Research Methodology

Dr. Aishwarya Krishna

 Motivation

Suppose you want to buy a car. How would you

go about choosing a car ?
 Course overview and structure
Module 1: Introduction
Module 2: Scaling, Sampling, Types of
sampling designs
Module 3: Hypothesis Testing
Module 4: Non Parametric tests
Module 5: ANOVA
 Meaning of Research
Search for knowledge
Redman and Mory define research as a
systematized method to gain new knowledge.
Business Research: The application of the
scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena. These activities include
defining business opportunities and problems,
generating and evaluating ideas, monitoring
performance, and understanding the business
process. (Zikmund, 2010, p5)
 Exploratory
research:
Gain
familiarity

Descriptive
Diagnostic
research:
research:
analyse the Objectives portray
characteristics of
frequency with of a particular
which
something research individual,
group, or a
occurs
situation

Hypothesis-testing
research: examine the
hypothesis of a causal
relationship between
two variables
 Research Methods vs. Research
methodology
Research methods include all those
techniques/methods that are adopted for
conducting research.
Research methodology is the way in which
research problems are solved systematically. It
is a science of studying how research is
conducted scientifically.
 Types of research
Descriptive Versus Analytical
Quantitative Versus Qualitative
Applied Versus Fundamental
Conceptual Versus Empirical
 Quantitative Versus Qualitative
research
Quantitative
It relates to aspects that can
be quantified or can be
expressed in terms of
quantity.
Various available statistical
and econometric methods are
adopted for analysis in such
research.
Qualitative
It is concerned with
qualitative phenomena, or
more specifically, the
aspects related to or
involving quality or kind.
Eg: Motivation Research,
which investigates into the
reasons for certain human
behaviour. Most social
science researches are
qualitative.
Features of a good research study.

Flexible, suitable, efficient, economical

Smallest experimental error
Yields maximum information and provides an
opportunity of viewing the various dimensions
of a research problem
 Research Process
Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for
effectively conducting research. The following are the steps that
provide useful procedural guidelines regarding the conduct of
research:
(1) Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalization and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.
 (1) Formulating the research problem
A research problem refers to an unanswered question that a researcher might
encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation, which
he/she would like to answer or find a solution to.

Examples
HR manager wants to develop HR policies
regarding employees turnover to reduce it.
Marketing manager wants to launch a new
product successfully using advertisement as a
promotional tool
Finance manager needs to invest excessive
money profitably.
Conditions for a research problem to
exist
Z: Uncontrolled
Variables

Y : Environment

OBJECTIVE

ACTION A1 OUTCOME B1
X: Individual or
Organisation P(B1 / X, A1,Y) P (B1 / X, A2, Y).

ACTION A2 OUTCOME B2
Components of a research problem
Thus, the components of a research problem may be summarised as:
i. There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or
problem.
ii. There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A person or an
organization who wants nothing cannot have a problem.
iii. There should be alternative ways of pursuing the objective the
researcher wants to pursue. This implies that there should be more
than one alternative means available to the researcher. This is because
if the researcher has no choice of alternative means, he/she would not
have a problem.
iv. There should be some doubt in the mind of the researcher about
the choice of alternative means. This implies that research should
answer the question relating to the relative efficiency or suitability of
the possible alternatives.
v. There should be a context to which the difficulty relates.
 Illustration
Let us suppose the research problem is
Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than
in India?
Flaws: What sort of productivity? Which industry?
Which time period?
What factors were responsible for the high labor
productivity of Japans manufacturing industries
during the decade 1971-1980 relative to Indias
manufacturing industries?
Flaws: To what extent did it exceed that of Indias?
 Illustration
To what extent did labor productivity in 1971-
1980 in Japan exceed that of India in respect
of 15 selected manufacturing Industries?
What factors were responsible for the
productivity differentials between the two
countries?
 Exercise 1
Problem situation: In a District K of a State L a report showed
that in the first month there were 500 children under one year old
who started immunization, but at the end of the year it was found
out that there were only 25 children who completed their
vaccination.
Discrepancy: All the 500 children at district K should have
completed their vaccination but only 5% out of those who started
vaccination have completed.
Problem (research) question: why only 5% of the children
completed their vaccination?
Definite answer: Out of the 1 hospital, 2 health centers and 10
health stations found in the district only 2 health stations were
functioning, the rest were closed due to insecurity in the area.
In the above example, assuming that all the given facts are true,
there is no need of undertaking a research, since definite answer
is obtained to the problem situation.
 Exercise 2
Problem situation: In district Z (population 150,000) there are 2
health centres, 1 hospital and 15 health stations and all of them
function smoothly. However, at the end of the year it was found that
the EPI coverage was only 25%.
Discrepancy: Although district Z had 100% availability of health
services and at least 80% of the children should have had full
vaccinations the EPI coverage was only 25% as seen above.
Problem question: What factors influence the low EPI coverage in
district Z?
Possible answers:
Mothers might have problems for not attending in the EPI sessions.
The programmes might not have been integrated; hence children
might have missed opportunities in getting immunization.
The follow up of defaulting children might not be effective and
other reasons.
Thus, the above problem situation is researchable.
 Ethics
People first, research next.
Participants are informed before the experiment.
Debriefing of the participants.
Participants are allowed to withdraw in the
middle of the research.
In case of undesirable incidents it is the duty of
the researcher to make the participant feel
comfortable.
Data collected should be kept confidential.
 (2) Extensive literature survey
Your literature search should establish what
previous researches have been carried out in the
subject area.
How much is known?
What is not known?
What should be done based on what is
lacking?
Review of literature is a list of relevant books
and other sources, each followed by a
description and comment on its relevance.
 Sources for literature review
Broadly speaking, there are three kinds of
sources that you should consult:
1. Introductory material;
2. Journal articles and
3. Books.
Use of literature review
It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before.
It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this may assist
you in refining your "statement of the problem".
It gives you confidence why your particular research project is needed.
To be familiar with different research methods
 (3) Developing hypothesis
A hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship between
one or more variables and the problem under study.
A research hypothesis is quite often a predictive
statement, which is capable of being tested using
scientific methods that involve an independent and
some dependent variables.

i. Students who take tuitions perform better than the others

who do not receive tuitions or,
ii. The female students perform as well as the male students.
 Characteristics Of Hypothesis
Precise and clear
Capable of being put to test.
Must state relationship between two variables,
Must be specific and limited in scope.
Must be stated in the simplest language
Must be consistent and derived from the most
known facts.
Amenable to testing within a stipulated or
reasonable period of time.
Should have an empirical reference.
 Examples
The health of employees in companies with a
gymnasium is better than the employees in
companies without a gymnasium.
An increase in the frequency of face washing
is followed by a reduction in trachoma
prevalence.
Writing a research proposal/
synopsis/plan
 Objective
Helps to organize ideas to avoid flaws.
Inventory of what must be done and materials to
be collected.
This can be given to others for
comments/feedback.
 Research Proposal
1. Title and cover Page
2. Table of contents
3. Abstract
4. Introduction
Research Problem
Objective and Hypotheses
Significance
5. Data and Methodology
Study design
Variables
6. Work Plan
7. Budget
Personnel, material/supplies, travel, analysis, contingency, etc.
8. References
9. Appendix
The project proposal is the first
stage of evaluation. It must
cover the following areas :
Project title The exact title of the research project. In the cover
and cover page page month and year of submission of the proposal.

A summary of 100 - 200 words describing what

Abstract project is about.
This presents an overview of the whole proposal. It
should let the reader see in advance, what is in the
proposal. This includes what you set out to do, how
review of literature is focused and narrowed in your
research, the relation of the methodology you
chose to your objectives, and the expected findings.
 A table of contents is essential. It provides the
reader a quick overview of the major sections of
Table of contents: your research proposal, with page references, so
that (s)he can go through the proposal in a
different order or skip certain sections.

Introduction Research Problem

Objective: What the project will accomplish.
What is the value creation
General objective: aim of the study in general
terms
Specific objectives: measurable statements on
the specific questions to be Answered
Hypotheses
Significance: usefulness of the end results
 Study design
Type of study, Study population
Variables
Data and Methodology defining each variable
Sampling Design
How to collect Data? Type of data? Pilot study?

Work Plan Personnel, job descriptions, training

Pilot phase and Final study
 A time frame indicating the proposed steps and the
expected date of completion. Start date and the
Schedule tentative dates.

References: initial list of bibliographic materials that

would be used to complete the project. APA
References (American Psychological Association) format.
 (4) Preparing the research design
A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.
In fact, research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data (Selltiz et al,
1962).
 The decisions in research design
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted
and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
 Concepts related to research design
Research Hypothesis: Self confidence affects performance in school positively

Dependent variable Independent variable

Performance in School Self Confidence

Marks scored: Continuous

Variable Extraneous
variable:
Grade obtained: Non- intelligence
continuous or discrete
variable
 Concepts relating to research design
1. Dependent And Independent Variables:
What is a Variable?
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable.
What is a Qualitative variable and a Quantitative variable?
Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term.
What is a continuous variable and non-continuous variable or discrete variables?
The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are
known as continuous variables. Eg: Age
Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called non-continuous
variables. Eg: Number of children
What are dependent and independent variables?
When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables,
it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the
changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or
exogenous variables.
Demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables
like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.
 Concepts relating to research design
2. Extraneous Variables: The independent variables which are not
directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent
variables, are known as extraneous variables.
Eg: Hypothesis: There is a relationship between childrens school
performance and their self-confidence
Intelligence may also influence the school performance. This is an
extraneous variable.
The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent
variable is technically called the experimental error.
3. Control: the term control is used when a researcher designs the
study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous
variables.
4. Confounded Relationship: The relationship between the dependent
and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
 Concepts relating to research design
5. Research Hypothesis: The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which
relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable.
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research: When the
objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-
testing research. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is
known as experimental hypothesis-testing research, whereas the research in which
the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research.
7. Experimental And Control Groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in
an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as control group. On the
other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known
as an experimental group.
8. Treatments: Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental
and control groups are subject to.
9. Experiment: Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical
hypothesis relating to a given research problem.
10. Experimental Unit(s): Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots,
characteristics or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied.
Types of Research design

Dr. Aishwarya Krishna

 Types of research
design
There are different types of research designs.
They may be broadly categorized as:
(1) Exploratory Research Design;
(2) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design;
and
(3) Hypothesis-Testing Research Design.
 Exploratory
research design
Objective
formulate a research problem for an in-depth or more precise
investigation,
or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational
aspect.
discovery of ideas and insights.
If the problem and its contributing factors are not well
defined it is always advisable to do an exploratory study
before embarking on a large-scale descriptive or
comparative study.
Methods
(a) a survey of related literature;
(b) experience survey; and
(c) analysis of insight-stimulating instances. Discovery of ideas and
insights.
 Descriptive and diagnostic research
design
A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual or a group.
The diagnostic research studies determine the frequency
with which something occurs or its association with
something else.
The steps in descriptive or diagnostic research design
1. Formulate the objective 3. Sample selection 5. Processing the data
method Eg: tabulate the data,
Eg: Probability sampling coding, statistical
procedures
2. Data collection methods 4. Where to find the data 6. Reporting the findings.
Eg: Observation, and time period?
questionnaires, interviews Eg:
Always do a pre-test
Difference between Exploratory and
descriptive research designs
 Hypothesis-testing research designs
Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally
known as experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of
causal relationships between variables.

Hypothesis-testing research designs

Experimental Non-experimental
 Experimental Research Designs
Professor R.A. Fishers name is associated with
experimental designs.
Professor Fisher found that by dividing
agricultural fields or plots into different blocks
and then by conducting experiments in each
of these blocks, whatever information is
collected and inferences drawn from them,
happens to be more reliable.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated
more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead of one.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we
conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous
factors by randomization.
Principle of Local Control: Under it the extraneous factor, the
known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over
as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in
such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and
hence eliminated from the experimental error.
Eg: Effect of two varieties of rice in a piece of land.
Extraneous factor is soil fertility.
Types of experimental designs

Informal Formal

(i) Before-and-after without (i) Completely randomized

control design. design (C.R. Design).
(ii) Randomized block design
(ii) After-only with control (R.B. Design).
design.
(iii) Latin square design (L.S.
(iii) Before-and-after with Design).
control design.
(iv) Factorial designs.
Before-and-after without control design.

AFTER-ONLY WITH CONTROL DESIGN

Before-and-after with control design:
 Completely randomized design (C.R.
design):
Involves the principle of replication and the principle
of randomization of experimental designs.
The essential characteristic of the design is that
subjects are randomly assigned to experimental
treatments
Two-group simple randomized design
C R design
Random replications design
 Two-group simple randomized design

The merit of such a design is that it is simple and

randomizes the differences among the sample items.
But the limitation of it is that the individual differences
among those conducting the treatments are not
eliminated.
 Random
replication
design
In a random
replications design, the
effect of extraneous
factors are minimised
(or reduced) by
providing a number of
repetitions for each
treatment. Each
repetition is technically
called a replication.
 Randomized block design
In the R.B. design the principle of local control can be applied along with the
other two principles of experimental designs.
In the R.B. design, subjects are first divided into groups, known as blocks,
such that within each group the subjects are relatively homogeneous in
respect to some selected variable. The variable selected for grouping the
subjects is one that is believed to be related to the measures to be obtained
in respect of the dependent variable.
 Factorial Design
Factorial designs are used in experiments where the
effects of varying more than one factor are to be
determined.
Illustration 1: (2 2 simple factorial design).
2 2 simple factorial design
 Interaction Effect

there is an interaction between the no interaction effect which means that

treatment and the level which, in other treatment and level in this study are relatively
words, means that the treatment and the independent of each other.
level are not independent of each other.
 (6)Data
Primary Data
Data collected for the first
time
For example, the statistics collected
by the Government of India relating
to the population is primary data for
the Government of India since it has
been collected for the first time.
Secondary data
The data that have already
been collected and used
earlier by somebody or
some agency
Later when the same data are used
by a researcher for his study of a
particular problem, then the same
data become the secondary data for
the researcher.
 How to select primary or secondary
data?

The selection of a particular source depends upon the

(a) purpose and scope of enquiry, (geographical area. )
(b) availability of time,
(c) availability of finance,
(d) accuracy required, (Buying gold vs. buying rice)
(e) statistical tools to be used,
(f) sources of information (data), and
(g) method of data collection.
 Data collection

Data

Primary Secondary

Census method
time taking, it requires more labour Published sources Eg: RBI
and it is very expensive. 100%
accurate

Sampling technique Unpublished sources

Inspect a small sample of the population and draw Eg:IMF, FED
conclusions about the population. Not 100%
accurate.
 Methods for obtaining Primary data
Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the
following methods:
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Methods.
5. Schedule Sent Through Enumerators.
 Questionnaire
According to Bogardus a questionnaire is a list of questions sent to a number
of persons for their answers and which obtains standardized results that can
be tabulated and treated statistically.
Important things to be kept in mind while forming a questionnaire
1. Size Of The Questionnaire Should Be Small:
2. The Questions Should Be Clear:
3. The Questions Should Be Arranged In A Logical Sequence:
4. Questions Should Be Simple To Understand:
5. Questions Should Be Comprehensive & Easily Answerable:
6. Questions Of Personal & Sensitive Nature Should Not Be
Asked:
7. Types of questions
8. Cross-checks
9. Pre testing the questionnaire
10. A covering letter
 Types Of Questions

Leading
Shut questions
questions
Simple alternate framed into two
questions questions-
Yes or No alternatives.
(i) which car do you use?
Multiple choice questions
(ii) why do you prefer it?
Do you smoke?
It gives smooth ride [ ]
(a) Yes regularly [ ] (b) No It gives more mileage [ ]
never [ ]
It is cheaper [ ]
(c) Occasionally [ ] (d)
It is maintenance free [ ]
Seldom [ ]
 The Suitability Of Data
Adequacy Of Data:
Reliability Of Data:

Editing for completeness

Editing for Consistency:
Editing for Accuracy:
Editing For Homogeneity:
 Example
Suppose a retail firm is interested in studying the
effect of lighting on customer purchase behaviour.
Which of the following pieces of information is the
least relevant and why?
a. Amount of natural light in the store
b. The compensation system for store salespeople
c. The colour of the walls in the store
d. The type of lighting: fluorescent or incandescent