Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2008) 7, 499-504
http://www.jssm.org
Research article
Anthropometric, gait and strength characteristics of Kenyan distance runners
Pui W. Kong 1
and Hendrik de Heer 2
1
Department of Kinesiology and 2Department of Psychology, University of Texas at El Paso, Texas, USA
Abstract
This study intended to take a biomechanical approach to under-
stand the success of Kenyan distance runners. Anthropometric,
gait and lower extremity strength characteristics of six elite
Kenyan distance runners were analyzed. Stride frequency, rela-
tive stride length and ground contact time were measured at five
running speeds (3.5 5.4 m/s) using a motion capture system.
Isometric knee extension and flexion torques were measured at
six angles and hamstrings and quadriceps (H:Q) ratios at three
angular velocities were determined using an isokinetic dyna-
mometer. These runners were characterized by a low body mass
index (20.1 1.8 kgm-2), low percentage body fat (5.1 1.6%)
and small calf circumference (34.5 2.3 cm). At all running
speeds, the ground contact time was shorter (p < 0.05) during
right (170 212 ms) compared to left (177 220 ms) foot con-
tacts. No bilateral difference was observed in other gait or
strength variables. Their maximal isometric strength was lower
than other runners (knee extension: 1.4 - 2.6 Nmkg-1, knee
flexion: 1.0 1.4 Nmkg-1) but their H:Q ratios were higher than
athletes in other sports (1.03 0.51 at 60/s, 1.44 0.46 at
120/s, 1.59 0.66 at 180/s). The slim limbs of Kenyan dis-
tance runners may positively contribute to performance by
having a low moment of inertia and thus requiring less muscular
effort in leg swing. The short ground contact time observed may
be related to good running economy since there is less time for
the braking force to decelerate forward motion of the body.
These runners displayed minor gait asymmetry, though the
difference may be too small to be practically significant. Further
investigations are needed to confirm whether the bilateral sym-
metry in strength and high H:Q ratios are related to genetics,
training or the lack of injuries in these runners.
Key words: Stride length, stride frequency, ground contact
time, isometric torque, hamstrings to quadriceps ratio, asymme-
try.
Introduction
Kenyan runners are well recognized for their success in
distance running (Manners, 1997; Onywera, et al., 2006).
As of today, male Kenyan (and East African) runners are
in the top of the International Association of Athletics
Federation (IAAF) world lists in all events from 800 m to
the marathon (Table 1). About three quarters of the top
Kenyan runners come from the Kalenjin tribe (Manners,
1997), which makes up about 12% of Kenya's population
(CIA World Factbook, 2008) and approximately 1/2,000
of the world's population. Yet, they have won about three-
eighths of international men's distance running prizes and
three times more Olympic medals in distance running
than any other whole nation (Manners, 1997). These per-
formances have been described as the greatest geo-
Received: 04 July 2008 / Accepted: 07 October 2008 / Published (online): 01 December 2008
graphical concentration of achievement in the annals of
sport (Manners, 1997).
Table 1. Percentage of male Kenyan-born runners in
the top 50 of the 2007 IAAF World list.
Distance Percentage of Kenyan runners
800 m 30 %
1500 m 42 %
3 km Steeple 64 %
5 km 44 %
10 km track 54 %
10 km road 66 %
Half marathon 58 %
Marathon 58 %
Cross Country* 60%
*Data based on the 2007 IAAF World Cross Country
Championship mens 12 km top 10 race results.
Researchers have attempted to gain insight into
contributing factors behind the remarkable performance
of these Kalenjin athletes. Their success has been hy-
pothesized to be related to the fact that Kenyans generally
live and train at high altitude (around 2000 m above sea
level) influencing their oxygen capacity. However, re-
search has not supported this hypothesis as no difference
was found in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) between
elite Kenyan and Scandinavian runners (Saltin et al.,
1995b) or between untrained Kenyan and Danish adoles-
cents (Andersen et al., 1987). Another hypothesis states
that the athletes nutrition may have contributed to suc-
cess in running. While Kenyan runners diet matched the
recommendations by the Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion/World Health Organization/United Nations Univer-
sity (FAO/WHO/UNU) for endurance athletes for macro-
nutrients intake (Christensen et al., 2002; Onywera et al.,
2004), it was far from adequate for vitamin and mineral
intake (Christensen, 2005). During intense training peri-
ods prior to competition, Kenyan runners are in negative
energy balance (Fudge et al., 2007; Onywera et al., 2004)
leading to body mass reduction (Onywera et al., 2004)
that may potentially contribute to short term success by
reducing the energy cost of running. However, no associa-
tion was found between nutrition and marathon perform-
ance in African runners (Peters and Goetzsche, 1997).
Endurance running performance is positively re-
lated to type I fibres in skeletal muscles (Coyle, 1999) but
this does not explain the success of Kenyan runners as
muscle fibre size and composition are similar between
elite Kenyan and Scandinavian runners (Saltin et al.,
1995a). Recent research has evaluated the genetic expres-
sion in elite Kenyan runners but no association between
their genetic makeup and performance has been con-
firmed (Scott et al., 2005). Another popular presumption
500
is that Kenyan children run long distances to school.
Compared to the general Kenyan population, elite Kenyan
runners travelled further to school, mostly by running
(Onywera et al., 2006). While there was no difference in
aerobic trainability between Kenyan village and town
boys (Larsen et al., 2005), it has been speculated that the
physical activity in childhood, combined with intense
training as teenagers, were related to the high aerobic
capacity in Kenyan runners (Saltin et al., 1995b). Other
factors that may be positively associated with African
distance runners success include their slender body shape
(Larsen et al., 2004; Saltin et al., 1995a), good running
economy (Saltin et al., 1995b; Weston et al., 2000), and
higher fractional utilization of VO2max (Weston et al.,
2000).
In running, biomechanical factors can contribute to
success in performance in terms of improving running
economy and preventing injury (Williams, 2007). Run-
ning economy has been shown to correlate with certain
gait characteristics such as stride length (Morgan et
al.,1994), ground contact time (Nummela et al., 2007),
vertical oscillation and lower extremity angles (Williams
and Cavanagh, 1987). Lower extremity injuries are re-
lated to altered running mechanics (Willems et al., 2005)
and imbalances in muscle strength (Orchard et al., 1997).
It is possible that Kenyan runners run in a form that posi-
tively contributes to their superior performance and keeps
them free from injury. To our knowledge, the only bio-
mechanical study on Kenyan runners available in English
is an abstract by Enomoto and Ae (2005). This study
reported kinematic differences between elite Kenyan and
Japanese runners and concluded that the Kenyan runners
were able to swing their leg forward faster and through a
greater range. Although limited data were presented in
this abstract, their findings highlight that biomechanical
factors may play a significant role in the success of Ken-
yan distance runners.
This study aimed to take a biomechanical approach
to contribute to the understanding of the success of Ken-
yan runners. Anthropometric, gait and lower extremity
strength characteristics of six elite Kenyan distance run-
ners were analyzed.
Table 2. Demographic information, training experience and personal best record of six Kenyan runners.
Subject Kalenjin Family run- Means of travel to
Sub-tribe ning history* school (age 6-14y) training (yr)
1 Nandi Yes Walk/Run
Daily 6-13km
2 Nandi Yes Walk/Run
Daily 6-13km
3 Keiyo No Walk/Run
Daily 6-13km
4 Nandi Yes Walk/Run
Daily 5-10km
5 Nandi Yes Walk/Run
Daily 5-10km
6 Nandi Yes Walk/Run
Daily 13km
* At least one family member has been a competitive runner. Time is expressed in minutes and seconds.
Biomechanical characteristics of Kenyan runners
Methods
All experimental procedures were approved by the Insti-
tutional Review Board and informed consents were ob-
tained prior to data collection. The subjects were six elite
collegiate male runners who competed for a university in
the U.S. at the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) Division 1 level at the time of the study. All
runners were born in the Rift Valley, Kenya and belong to
the Kalenjin tribe; five of them belong to the Nandi, the
Kalenjin sub-tribe that the majority of elite Kenyan run-
ners come from (Onywera et al., 2006). Except subject 2,
all runners have won at least one All-American title.
Table 2 presents their demographic and running back-
ground, and Table 3 describes their physical characteris-
tics. Each year, the participants compete from roughly
September through November in Cross Country and from
January through June in track. During the course of the
year, the amount of training sessions range from about 11
sessions and 170 km during maximum build up phases to
about 7 sessions and 80 km during mid competition sea-
son.
Anthropometric measurements
Each subjects height, mass, leg length (greater trochanter
to lateral malleolus), calf circumference (maximum cir-
cumference between knee and ankle) and ankle circum-
ference (minimum circumference just above lateral mal-
leolus) were measured. Since no bilateral difference was
found, an average value of both left and right sides was
calculated for each length and circumference parameter.
A 3-site skinfold test (chest, abdominal and thigh) was
used to calculate the body fat percentage using the Jack-
son and Pollock (1978) equations.
Gait characteristics
Reflective markers were placed on the heel, second meta-
tarsal head and lateral malleolus of both feet (over shoes)
of each subject. Each subject ran on a treadmill at five
speeds (3.5 m/s, 4.0 m/s, 4.5 m/s, 5.0 m/s and 5.4 m/s) in
a systematic order while kinematic data were collected at
240 Hz using an eight-camera motion capture system
Organized Personal Best Times
and Events
3.5 800m: 1:47
1500m: 3:44
10km Cross Country: 29:36
1.5 1500m: 3:46
5000m: 14:05
10km Cross Country: 29:19
6 800m: 1:46
5 5000m: 13:48
10,000m: 28:07
4 5000m: 14:04
10,000m: 28:24
5 5000m: 14:02
3000m Steeple: 8:31
10km Cross Country: 28:39
Kong and Heer
Table 3. Anthropometric measurements and body composition of six Kenyan runners. Data are in mean (SD).
Variable Present study
Age (y) 22.0 (1.8)
Mass (kg) 63.0 (7.3)
Height (m) 1.77 (0.06)
Body mass index (kgm-2) 20.1 (1.8)
Leg length (m) 0.92 (0.06)
Calf circumference (cm) 34.5 (2.3)
Ankle circumference (cm) 20.5 (1.5)
Sum of three skinfolds (mm) 22.3 (5.8)
Body fat (%) 5.3 (1.6)
*Data on six Kenyan long distance runners measured at sea level. Body mass index of the best Kenyan runner measured at sea level.
(Vicon, Centennial, CO, USA). Ideally we would like to
use speed range that our runners would use in race (5.6
m/s to 7.5 m/s). However, the maximum speed of the
treadmill in our laboratory was 5.4 m/s. We included
some slower speeds for two reasons: 1) runners often use
slower speeds for training, and 2) previous studies have
used these speeds to test distance runners and therefore
comparison among studies can be made. At each speed,
time was given to the subjects to familiarize with the
speed for as long as they would need. As soon as the
subject indicated that he was comfortable with the speed,
30 seconds of kinematic data were recorded. Six consecu-
tive representative gait cycles near the end of the recorded
30-second period were selected for analysis. The instants
of touchdown and toe-off were visually identified based
on the foot markers displacement. Ground contact time,
stride frequency and stride length relative to height were
then calculated accordingly to represent gait characteris-
tics. Ground contact was defined as the duration from
touchdown to toe-off for the same foot. Stride frequency
measured the number of foot contacts per second. Stride
length was defined as the distance from the point of
touchdown of one foot to the point of touchdown of the
opposite foot. ANOVA with repeated measures (leg
speed) was used to detect differences in each gait parame-
ter. Statistical significance level was set at 0.05.
Strength characteristics
Subjects were tested for strength of both legs on an isoki-
netic dynamometer (System 3 Pro, Biodex Medical Sys-
tem, NY, USA) after familiarization with the protocol at
submaximal effort. We used isometric torque as a meas-
ure of leg strength, as well as isokinetic torque ratio to
assess agonist/antagonist muscle balance. Peak isometric
torque of the quadriceps and hamstrings were measured at
six angles: 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 of knee flex-
ion. Subjects performed one 3-second trial for each of the
above angles with 60 s rest between trials. Peak concen-
tric and eccentric torque of both muscle groups were
measured at three angular velocities: 60/s, 120/s and
180/s. Six repetitions were performed at each angular
velocity and the peak value was used for evaluation. Al-
though dynamic movements can exceed 180/s, strength
at higher velocities was not measured because such ve-
locities are unlikely to be reached during testing on the
dynamometer (Kong, 2007). From the peak isokinetic
torque data, functional hamstrings to quadriceps (H:Q)
ratios were calculated for each angular velocity by divid-
ing the eccentric hamstrings torque by the concentric
501
Saltin et al. (1995b)* Fudge et al. (2007)
23 (2.1) 21.0 (2.0)
56.1 (1.2) 56.0 (3.4)
1.71 (0.00) 1.74 (0.03)
19.2 18.3 (1.3)
7.1 (2.5)
quadriceps torque. This functional H:Q ratio has been
shown to be more appropriate for strength evaluation than
the conventional ratio using concentric torques of both
muscle groups (Aagaard et al., 1998). Isokinetic data on
subject 4 were not available because this subject did not
perform this part of the protocol as he was close to an
important competition and desired to avoid any muscular
soreness or fatigue that participation might cause. Thus,
H:Q ratio of only five subjects was analyzed. Since paired
t-tests revealed no difference in any of the strength pa-
rameters between the two legs, an average value of both
sides was used. Differences in isometric torque among the
six knee angles, as well as the H:Q ratio among the three
angular velocities were assessed separately using a one-
way ANOVA with repeated measures.
Results
Data are presented as mean (standard deviation). Table 3
compares the anthropometric measurements of the six
Kenyan runners in the present study to those of elite adult
Kenyan runners available in the literature.
Ground contact time during the left leg stride was
significantly longer (p < 0.05) than that of the right leg
overall (Table 4). No bilateral difference was observed in
stride frequency and relative stride length and therefore
the average value of both sides were presented in Table 4.
As speed increased, stance time decreased while stride
frequency and relative stride length increased (all p <
0.01).
Isometric torque of both the quadriceps and the
hamstrings changed with knee angle (p < 0.05, Figure 1).
Figure 1. Isometric torque of both the quadriceps (filled
circle) and the hamstrings (empty circle) changed with knee
angle.
502
Table 4. Gait characteristic of six Kenyan runners at five running speeds. Data are in mean (SD).
Speed (m/s) Ground contact time (ms)
Left Right
3.5 220 (25) 212 (24)
4.0 208 (25) 199 (22)
4.5 201 (21) 193 (20)
5.0 183 (27) 180 (22)
5.4 177 (26) 170 (22)
Significant main effect of leg for ground contact time (p < 0.05). Significant main effect of speed for all gait parameters (p < 0.05).
The quadriceps torque increased with muscle length,
peaking around 80 to 90 of knee flexion. The ham-
strings torque peaked at the most lengthened position and
decreased as the muscles were shortened. Although the
functional H:Q ratio increased as angular velocity in-
creased (1.03 0.51 at 60/s, 1.44 0.46 at 120/s, 1.59
0.66 at 180/s), the difference did not reach statistical
significance.
Discussion
The present study is the first to describe the gait and
strength characteristics of elite Kenyan distance runners.
Despite limitations as the small sample size and the fact
that no control group of elite non-Kenyan runners was
available, the authors feel that this study takes a first step
in bridging an important gap in the literature to potentially
explain the success of Kenyans in distance running from a
biomechanical perspective.
The personal best times of the Kenyan runners in
the present study are close to the top 100 in the world, and
five of the six participants have finished in the individual
top 8 of the NCAA Division 1 Championships at their
event at least one occasion in the year prior to measure-
ment. These runners correspond largely with previously
reported description of elite Kenyan runners in terms of
slender body type, low body mass index and slim limbs
(Fudge et al., 2007; Saltin et al., 1995b). Like other elite
Kenyan runners, these runners travelled to school by
walking or running at young age (Onywera et al., 2006).
Their percentage body fat was slightly lower than those
reported by Fudge and colleagues (2007), probably due to
different measurement techniques. Their calf circumfer-
ences are comparable to those of Nandi boys (Larsen et
al., 2004) and such slim legs may positively contribute to
good running economy. With a low moment of inertia of
the leg about the hip, less muscular effort will be required
in leg swing. This is also in accordance with Enomoto and
Aes (2005) findings that Kenyan runners are effective in
leg swing, characterized by moving forward faster and
covering a greater horizontal range compared to Japanese
runners. Future research with a larger sample will need to
determine whether the body type is consistently different
between elite and non-elite runners.
As expected, there was an increase in stride fre-
quency and relative stride length with speed since these
gait parameters usually increase linearly for speeds up to
7 m/s (Williams, 1985). Although difference in relative
stride length between Japanese and Kenyan runners was
found by Enomoto and Ae (2005), numerical data were
not available to allow comparison to the present study.
Bilateral difference was observed in ground contact time,
Biomechanical characteristics of Kenyan runners
Stride frequency Relative stride
(Hz) length
2.92 (0.17) 0.68 (0.02)
3.02 (0.18) 0.76 (0.03)
3.09 (0.17) 0.82 (0.03)
3.19 (0.18) 0.89 (0.03)
3.26 (0.20) 0.93 (0.03)
but not in stride frequency or stride length, suggesting
some degree of gait asymmetry in these Kenyan runners.
It is still debatable whether gait asymmetry is related to
injuries (Zifchock et al., 2006). Due to their success, it is
believed that such minor asymmetry does not negatively
influence distance running performance. In addition, the
right foot contact time was on average only 7 ms shorter
than left foot contact time. This difference, though statis-
tically significant, may be too small to have any practical
significance.
Nummela and colleagues (2007) showed that ex-
cellent running economy can partly be explained by short
ground contact time, although data within speed range
used in the present study were not reported in their study.
At 4.5 m/s, the ground contact time of the Kenyan runners
in the present study appeared to be shorter (average 197
ms) than those measured by Clarke and colleagues (1983)
on 10 male runners (average 225 ms). At 5.0 m/s, our
Kenyan runners also showed shorter ground contact time
(average 192 ms) compared to the values reported by
Cavanagh and colleagues (1997) for 8 good and 14 elite
distance runners (average 201 - 205 ms). In a recent study
on 18 well-trained Finnish distance runners, the ground
contact time increased from 207 ms in the start of a 5-km
time trial to 220 ms at the end with the speed dropping
from 5.2 m/s to 4.7 m/s (Nummela et al., 2008). The
ground contact time observed at similar speeds in our
Kenyan runners (197, 182 and 174 ms for 4.5, 5.0 and 5.4
m/s) were, again, much shorter than the Finnish runners.
The short ground contact time may be related to good
running economy in the Kenyan runners since there is less
time for the braking force to decelerate forward motion of
the body. Based on a mass-spring model of running
(Arampatzis et al., 1999), higher leg stiffness will result in
shorter ground contact time. Less economical runners are
shown to possess a more compliant running style during
ground contact as reflected by the low vertical stiffness
(Heise and Martin, 1998). Thus, our Kenyan runners may
be effective in controlling their muscle activation to main-
tain high leg stiffness.
We would like to address as a potential limitation
that the gait characteristics observed on a treadmill may
differ from those during overground running as shown by
previous studies (Nelson et al., 1972; Nigg et al., 1995).
There may also be some influence due to unfamiliarity of
treadmill running (Lavcanska et al., 2005; Schieb, 1986)
since none of the Kenyan runners in the present study
train regularly on a treadmill. To reduce this influence,
the investigators gave the participants time to familiarize
themselves with running at each speed for as long as they
would need. Data were collected only after each subject
indicated that he was comfortable running at the particular
Kong and Heer
speed.
It is not surprising that no bilateral difference was
found in any strength parameters because the nature of
running movement is likely to put similar stress of both
legs. At the same time, however, our participants dis-
played minor asymmetry in gait characteristics. This may
suggest that minor difference in movement pattern is not
caused by and/or does not lead to strength asymmetry.
The isometric torque-angle relationship for both quadri-
ceps and hamstrings correspond well with the classical
force-length relationship and previously published data in
terms of the curve shape and the optimal knee joint angle
for force production (Ullrich and Brueggemann, 2008;
Savelberg and Meijer, 2003; Yoon et al., 1991). The iso-
metric strength of the quadriceps of the Kenyan runners
(1.4 - 2.6 Nm/kg) was less than those of elite endurance
runners (ranged approximately 1.5 3.8 Nm/kg) in Ger-
many (Ullrich and Brueggemann, 2008) and trained run-
ners (average 2.7 Nm/kg) in the Netherlands (Savelberg
and Meijer, 2003). This suggests that leg strength is
probably not a deterministic factor for success in distance
running. Nevertheless, the different equipment and proto-
cols used to measure strength among studies may also
account for the different findings.
The functional H:Q ratio, although not statistically
significant, shows a tendency to increase as angular ve-
locity increased. This is in agreement with the literature
(Aagaard et al., 1998; Holcomb et al., 2007), since eccen-
tric hamstrings torque remains relatively constant while
concentric quadriceps torque decreases as angular veloc-
ity increases according to the classical force-velocity
relationship. A functional H:Q ratio of 1.0 or greater has
been proposed as a training goal, though more specifically
for minimizing anterior cruciate ligament injuries (Aa-
gaard et al., 1998; Holcomb et al., 2007) which is rela-
tively uncommon in runners. Hamstrings-emphasized
resistance training program has been shown to be effec-
tive in improving the functional H:Q ratio from 0.96
0.09 to 1.08 0.11 in soccer players (Holcomb et al.,
2007). The H:Q ratios measured on the Kenyan runners in
the present study were greater than 1.0 at all angular ve-
locities. It should be noted that these runners do not par-
ticipate in systematic resistance training, yet their H:Q
ratios were higher than those of athletes in other sports
(Aagaard et al., 1998; Holcomb et al., 2007). While it is
possible that the running training routine alone has lead
these Kenyan runners to a good H:Q ratio, there may also
be a genetic factor which cannot be addressed by the
present study. Future studies comparing H:Q ratios of
runners of different ethnic backgrounds and between
Kenyan runners and sedentary Kenyan population will be
needed to confirm these speculations. Furthermore, it is
unclear whether the high H:Q ratio positively contributes
to the lack of injury in the five runners that we measured.
Due to geographical limitation, no control group
was available at the time of the present study. While rec-
reational Caucasian runners may potentially serve as
controls, the authors feel that this would not have been
appropriate, because the effect of training is likely to
exceed that due to differences related to genetic and/or
geographical location. Future studies with a control group
of elite non-Kenyan runners can provide more insight into
503
the genetic and/or geographical difference in running
mechanics. At the same time, comparing various levels
(elite/sub-elite/non-runners) within the Kenyan population
will also be valuable to determine whether an observed
difference is related to race and/or training.
Conclusion
This study is the first to present gait and strength charac-
teristics of elite Kenyan distance runners, with an aim to
understand their success in performance from a biome-
chanical perspective. Elite Kenyan distance runners are
characterized by a low body mass index, low percentage
body fat and slim limbs. Overall, short ground contact
time was observed in these runners, with shorter time
during right foot contacts. Finally, their leg strength was
relatively low compared to other runners, but they pos-
sessed high H:Q ratios compared to athletes in other
sports.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thanks Jason van Haselen for his help in
analyzing the gait data, Dr Stephen Burns and Dr Darla Smith for revis-
ing this manuscript, and Frans de Heer and Frank Remkes for their role
in development of the project.
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Key points
This is the first study in the literature to analyze the
biomechanical characteristics of elite Kenyan dis-
tance runners, potentially providing insight into their
success in distance running.
Their slim limbs may positively contribute to per-
formance by having a low moment of inertia and
thus requiring less muscular effort in leg swing.
Overall, short ground contact time was observed
with the right leg shorter than the left leg. This may
be related to good running economy since there is
less time for the braking force to decelerate forward
motion of the body.
These runners displayed symmetry in strength be-
tween the left and right legs and possessed high
hamstrings to quadriceps ratios compared to athletes
in other sports.
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY
Pui Wah (Veni) KONG
Employment
University of Pittsburgh, USA
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Computer simulation models, footwear and gait
biomechanics.
E-mail: venikong@yahoo.com
Hendrik de HEER
Employment
PhD candidate, Health Psychology, University
of Texas at El Paso and MPH student at the
UT-Houston Health Science Center.
Degree
Msc
Research interests
Exercise and physical activity, with (as a for-
mer runner) a special interest in track and field.
E-mail: hdeheer@utep.edu
Emergency Responder Human Performance Lab, Department of
Emergency Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 230 Mckee
Place, Suite 400, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA