By limiting C3S&C3A content heat of hydration can
be reduced.
USC
Heat of Hydration
The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water
and Portland cement react. Heat of hydration is most
influenced by the proportion of C3S and C3A in the
cement, but is also influenced by water-cement ratio,
fineness and curing temperature. As each one of these
factors is increased, heat of hydration increases.
For usual range of Portland cements, about one-half of
the total heat is liberated between 1 and 3 days, about
three-quarters in 7 days, and nearly 90 percent in 6
months.
The heat of hydration depends on the chemical
composition of cement.

USC
USC
 Heat of Hydration of Pure Compounds

Heat of The amount of heat

Hydration liberated is affected by
(cal/gr)
the fractions of the
C3S 120 compounds of the
cement.
C2S 62

C3A 207
Heat of
C4AF 100 Hydration(cal/gr)=120*(
%C3S)+62*(%C2S)+207*
(%C3A)+100*(C4AF)

USC
USC
 Voids in Hydrated Cement
a) Interlayer hydration space
space between atomic layers
shrinkage if humidity <11%
b) Capillary voids
w/c ratio too high
decrease strength and increase permeability
c) Trapped voids
large pockets caused by handling
decrease strength and increase permeability
d) Entrained air
microscopic bubbles caused by admixtures
increases durability
USC
 Properties of Hydrated Cement
Setting
Stiffening: change from plastic to solid (initial and final)
not the same as hardening, which is strength gain
handling, placing, & vibrating must be completed
before initial set
finishing between initial and final
curing after final set
False Set: premature stiffening within a few minutes
due to humidity in cement during storage
remix without adding water
Quick set & flash set are different cannot be fixed
USC
 SETTING
Setting refers to a change from liquid state to solid
state. Although, during setting cement paste acquires
some strength, setting is different from hardening.

The water content has a marked effect on the time of

setting. In acceptance tests for cement, the water
content is regulated by bringing the paste to a
standard condition of wetness. This is called
normal consistency.

USC
Normal consistency of O.P.C. Ranges from 20-30%
by weight of cement.

Vicat apparatus is used to determine normal

consistency. Normal consistency is that condition for
which the penetration of a standard weighed plunger
into the paste is 10mm in 30sec. By trial & error
determine the w/c ratio.

In practice, the terms initial set&final set are used to

describe arbitrary chosen time of setting. Initial set
indicates the beginning of a noticeable stiffening &
final set may be regarded as the start of hardening (or
complete loss of plasticity).
USC
 Gillmore Needle

Vicat Needle
USC
 Tests for Initial and Final Set
penetration of weighted needle

Vicat Gillmore
USC
Setting can be obtained by using the vicat
apparatus.

Initial setting time>45min

ASTM C150
Final setting time<375min

Initial > 1hr (60min)

TS 19
Final < 8hr (480min)
USC
 Factors Affecting Setting Time
Temperature & Humidity
Amount of Water
Chemical Composition of Cement
Fineness of Cement (finer cement, faster
setting)

Flash-set
Abnormal Settings
False-set
USC
Flash-Set: is the immediate stiffening of cement paste
in a few minutes after mixing with water. It is
accompanied by large amount of heat generation
upon reaction of C3A with water.

Gypsum is placed in cement to prevent flash-set.

The rigidity can not be overcome & plasticity may
not be regained without addition of water.

Amount of gypsum must be such that it will be used

upto almost hardening. Because expansion caused
by ettringite can be distributed to the paste before
hardening. More gypsum will cause undesirable
expansion after hardening.
USC
False-Set: is a rapid development of rigidity of cement
paste without generation of much heat. This rigidity
can be overcome & plasticity can be regained by
further mixing without addition of water. In this way
cement paste restores its plasticity & sets in a normal
manner without any loss of strength.

USC
 Probable Causes of False-Set:

1) When gypsum is ground by too hot of a

clinker, gypsum may be dehydrated into
hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) or
anhydrate (CaSO4). These materials when
react with water gypsum is formed, which
results in stiffening of the paste.

USC
2) Alkali oxides in cement may carbonate during
storage. Upon mixing such a cement with
water, these alkali carbonates will react with
Ca(OH2) (CH-Calcium Hydroxide) liberated
by hydrolysis of C3S resulting in CaCO3.
CaCO3 precipates in the mix & results in
false-set.

USC
 SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT
Soundness is defined as the volume stability of cement paste.

The cement paste should not undergo large changes in volume

after it has set. Free CaO&MgO may result in unsound cement.
Upon hydration C&M will form CH&MH with volume
increase thus cracking.

Since unsoundness is not apparent until several months or

years, it is necessary to provide an accelerated method for its
determination.

1) Lechatelier Method: Only free CaO can be determined.

2) Autoclave Method: Both free CaO&MgO can be determined.

USC
 Soundness
Ability to retain its volume
after setting
Expansion after setting is
measured in the autoclave
test at 420oF & 295 psi

Frame for measuring

length of sample
before and after Autoclave
autoclave conditioning

Sample molds
USC
 STRENGTH OF CEMENT
Strength tests are not carried out on neat
cement pastes, because it is very difficult to
form these pastes due to cohesive property of
cement.

Strength tests are carried out on cement

mortar prepared by standard gradation (1 part
cement+3 parts sand+1/2 part water)

USC
1) Direct Tension (Tensile Strength):

P P

1
1

t=P/1in2
Difficult test procedure

USC
USC
2) Flexural Strength (tensile strength in bending):

P
4cm
4cm

L
C

f=(M*C)/I
M:maximum moment
I:moment of inertia
C:distance to bottom fiber from C.G.

USC
USC
3) Compression Test:
i) Cubic Sample ii)Flexural Sample after it
is broken
P
4cm 4cm

4cm

P
c=P/A
c=P/A A=4x4

USC
USC
TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Cements of different chemical composition &
physical characteristics may exhibit different
properties when hydrated. It should thus be
possible to select mixtures of raw materials
for the production of cements with various
properties.

In fact several cement types are available and

most of them have been developed to ensure
durability and strength properties to concrete.
USC
 It should also be mentioned that obtaining some
special properties of cement may lead to
undesirable properties in another respect. For this
reason a balance of requirements may be necessary
and economic aspects should be considered.

1) Standard Types: these cements comply with the

definition of P.C., and are produced by adjusting
the proportions of four major compounds.

2) Special Types: these do not necessarily couply with

the definiton of P.C. & are produced by using
additional raw materials.

USC
 Standard Cements (ASTM)
Type I: Ordinary Portland Cement

Suitable to be used in general concrete construction

when special properties are not required.

USC
Type II: Modified Portland Cement

Suitable to be used in general concrete

construction.
Main difference between Type I&II is the
moderate sulfate resistance of Type II
cement due to relatively low C3A content
(%8).
Since C3A is limited rate of reactions is
slower and as a result heat of hydration at
early ages is less.
*It is suitable to be used in small scale
mass concrete like retaining walls. USC
Type III: High Early Strength P.C.
Strength development is rapid.
3 days fc=7 days fc of Type I
It is useful for repair works, cold weather & for
early demolding.
Its early strength is due to higher C3S & C3A
content.

USC
Type IV: Low Heat P.C.
Generates less heat during hydration &
therefore gain of strengthis slower.
In standards a maximum value of
C3S&C3A& a minimum value for C2S are
placed.
It is used in mass-concrete and hot-weather
concreting.

USC
 Type V: Sulfate Resistant P.C.
Used in construction where concrete will be
subjected to external sulfate attack chemical
plants, marine & harbor structures.
i) During hydration C3A reacts with gypsum &
water to form ettringite. In hardened cement paste
calcium-alumino-hydrate can react with
calcium&alumino sulfates, from external sources,
to form ettringite which causes expansion &
cracking.
ii) C-H and sulfates can react & form gypsum which
again causes expansion & cracking.
* In Type V C3A is limited to 5%.
USC
Type IA, IIA, IIIA: Air Entrained Portland
Cement
Only difference is adding an air-entraining
agent to the cement during manufacturing to
increase freeze-thaw resistance by providing
small sized air bubbles in concrete.

USC
 SPECIAL CEMENTS
Portland Pozzolan Cement (P.P.C.)
By grinding & blending P.C.
Clinker+Pozzolan+Gypsum
P.P.C. Produces less heat of hydration &
offers higher sulfate resistance so it can be
used in marine structures & mass concrete.
However, most pozzolans do not contribute to
strength at early ages.
The early strength of PPC is less.

USC
Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement (P.B.F.S.C.)
By intergrinding B.F.S.+P.C. Clinker+Gypsum
This cement is less reactive (rate of gain of strength &
early strength is less but ultimate strength is same)
High sulfate resistance
Suitable to use in mass concrete construction
Unsuitable for cold weather concreting

USC
Both P.P.C.&P.B.F.S.C. Are called blended
cements. Their heat of hydration & strength
development are low in early days. Because
upon adding water C3S compounds start to
produce C-S-Hgels & CH. The CH & the
pozzolanic material react together to
produce new C-S-H gels. Thats why the
early strength is low but the ultimate
strength is the same when compared to
O.P.C. USC
White Portland Cement
W.P.C. is made from materials containing a
little iron oxide & manganese oxide.
Fe2O3 + MnO 0.8%
To avoid contamination by coal ash, oil is
used as fuel.
To avoid contamination by iron during
grinding, instead of steel balls nickel-
molybdenum alloys are used.

USC
High Alumina Cement
The raw materials for H.A.C. is limestone and
Bauxite (Al2O3 & Fe2O3)
These raw materials are interground &
introduced in the kiln clinkered at 1600C.
Then the obtained material is ground to a
fineness of 2500-3000 cm2/gr.
The oxide composition is quite different
Al2O3 40-45%
CaO 35-42%
Fe2O3 5-15%
SiO2 4-10%
USC
Major compounds are CA & C2S
It is basically different from O.P.C. & the concrete
made from this cement has very different properties.
It has high sulfate resistance.
Very high early strength (emergency repairs)
About 80% of ultimate strength is obtained within
24 hours. But the strength is adversely affected by
temperature. The setting time is not as rapid as gain
of strength.
Initial setting time is 4 hrs & final setting time is 5
hrs.

USC
STANDARD TURKISH CEMENTS
(TS 19) Cancelled
TS 19 groups them into 3
P.. 32.5 min. Compressive strength is 32.5 MPa in 28
days.
P.. 42.5
P.. 52.5
Special Cements are:
TS 20 Blast Furnace Slag Cement
C 32.5 Cruflu imento
C 42.5
TS 21 White Portland Cement BP 32.5-42.5
TS22 Masonry Cement, H 16 (Har imentosu)
TS 26 Trass Cement, T 32.5 (Trasl imento)
TS 640 Fly Ash Cement, UK 32.5 (Uucu Kll
imento)
USC
 TS EN 197-1
NEW
CEM cements
CEM I Portland Cement
CEM II Portland Composite
Cement
CEM III Portland Blast
Furnace Slag Cement
CEM IV Pozzolanic
Cement
27 different cements
CEM V Composite Cement

USC
 TS EN 197-1

CEM cements :
Binding property is mainly due to hydration of calcium-
silicates
Reactive C + Reactive S > 50%
Clinker, major and minor mineral admixtures
Clinker + Major + Minor = 100% (mass) + Gypsum
Major > 5% by mass
Minor 5% by mass
USC
 TS EN 197-1
Mineral Admixtures
K : Clinker
D : Silica Fume
P : Natural Pozzolan
Q : Calcined Natural Pozzolan
T : Calcined Shale
W : Class C Fly Ash
V : Class F Fly Ash
L : Limestone (Organic compound < 0.5%)
LL : Limestone (Organic compound < 0.2%)
S : Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

USC
 TS EN 197-1
Composition
A : Lowest amount of mineral admixture
B : Mineral admixture amount is > A
C : Mineral admixture amount is > B

USC
 TS EN 197-1
Composition
CEM I : Portland Cement
95-100% K + 0-5% Minor

USC
 TS EN 197-1
Composition
CEM II : Portland Composite Cement

CEM II/A-S : Portland Slag Cement

80-94% K + 6-20% S + 0-5% Minor
CEM II/B-S : Portland Slag Cement
65-79% K + 21-35% S + 0-5% Minor
CEM II/B-P : Portland Pozzolanic Cement
65-79% K + 21-35% P + 0-5% Minor
CEM II/A-V : Portland Fly Ash Cement
80-94% K + 6-20% V + 0-5% Minor

USC
 TS EN 197-1
Composition
CEM III : Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement

CEM III/A : Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement

35-64% K + 36-65% S + 0-5% Minor
CEM III/B : Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
20-34% K + 66-80% S + 0-5% Minor
CEM III/C : Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
5-19% K + 81-95% S + 0-5% Minor
USC
 TS EN 197-1
Composition
CEM IV : Pozzolanic Cement

CEM IV/A : Pozzolanic Cement

65-89% K + 11-35% (D,P,Q,V,W) + 0-5% Minor
CEM IV/B : Pozzolanic Cement
45-64% K + 36-55% (D,P,Q,V,W) + 0-5% Minor

USC
 TS EN 197-1
Composition
CEM V : Composite Cement

CEM V/A : Composite Cement

40-64% K + 18-30% S + 18-30% (P,Q,V) + 0-5% Minor
CEM V/B : Composite Cement
20-38% K + 31-50% S + 31-50% (P,Q,V) + 0-5% Minor

USC
Strength Classes

USC
 Name - Example

CEM II / A P 42.5 N
CEM II / A P 42.5 R

USC
 Compressive Strength of Mortar
ASTM C109
Average of three 2" mortar cubes
Proportional to compressive strength of cylinders
Compressive strength of concrete cannot be accurately
predicted from cement strength

Mold Compression
Prepare sample test Typical failure
USC
 Water-Cement Ratio
The most important property of hydrating cement
Water needed for hydration, w/c = 0.22-0.25
Extra water is needed for workability but causes voids
Decreases strength
Decreases durability
Decreases bond between successive layers
Decreases bond between concrete and rebar
Increases permeability
Increases volume change from wetting and drying

USC
 w/c Ratio w/c Ratio
Air Entrained Concrete Non-air Entrained Concrete
USC
 Types of PC
Standard PC types
I Normal
II Moderate Sulfate Resistance
Type I/II is both normal & moderate sulfate resistance
III High Early Strength
becoming cheaper & more common
we can strip forms earlier and speed up production
IV Low Heat of Hydration
for large, massive pours to control heat of hydration
V High Sulfate Resistance
Other cement types: for special uses
USC
 Mixing Water
Any potable (drinkable) water can be used
If fresh water isn't available, we may allow some impurities if
we still obtain a reasonable concrete mix
Example: seawater may be used for plain concrete, but not
for reinforced
Acceptable Criteria (ASTM C94)
Average 7-day comp. strength of mortar cubes 90% of
strength of those made with fresh water
Should not affect the set time significantly

USC
 Disposal and Reuse of Wash
Water
Waste water from ready-mixed plants is a
hazardous substance
Practices prevented or limited by EPA include
dumping at the job site
dumping at a landfill
dumping into a pit at the ready-mix plant
Can reuse it for mixing new concrete
Use chemical stabilizing admixtures
USC
 Admixtures for Concrete
Commonly used to improve properties of fresh
and hardened concrete

Types of admixtures
1. Air entrainer
2. Water reducer
3. Retarder
4. Hydration controller
5. Accelerator
6. Specialty admixtures
USC
 Air Entrainers
Produce tiny, dispersed air bubbles into the concrete
water expands as it freezes causing internal stress that
cracks the hardened cement paste and greatly reduces
durability
air entrainer provides space for the water to go as it
expands
Recommended for all concrete exposed to freezing
Improve workability, resistance to de-icing chemicals,
sulfates, & alkalis
Decreases strength by about 20% but can be compensated
with lower w/c ratio
USC
Thin section of concrete with air voids dyed blue

USC
 Air Entrainers (contd)
Different from entrapped air which is harmful larger
bubbles
frost resistance improves with decreasing void size
small voids reduce strength less than large ones

Air entrainers are usually a liquid poured directly into

the truck
Follow manufacturers recommendations for dosage

USC
 Water Reducers
Increase mobility of cement particles
Improves workability measured with slump test

Normal
No water
water reducer
reducer

High-range
water reducer
Mid range (Superplasticizer)
water reducer

USC
 Molecule of Water
Reducer

Without Water Reducer

With Water Reducer

USC
Three Ways to Use Water Reducers
1. improve workability using same w/c ratio
2. increase strength using lower w/c ratio
3. reduce cost at same w/c ratio by reducing both water
& cement Compressive
Cement Strength (Mpa)
content Water/Cement Slump
kg/m3 Ratio (mm) 7 day 28 day
Base mix 300 0.62 50 25 37
Improve
consistency 300 0.62 100 26 38
Increase
strength 300 0.56 50 34 46

Reduce costs 270 0.62 50 25.5 37.5

USC
 Plasticizer (Superplasticizer)
(High-Range Water Reducer)
High-range water reducers used same as above:
increase slump from 3" to 9"

reduce water by 12 - 30% at same slump

Lasts only 30 - 60 min. with rapid loss of

workability
added at the jobsite
USC
 Retarders

Delay or retard initial set (increase set time)

hot weather for low heat of hydration
long haul time
time for special finishes
may reduce early strength
usually doesn't reduce final set time much

USC
 Hydration Controllers
Have the ability to stop and reactivate the hydration process
of concrete
Consist of 2 parts
1. stabilizer: stops the hydration for up to 72 hours
2. activator: reestablishes normal hydration and setting
Useful in extending the use of ready-mixed concrete when
work at the jobsite is stopped for various reasons
Useful when concrete is being hauled for a long time

USC
 Accelerators
Speed up or accelerate initial & final set
(decrease set time)
Used to
1. reduce the amount of time before finishing
operations begin
2. reduce curing time
3. increase rate of strength gain
4. plug leaks under hydraulic pressure efficiently
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is most common USC
 Specialty Admixtures
workability agents concrete pumping aids
corrosion inhibitors bonding agents
damp-proofing agents grouting agents
permeability reducing gas-forming agents
fungicidal, germicidal, coloring agents
& insecticidal admix
(hospitals, clean rooms,
etc.)
USC
 Supplementary Cementitious
Materials
Fly Ash
most commonly used pozzolan in CE structures
by-product of the coal industry
Class N, F, and C
increases workability and extends the hydration
process

Slag Cement
made from iron blast furnace slag
used as a cementitious material in concrete
USC
Supplementary Cementitious
Materials (Cont.)
Silica Fume
byproduct of the production of silicon metal or
ferrosilicon alloys
increases strength and durability
reduces concrete corrosion induced by deicing or
marine salts
Natural Pozzolans
Not cementitious, but react with calcium
hydroxide to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties
USC