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Learning Outcomes

Topic N ~ Kidney
(a) discuss the importance of homeostasis in mammals and explain the principles of
homeostasis in terms of receptors, effectors and negative feedback;

(b) define the term excretion and explain the importance of removing nitrogenous waste
products and carbon dioxide from the body;

(c) *describe the gross structure of the kidney and the detailed structure of the nephron
with the associated blood vessels (candidates are expected to be able to interpret the
histology of the kidney, as seen in sections using the light microscope);

(d) explain the functioning of the kidney in the control of water and metabolic wastes,
using water potential terminology;

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REGULATIO A D CO TROL ~ KID EY

(a) discuss the importance of homeostasis in mammals and explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of receptors,
effectors and negative feedback;

What is homeostasis? Define

HOMEOSTASIS:

Importance?
i) maintain optimal conditions for body to function
ii) maintain stability despite fluctuations in external environment
iii) enable organisms to survive in a wider range of habitats

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS of homeostatic system

..

~Specialised cell/organs ~ brings about correction

~capable of detecting stimulus ~ Eg: mucus, glands

(b) define the term excretion and explain the importance of removing nitrogenous waste products and carbon dioxide from the
body;

EXCRETIO :

Importance? What are the consequences if allowed

to accumulate:

What are the excretory products?

i)
ii)
iii)
Source of nitrogenous waste
a. Excess proteins and amino acids not stored in body
b. Amino groups is removed from amino acid by____________________, forming __________ in liver
c. NH3 is very _______________, very toxic if allowed to accumulate
d. NH3 is converted to urea (CO(NH2)2) by combining with CO2 .
e. Features of urea:
f. High urea conc. in blood can damage cells
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g. Must be removed constantly, excreted through _____________________________.
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(c) *describe the gross structure of the kidney and the detailed structure of the nephron with the associated blood vessels
(candidates are expected to be able to interpret the histology of the kidney, as seen in sections using the light microscope);

KIDNEY

Main homeostatic functions of kidneys:

Define:

1. EXCRETION

2. OSMOREGULATION

A section through the kidney shows it is made up of:

Regions Description
i) fibrous capsule an outer membrane that protects the kidney

ii) cortex a lighter coloured outer region made up of renal (Bowman's) capsules,
convoluted tubules and blood vessels

iii) medulla a darker coloured inner region Made up of loops of Henle, collecting ducts and
blood vessels

iv) renal pelvis a funnel<shaped cavity that collects urine into the ureter

v) ureter a tube that carries urine to the bladder

vi) renal artery supplies the kidney with oxygenated blood from the heart via the aorta
renal vein returns filtered blood to the heart via the vena cava

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Microscopic examination of the cortex and medulla reveals around one million tiny tubular structures in
each kidney. These are the basic structural and functional units of the kidney < the nephrons (Fig below)

Region of nephron Activity / Process

1. Renal Corpuscle
Glomeruli + Bowmans capsule

2. Proximal convulated tube

3. Loop of Henle
Decending Limb
Ascending Limb

4. Distal convulated tube

5. Collecting duct

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KID EY photomicrograph

The outer regions, called the cortex are distinguished by numerous sectioned profiles of tubules and
glomerulus

Look at a glomerulus with a higher magnification.

It is essentially a tuft of capillaries (glomerulus)
embedded in a double-walled epithelium (like a fist in a balloon) called "Bowman's capsule".
Note the capillaries in the glomerulus. The space between the two epithelia is called Bowman's space.
Note that the cells show an abrupt transition from simple squamous to simple cuboidal cell in the
proximal tubule (PT).

The profiles of the cortex will show proximal and distal tubules.
In the above photograph, numerous proximal tubules are seen (PT).
The cells are distinguished by an uneven apical border (because it is a brush border).
Proximal tubule cell profiles may not show as many nuclei
In contrast, Distal tubules have no brush border (DT).
They are distinguished from proximal tubules by the fact that they have a smoother apical surface.
Also, the cells are smaller.
Therefore, it is likely that one will see a nucleus in every profile.
Find a peritubular capillary by the presence of stacked red blood cells.
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Can identify the LOOP OF HENLE by its squamous epithelium.

Also, you can see COLLECTING TUBULES by their cuboidal and columnar epithelium.
The vessels in the medullary ray are the VASA RECTA. Vasa recta can be distinguished by
their content of red blood cells

Urine is produced by 3 main processes:

(I) Ultrafiltration (at renal corpuscle)

(II) Reabsorption (proximal convoluted tubule & Loop of Henle)
(III) Secretion (distal convoluted)

#arrated animation (general intro):http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/kidney.html

(d) explain the functioning of the kidney in the control of water and metabolic wastes, using water potential terminology;

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(I) ULTRAFLITRATION

1. Filtration of small molecules, < 69,000 MW out of the

blood in glomerulus into renal capsule
form glomerular filtrate.
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2. Composition of glomerular filtrate: ____________________
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__________________________________________________
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3. Ultrafiltration
occurs under high hydrostatic pressure. How?

Filtration barrier~ 3 layers

i. Endothelium of glomerular capillaries

ii. Basement membrane of capillaries

iii. Epithelium of Bowmans capsule

4. Glomerular FILTRATION RATE dependent on FILTRATION PRESSURE

5. FILTRATION PRESSURE Afferent Efferent

arteriole arteriole
depends on differences across basement membrane
s ,solute potential & p, hydrostatic potential


Capillaries

6. Blood leaving glomerulus (via efferent arteriole)

~ ___due to ____________________________
Renal
capsules
~ hydrostatic pressure ____ due to __________________

7. All blood pass through kidneys every 4<5mins

8. In humans, filtration rate: 12.5 cm3min<1 (about 12.4 cm3 min<1 is reabsorbed)

9. Urine formed only 1 cm3min<1; Average 1.5 dm3 urine per day 7
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a) Solutes (PCT)~ 80%
(II) SELECTIVE REABSORPTION_____
b) Water (Loop of Henle)

:::PROXIMAL CONVULATED TUBE/ PCT:::

~ Longest (14mm) and widest (60 m)
~ time for reabsorption
~ made of 1 layer of epithelial cells

Adaptive features of PCT cells for selective reabsorption

i) Extensive brush border/ microvilli and basal channels

ii) umerous mitochondria

iii) Carrier proteins/ active pumps in membranes

iv) Closeness of capillaries

v) Tight junction

FU CTIO :

Selective reabsorption of useful substances from

tubule into blood capillaries

PCT reabsorbs substances into the blood in a number of

ways:
Substance Methods of reabsorption
FROM TUBULE PCT cell
Glucose & amino acids
Sodium ions

Water
urea
protein
**creatinine

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Substance Methods of reabsorption Question (ref Bio Sc)
Describe how glucose is reabsorbed into blood
FROM PCT cell capillary.
intercellular space
Glucose & amino acids
Sodium ions
Water
urea

**All substance reabsorbed will diffuse into blood capillary.

** Diffusion gradient is maintained byquick removal of reabsorbed substances by peritubular capillaries
Resultant tubule fluid has same with blood plasma in capillaries, but volume of liquid very much reduced.

ASSOCIATED BLOOD VESSELS & CAPILLARIES

Describe the function of the following:

1.Renal Artery:

2.Afferent/Efferent Arteriole:

3.Glomerulus:

4.Peritubular capillaries:

5.Vasa recta:

6.Renal Vein:

(b) :::LOOP OF HE LE::: ~ Permeable to H2O and small molecule

1. Structure
Descending limb is thinner, cells squamous, more permeable to water
Ascending limb thicker, cells cuboidal, permeable to solutes, less permeable to water
Associated vessels, vasa recta run parallel to loop of Henle

2. Functions
To create a very high solute concentration in tissue fluid of medulla
By counter?current mechanism and different permeability of the two limbs
So, more water will be reabsorbed from the collecting duct and not lost in urine
Water is conserved
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WATER MOVEME T

Tubule lumen Tubule Cells Blood Capillaries

How Loop Of Henle CO CE TRATES MEDULLA REGIO ??

The loop of Henle acts as a counter?current multiplier

1
Ascending limb:

2 Interstitial region / tissue fluid:

3 Descending limb:

4 Base of the decending limb and ascending limb:

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5 Turning up towards ascending limb

6 Interstitial space/ tissue fluid between ascending limb and collecting duct:
As water passes out of the filtrate its is lowered.
in the interstitial space also lowered and so water continues to move out by osmosis down the
whole length of the collecting duct.
The counter<current multiplier ensures that there is always water potential gradient drawing water out
of the tubule , with fluid flowing down in one limb and up in another.

7 Collecting duct and blood vessels:

8 Urine formation

(III) SECRETIO ~ Distal Convulated Tube/ DCT____

1. Structure
Cells that make up the walls of the distal (second) convoluted tubule have microvilli
Have many mitochondria that allow them to reabsorb material rapidly from the filtrate, by either
diffusion or active transport.

2. 3 main functions:
a) Reabsorption

b) Active secretion

c) pH regulation

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::: COLLECTI G DUCT :::

Describe the Mechanism of water reabsorption at collecting duct with ref to diagram

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4

URI E FORMATIO
Urine is formed as a result of exchange of solutes and water between the filtrate leaving PCT and all
the structures distal to it
Urine~ only about 1% of filtered volume
High concentration of urea, creatinine and variable ion conc.

[ ] of fluid in diff region of a nephron, with &

without presence of ADH.

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Structured Questions
1. Figure below is a diagram of a section through the proximal convoluted tubule of a kidney nephron
showing details of a cell structure as seen with the electron microscope.

(a) Name structures A and B. [2m]

(b) State how A and B assists reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate. [2m]
(c) State two differences between glomerular filtrate and blood. [2m]
(d) Explain how blood pressure affects the formation of glomerular filtrate. [2m]

2. Give explanation for each of the following facts

(a) Proximal convulated tubule cells have many mitochondria and bear many microvilli on the luminar
borders

(b) The glomerular capillaries and inner surfaces of the renal capsule are made of specialized cells,
called podocytes.

(c) Drinking coffee increases the volume of urine produced per unit time

3. Figure below represents a mammalian kidney nephron.

(a) Label structures A, B, C, D, E, F and G on the diagram. [7m]

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(b) (i) Name the process, taking place in B. [1m]

(ii) State two conditions which are necessary for this process to occur. [2m]

(c) (i) By what process does water move out of the kidneys tubule, C? [1m]
(ii) State what causes this movement. [1m]
(iii) In which region of the nephron does outward movement of water occur? [1m]

(d) (i) What passes out of the kidneys tubule, E? [1m]

(ii) Name the process causing it to move. [1m]

(e) Explain the role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in the formation of concentrated urine. [3m]

4. Copy the following account of kidney function, then write on the dotted lines the most appropriate
word/ words to complete the account.

In the kidney, the renal artery branches to form many smaller arterioles, each of which divides further
to form a knot of capillaries called a .Here, small molecules such as
and are forced into the cavity of the Bowmans (renal)
capsule by the process of .Selective reabsorption takes place in the nephron. This
causes .to be drawn out of the collecting duct.

5. Describe the function of the

(i) glomerulus; [2]

(ii) peritubular capillaries; [2]

(iii) vasa recta. [2]

(b) Explain the role of the collecting duct in controlling the water content of body fluids. [3 ]

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Learning Outcomes

Topic N ~ Neurones
(a) outline the role of sensory receptors in mammals in converting different forms of energy into nerve impulses;

(b) describe the structure of a sensory neurone and a motor neurone and outline their functions in a reflex arc;

(c) describe and explain the transmission of an action potential in a myelinated neurone and its initiation from a
resting potential (the importance of sodium and potassium ions in the impulse transmission should be
emphasised);

(d) explain the importance of the myelin sheath (saltatory conduction) and the refractory period in determining the
speed of nerve impulse transmission;

(e) describe the structure of a cholinergic synapse and explain how it functions (reference should be made to the
role of calcium ions);

(f) outline the roles of synapses in the nervous system in determining the direction of nerve impulse transmission
and in allowing the interconnection of nerve pathways;

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FUNCTIONS of Nervous system:

1. To collect information
2. Process and integrate info; relate to previous response/experience
3. Initiate appropriate response and coordinate activities
4. Eg:
Sensory brain Motor
Stimulus receptors coordinator Effector Response

NERVE
A nerve is a bundle of neurons/ nerve cells

NEURONES:
Specialized nerve cells
Functional units of nervous system

Nerve Cells

Well Adapted for:

i) Transmission of action potential along a neurone
ii) Synaptic transmission across the synapse

Describe the Main ADAPTIVE features:

i) Cell body

ii) Dendrones and dendrites

iii) Axon

iv) Na+2K+ pumps, specific gated ion channels; gated channel protein
v) Membrane permeability can be altered by stimulus
vi) Synaptic vesicles in synaptic knob
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Features of myelin sheath

Formed by successive wrappings of Schwann cell membranes

Types of neurons:

Reflex Action
A fast, automatic, stereotyped response to a stimulus
Involuntary/not involving conscious control
Useful in responding to danger
Eg: knee jerk/stretch reflex
Removal of hand from a painful stimulus

~ Describe the mechanism of a Reflex Arc:

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!"" # # "$ " #

3Na+

2K+

RESTING POTENTIAL: potential difference across axon membrane when it is not conducting impulse/
not stimulated.

AT Equilibrium, inside of axon negatively charged (270mV), compared to outside

Resting potential is maintained by:2

1. Active transport of Na+ and K+ by Na+ K+ pump

2. Axon membrane is much more permeable to K+ than to Na+ (20225 x more)

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TRANSMISSION of NERVE IMPULSE

i) Nerve impulse is transmitted along a neurone as a series of ACTION POTENTIALS

ii) Action potential propagated along the axon, w/o change in amplitude

Action Potential
The sudden reversal in membrane potential when it is stimulated
Produced by sudden in axon permeability to _____________
Resulting in inside becoming more _____________than outside

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Resting

** Action potential produced is always

the same _____________________

** Strength of stimulus is indicated by

_______________of action potential

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Propagation of a nerve impulse in a

TRANSMISSION along the AXON

Once created, AP moves rapidly along neurone

Size of action potential remains the same from one end

of the neurone to the other
(a) myelinated neurone
Nothing physically moves along the neurone but rather
reversal of electrical charges is reproduced at
different points along
As one of the region of the neurone produces an action
potential & becomes depolarised, it acts as a stimulus
for the depolarisation of the next region of the axon
A LOCALISED CIRCUIT is formed (b) unmyelinated neurone

Formation of Localised circuit

Propagation of a nerve impulse in a myelinated neurone

%! " " # &' (

)
1. resting potential;
2. 260 to 270 mV;
3. sodium potassium Na+ / K+ pump / sodium ions out and potassium ions in;
4. ref. to potential due to leakage of potassium out;
5. action potential;
6. depolarisaton of membrane;
7. up to +40 mV;
8. opening of sodium channels / sodium ions flow in / increase in sodium ion permeability;
9. ref. to closing of sodium channels;
10.potassium channels open;
11.potassium ions / K+ flows out;
12.resting potential restored / graph to show charge change as impulse passes;
13.ref. to local circuits;
14.ref. to refractory period;
15.ref. to direction of impulse;
16.ref. to myelination and speed of conduction / saltatory;
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**+

REFER to CIE

%! , # &- (

)
1. ref. specific example ; e.g. pacinian
corpuscle / rod / cone / hair cell
2. correct stimulus ; e.g. touch /
pressure light / sound
3. detail of receptor response ; e.g.
deformation of pacinian corpuscle
membrane
4. stimulus causes Na+ channels to
open ;
5. Na+ enters cell ;
6. K+ channels open ;
7. K+ leaves cell ;
8. depolarisation ;
9. receptor / generator potential ;
10. greater than threshold leads to,
action potential / impulses ;
11. less than threshold only localised
depolarisation ;
12. increased stimulus leads to
increased frequency of action
potentials ;
13. AVP ;

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Refractory Period
Axons are unable to transmit another impulse immediately after an action potential
This is because membrane cannot be depolarized / is recovering
During repolarisation and hyperpolarisation
Na+ channels closed, Na+ cannot enter
K+ ions move out as K+ channels open
Membranes become more negative than RP

Refractory period has 2 phases:

List 2 Advantages of Refractory period:

Explain why the action potential is an All Or Nothing Phenomenon. [2]

:::SPEED of TRANSMISSION:::
./0+12

(i) Myelin Sheath

(ii) Axon Diameter

(iii) Temperature

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SYNAPSE
~ An area of functional contact between 1 neurone and the other
~ for transmitting impulse between neurons

Structure of Synapse
) !4
_____________________carried in small vesicles
Mitochondria to produce ATP, for
______________________________________

_____________________/gap of 20nm separates

2 neurones at a synapse

sER

Role of the synapse (refer to CIE and handout)

, # &5(

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Transmission of impulse across the synapse/ how a synapse functions

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Tutorial N~ NEURONE

1. The diagram shows a mammalian neurone.

a. What type of neurone is shown? 1m

b. Name the parts labelled A, B, C and D. 4m

c.
(i) Suggest two reasons why the fibre is surrounded by a fatty layer. 2m

(ii) Name the fatty layer. 1m

d The part labelled E is branched. Suggest reasons for this. 1m

2. An example of a reflex action occurs when you burn your finger. This would cause you to contract the
biceps, thus pulling the finger away from the source of heat. Such a reflex action involves three
neurones.
a.
(i) Name the effectors in this action. 1m

(ii) Explain the meaning of the term 'reflex action'. 2m

(iii) Draw a diagram to show such a spinal reflex. Label the neurones. 3m

(iv) Give two advantages of this response being a reflex action. 2m

(v) Give two other examples of reflex actions. 2m

b. When the detective Hercule Poirot was thinking he often referred to his 'little grey cells'. Explain what
these consisted of and where in the body they would be found. (We would call it grey matter.
2m
c. What gives the white appearance to 'white matter'? 1m

d. Name the two main coordinating systems. 2m

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3. Read through the following and then list the most suitable word(s) to fill the gaps in this passage
about the nervous system in humans.

There are three main types of nerve cells. Electrical impulses travel along (1) from the receptor to the
central nervous system. The message may then pass to an (2) nerve cell and then be carried along a (3) 3m
to the muscle or gland. These bring about the response and are known as (4).

4. Compare the structure and functions of sensory meurones and motor neurons. 8m

5. Fig. below shows the changes in membrane potential in an axon during the passage of a single
impulse.

a. Outline how the resting potential from A to B is maintained. 3m

b. Describe how the changes in the membrane bring about depolarization from B to C. 3m

c. Explain how the membrane is repolarised from C to D. 3m

6. Some of the early research into conduction of impulses was carried out on the giant axons of molluscs
such as squid and octopus. These do not have a myelin sheath around their axons. The table below
shows the speed of conduction in the axons of cat and octopus.

Speed of conduction Diameter of axon

(m/s) ( m)
Cat (myelinated axon) 25 3.5
Cat (non myelinated axon) 15 3.5
Octopus (non myelinated 25 600
axon)

a. Describe how the rate of conduction is related to the structure of the axon in cats. 1m

b. Describe how the rate of conduction is related to the diameter of non2myelinated axons. 1m

c. Explain how a myelin sheath affects the rate of transmission of impulses along the axon 3m

d. Suggest why giant axons may have developed in squid and octopus rather than snails. 2m
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7. Read the following passage about synapses carefully and then write a list of the most suitable words to
fill the gaps.

The junction between the axon of one neurone and the (1) of the next neurone is called a synapse.
8m
Here the axon terminal or synaptic (2) as it is called, contains many (3) to supply energy. The synaptic
(4) are bounded by membranes and contain a transmitter substance called (5). This diffuses across the
synaptic (6) to bind with (7) on the (8) membrane.

a. Name A to E . 5m

b. Draw a large arrow on the diagram to indicate the direction of the impulse across the 1m
Synapse

c. Explain the function of:

(i) mitochondria in synapse
(ii) synaptic vesicle 4m

d. Describe the role of calcium ions in synaptic transmission. 3m

e. Suggest why it is important that neurotransmitter is rapidly hydrolysed after its release. 2m

f. Some organophosphate insecticides work by inhibiting enzymes that catalyses the hydrolysis of 2m
acetylcholine. Suggest what effects this will have in the body of the insects.

9 DIFFERENCES between NERVOUS and ENDOCRINE coordination

Endocrine coordination Nervous coordination

i) Message

ii)Transported via

ii) Target

iii) Transmission Speed

v) Effect duration

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