LYCEUM NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF GRADUATE AND PROFESSIONAL STUDIES

Tapuac District, Dagupan City

METHODS OF RESEARCH

Submitted to: Irenea Barroga-Ubungen, Ph. D.

Submitted by: Gloriajane M. Paragas

August 31,2013
 LYCEUM NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF GRADUATE AND PROFESSIONAL STUDIES
Tapuac District, Dagupan City

Subject : Methods of Research

Student : Gloriajane M. Paragas
Facilitator : Irenea Barroga-Ubungen, Ph. D.
Date : 31 August 2013

TYPES OF RESEARCH

A. HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Definition of History

The origin of the word history means the search for knowledge and the truth, a
searching to find out. History is any integrated narrative or description of past events
or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the whole truth.
History is any narrative of any past event which is written with any critical inquiry
into the whole truth.

Meaning of Historical Research

Historical Research or Historical Method of Research is a process of

selecting the area or topic to write the history about, collecting data about events that
occurred in the area or about the topic, collating the data, sifting the authentic from non-
authentic, and then making an interpretative narrative about or critical inquiry into the
whole truth of the events. Historical research describes what occurred in the past and
then makes a critical inquiry into the truth of what occurred.

FOR EXAMPLE: THE FALL OF PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT FROM THE

INVASION OF THE JAPANESE IMPERIAL FORCES

Hypothesis: Why were the Filipino forces defeated by the Kempetai or Japanese
Imperial forces?

FOUR MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

a. Choosing and defining the problem

b. Collecting the data
 c. Critically analyzing the data
d. Writing the research report

CHARACTERISTICS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

1. Observations in historical research cannot be repeated in the same manner

as in laboratory experiments and descriptive surveys.

2. The researcher must find satisfaction in spending vast amounts of time in the
library and in pursuing minute details in relation to the topic under study.

3. A historical project is usually conducted by one person.

4. A hypothesis is not always in historical research, inferences are made more

often from the bits of information gathered to produce the general description of the
event or the situation.

5. The writing style of the written report tends to be more flexible because the
researcher wishes to present the facts and information in an interesting manner.

6. In addition, data are often ideas, concepts, and opinions and hence,
conclusions, generalizations, and inferences become subjective. No two investigators
would reach the same conclusions in a given instance.

B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research describes what is. It involves the description, recording,

analysis and interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes of
phenomena. The focus is on prevailing conditions, or how a person, group or thing
behaves or functions in the present.

Descriptive research is a fact-finding with adequate interpretation. The

descriptive method is something more and beyond just data-gathering; the latter is not
reflective thinking nor research. The true meaning of the data collected should be
reported from the point of view of the objectives and the basic assumption of the project
under way.

Descriptive research describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with the
conditions of relationships that exist; practices that prevail; beliefs, processes that are
going on; effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing.

Descriptive research may be defined as a purposive process of gathering,

analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs,
processes, trends, and cause-effect relationships and then making adequate and
accurate interpretation above such data with or without the aid of statistical methods.

FOR EXAMPLE: PERCEIVED LEADERSHIP STYLES OF PRINCIPALS IN

SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PANGASINAN
DIVISION II

Specific Problems:
1. What is the demographic profile of the principals in selected secondary
schools in Pangasinan Division II along with:
a. Age;
b. Gender;
c. Educational attainment;
d. Length of service; and
e. Positions held?
2. What is the leadership style of principals in selected secondary schools in
Pangasinan Division II?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the demographic profile and
leadership styles of principals in selected secondary schools in Pangasinan Division II?

CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or

case under study.

2. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative. or both, description of the general

characteristics of the group or case under study.

3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.

4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change
or progress that took place between the periods may be noted or evaluated for any
value it gives.

5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to

determine their similarities and differences.

6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not usually

controlled.

7. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are generally cross-sectional, that

is, it studies the different sections belonging to the same group.
 8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes or
verification and comparison.

TECHNIQUES UNDER THE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD OF RESEARCH

a. SURVEY otherwise known as normative survey, is a fact-finding study with

adequate and accurate interpretation. It is used to collect demographic data about
peoples behavior, practices, intentions, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, judgments,
interests, perceptions, and the like and then such data are analyzed, organized, and
interpreted.

TYPES OF SURVEY TECHNIQUES OR APPROACH

1. Total population survey the entire population is involved in the survey.

2. Sample survey only a sample or portion of the population is involved in the

survey.

3. Social survey the investigator researches on the attitudes and behaviors of

different groups of people.

4. School survey this is used to gather data for and about schools and to
assess education achievement and education itself.

5. Public opinion survey this is used to gauge the reactions of people

towards certain issues or persons.

6. Poll survey this is a survey in which the respondents are asked if they are
voting for a certain candidate in an election.

7. Market survey this aimed at finding out what kinds of people purchase
which products, and how packaging, advertising, and displaying affect buying, prices
and so on.

8. Evaluation survey the researcher looks back to see what has been
accomplished and with a critical eye, evaluates the results whether they are satisfactory
or not, with the end in view of making improvements.

9. Comparative survey in this survey, the results from two different groups,
techniques, or procedures are compared.

10. Short-term survey data are collected over a period of weeks, months, or
even years but the period should be less than five years.

11. Long-term survey a survey conducted for more than five years.
 12. Longitudinal survey this is almost the same as the long-term survey. An
example of this is the practice of economists to use time series analysis in which they
compare data collected at present with data that were collected sometime in the past.

13. Cross-sectional survey several groups in various stages of involvement

are studied simultaneously, for example, studying the effect of smoking for a period of
twenty years.

14. Job analysis survey this provides information on the general duties and
responsibilities of workers, their education, training, experiences, salaries, types of
knowledge and skills, and others that help administrators or managers in setting up
training programs and recruitment policies.

15. Community survey this survey provides information on the varioys

aspects of the community like health, employment, housing, education, economy, etc.

16. Correlation study a study that shows the relationship between two or
more variables, that is, how variables varies with another.

b. CASE STUDY is a comprehensive, complete, detailed, and in-depth study and

analysis of an individual, institution, group, or community.

Case study is a method which takes account of all pertinent aspects of one thing
or situation, employing as the unit for an individual, an institution, a community, or any
group considered as a unit.

Case work refers especially to the developmental, adjustment, remedial, or

corrective procedures that appropriately follow diagnosis of the causes of
maladjustment or of favorable development.

Case method has been employed to describe a plan or organizing and

presenting instructional materials in law, medicine, social work, and even in education,
psychology, and sociology, where as a rule, the case materials used are the product of
case study investigation.

Case history is a biography obtained by interview and other means,

sometimes collected over the years to enable us to understand the problems of an
individual and to suggest ways of solving them. Case history method is most frequently
utilized in psychopathology and social case work for diagnosis and prognosis.

Clinical method is a process by which we collect all available evidence

social, psychological, educational, biographical, and medical, that promises to help us
understand an individual child.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE STUDY

 1. Continuity there is a desirable continuity of information as for instance, that
provided by two successive psychological examinations at an interval of a year, and by
an elementary school record in relation to performance in high school.

2. Completeness of data the potential range of information includes symptoms,

examination results.

3. Validity of data for instance, a doubtful birth should be verified through the
birth registry, and employment record by reference to employers.

4. Confidential recording educational workers have something to learn from

medicine with respect to the confidential nature of professional records.

5. Scientific synthesis this is an interpretation of the evidence that is more that

a mere enumeration of data secured; it embraces diagnosis in identifying causal factors,
and prognosis in looking toward treatment or developmental procedures.

c. CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content analysis as a research technique deals with documentary materials

that are already existing and available. It has been defined as a research technique for
the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication. Since content analysis deals with documentary materials, content
analysis and documentary materials are one and the same thing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

1. It is objective 2. It is systematic 3. It is quantitative

C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental method of research is defined as a method or procedure

involving the control or manipulation of conditions for the purpose of studying the
relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample, or of the same
treatment applied to members of different samples. The basic purpose of experimental
research is to discover the influence of one or more factors upon a condition, group, or
situation, purpose of which is to discover what will be.

FOR EXAMPLE: LECTURE METHOD AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN

FILIPINO IV IN JUAN G. MACARAEG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
BINALONAN, PANGASINAN
Hypothesis: Cooperative learning method is much better approach in teaching Filipino
IV in Juan G. Macaraeg National High School in Binalonan, Pangasinan.

Variable is anything that may change or may be changed from one condition to
another, either qualitatively or quantitatively.

Independent variable is anything, condition, or process which is controlled and

manipulated by the experimenter and applied on another thing, condition, or process
intended to have or produce a change in or reaction from the latter.

Dependent variable is anything, a condition, or process exposed to or upon

which treatments or actions from the independent variable are applied.

CONCEPTS ON CAUSATION

1. One-to-one relationship. According to this concept of causation, for every

particular cause there is a corresponding particular effect. One independent variable
causes an effect upon one dependent variable. This one to one relationship especially
exists in the physical science field.

2. Two-variable relationship. This involves two variables causing an effect

upon one variable. Example, a glass container as well as a wooden one have the same
size and amount of water. When stones of the same size are each dropped into each
container, the water in the glass container rises higher than the water in the wooden
container because of the porosity of the latter.

3. Complex relationship. This is a case where two or more variables cause a

single effect.

GENERAL DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Experimentation lends itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative

entities.
2. Observations are done under controlled conditions.
3. Gathering of valid facts is rigorous.
4. Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom, or in
the field.
5. Laboratory experiments are limited to a small number of cases.
6. Most often experiments are intensive and exacting.
7. There is more thorough analysis of variable factors.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. Single Factor Experimental Designs

 a. Single group with only a post test design. This involves a thing,
person, or group subjected or exposed to a certain experimental factor for a certain
period of time. Then, after the experimental period, the subjects or students exposed to
the experimental factor are given a post test. The achievement of this experimental
group is then compared with the achievement of another group with similar
characteristics and studying the same subject matter under customary instructional
methods but unexposed to the experimental factor. Any excess of the achievement of
the experimental group over the achievement of the normal group is considered due to
the experimental factor.

b. Single group with a pre-test and a post test design. In this design,
the group is exposed to a certain experimental factor. However, before the start of the
experiment, the group is given a pre-test about the subject matter to be covered in the
experiment. Then after the experimental period, the group is given the same pre-test
but in a different form to avoid the effect of practice. This is the post test. The excess of
the results of the post test over the results of the pre-test is considered caused by the
experimental factor.

c. Matched group designs. In this design, two groups are matched in

age, sex, grade level, mental ability, etc. One group called the experimental group, is
exposed to the experimental or independent variable while the other group, called the
control group, is not exposed to the experimental variable. After the experimental
period, the two groups are given the same test covering the subject matter studied
during the period. It must be noted that all other variables except the independent
variable are kept constant or equal during the experimental period. Any excess of the
achievement of the experimental group over the achievement of the control group is
attributed to the experimental factor.

d. Randomized multi-group with a post-test design. In this design,

there are two or more experimental variables to be tested. So groups are formed equal
to the number of experimental variables. The members of each group are assigned
randomly to their respective groups. Each experimental factor is applied on the group
to which it is assigned. All other variables, whatever activities they are, are kept equal
in all the groups. After the experimental period, the same test on the lessons taken by
all the groups is given to all of them. The experimental factor assigned to the group with
the highest achievement is considered the most effective, the experimental factor
assigned to the group with the second highest achievement is the next most effective,
and so on.

e. Randomized multi-group with a pre-test and a post-test design.

This is the same as the randomized multi-group with a post-test design, the only
difference is that, there is a pre-test. After the experiment, the result of the pre-test and
those of the post-test are subjected to some statistical methods, usually the analysis of
covariance, and the relative effectiveness of the three methods will be revealed.

2. Two Factorial Experiment

 Factorial Design. A factorial experimental design is a two factor
experiment in which there are two experimental factors involved. For instance, we want
to know the performance of a group of males and females in a learning situation under
the effects of varying amounts of the same drug. In this experiment, there are two
factors sex, male or female, and dosage, the amount of the drug measured in
milligrams. In sex, the amount of drug taken, and the interaction effect of sex and drug.
In this experiment, we have to make a two-way classification: classification of data
according to sex, and classification of the same data according the drug dosage. The
achievement scores of the two groups after they have taken a post-test are subjected to
analysis of variance which will reveal whether there is a significant difference between
the learning capacity of males and that of females when under the effects of varying
amount of the drug, and whether there is a significant difference between the scores of
the whole group under the effects of the varying amounts of the drug, and also the
interaction between sex and drug, that is, if the two factors helped each other.

THE EXPERIMENTAL PLAN

1. Determining the experimental problem or topic.

2. Surveying related literature and studies.
3. Formulating the hypothesis or hypotheses.
4. Identifying the experimental variables.
5. Select the appropriate experimental design.
6. Selecting the sample.
7. Selecting or constructing appropriate instruments to measure the results
of the experiment.
8. Conducting the experiment.
9. Measuring the results and applying statistical procedures.
10. Writing the report of the experiment.

References:

Aquino, Gaudencio V. (1974). Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Alemars-

Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., Quezon City.

Calderon, Jose F. and Gonzales, Expectacion C. (1993). Methods of Research and

Thesis Writing. National Book Store: 33 Acebo St., Marulas, Valenzuela, Metro
Manila.
Sanchez, Custodiosa A. (1980). Methods and Techniques of Research. Rex Book
Store, Inc., Manila.

Sevilla, Consuelo G. et., al., (1984). An Introduction to Research Methods. Rex Book
Store, Inc., Manila.