264 braking force can be acheved with fewer units than in this ease. Kroda (1977) provides some valuable work PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE fon the use of tugs in a braking situation, Adequate Steering control i, of course, a separate consideration. Section 11 Automatic Control Systems 11.1 tefreducion. Regardless of hull and_appem ddage characteristics and pilot/helmsman proficieney, {rood controllability at ses in all weather may depend ireatly on the design and use of automatic control ‘ystems to perform steering and positioning funetions. Ship autopiios have bees in practical use since the mid 1920s being a elassial application of feedback control, See Franklin, et al (1986) for a treatise on feedback control, Automatic control systems are also widely used on offshore drilling vessels and platforms for dynamic positioning. Recently, highly sophisticated “adaptive autopilots” have been developed which adapt to situations such as weacher variations and attempt {to minimize speed losses dee to excessive rudder action and distance traveled wiile maintaining a desired For both naval and merchant ships it is common practice to have a helmstran standing by at al times ready to take over when rough seas may reduce au. topilot effectiveness. All-eather steering is thus problem of control as well as ship design, and a system 's required that will maintain desired heading under all sea conditions and ship courses. Furthermore, hull design and the control system must be tuned to mi imize the possibilty of breaching under severe follow ing. and quartering. sea onditions. when automatic ‘control systems are in operation. ‘The elements of automatic control systems in har dling basic eourse keeping will be discussed first fol- Towed by an approach to analyzing automatic control ystems when applied to unstable vessels. M12. Course-keeping With Automatic Control. One of the functions of ship control is to maintain a sh heading. In performing this function, a helmsman de- fects the rudder in a way that will reduce the error Detween the actual and the desired heading, desig. nated as y on Fig. 71. Since the actual heading angle can be determined by means of a compass, the mag: nitude of y can be readily displayed to the helmsman (Fig. 1. A good helmaman will not only deflect the rudiier in response to the heading error, y, but he ip also sensitive to the angular velocity of the ship, J ), and he will ease off the rudder and apply a little ‘opposite rudder in order to prevent overshooting. the desired heading. It follows that an automatic pilot ‘should also be responsive to control signals measuring both wand i. (in some commercial autopilots for ‘ocean-going ships, there isa feedback signal from the helm angle output to the heading error detector. By this means, the detector ean antieipate the yawing of the ship in response to helm already applied. Such feedback signal is not, however, the equivalent of a sensitivity to y). Thus a rudder, under automatic con trol, might be deflected in accordance with the follow: ing linear expression: Bp = hy + kab (6) where By, and p are all functions of time and where ‘i, and fare the constants of proportionality of the contol system. Following the sign convention of this chapter, both ‘ky and k, should be positive for proper control. Sub- stituting Equation (96) into the equations of motion (12), the following equations are obtained Vv + (%,— ani + Yb +(Pu a tary +) =o o Neal + NG + ky +O, + NOW +O, TD = 0 Equations (97) are simultancous differential equations of the first order in v" and of the second order in ¥. ‘The solution of these equations for 0" and y yields @ third-order differential equation which as noted in Sec tion 8.1 leads to the eoneept of directional stability or instability. The solutions to Equations (97) are v= ne + newt + ve a Us Wert + weer + weer ‘The equations of motion with automatic eontrol, Equation (97), difer from the equations of motion with controls fixed at 8, = 0, Equation (11), in two major respects. Equation (97) implies a sensitivity to the or entation of the ship, y, which is absent in Equation (11). This is, of eourse” impliit in the concept of rectional stability as opposed to straight-line stability Secondly, two of the terms which appear in the er terion, C, Equation (14b), for controls fixed, straight line stability, are altered by the presence of the con- trols, The former term (¥", ~ 4) now appears as (Y"- =A’ + k,¥') and what Was formerly (N',) now aP- pears as (4, k,N",)- Thus the second effort of au omatic controls is to make the ship behave as if it