Chapter 1: Matter Its Properties
and Measurement of a sample of matter to a change in
Chemistry central science because it
relates to so many areas of human endeavor
and curiosity
Natural Law a generalization based on
observations
Induction the process, observations
leading to a general statement or natural law
Nicolas Copernicus concluded that earth
revolves around a sun in a circular orbit
Hypothesis a tentative explanation of a
natural law
Theory a hypothesis that survived testing
by experiments
Scientific Method a combination of
observation, experimentation, and
formulation of laws, hypotheses, and theories
Serendipity discoveries made by accident
Ex. Charles Goodyear spilled rubber-sulfur
mixture on a hot stove
Properties of Matter
Matter anything that has mass and
occupies space (sunlight is not matter it is a
form of energy)
Physical Property without changing its
composition
The matter changes its physical appearance:
its physical property changes but its
composition remains unchanged
Chemical Change/Chemical Reaction
sample of matter are converted to new
sample with different composition
Chemical Property the ability (or inability)
compositions under stated conditions
Ex. Au: it does not tarnish or rust
Classification of Matter
Element a substance made up of a single
type of atom
112 elements:
90 natural
22 artificial
Compounds substances in which atoms of
different element are combined with one
another
The composition and properties of an
element or compound are uniform
throughout a given sample and from one
sample to another
Compounds can be decomposed into its
constituent elements by chemical changes
Solutions/Homogenous Mixtures uniform
in composition and properties throughout a
given sample, but the composition and
properties may vary from one sample to
another
Heterogenous Mixtures the components
separate into distinct regions, thus, the
composition and physical properties vary
from one part of the mixture to another
Mixtures can be separated into its
components by appropriate physical
changes (methods)
States of Matter
Solid atoms or molecules are in close
contact, sometimes in a highly organized
arrangement called crystal; has definite
shape and volume
Liquid
Gas
1
Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements
Systematic Errors measuring instruments
have built-in or inherent errors
Random Errors limitation in an
experimenters skill or ability to read a
scientific instrument that leads to errors and
give results that maybe either too low or too
high
Robert Millikan (1906-1914) determined
the electron charge e (e = -1.6022x10 -19 C)
through a series of oil drop experiments
X-Rays and Radioactivity
Wilhelm Roentgen (1895) fluorescence
was caused by radiation emitted by the
cathode ray tubes; he coined the term X-ray

Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered

radioactivity
Theory
Ernest Rutherford identified two types of
Trivia
radiation from radioactive materials: alpha
Sulfuric Acid oil of vitriol
and beta radiation
Nitric Acid aqua fortis
Sodium Sulfate Glaubers salt
Paul Villard (1900) discovered the 3rd form
of radiation that is not affected by an electric
Law of Conservation of Mass
field: gamma radiation
Antoine Lavoisier
The total mass of substances present after a
The Nuclear Atom
chemical reaction is the same as the total
Ernest Rutherford he discovered protons
mass of the substances before the reaction
in 1919; predicted the existence in the
nucleus of electrically neutral fundamental
Law of Constant Composition/ Law of
particles
Definite Proportion
Results of alpha-particle experiments
Joseph Proust
(1) Most of the mass and all of the
All samples of a compound have the same
positive charge of an atom are
composition the same proportions by mass
centered in a very small region
of the constituent elements
called nucleus. The atom is mostly
empty space
Daltons Atomic Theory
(2) There exist as many electrons
John Dalton
outside the nucleus as there are
units of positive charge on the
Discovery of Electrons
nucleus. The atom as a whole is
Michael Faraday created the 1st CRT and
electrically neutral.
discovered cathode rays
James Chadwick (1932) discovered
J. J. Thomson (1897) concluded that
penetrating radiation consisted of beams of
cathode rays are negatively charged
neutral particles neutrons.
fundamental particles of matter in all atoms

George Stoney (1874) proposed that the

cathode rays to be called electrons

2

Chemical Elements
Chemical Symbol representation of an
element
Elements beyond uranium (Z = 92) do not
occur naturally and must be synthesized in
particle accelerators
Isotopes two or more atoms having the
same atomic number but different atomic
mass
A X
ZE
Z: atomic number or the proton number
A: mass number
A Z: neutron number
X: number of proton number of electron
Atoms with the same number of protons are
atoms of the same element
Introduction to the Periodic Table
Metals solid at room temperature except
Hg
Malleable capable of being
flattened into thin sheets
Ductile capable of being drawn into
fine wires
Conductor capable of conducting heat
and electricity
Nonmetals have properties opposite that
of metals
Metalloids have some metallic and
nonmetallic properties
Periods horizontal rows
Lanthanides series of 14 elements in
th
6 period which follow lanthanum (Z=57)
Actinides series of 14 elements in 7 th
period which follow actinium (Z=89)
Groups columns
Group A (Main Group Elements)
when they form ions, the main group metal
atoms generally have same number of
electrons as the group
For nonmetals, they tend to gain
electrons equal to: 8 group number
Group B (Transition Metals) like the
main-group metals, transition metals form
positive ions, but the number of electrons lost
is not generally related to the group number.
Most transition metals are able to form 2 or
more ions of differing charge
Chapter 3: Chemical Compounds
Chemical Compounds composed of 2 or
more different elements; represent by
chemical formulas
Chemical Formula indicates the elements
present and the relative number of atoms of
each element in the compound
Types of Chemical Compounds
Ionic Compound combination of metals
and nonmetals; a compound made up of
positive and negative ions joined together by
electrostatic forces of attraction
Cation a positive ion
Anion a negative ion
Molecular Compound made up of discrete
molecules consisting of a small number of
different nonmetal atoms held together by
forces known as covalent bonds
Formulas
Empirical Formula simplest formula, the
subscripts in an empirical formula are
reduced to their simplest whole-number ratio
Molecular Formula an actual molecule of
the compound
Structural Formula shows the order in
which atoms are bonded together in a
molecule and by what type of bonds
3
The Mole Concept and Chemical (5) In its compound, hydrogen has an
Compound O.S. of +1
(6) In its compound, oxygen has an
Formula Mass mass of a formula unit O.S. of 2
relative to a mass of exactly 12 u for carbon- (7) In their binary compounds with
12 (for ionic compound) metals, the Group 7A elements
have an O.S. of 1; the Group 6A
Molecular Mass mass of a molecule elements, 2; and the Group 5A
relative to a mass of exactly 12 u for carbon- elements, 3
12 (for molecular compound)

Molar Mass mass of one mole of Nomeclature of Inorganic Compound

compound: one mole of molecules of a Binary Compounds of Metals and
molecular compound and one mole of Nonmetals
formula units of an ionic compound (a) Binary Ionic Compound compound of
a metal and a nonmetal
For Group A metals
Combustion Analysis NaCl sodium chloride
Magnesium Perchlorate absorbs water MgBr2 magnesium bromide
vapor
Sodium Hydroxide absorbs carbon For Group B metals
dioxide Stock System by Alfred Stock
See p. 78, Petrucci FeCl2 iron (II) chloride
FeCl3 iron (III) chloride
Oxidation States
Oxidation State/Oxidation Number the ous for lower oxidation state
number of electrons that an atom loses, ic for higher oxidation state
gains FeCl2 ferrous chloride
FeCl3 ferric chloride
Rules
(1) The oxidation state (O.S.) of an (b) Molecular Compound the two
individual atom in a free element elements in a binary compound are both
(uncombined with other element) nonmetals
is zero: in Cl2, Cl has O.S. of zero mono 1 tetra 4
(2) The total of the oxidation states of all di 2 penta 5
the atoms in (a) neutral species tri 3 hexa 6
an isolated atom, molecule, a H2O dihydrogen monoxide
formula unit is zero: the sum of NH3 trihydrogen mononitride
O.S. of the atoms in CH3OH is zero
(b) an ion is equal to the charge of (c) Binary Acids compounds of hydrogen
the ion with other nonmetal atoms, which when
(3) In their compounds the Group IA dissolved in water ionizes or breaks down
have an O.S. of +1 and the Group into hydrogen ions
2A have an O.S. of +2 HF hydrofluoric acid
(4) In its compound, the O.S. of fluorine H2S hydrosulfuric acid
is 1

4
Polyatomic Ions Stoichiometric Coefficients the
Two or more ions are joined together by coefficients required to balance a
covalent bonds chemical equation
Na2SO4 sodium sulfate
CaC2O4 calcium oxalate Balancing by inspection adjust
CaHPO4 calcium hydrogen phosphate stoichiometric coefficients by trial and error
(see pp. 86-87) until a balanced condition is found

Oxoacids The combustion of hydrocarbons and of

The majority of acids are ternary carbon-hydrogen-oxygen compounds in a
compounds. They contain three different plentiful supply of oxygen gas produces
elements H, O, and another nonmetal carbon dioxide gas and liquid water as the
only products
Acids
O. S. Nomeclature
+1 hypo__ous acid The Chemical Equation and Stoichiometry
+3 ___ous acid Stoicheoic Greek word meaning element
+5 ___ic aci
+7 per__ic acid Stoichiometric Factor relates the amount
of any two substances involved in a chemical
For salts: reaction, on a mole basis
change ous to ite
change ic to ate Limiting Reactant the reactant that is
completely consumed; determines the
quantities of products that form

Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions Theoretical Yield the calculated quantity

Chemical Reactions and the Chemical
Equation
Chemical Reaction a process in which
one set of substances called reactants is
converted to a new set of substances called
products
Signs of a Chemical Reaction
(1) A color change
(2) Formation of a precipitate within a
clear solution
(3) Evolution of gas
(4) Evolution or absorption of heat
Chemical Equation symbolic, or
shorthand, way of representing a chemical
reaction
of product that one expects from given
quantities of reactants
Actual Yield the quantity of product that is
actually produced
actual yield
percent yield x 100%
theoretical yield
Reasons for percent yield less than 100%
(1) The product of reaction rarely
appears in pure form
(2) Side reactions (the unintended
products are called by-products)
(3) A reverse reaction occurs, some of
the expected product may react to
reform the reactants

5
Chapter 5: Introduction to (3) chlorides, bromides, and iodides
Reactions in Aqueous (Those of Pb2+, Ag+, and Hg22+ are
insoluble)
Solution
(4) sulfates (Those of Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+,
and Hg22+ are insoluble)
The Nature of Aqueous Solutions
The ability to conduct electricity requires that
Compounds that are mostly insoluble
ions be present in the solution and these ions
(1) hydroxides and sulfides (Those of
must come from the solute
the Group 1A and ammonium are
soluble, Sulfides of Group 2A metals
Nonelectrolyte a substance that is not
are soluble, the hydroxides of Ca2+,
ionized and does not conduct
Ba2+ and Sr2+ are slightly soluble)
electric current
(2) carbonates and phosphates
(Those of Group 1A metals are
Strong Electrolyte a substance that is
soluble)
completely ionized in aqueous solutions, and
the solution is a good electrical conductor
Acid-Base Reactions
Svante Arrhenius (1884) the acid-base
Weak Electrolyte partially ionized in
concept
aqueous solution, and the solution is only a
fair conductor of electricity
Acid derived from the Latin acidus (sour);
a substance that provides hydrogen ions (H+)
All soluble ionic compounds and only a
in aqueous solution
relatively few molecular compounds are
strong electrolytes
Base/Alkali comes from the Arabic al-qali,
referring to the ashes of certain plants form
Most molecular compounds are either
which alkaline substances can be extracted;
nonelectrolytes or weak electrolytes
a substance capable of producing hydroxide
ions (OH-) in aqueous solution
Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reactions occur when certain
Neutralization an acid and a base react to
cations and anions combine to produce an
form water and an aqueous solution of an
insoluble ionic solid called precipitate
ionic compound called a salt
Net Ionic Equation an equation that
(See p. 139 for some common gas-forming
includes only the actual participants in a
reactions)
reaction
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Spectator Ions these ions are not
Oxidation a reaction in which a substance
reactants; they go through the reaction
gains O atoms
unchanged
Oxidation a process in which the O.S. of
Solubility Rules
some element increases, and in which
Compounds that are mostly soluble
electrons appear on the right side of a half
(1) the Alkali metals (Group 1A) and
equation
the ammonium ion
(2) nitrates and acetates Z n ( s) Z n 2 (aq) 2 e

6
Reduction a reaction in which a substance
loses O atoms
Reduction -- a process in which the O.S. of
some element decreases, and in which
electrons appear on the left side of a half
equation
C u 2 (aq) 2 e C u ( s)
Chapter 6: Gases
Pressure
The molecules of a gas are in constant
motion, frequently colliding with one another
and with the walls of their container. In their
collision the gas molecules exert a force on
the container walls:

Disproportionation Reactions the same

substance is both oxidized and reduced F N
P 2
A m
Oxidizing Agent (Oxidant) gains
electrons; undergo reduction; the oxidation Barometric Pressure
state decreases Evangelista Torricelli (1643) constructed
a device for measuring atmospheric
Reducing Agent (Reductant) loses pressure (barometer)
electrons; undergo oxidation; the oxidation
state increases Standard Atmospheric Pressure
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1.01325 bar
The substance with an element in one of its
highest possible oxidation states is an Comparing Liquid Pressures
oxidizing agent. If the element is in one of PHg Hg g hHg
its lowest possible oxidation states, the
PH2O H2O g hH2O
substance is a reducing agent.
H2O g hH2O Hg g hHg

3
Hg
oxidizing agent
reducing agent

2 hH2O hHg
H2O
1
0 The column height is inversely
1 proportional to the liquid density. For a
2 given liquid pressure, the lower the density
the greater the height of the liquid column.

Manometer a device use to compare the

gas pressure and barometric
pressure

7
Simple Gas Laws Ideal Gas Equation
(1) Boyles Law nT
V
Robert Boyle (1662) discovered the 1 st of P
the simple gas law P V nR T
For a fixed amount of gas at a constant R: ideal gas constant
temperature, gas volume is inversely m
proportional to gas pressure n
1 M
P
V m
Plot: rectangular hyperbola PV RT
M
(2) Charless Law Gas Densities
Jacques Charles (1787) m
The volume of a fixed amount of gas at
V
constant pressure is directly proportional to
the Kelvin (absolute) temperature PM R T
VT
Plot: straight line
Gas densities differs from solid and liquid
Standard Conditions of Temperature and densities in two different ways:
Pressure (1) Gas densities depend strongly on P
Standard T for gas: 273.15 K and T, increasing as the gas
Standard P for gas: 1 atm = 760 mmHg pressure increases and decreasing
as the temperature increases.
(3) Avogadros Law Densities of liquids and solids also
Amedeo Avogadro (1811) equal volume depend somewhat on T, but they
equal numbers means that equal volume depend far less on P
of different gases at the same temperature (2) The density of a gas is directly
and pressure contain equal number of proportional to its molar mass. No
molecules simple relationship exist between
At a fixed temperature and pressure, the density and molar mass for liquids
volume of a gas is directly proportional to the and solids
amount of gas
Vn Mixture of Gases
1 mol gas = 22.4 L (at STP) The simple gas laws and the ideal gas
At STP the number of molecules equation apply to a mixture of nonreactive
contained in 22.4 L of a gas is 6.02 x 10 23 gases as well as to individual gases

Gay-Lussacs Law of Combining Volumes Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

Gay-Lussac (1808) Ptot PA PB ...
At constant temperature and pressure, nA P V
gases react by volume in the ratio of small A A
whole numbers n tot Ptot Vtot

8
Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
(1) A gas is composed of a very large
number of extremely small particles
in constant, random, straight-line
motion
(2) Molecules of a gas are separated by
great distances. The gas is mostly
empty space
(3) Molecules collide with one another
and with the walls of their container.
These collisions occur very rapidly,
however, and most of the time
molecules are not colliding
(4) There are assumed to be no forces
between molecules except very
briefly during collisions. That is, each
molecule acts independently of all
the others and is unaffected by their
presence
(5) Individual molecules may gain or
lose energy as a result of collisions.
In a collection of molecules at
constant temperature, however, the
total energy remains constant
Root-Mean-Square Speed the square root
of the average of the squares of the speeds
of all the molecules in the sample
3RT
vr ms
M
where
R 8.3145 kg m 2 /( s 2 mol K )
M must be in kg/mol
The Kelvin Temperature of a gas is directly
proportional to the average translational
kinetic energy of its molecules
3 R
Kt r T
2 NA
Absolute Zero it is the temperature at
which translational molecular motion should
cease (p. 189)
Diffusion the migration or intermingling of
molecules of different substances as a result
of random molecular motion
Effusion -- the escape of gas molecules
from their container through a tiny orifice or
pinhole
Grahams Law
The rates of effusion (or diffusion) of two
different gases are inversely proportional to
the square roots of their molar masses
r A vA 3RT / M A
r B vB 3RT / M B
rA v MB
A
rB vB MA
Grahams Law can be used to determine
(1) molecular speeds
(2) rates of effusion
(3) effusion times (t)
(4) distance traveled by molecules
(5) amount of gas effused (n)
Nonideal (Real) Gases
Compressibility Factor measure how
much a gas deviates from ideal gas behavior
PV
z
nR T
z = 1 for ideal gas
z > 1 at very high pressure
Gases tend to behave ideally at high T
and low P
Gases tend to behave nonideally at low
T and high P

9
Chapter 7: Thermochemistry
Thermochemistry the branch of chemistry
concerned with heat effect accompanying
chemical reactions
System -- the part of the universe we choose
to study
Surroundings the part of the universe with
which the system interacts
Interactions refer to the transfer of energy or
matter
Internal Energy the total amount of energy
contained within a system
Thermal Energy energy associated
with random molecular motion
Chemical Energy energy associated
with chemical bonds and intermolecular
forces
Heat
Heat energy transferred between a system
and its surroundings as a result of a
temperature difference
SI: J
calorie the quantity of heat required to
change the temperature of one gram of water
by one degree Celcius
1 cal = 4.184 J
Heat Capacity the quantity of heat
required to change the temperature of a
system by one degree
SI: J/C
Specific Heat (sp ht) the quantity of heat
required to change the temperature of 1 g of
substance by 1o C
SI: J/ g C
Molar Heat Capacity heat capacity per
unit mole
Specific heat of water
cal J
1 4.184
gC gC
Heats of Reaction the quantity of heat
exchange between a system and its
surroundings when a chemical reaction
occurs within the system, at constant T
Exothermic Reaction produces a
temperature increase in an isolated system
or, in nonisolated system, gives off heat to
the surroundings: q rxn 0
Endothermic Reaction -- produces a
temperature decrease in an isolated system,
or a gain of heat from the surroundings:
q rxn 0
The First Law of Thermodynamics
E q w
Internal Energy, E the total energy (kinetic
and potential) associated with chemical
bonds, intermolecular attractions, kinetic
energy of molecules, and so on
Convention
q (heat)
+ Absorbed by the system
Given off by the system
w (work)
+ Work done on the system
Work done by the system
Heats of Reaction
For constant V:
w0
E q v
10
For constant P:
Work done by the system as it expands:
w p dV
Another important quantity
H EPV
H E P V
H (q p w ) P V
H q p P V P V
E q p
Hesss Law by Germain H. Hess
If a process occurs in stages or steps, the
enthalpy change for the overall (net) process
is the sum of the enthalpy changes for the
individual steps
Indirect Determination of H
(1) H is an extensive property:
enthalpy is directly proportional to
the amounts of substance in a
system
(2) H changes sign when a process is
reversed
(3) Hess Law of Constant Heat
Summation
Standard Enthalpies of Formation
Standard State (a) for solid and liquid, it is
the pure element or compound at 1 atm and
temperature of interest (b) for gas, it is the
pure gas behaving as an ideal gas at 1 atm
and temperature of interest
Standard Enthalpy of Formation, H of ,of
a Substance the enthalpy change that
occurs in the formation of 1 mol of the
substance in its standard state form the
reference forms of its elements in their
standard states. The reference forms of the
elements are their most stable forms at the
given temperature and 1 atm pressure
The enthalpy of formation of a pure element
in its most stable form is zero:
At 298K,
Na ( s) H 2 ( g)
N 2 ( g) O 2 ( g)
C graphite ( s) Br2 (l)
Standard Enthalpy of Reaction, H o -- the
enthalpy change of a reaction in which all the
reactants and their products are in their
standard states
Ho v p H0f (products) v r H0f (reac tan ts)
Chapter 8: The Atmospheric Gases
and Hydrogen
Descriptive Chemistry the application of
principles to describing and explaining
chemical behavior
The Atmosphere
Air a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen gases
with smaller quantities of argon, carbon
dioxide, and other substances
Structure of the Atmosphere
Troposphere: 12 km above the Earths
surface about 90% of the mass of the
atmosphere; T = 220 K
Stratosphere: 1255 km above the
Earths surface; T: 220280 K due to
exothermic reactions that occur between
atoms in the thinning atmosphere and
ultraviolet radiation form the sun. These
reactions produce the ozone layer
Mesosphere: 5580 km above the
Earths surface; the atmosphere is very thin
with densities rapidly falling to the range of
micrograms and nanograms per liter;
T = 180K
Thermosphere (Ionosphere): the
temperatures rise to about 1500 K. Here, the
11
atmosphere consists of positive and negative
ions, free electrons, neutral atoms, and
molecules. The dissociation of molecules into
atoms and the ionization of atoms into
positive ions and free electrons require the
absorption of energy. The source of that
energy is electromagnetic radiation from the
sun. An interesting natural phenomenon
associated with the ionosphere is the aurora
borealis or northern lights
Water Vapor in the Atmosphere
Vapor Pressure the maximum possible
partial pressure of water vapor at a given
temperature
vapor pressure increases with temperature
If p water p vapor pressure water , the water will
condense
Relative Humidity the ratio of partial
pressure of water vapor to the vapor
pressure of water at the same temperature
(expressed on a % basis)
partial pressure of water vapor
R.H. x 100%
vapor pressure of water
Nitrogen
Sources
Minerals KNO3 (niter or salt peter) and
NaNO3 (soda niter or Chile saltpeter)
Natural plant and animal proteins and
fossilized remains of ancient plant life
Ammonia
One of the most useful chemicals. It can be
converted into a variety of other nitrogen-
containing chemicals
The Haber-Bosch Process
Fritz Haber (1908) and Carl Bosch
N 2 ( g) 3H 2 ( g) 2NH 3 ( g)
see p. 246
NH3 Uses
(1) nitrogen fertilizer
(2) household cleaning products
(3) its OH- reacts with grease and oil
molecules to convert them into
compounds that are more soluble in
water and that do not hold dirt well
NH3 Derivatives
NH4Cl (NH3 + HCl) manufacture of dry cell
batteries
NH4NO3 (NH3 + HNO3) fertilizer and as an
explosive
Urea, CO(NH2)2 excellent fertilizer; also
used as a feed supplement for cattle and in
the production of polymers and pesticides
2 NH 3 CO 2 CO (NH 2 ) 2 H 2 O
HNO3 used in the preparation of various
dyes; drugs; fertilizers and explosives such
as nitroglycerin, nitrocellulose, and
trinitrotoluene (TNT)
Nitrogen Oxides
N2O (laughing gas) anesthetic properties
and dentistry
NO2 manufacture of nitric acid
N2O4 oxidizer in rocket fuels
NO ostwald process; unwanted combustion
products (high T)
Catalytic Converter to control smog: CO
and hydrocarbons are oxidized to CO 2 and
H2O in the presence of catalyst Pt or Pd
metal. The catalyst is dual purpose, it can
also reduce NO to N2
12
Oxygen
Allotropy used to describe the existence
of 2 or more forms of an element that differ in
their bonding and molecular structure
O 2 dioxygen
O 3 trioxygen excellent oxidizing
agent, a substitute for chlorine in purifying
drinking water
The Ozone Layer
O 3 found in the stratosphere
Plays vital role in protecting life on earth:
(1) Ozone absorbs certain ultraviolet
radiation that at Earths surface
causes skin cancer and eye
damage
(2) Help maintain a heat balance in the
atmosphere: in absorbing ultraviolet
radiation, ozone molecules
dissociate and evolve heat
O 3 O 2 O 2 H 389.8 kJ disturb the energy balance on earth.
Ozone-Destroying Processes
Nitrogen Oxide
NO O 3 NO 2 O 2
NO 2 O N O O 2
O3 O 2 O2
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
Dichlorodifluoromethane
CCl 2F2 uv CClF2 Cl
Cl O 3 ClO O 2
Cl O O Cl O 2
O3 O 2 O2
Noble Gases
HeO2: a breathing mixture for deep sea
diving
ArN2: electric light bulbs
Kr and Xe: used in lasers and in flash lamps
in photography
Oxides of Carbon
Carbon Monoxide, CO come from the
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels in
automobile engines. CO is an inhalation
poison because CO molecules bond to Fe
atoms in hemoglobin in blood and displace
O2 molecules that the hemoglobin normally
carries
Global Warming
A building up of CO2 in the atmosphere may
Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed
at Earths surface and warms it. But some of
this absorbed energy is reradiated as
infrared radiation. Certain atmospheric
gases, primary CO2 and water vapor, absorb
some of this infrared radiation. Energy thus
retained in the atmosphere produces a
warming effect. This process is often
compared to the retention of thermal energy
in a greenhouse and called the greenhouse
effect.
The expected effect of a CO 2 buildup is an
increase in Earths average temperature, a
global warming.
The natural greenhouse effect is crucial to
maintaining the proper temperature for life on
earth, without it earth would be permanently
covered with ice.
13
Other Greenhouse gases:
CH 4 N2O
O3 CFC
Hydrogen
Henry Cavendish (1785) discovered
hydrogen
Humphry Davy (1810) proposed that
hydrogen is the key element in acids
In the universe as a whole, hydrogen
accounts for about 90% if the atoms and
75% of the mass, and even on Earth it
occurs in more compounds than any other
element
Water is the most abundant hydrogen
compound
Preparation
Water Gas Reactions
C ( s) H2O ( g) CO ( g) H 2 ( g)
CO ( g) H 2O ( g) CO 2 ( g) H 2 ( g)
Reforming of Methane
CH 4 ( g) H 2O ( g) CO ( g) 3 H 2 ( g)
Compounds of Hydrogen
Hydrides binary compounds of hydrogen
Covalent Hydride formed between H
and nonmetals
H 2 Cl 2 2 HCl
Ionic Hydride formed between H and
the most active metals (Grp IA and 2A); ionic
hydrides react vigorously with water to
produce H2 (g)
CaH 2 H 2O Ca (OH ) 2 2 H 2 ( g)
Uses: manufacture of NH3 and in the
production of light octane gasoline
Chapter 9: Electrons in Atoms
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic Radiation a form of
energy transmission through a vacuum
(empty space) or a medium in which electric
and magnetic fields are propagated as
waves
Wave a disturbance that transmits energy
through a medium
James Clerk Maxwell (1865) proposed
that electromagnetic radiation (a propagation
of electric and magnetic fields) is produced
by accelerating charged particle
c
where
c 2.997925 x 10 8 m / s
Electromagnetic radiation has constant
velocity (c) in a vacuum
Atomic Spectra
Continuous Spectra lines blend together
into an unbroken band of color form red to
violet
Discontinuous Spectra/ Atomic Spectra/
Line Spectra the spectra produced by
certain gaseous substances which is consist
of only a limited number of colored lines
Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff
developed the 1st spectroscope and used it to
identify elements (cesium, rubidium, and
helium)
14
Quantum Theory
Max Planck (1900) proposed that energy,
like matter is discontinuous; he postulated
that the energy of a quantum of
electromagnetic radiation is proportional to
the frequency of the radiation: higher
frequency greater energy
Plancks Equation
E h
where Plancks constant
Js
h 6.626 x 10 34
photon
The Photoelectric Effect
H. Hertz discovered photoelectric effect
Photoelectric Effect a beam of electrons
(electric) is produced by shining light (photo)
on a certain metal surface
The electron energy depend on the
frequency (color) of the light. The freed
electron have greater energies when a
photoelectric material is struck by blue light
(low intensity, high frequency) than a bright
red one (high intensity, low frequency)
Albert Einstein (1905) proposed that
electromagnetic radiation has particle-like
qualities and that particles of light, called
photons, have a characteristic energy (
E h )
The Bohr Atom
Rutherford Model of an Atom in this
model, energy is lost through light emission
(orbiting electrons should be constantly
accelerating and should radiate energy), the
electron is drawn closer to the nucleus and
eventually spirals into it. The collapse of the
atom would occur very rapidly
Niels Bohr blend classical and quantum
theory
Bohrs Postulates (inability to deal with
multielectron atoms)
(1) The electron moves in circular orbits
about the nucleus
(2) The electron has only a fixed set of
allowed orbits called stationary
states. As long as an electron
remains in a given orbit its energy is
constant and no energy is emitted
(3) An electron can pass only from one
allowed orbit to another. In such
transitions, fixed discrete of energy
(quanta) are involved, in accordance
with Plancks equation E h
For Hydrogen
R H 2.179 x 10 18 J
En 2
n n2
where n is a quantum number and must be
an integral number
Ground State lowest allowed energy
Excited State high energy level
1
1
E E f E i 2.179 x 10 18
n2 n2
i f
When the electron drops from a higher to a
lower numbered orbit, a unique quantity of
energy is emitted
Wave-Particle Duality
Wave Theory of Light explains the
dispersion of light into a spectrum by a prism
To explain photoelectric effect Einstein
suggested that light has particle-like
properties embodied in photons
15

Louis de Broglie (1924) small particles of
matter may at times display wave-like
properties
2
: the intensity of the wave (intensity
relates to the number of photons present in a
region the photon density); it relates to the
electron charge density

According to de Broglies hypothesis, the Orbital not an orbit or precise trajectory or

wavelength associated with a particle is
related to the particle momentum and
Plancks constant
h h
p mv
The Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg and Niels Bohr (1920)
considered hypothetical experiments to
establish just how precisely the behavior of
subatomic particles can be determined
path that an electron travels in an atom but it
is where an electron has some likelihood of
being found
Quantum Numbers and the Electron
Orbitals
(1) Principal Quantum Number n
identifies the shell or level in which
the electron is found; only a
positive, nonzero integral value
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 .

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (2) Subsidiary Quantum Number/

h Orbital Angular Momentum
x p Quantum Number l identifies the
4
This principle states that it is impossible to subshell and the shape of the
determine simultaneously the exact position orbital for the electron
and the exact momentum of a body as small
as the electron l n 1

l 0 1 2 3
Wave Mechanics designation s p d f
Wave Mechanics is a form of quantum
theory based on the concepts of wave-
particle duality, the Heisenberg uncertainty, n l Subshell
and the treatment of electrons as matter 1 0 1s
waves. Mathematical solutions of the 2 0, 1 2s, 2p
equation of wave mechanics area known as 3 0, 1, 2 3s, 3p, 3d
wave function ( ) 4 0, 1, 2, 3 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

Erwin Schrodinger (1927) formulated

Schrodinger Equation to describe electronic
configuration in terms of the wave character
of electrons
: the amplitude of the wave
(3) Magnetic (Orbital) Quantum
Number m l -- identifies the
orientation of the orbital within the
subshell

16
 The number of orbitals in a subshell:
2l 1
ml l , ( l 1) , ...0 orbitals are not degenerate.
Subshell l Number of Orbitals
s 0 1: 0
p 1 3 : 1, 0, 1
d 2 5 : 2, 1, 0, 1, 2
f 3 7 : 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 called effective nuclear charge Z eff
(4) Magnetic Spin Quantum Number
ms refers to the relative spin
that the electron may have (+ ,
-). Each orbital can hold 2
electrons with opposed spins
The first three quantum numbers (m, l, and
m l ) arise from solutions to the Schrodinger
wave equation
Otto Stern and Walter Gerlach (1920)
evidence that electron spin exist: Stern-
Gerlach Experiment Ag atoms vaporized are
collimated into a beam by the slit, and the
beam is passed through a nonuniform
magnetic field. The beam splits in two.
Multielectron Atoms
For Hydrogen Atom
All orbitals with the same principal quantum
number n have the same energy (For
example 2s and 2p). Orbitals with the same
energy are said to be degenerate. In a
hydrogen atom the orbitals 2s and 2p are
degenerate, as are 3s, 3p, and 3d.
For multielectron atoms
For multielectron atoms, the attractive force
of the nucleus for a given electron increases
as the nuclear charge increases. As a result,
we find that orbital energies become lower
(more negative) with increasing atomic
number. Also orbital energies in multielectron
atoms depend on the type of orbital; the
Electrons in orbitals closer to the nucleus
reduce the effectiveness of the nucleus in
attracting particular electron. In effect they
reduce the nuclear charge to a net charge
The electron in the s orbital is not as well
screened (shielded) as the one in a p orbital.
The electron experiences a higher Z eff , is
held more tightly, and is at a lower energy
than is the p electron of the same principal
number n.
The energy level of a principal shell is
split into separate level for its subshells.
spdf
Hence,
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
There is no further splitting of energies
within a subshell, however. All three p
orbitals of a principal shell have the same
energy; all five d orbitals have the same
energy; and so on.
Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration of an atom is a
designation of how electrons are distributed
among various orbitals in principal shell and
subshells
17
Rules for Assigning Electrons to Orbitals Except for configuration in which a 3d
(1) Electrons occupy orbital in a way subshell is half-filled with electrons or
that minimizes the energy of the completely filled
atom Sc : Ar 3 d1 4 s 2 (2 valence e)
The order in which orbital fills is: Ti : Ar 3 d 2 4 s 2 (2 valence e)
1s V : Ar 3 d 3 4 s 2 (2 valence e)
2s 2p Cr : Ar 3 d 5 4 s1 (half-filled)
3s 3p 3d Mn : Ar 3 d 5 4 s 2 (2 valence e)
4s 4p 4d 4f
Fe : Ar 3 d 6 4 s 2 (2 valence e)
5s 5p 5d 5f Co : Ar 3 d7 4 s2 (2 valence e)
6s 6p 6d Ni : Ar 3 d8 4 s2 (2 valence e)
7s 7p Cu : Ar 3 d10 4 s1 (completely
filled)
Zn : Ar 3 d10 4 s 2 (2 valence e)
(2) Paulis Exclusion Principle
Wolfgang Pauili (1926)
Electronic Configuration and the Periodic
No two electrons in an atom may
Table
have all four quantum numbers
s block: n Groups 1A and 2A
alike only 2 electrons may occupy
the same orbital and these electrons
p block: n Groups 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, 8A
must have opposing spins (+, -)
d block: n 1 Groups 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B,
(3) Hunds Rule: when orbitals of
8B, 1B, 2B
identical energy, electrons initially
occupy these orbitals singly an
f block: n 2 lanthanides and actinides
atom tends to have as many
unpaired electrons as possible
For the transition elements (B Groups), the
1s 2s 2p
group numerals do not correspond to the
number of valence electrons except for
Groups 1B and 2B
Aufbau Process: building up principle
Most transition metals have 2 electrons in the
A method of writing the probable electron
s subshell of the valence shell but some only
configuration of the element. Each
have one
element is described as differing from the
Cu : Ar 3 d10 4 s1 (1 valence e)
preceding one in terms of orbital to which
the one additional electron is assigned V : Ar 3 d 3 4 s 2 (2 valence e)
Z 1, H : 1s1 Ag : Kr 4 d10 5 s1 (1 valence e)
Z 2, He : 1s 2
Z 3, Li : 1s 2 2 s1

18
Chapter 10: The Periodic Table and
Some Atomic Properties
The Periodic Law and Periodic Table
Johann W. Dobereiner (1817 and 1829)
published articles in which he examined the
properties the properties of sets of elements
that he called triads
John A. R. Newlands (1863-66) proposed
and developed his law of octaves
Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer (1869)
proposed the periodic law:
When the elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of
properties recur periodically
Henry G. J. Moseley assigned the correct
atomic number to any element on the basis
of its X-ray spectrum. With his work, the
periodic law was redefined:
The chemical and physical properties of
the elements are periodic functions of
atomic number
Description of a Modern Periodic Table:
The Long Form
Long Form modern periodic tables
arrange the element in 18 groups
Main Group/ Representative Elements s
and p blocks elements
Transition Elements d block elements
Inner Transition Elements f block
elements
Lanthanides the 14 elements following
lanthanum (Z = 57)
Actinides the 14 elements following
actinium (Z = 89)
Transuranium Elements elements with
atomic number greater than 92
Metals and Nonmetals and Their Ions
Within a transition series, differences in
electron configurations are mostly in
inner shells, and so a transition element
has some similarities to neighboring
transition elements in the same period
Noble Gases
Atoms of the noble gases have the
maximum number of electrons the valence
shell of an atom:
He : 1 s 2 ( 2 valence electrons )
Others: n s 2 n p 6 ( 8 valence electrons )
These electron configuration are very difficult
to alter and seem to conger a high degree of
chemical inertness
Main Group Metal Ions
Groups 1A and 2A the most active metals
differ from those of the noble gas of the
preceding period by only one or two
electrons
Main Group Nonmetal Ions
Groups 7A and 6A the most active
nonmetals; can acquire the electron
configuration of noble gas atoms by gaining
the appropriate numbers of electrons
Transition Metal Ions
A few transition metal atoms acquire noble
gas electron configuration when forming
cation as does
Ti in Ti 4
Sc in Sc 3
Most transition metal atoms do not have
octet configuration
Fe( [ Ar ] 3d6 4 s2 ) Fe 2 ( [ Ar ]3d6 ) 2e
Fe( [ Ar ] 3d6 4 s 2 ) Fe 3 ( [ Ar ]3d5 ) 3e
19
The Sizes of Atoms and Ions The atomic radius decreases from left to
Atomic Radius right through a period of elements
Covalent Radius one-half the distance
between the nuclei of two identical atoms (3) Variation of atomic radii within a
joined by a single covalent bond transition series: The transition elements
Ionic Radius the distance between the and inner-transition elements show some
nuclei of ions joined by an ionic bond variation from the general pattern. For the
Metallic Radius one-half the distance transition elements, the differentiating
between the nuclei of two atoms in contact in electrons fill inner d orbitals. The effect of
the crystalline solid metal nuclear charge on outer, size-determining,
electrons is reduced by the effect of inner
io n ic r a d iu s m e ta llic r a d iu s electrons. For a transition series, therefore,
the gradual buildup of electrons in inner d
r orbitals at first retards the rate of decrease
of atomic radius and then, toward the end
of the series when the inner d subshell
c o v a le n t r a d iu s nears completion, causes the radius to
r increase.

Sc : 3 d1 4 s 2 Z eff 21 19 2
Ti : 3 d2 4 s 2 Z eff 22 20 2
(1) Variation of atomic radii within a group
3 2
of the periodic table: The more electronic V : 3d 4 s Z eff 23 21 2
shells in an atom, the larger the atom. 5
Cr : 3 d 4 s 1
Z eff 24 23 1
Atomic radius increases from top to (larger)
bottom through a group of elements Mn : 3 d5 4 s 2 Z eff 25 23 2

(2) Variation of atomic radii within a Fe : 3 d6 4 s 2 Z eff 26 24 2

7 2
period of the periodic table: Co : 3 d 4 s Z eff 27 25 2
Ni : 3 d8 4 s 2 Z eff 28 26 2
Z eff effective nuclear charge the true 10 1
Cu : 3 d 4s Z eff 29 28 1
nuclear charge (Z) minus the charge that is
screened out by electrons (core electrons (larger)
shield the outer shell electrons/valence Zn : 3 d10 4 s 2 Z eff 30 28 2
electrons from full attractive force of the
nucleus) Ionic Radius
For period II: Na and Mg A metal atom loses one or more electrons to
11 Na : Z eff 11 10 1 become a positive ion. So there are more
12 Mg : Z eff 12 10 2 protons than electrons resulting to excess of
nuclear charge over the number of electrons
13 A l : Z eff 13 10 3
in the cation. The nucleus draws electrons
As the Z eff increases, the core and outer closer. Hence,
shell electrons are attracted more strongly to The cations are smaller than the atom
the nucleus. This results in an overall from which they are formed
contraction of the size of the atom.
Atomic size: Mg Mg 2

20
For isoelectronic cations, the more the
positive the charge, the smaller the ionic
radius
1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 : Mg 2 and Na
Atomic size: Mg 2 Na
Because of the nuclear charge:
Mg : 12
Na : 11
Anions are larger than the atoms from
which they are formed. For isoelectronic
anions, the more the negative charge, the
larger the ionic radius
Z eff is reduced because more electrons
than protons present
Nonmetals tend to gain electrons to form
negative ions. The electrons are not held as
tightly. Repulsion among the electrons
increases. The electron spread out more,
and the size of the atom increases
Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy, I the quantity of energy
a gaseous atom must absorb so that an
electron is stripped from the atom
Mg ( g) Mg ( g) e I 1 738 kJ / mol
Mg ( g) Mg 2
( g) e
I 2 1451 kJ / mol
The farther an electron is from the nucleus,
the more easily it can be extracted. Hence,
ionization energy increases as atomic
radius decreases
Trends
From top to bottom: I decreases
From left to right: I increases
Metal tends to lose electrons
From top to bottom: metallic properties
increases
As ionization energy increases, the
element becomes less metallic
More energy is required for I2, I3 because as
the atom loses electron it becomes smaller.
Hence, more ionization energy is required
I3 I2 I 1
Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity, EA a measure of energy
change that occurs when a gaseous atom
gains an electron
F ( g) e F ( g) EA 328 kJ / mol
EA is a negative quantity
Energy is added to remove an electron, by
thermochemical convention, its opposite
which is the addition of electron must release
energy
Atom with the greatest tendency toward
electron gain (largest negative value) is the
group 7A
Generally: a small atom should have greater
tendency toward electron gain than a large
atom
From top to bottom: decreasing EA
No pattern seem to exist for electron affinities
See figure 10-10 p. 332 Petrucci
The Second Electron Affininities, EA2
Since a negative ion and an electron repel
each other, energy is required, not released,
by the process. All second electron
affinities have positive signs
21
Magnetic Properties (3) Amphoteric (Greek amphos meaning
Properties of atoms and ions, their behavior both) can either an acidic or basic oxides
in a magnetic field, is also helpful in Ex. Al2O3 can react with both acidic and basic
establishing electron configuration solutions

Diamagnetic (ion/atom) all electrons are

paired, and they are weakly repelled by a
magnetic field Chapter 11: Chemical Bonding I:
Ex. Mg atom: 3 s 2 Basic Concepts
2 6
Cl ion: 3 s 3 p
Lewis Theory
Irving Langmuir introduced the term
Paramagnetic (ion/atom) has unpaired covalent; worked with G. N. Lewis about
electrons; the more unpaired electrons chemical bonding
present, the stronger attraction by the field
Ex Na atom, Mn atom, Mn 2 ion Gilbert Newton Lewis emphasizes the
attainment of a noble-gas electronic
If the substance is diamagnetic, it is slightly configuration on the part of atoms in covalent
repelled by a magnetic field and weighs less molecules
in the field. On the other hand, if the
substance is paramagnetic, it weighs more Lewis Theory
(1) Valence electrons play an important
role in chemical bonding
Periodic Properties of the Elements
Oxidizing Agent (Oxidant) gains (2) In some cases, electrons are
electrons; undergo reduction; the oxidation transferred form one atom to
state decreases another. Positive and negative ions
F 2 Cl 2 Br 2 I 2 are formed and attract each other
through electrostatic forces called
C l 2 2 I I2 2 C l
ionic bond
Br 2 C l no rxn
(3) In some cases, one or more pairs of
electrons are shared between atoms;
Acid-Base Nature of Element Oxides this sharing of electrons is called
(1) Base Anhydride metal oxides are covalent bond
basic oxides
Mg O H 2 O Mg 2 2 O H (4) Electrons are transferred or shared
in such a way that each atom
acquires a stable electron
(2) Acid Anhydride the nonmetal oxides configuration. Usually this is a noble-
are acidic oxides gas configuration are with 8 outer
CO 2 H 2 O H 2 CO 3 shell electrons or an octet

22
Lewis Symbols and Lewis Structures
Use only dots to represent electrons
For Ionic Compounds
(1) The Lewis symbol of the metal ion
has no dots if all the valence
electrons are lost
(2) The ionic charges of both ions are
shown
Examples
2
Ba 2
O
Polar Covalent Bond a covalent bond in
2 which electrons are not equally shared
2 A l 3 3 O
between two atoms; electrons are displace
Covalent Bonding
H is considered to be a nonmetal because
hydrogen atom does not give up electron to
another nonmetal atom instead it shares
electron
Covalent Bond formed when electrons are
shared between atoms. In valence bond
theory, the covalent bond is described as the
sharing of a pair of electrons in the region
which atomic orbitals overlap
Bond Pair pair of electrons in a covalent
bond
Lone Pair electron pairs that are not
involved in bonding
Multiple Bonds
O O
N N
Bond Order describes whether a covalent
bond is single (bond order = 1), double
(bond order = 2), or triple (bond order = 3)
Bond Length the distance between the
centers of 2 atoms joined by covalent bond
Bond length:
C C C CC C
Polar Covalent Bonds
Ionic Bond involves a complete transfer
of electrons
Nonpolar Covalent Bond involves equal
sharing of electron pair: Ex. H2, Cl2
toward the more nonmetallic: Ex. HCl
Electronegativity, EN a measure of the
attracting power of a bonded atom; metals
have low electronegativies, and nonmetals
have high electronegativities
Lower EN more metallic
Higher EN more nonmetallic
Trend
From top to bottom: EN decreases
From left to right: EN increases
Linus Pauling constructed the relative
electronegativity scale based on bond
energies
The concept of electronegativity is inexact.
Since, this property depends not only upon
the structure of the atom under consideration
but also upon the number and nature of the
atoms to which it is bonded. The
electronegativity of an atom is not constant.
EN Property
1.7 or more ionic
1.1 1.6 high polarity
0.6 1.0 moderate polarity
0.1 0.5 low polarity
0 nonpolar
(Ref. Mortimer p. 196)
23
Writing Lewis Structure
Skeleton Structure an arrangement of Coordinate Covalent Bond when lone
atoms in order in which they are bonded pair of the central atom is used in the
together formation of covalent bond: Ex ammonium
ion
Central Atom bonded to 2 or more other
atoms H
1
H N H
Terminal Atom bonded to just one other
atom H

H atoms are always terminal atom, and C The formation of coordinate covalent bonds
atoms are almost always central leads to the formal charges in the Lewis
atom (except CO) structure

For polyatomic ions or molecules, the central

atom must be less electronegative Resonance
Occurs when 2 or more plausible Lewis
Formal Charge apparent charges of structures can be written for a species. The
certain atoms in a Lewis structure that arise true structure is a composite or hybrid of
when the atoms have not made equal these different contributing structures
contributions of electrons to the covalent bon
joining them

O

O O




O

O O

F.C. # valence e # e in lone pairs
1
(# e in bond pair )
2


The preferred Lewis structure of a molecule

O

is one with no formal charges, but failing this,
O

N O

we should note that:

(1) Where formal charges are required,
these should be as small as possible
(2) Negative formal charges usually


appear on the most electronegative

O
O

atoms, and positive formal charges
O N O


O N O


on the less electronegative atoms
(3) The sum of the formal charges of the
atoms in a Lewis structure must
equal zero for a neutral molecule
and must equal the ionic charge for a
polyatomic ion
1


O H
Ex:

24
Exceptions to the Octet Rule The Shape of Molecules
(1) Odd-Electron species and Free Radical Lewis theory does not tell us anything about
Has odd number of valence electrons. Ex: the shape of molecules
NO has 11 valence electrons
OH ion has 7 valence electrons Bond Angles the angle between adjacent
lines representing bond
(2) Incomplete Octets
The number of species with incomplete A diatomic molecule has only one bond and
octets is limited to some beryllium, boron, no bond angle. All diatomic molecules are
and aluminum compounds linear.


F
F
Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion
1
1 (VSEPR pronounced vesper) electrons


F B F
F B F
pairs repel each other, whether they are in

chemical (bond pairs) or unshared (lone
pairs). Electron pairs assume orientation

1


about an atom to minimize repulsions
F F
1 1 1

F
B F


F B F

(1) Electron Group Geometry (EGG)
refers to the geometrical distribution
about a central atom of the electron
(3) Expanded Octets pairs in its valence shell
Molecules with expanded octets typically
involve nonmetal atoms of the third period (2) Molecular Geometry refers to the
and beyond that are bonded to highly geometrical shape of the molecule
electronegative atoms or polyatomic ion. In a species in
Ex. PCl5 (10 electrons), SF6 (12 electrons) which all electron pairs are bond
pairs, the molecular geometry is the
This expansion has been rationalized by same as electron group geometry. In
assuming that after the 3s and 3p subshells other cases the two properties are
fill to capacity in the central atom (octet), related but not the same]
extra electrons go into the empty 3d
subshell. The thought is that the energy
difference between 3p and 3d levels is not
very large, and so the octet expansion
seems reasonable.

But recently some chemist have used

sophisticated computer modeling programs
to suggest that 3d subshell is not significantly
involved in the bonding of molecules PCl 5
and SF6

25
 VSEPR Notation
A: central atom
X: terminal atom S central atom
S
E: loner pair of electrons

VSEPR: A X 2 E

O O
Molecular
The close together two groups of electrons Geometry: angular
are forced, the stronger the repulsion
between them
Repulsion for bond angles: C central atom
9 0 12 0 18 0 O
VSEPR: A X 3
C Molecular
Lone pair electrons spread out more than do H H Geometry: trigonal
bond pair electrons planar
Repulsion strength:
lone pair lone pair lone pair bond pair bond pair bond pair

VSEPR Electron Molecular Example

Notation Group Geometry
Geometry
AX2 linear linear BeC l2
AX3 trigonal trigonal BF 3
A X 2E planar planar SO 2
angular/bent
AX4 tetrahedral tetrahedral CH 4
A X 3E trigonal NH 3
A X 2E2 pyramidal H2O
angular/bent
AX5 trigonal trigonal P C l5
A X 4E bipyramidal bipyramidal SF4
A X 3E2 seesaw C l F3
T- shaped
A X 2E3 XeF2
linear
AX6 octahedral octahedral SF6
A X 5E square- Br F 5
A X 4E2 pyramidal Xe F4
square
planar

26
Molecular Shapes and Dipole Moments strong bonds weak bonds H0
Dipole Moment (rxtnts) (products)
d
where
in Coulomb
d in m Chapter 12: Chemical Bonding II:
C m 1 de b y e 1 D Additional Aspects
Carbon Dioxide Lewis Theory
O C O Strength
nonpolar: 0 (1) the ease with which we can apply it
(2) we can write a Lewis structure
Water quickly
H
O O Weakness
polar (1) has problem with odd-electron
species
Methane (2) it is not possible to represent a
H molecule through a single electronic
structure (resonance)
H C H
VSEPR
H Can propose molecular shapes that are
nonpolar: 0 generally in good agreement with experiment

Bond Energies
Energy is released when isolated atoms join
to form covalent bond and energy must be
absorbed to break apart convalently bonded
atom
Introduction to Valence-Bond Method
Valence Bond Method a description of
covalent bond formation in terms of atomic
overlap

Bond Dissociation Energy, D the quantity Describe the phospine molecule P H 3

of heat required to break one mole of 3s 3p
covalent bonds in a gaseous species P
1s
Another way to use bond energies is in
predicting whether a reaction will be H
exothermic or endothermic.
Using Valence Bond
Exothermic H P H bond angles are 90
weak bonds strong bonds H0
(rxtnts) (products)

Using VSEPR: bond angles must be 109.5

Endothermic

27
VSEPR prediction to accommodate lone pair sp 2 trigonal B F3
and bond pair repulsions: the bond angle planar
must be less than 109.5 s p3 tetrahedral CH 4
s p 3d trigonal PC l 5
bipyramidal
Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals s p 3d2 octahedral S F6
Hybridization mathematical process of
replacing pure atomic orbitals by
reformulated atomic orbitals; refers to the
combining of pure atomic orbitals to generate Examples:
hybrid orbitals in the valence bond approach Xe F4 : A X 4E 2 s p 3d 2
to covalent bonding N H 3 : A X 3E 1 s p 3

Hybrid Orbital one of a set of identical H 2 O : A X 3E 1 s p 3

orbitals reformulated from pure atomic
orbitals and used to describe certain covalent
bonds Multiple Covalent Bonds
Sigma () bond results from end-to-end
In hybridization the number of hybrid orbitals overlap of simple or hybridized atomic
equals the total of atomic orbitals that are orbitals along the straight line joining the
combined nuclei of the bonded atoms
sp 3 one s and three p
shape: tetrahedral Pi () bond results from the sidewise or
sp 2
one s and two p side-to-side overlap of p orbitals, producing
a high electron charge density above and
shape: trigonal planar below the line joining the bonded atoms
sp one s and one p
C C
shape: linear
1 bond

C C
To describe hybridization schemes to
correspond to the 5 and 6 electron groups 1 bond, 1 bond
geometries of VSEPR theory, we need to go
beyond the s and p subshells of the valence C C
shell, and traditionally this has meant 1 bond, 2 bonds
including d orbital contribution hybrid orbitals
Examples:
Hybridization schemes are well established sp 2 sp 2
and very well commonly encountered,
H H
particularly among the second period C C
H H
element (C, O, N)
C 2H 4 trigonal planar

Hybrid Geometry Example

sp linear BC l2

28
 : C (sp2 ) O (2p)
H
C O
H Malleable the ease of deformation of
: C ( sp 2 ) O (2p)
CH 2 O trigonal planar
Molecular Orbital Theory
Molecular orbital theory describes the
covalent bonds in a molecule by
considering that the atomic orbitals
of the component atoms are
replaced by electron orbitals
belonging to the molecule as a whole
molecular orbitals. A set of rules is
used to assign electrons to these
molecular orbitals, thereby yielding
the electronic structrure of the
molecule
Like atomic orbitals, molecular orbitals are
mathematical functions. Also like atomic
orbital, molecular orbital can accommodate
two electrons, the electrons must have
opposing spins
Bonding in Metals
(1) Electron Sea Model
Electron Sea Model pictures a solid metal
as a network of positive ions immersed in a
sea of electrons; a simple qualitative
description of metallic state
Electrons in the sea are free and they are
mobile
Metal:
Lustrous electrons at the surface of a
metal are able to reradiate, at the same
frequency, light that strikes the surface,
which explains the lustrous appearance of
metals
metals can be explained this way: if one
layer of metal ions is forced across another,
perhaps by hammering, no bonds are
broken, the internal structure of the metal
remains essentially unchanged, the sea of
electrons adjust to the new situation
(2) Band Theory
Band Theory a form of molecular orbital
theory to describe bonding in metals and
semiconductors
The band theory describes the bonding in
metals in terms of molecular orbitals that
extend over the entire metallic structure. This
band theory can be used to explain
electrical conductivities of conductor,
insulator, and semiconductors
Pure substances (such as Si and Ge) that
functions as semiconductors are called
intrinsic semiconductors
The addition of small traces of certain
impurities to either Si or Ge enhances its
conductivity and produces what is called an
extrinsic semiconductor
The use of acceptor impurity (such as B,
Al, Ga, or In) produces p-type
semiconductor
The use of donor impurity (such as P, As,
Sb, or Bi) produces n-type semiconductor
Defomability, luster, thermal conductivity, and
electrical conductivity are the properties most
characteristic of metals
29
Valence Band a band in which a metallic
crystal that contains the valence electrons of
the metal
Conduction Band an empty band in a
metallic crystal through which electrons are
free to move and thereby conduct electricity
When white light interacts with the
semiconductor, electrons are excited
(promoted) to the conduction band
Chapter 13: Liquids, Solids, and
Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular Forces and Some
Properties of Liquids
Intermolecular Force an attraction
between molecules
Intermolecular forces are important in
establishing the surface tension and viscosity
of a liquid
Surface Tension
Surface tension the energy or work
required to increase the surface area of a
liquid
Unit: Energy/Area : J/m2
Sphere has a smaller ratio of surface
area to volume than does any other
geometric figure
As T increases, the intensity of molecular
motion increases, intermolecular forces
become less effective. Less work is required
to extend the surface of a liquid, meaning
that surface tension decreases with
increased T
Cohesive Forces the intermolecular forces
between like molecules
Adhesive Forces the intermolecular forces
between unlike molecules; responsible for
the wetting of surfaces
Effects of adding detergent to water
(1) the detergent solution dissolves
grease to expose a clean surface
(2) detergent lowers the surface tension
of water. Substances that reduce the
surface tension of water to allow it to
spread more easily are known as
wetting angents
Miniscus: liquids in a test tube
Concave (curved upward): such as in
water, adhesive force between water and
glass
Convex (curved downward): such as in
Hg, cohesive force are so strong so it
does not wet the glass
Capillary tubes of small diameter
The effects of meniscus formation
(1) In the capillary action, the water
inside the capillary is noticeably
higher than outside
(2) Hg with its strong cohesive forces
and weaker adhesive forces does
not show capillary rise. Hg in a glass
tube will have a lower level than Hg
outside the capillary
Viscosity
Viscosity liquids resistance to flow
30
The stronger the intermolecular forces of
attraction, the greater the viscosity. Cohesive
forces within the liquid create an internal
friction which reduces the rate of flow
Vaporization of Liquids
Vaporization the passage of molecules
from the surface of a liquid into a gaseous, or
vapor, state
Enthalpy of Vaporization
H vap Hvapor H liquid
Because vaporization is an endothermic
enthalpy of vaporization is always positive
Enthalpy of condensation
Hcondensation H liquid Hvapor Hvap container, boiling does not occur. Instead,
It is opposite in sign but equal in equal
magnitude to H vap
Vapor Pressure
Vapor Pressure the pressure exerted by
vapor in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid
Volatile liquids with high vapor pressure at
room temperature; weak intermolecular
forces
Ex. Acetone
Nonvolatile liquids with very low vapor
pressures; strong intermolecular forces
Ex. Hg
Boiling and Boiling Point
Boiling a process in which vaporization
occurs throughout a liquid. Pockets of vapor
rise through the liquid and escape. Boiling
occurs when the vapor pressure of a
liquid is equal to barometric pressure
Normal Boiling Point the T at which the
vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to
standard atmospheric pressure
(1atm = 760mmHg)
Barometric pressure at high altitudes is
below 1 atm. The boiling of water is below
100C (95C). To cook food under these
conditions of lower boiling T, longer times are
needed. A 3-minute boiled egg takes longer
than 3 minutes to cook
The Critical Point
Boiling occurs in a container open to the
atmosphere. If a liquid is heated in a sealed
the T and vapor pressure rise continuously
Critical Point the highest point on a vapor
pressure curve and represents the highest T
at which the liquid can exist
See Fig 13-11 p. 427 Petrucci
An Equation For Expressing Vapor
Pressure Data
H vap 1
ln p
R T
where T in Kelvin
Clausius-Clayperon Equation
p H vap 1 1
ln 2
p1 R T1 T2
Some Properties of Solids
Melting (fusion) transition of a solid to a
liquid and occurs at the melting point. The
melting point and freezing point of a
substance are identical
31
Freezing (solidification) the conversion of How it extinguishes fire?
a liquid to a solid that occurs at fixed point (1) displacing air around the fire with
known as the freezing point blanket of CO2 (gas)

Sublimation the direct passage of (2) cooling down the area

molecules from the solid to the vapor state
H sub H fusion H vap

Deposition the passage of molecules from Supercritical Fluids

the vapor to the solid state Supercritical point liquid and gaseous
phase become identical and
indistinguishable
Phase Diagrams
Solid: low T and high P SCFs display solvent properties similar to
Gas: high T and low P ordinary liquid solvent
Liquid: intermediate
To vary the pressure of an SCF means to
vary its density and also its solvent
properties. Thus, a given SCF, such as CO 2,
can be made to behave like many different
liquid solvents
P solid
Phase versus State of Matter
gas State of matter solid, liquid, and gas

Phase a sample of matter with definite

T
composition and uniform properties that is
distinguishable from other phases with which
Phase Diagram a graphical representation
it is in contact
of the conditions of T and P at which solids,
Ex. Liquid water in equilibrium with its vapor
liquids, and gases exist, either as single
as two-phase mixture
phases or states of matter or as two or more
phases in equilibrium
Van der Waals Forces
Carbon Dioxide
Van der Waals Force used to describe,
CO2 fire extinguishers (P = 5.1 atm)
collectively, intermolecular forces of London
All three states of matter are involved in the
type and interactions between permanent
action of these fire extinguishers. When
dipoles; these forces are the ones
liquid CO2 is released, most of it quickly
accounted for in the Van der Waals equation
vaporizes. The heat required from this
for non-ideal gas
vaporization is extracted from the remaining
CO2 (liquid) which has it lowered that it
(1) Dispersion Force/ London Force/
freezes and falls as a CO 2(solid) snow. In
Instantaneous Dipole/ Induced Dipole
turn CO2 (solid) quickly sublimes to CO2(gas)
the displacement of electrons cause a

32
normally nonpolar species to become
momentarily polar (an instantaneous dipole/
induced dipole)
Polarizability the ease with which a dipole
can be induced in an atom or molecules
Polarizability increases with increased
number of electrons and the number of
electrons increased with increased
molecular mass
Because dispersion forces become stronger
as polarizability increases, molecules attract
each other more strongly, with the result that
melting points, boiling points of covalent
substances generally increase with
increasing molecular mass
Melting and Boiling Points of Halogens:
F2 C l 2 B r2 I 2
The strength of dispersion forces also
depends on molecular shape: the elongated
molecules are more polarizable than short
and symmetrical ones
(2) Dipole-Dipole Interactions in a polar
substance, the molecules have permanent
dipole moments
Boiling Points: N 2 O 2 NO
Summary
(1) Dispersion forces exist between all
molecules
(2) When comparing substance with
comparable molecular mass
dipole forces can produce
significant difference in such
properties as melting point,
boiling point, and enthalpy of
vaporization
Ex. Boiling Point: HCl F2
(3) When comparing substance of
widely different molecular mass
dispersion forces are more
significant
Ex. BP: HI H B r H C l
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrides of
(1) Group 4A: normal behavior, the
boiling point increases regularly with
increasing molecular mass: CH 4 to
SnH4 (dispersion forces)
(2) Groups 5A, 6A, 7A: hydrogen
bonding such as NH3, H2O, HF
Hydrogen Bond formed when an H atom
bonded to one highly electronegative atom
Only F, O, N easily meet the
electronegativity requirement for H-bonding
Weak H-bonding may occur with Cl and S
Water
At 3.98oC maximum density
At T> 3.98oC density decreases as T
increases
Fresh water freezes from top down when
water T falls below 4C, the denser water
sinks to the bottom of the lake and the colder
water freezes. This allows fish to survive the
winter in a lake that has frozen over
H-Bonding in water seems to be the principal
reason why trees grow higher than 30 ft
Viscosity
CH3CH2OH < CH2OHCHOHCH2OH
33
In most covalent substances, intermolecular
forces are quite weak, this is why covalent
substances of low molecular mass are
generally gaseous at room temperature
Molecular mass:
C l2 ( gas) B r2 ( liquid) I 2 ( solid)
Intermolecular Forces and the Solution
Process
In the formation of some solution, heat is
given off to the surroundings, in many other
cases heat is absorbed due to breaking of
bonds
Intermolecular Forces in Mixtures
Like Dissolves Like substances with
similar molecular structures like to
exhibit similar intermolecular forces
of attractions and soluble in one
another
(1) polar dissolves ionic substances
(ion dipole) and polar substances
(dipole dipole )
(2) nonpolar dissolves nonpolar
substances (induced dipole
induced dipole)
Chapter 14: Solution and Their
Physical Properties
Solvent the component present in the
greater quantity or the determines the state
of matter in which a solution exist
Solute a solution component said to be
dissolved in the solvent
Concentrated Solution relatively large
quantity of dissolved solute (ex. Syrup)
Dilute Solution small quantity of solute
Solution Concentration
Concentration a measure of the quantity
of solute present in a given quantity of
solvent (or solution)
Mole Fraction
moles of component i
xi
total moles of all components
x i x j x k ... 1
Mole Percent
Mole fractions multiplied by 100%
Molarity
34
 moles of solute
M
L of solution
Molality
moles of solute
m Applications of Henrys Law
kg of solvent
Independent of T difference unlike molarity
volume increases as T is increased, hence,
molarity decreases slightly
Molatiy a concentration unit that is
independent of T and also proportional to the
mole fractions in dilute solutions
Solution Formation and Equilibrium
Saturated Solution on that contains the
maximum quantity of solute that is normally
possible at the given T
Solubility the concentration of the
saturated solution (varies with T)
Unsaturated Solution contains less solute
than the solvent is capable of dissolving
under given conditions
Supersaturated Solution contains more
solute than normally expected for a saturated
solution
Solubilities of Gases
Effect of Pressure pressure affects the
solubility of a gas in a liquid much more than
does T
Henrys Law by William Henry
The solubility of a gas increases as the
gas pressure is increased
C k P gas
where
C is the solubility of a gas in a particular
solvent
k is the proportionality constant
(1) when a soda bottle is opened, the
pressure quickly drops and some of the CO 2
is released as bubbles
(2) to avoid the painful and dangerous
condition of bends divers must avoid not
surface to quickly from great depths
Vapor Pressures of Solutions
Raoults Law
F. H. Raoult (1880) found that a dissolved
solute lowers the vapor pressure of the
solvents (volatile solvent volatile solute)
Raoults Law
The partial pressure exerted by solvent,
PA , vapor above an ideal solution is the
product of mole fraction of solvent in
solution, x A , and the vapor pressure of
pure solvent at the given temperature PAo
P A x A P oA
see p.402 Petrucci Ex. 14-6, 14-7
Osmotic Pressure
Applicable for volatile solvent volatile solute
such as glucose, sucrose, and urea
Osmosis the net flow of solvent molecules
from a more dilute solution (or from the pure
solvent) into a more concentrated solution
Osmotic Pressure the pressure that would
have to be applied to a solution to stop the
passage through a semipermeable
membrane of solvent molecules from the
pure solvent
35
Osmotic pressures of dilute solutions of Assumptions
nonelectrolytes (1) Solute in nonvolatile
V nR T
(2) The solid that freezes from a solution is a
Blood Cells (0.92% NaCl) pure solvent
Isotonic a solution with the same osmotic
pressure as body fluids T f k f m
T b k b m
Hypertonic cells is placed into a solution
with concentration greater than 0.92% NaCl;
water flows out the cells and shrink

Hypotonic cells is placed into a solution Application

with concentration less than 0.92% NaCl
To combat dehydration or to supply nutrients
to patients, the solution must be isotonic with
blood
Reverse Osmosis the passage of through
a semipermeable membrane of solvent
molecules from a solution into a pure
solvent. It can be achieve by applying to the
solution a pressure in excess of its osmotic
pressure
Application
(1) desalination of seawater to supply
drinking water for emergency situations
(2) removal of dissolved materials from
industrial or municipal wastewater before it is
discharged into the environment
(1) automobile antifreeze, ethylene glycol
C2H4(OH)2 raise the boiling point of water
and prevent cooling system boilover
Solutions of Electrolytes
Jacobus Vant Hoff explained anomalous
values of colligative properties
V i nR T
T f i k f m
T b i k b m
where
i = 1 for all nonelectrolytes
i = 2 for NaCl (very dilute)
i = 3 for MgCl2 (very dilute)

Colligative Properties
(1) vapor pressure lowering
(2) freezing point depression
(3) boiling point elevation
(4) osmotic pressure

Freezing Point Depression and Boiling

Point Elevation of Nonelectrolyte
Solutions

36
 First-Order Reactions
A products
d[A]
r k [A]
dt
d[ A ]
[ A]
kdt
[A] t
ln k t
[A] 0

ln[ A ] t k t ln[ A ] 0
Chapter 15: Chemical Kinetics

Chemical Kinetics the study of chemical

reactions, rate law of chemical reactions, and
reaction mechanism
ln [ A ]
Rate of Reaction describes how fast the
concentration of a reactant or product t
changes with time
Half-life time required for one-half of a
Rate Law/ Rate Equation relates the
reactant to be consumed
reaction rate to the concentrations of
reactants
1/ 2
r k [ A ] m [B ] n ln k t1 / 2
1
m + n: overall order of reaction
ln 2 0.693
t 1/ 2
k k
Zero-Order Reactions
A products
d[ A ] Reactions involving Gases
r k [ A ]0 k
dt n P
[A] A A
A ] kdt
d[ V RT
[A] t
ln k t
[A] 0
[A] t k t [A] 0
PA , t
ln k t
PA , 0
[A]

t Second-Order Reactions
A products

37
 1 1
kt
[A] t [A] t
1
t 1/ 2
k [A] 0

Collision Theory For Exothermic

Collision Frequency the number of
molecular collisions per unit time

Only a fraction of the collisions (effective

collisions) among gaseous molecules lead E a ( forward ) E a (reverse)
reac tan ts
to chemical reaction
H 0
Activation energy of a reaction the
minimum energy above the average kinetic products
energy that molecules must bring to their
collisions for a chemical reaction to occur
For Endothermic
The higher the energy of activation of a
reaction, the smaller the fraction of
energetic collisions and the slower the
reaction
E a (reverse)
kJ E a ( forward )
products
Transition State Theory
H 0
Proposed by Henry Eyring reac tan ts
A hypothetical species (activated complex)
is believed to exist in an intermediate state t
that lies between the reactants and the
products
The Effect of Temperature on Reaction
Important features Rates
(1) The enthalpy change of a reaction is
equal to the difference in activation Svante Arrhenius (1889)
energies of the forward and reverse
k A e E a/ RT
reactions
where
H E a ( forward) E a (reverse)
A is the frequency factor
e E a / R T is the fraction of sufficiently
(2) For an endothermic reaction, the
activation energy must be equal to or energetic collisions
greater than the enthalpy of reaction

38
Arrhenius Equation to form adsorbed product, and desorption of
the product
k2 E a 1 1
ln
k1 R Enzymes high molar mass proteins
T1 T2
Substrate reacting substance

Reaction Mechanism
Reaction Mechanism a detailed Chapter 16: Principles of Chemical
description of a chemical reaction as a series Equilibrium
of one-step changes called elementary
processes Equilibrium two opposing processes take
place at equal rates
Characteristic of Elementary Processes
(1) The exponent of the concentration
terms in the rate equation for an a A bB c C dD
elementary processes are the same
as thestoichiometric coefficient in the Equilibrium Constant Expression
balanced equation [ C ]c [ D ]d
(2) Elementary process are either K c
unimolecular (a process which a [ A ]a [ B ]b
single molecule dissociates) or The concentrations must be expressed as
bimolecular (a process involving the molarities
collision of 2 molecules)
(3) In a proposed mechanism, Equlibrium Constant: K c
intermediates must not appear either The numerical value of K c depends on
in the net chemical equation or the particular reaction and on the temperature
overall rate equation
(4) One elementary process may occur
more slowly than other, and in some Relationship of Equilibrium Constant to
cases may determine the rate of the Balanced Chemical Equation
overall reaction. Such a process is (1) When we reverse an equation, we invert
called the rate-determining step
the value of K c
a A bB c C dD
See p. 530 Petrucci Ex. 15-10
[ C ]c [ D ]d
K c
[ A ]a [ B ]b
Catalysis
Catalyst provides an alternative pathway c C dD a A bB
of lower activation energy
[ A ]a [ B ]b 1
K 'c c d

Heterogenous Catalysis involves [C ] [D] Kc
adsorption of reactants, diffusion of reactants
along the surface, reaction at an active site

39
(2) When we multiply the coefficients in a
balanced equation by a common factor, we c d
PC PD
raise the equilibrium constant to the KP
P aA P Bb
corresponding power
na A nb B n c C n dD
[ C ] n c[ D ] n d
K 'c na nb
(K c )n
[A] [B]
( c d) ( a b )
1
K c KP
RT
(3) When we divide the coefficients in a n g a s
1
balance equation by a common factor, we K c KP
RT
take the corresponding root of the
equilibrium constant n gas n gaseous products n gaseous reac tan ts
na A nb B nc C n dD
c d n
n n
1 KP K c ( RT ) ga s

[C] [D] n
K 'c a b
(K c ) n K c

[A] n [B] n
concentration must be expressed as
molarities and pressure in atm, and
R =0.0821 Latm / Kmol
Combining Equilibrium Constant
Expression
Equilibria Involving Pure Liquids and
1
N 2 O( g) N 2 ( g) O 2 ( g) K c1 Solids
2 For Heterogenous Reactions
N 2 ( g) O 2 ( g) 2 N O( g) K c2 Equilibrium constant expression does not
1 contain terms for solid or liquid phases of a
N 2 O( g) O 2 ( g) 2 N O( g) Kc ? single component
2

K c K c1 K c 2 H 2O ( l ) H 2O ( g )
K C [ H 2 O ( g ) ] and K P P H 2 O ( g )
n 1 : K P K C R T
Equilibria Involving Gases

na A nb B nc C n dD
C aC O 3 ( s) C a O( s) CO 2 ( g)
nA P K C [ CO 2 ( g) ] and K P P C O 2( g)
Let [ A ] A
V RT n 1 : K P K C R T
c d
PC PD

RT RT
K c
a

b Significance of Magnitude of an
PA PB
Equilibrium Constant
RT R T
c ( c d) ( a b ) [ products ]
PC P Dd 1 KC
Kc
P aA P Bb RT [ reac tan ts ]

40
If the reaction goes to completion
[ reac tan t ] 0
K C or K P
If the reaction does not occur to any
significant extent
[ products ] 0
K C or K P 0
A reaction is most likely to reach a state of
equilibrium in which significant quantities
of both reactants and products are
present if the numerical value of K C or K P
is neither very large nor very small, roughly
in the range form about 10 10 to 1010
The Reaction Quotient, Q: Predicting the
Direction of a Net Reaction
Reaction Quotient, Q C or QP a ratio of
concentration terms (or partial pressures)
having the same form as an equilibrium
constant expression, but usually applied to
nonequilibrium condition. It is used to
determine the direction in which a net
reaction occurs to establish equilibrium
a A bB c C dD
[ C ]c [ D ]d
Q c
[ A ]a [ B ] b
where the concentrations are the initial
concentrations
(1) If Q C K C : a reaction is at
equilibrium
(2) If Q C K C : a net reaction proceeds
from left to right (the forward reaction)
(3) If Q C K C : a net reaction proceeds
from right to left (the reverse direction)
Altering Equilibrium Conditions: Le
Chateliers Principle
Henri Le Chatelier (1884) when an
equilibrium is subjected to a change in T, P,
or concentration of a reacting species, the
system responds by attaining a new
equilibrium that partially offsets the impact of
the change
(1) Effect of Changing the Amounts of
Reacting Species
A BC
increase in A: causes forward reaction
increase in C: favors the reverse direction
(2) Effect of Changes in Pressure of
Volume in Equilibrium
When the volume of an equilibrium mixture
of gases is reduced (increase in P), a net
reaction occur in the direction producing
fewer moles of gases. When the volume is
increased (decrease in P), a net reaction
occurs in the direction producing more moles
of gases
N 2 ( g) 3 H 2 ( g) 2 N H 3 ( g)
increase in volume: favors reverse
direction (to the left)
increase in pressure: favors forward
reaction (to the right)
(3) Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium
Raising the T (adding heat) of an
equilibrium mixtures shifts the equilibrium in
the direction of the endothermic reaction.
Lowering the T (removing heat) causes a
shift in the direction of the exothermic
reaction
ABC H 197 k J
Is equivalent to A B C H
41
 Ex.
add heat: favors reverse direction NH3 is a base but it does contain hydroxide
remove heat: favors forward direction NH 3 H 2 O NH 4 OH

Effects of a Catalyst on Equilibrium

Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and
Catalyst speeds up both forward and
Bases
reverse direction. Hence, equilibrium is
J. N. Bronsted and T. M. Lowry (1923)
achieved more rapidly
proposed a new acid-base theory
Concepts:
Acid proton donor
(1) The function of a catalyst is to change the
mechanism of a reaction to one having a
Base proton acceptor
lower activation energy

(2) A catalyst has no effect on the condition NH 3 H 2 O NH

4 OH

of equilibrium base1 acid2 acid1 base 2

Combining both statements: an equilibrium Conjugate Pair: NH 3 / NH 4 , H 2 O / OH

condition is independent of the reaction
mechanism Conjugate acid: NH 4
Conjugate base: OH

Base Ionization Constant, Kb

Chapter 17: Acids and Bases
[ NH
4 ] [ OH ]
Kb 1.8 x 10 5
The Arrhenius Theory [ NH 3 ]
Acid a substance that provides hydrogen
ions (H+) in aqueous solution Water molecules are present in
Ex. HCl, HBr overwhelming numbers compared with NH 3,
NH4+, OH
Base/Alkali a substance capable of
producing hydroxide ions (OH) in aqueous For the reaction
solution H C 2H 3O 2 H 2O C 2H 3O 2 H 3O
Ex. NaOH, Ca(OH)2 acid1 base 2 base1 acid2

Essential idea of Arrhenius theory: A Acid Ionization Constant, Ka

neutralization reaction involves the
combination of hydrogen ions and [ C 2H 3O 2 ] [ H3O ]
hydroxide ions to form water K a 1.8 x 10 5
[ H C 2H 3O 2 ]
The essential failure of the Arrhenius
theory is in not recognizing the key role
of the solvent in the ionization of solute

42
 K W [ H 3O ] [ OH ] 1.0 x 10 14

pH and pOH
Soren Sorensen (1909) proposed the term
Arrhenius Theory vs Bronsted-Lowry pH to refer to the potential of hydrogen ion
Theory
(1) Any species that is an acid by the p H log [ H 3 O ]
Arrhenius theory an acid in the
p O H log [ OH ]
Bronsted-Lowry theory; the same is
true of bases pK W p H p O H 14.00

(2) Certain species, even though they

do not contain OH group, produce
OH in aqueous solution (Bronsted- Strong Acids and Strong Bases
Lowry bases) The contribution due to the self-ionization of
water can be ignored unless the solution is
(3) The Bronsted-Lowry theory accounts extremely dilute
for substances that can act either as
an acid or a base; they are said to Strong Acids Strong Bases
be amphiprotic. The Arrhenius HCl LiOH
theory does not account for HBr NaOH
amphiprotic behavior HI KOH
HClO3 Mg(OH)2
In an acid-base reaction, the favored HNO3 Ca(OH)2
direction of the reaction is from stronger H2SO4 Sr(OH)2
to the weaker member of a conjugate Ba(OH)2
acid-base pair

H 2O I OH HI Weak Acids and Weak Bases

Two acids can have identical molarities but
acid1 base2 base1 acid2
different pH value
weak weak strong strong
0.1 M HCl pH = 1
0.1 M HC2H3O2 pH = 2.8
The Self-Ionization of Water and of the
pH Scale Given: HA with initial concentration M
H 2 O H 2 O H 3O OH The equilibrium concentrations are shown
acid1 base 2 acid2 base1 below
weak weak strong strong HA H A
K [ H 3O ] [ OH ] Mx x x
C

Degree of Ionization the fraction of the

Ion-Product of Water, KW, at 25 oC acid molecules that ionize

43
 x Hydrolysis
deg ree of ionization
M Hydrolysis the reaction between ion
(which acts as acid or base) and water
Percent Ionization
x As a result of hydrolysis, for many salt
percent ionization 100% solutions, pH 7
M
(1) Salts of strong base and strong acids
(Ex. NaCl) do not hydrolyze:
M A (or M B ) pH = 7
M x M if 100
K a (or K b )
(2) Salts of strong base and weak acids
(Ex. NaC2H3O2) hydrolyze:
pH > 7 the anion acts as a base
Polyprotic Acids
Polyprotic Acids acids with more than one (3) Salts of weak bases and strong acid
ionizable H atom per molecule (Ex. NH4Cl) hydrolyze:
pH < 7 the cation acts as an acid
K a1 K a 2 K a 3
(4) Salts of weak bases and weak acids
(Ex. NH4C2H3O2) hydrolyze:
pH depends on the relative values of Ka and
Ions as Acids and Bases Kb for ions: If
Ion can act as acid or base Ka > Kb: pH < 7
Ka < Kb: pH > 7
Important consequence of the Bronsted-
Lowry Theory:
Molecular Structure and Acid-Base
K a (acid) x K b (its conjugate base) K W Behavior
Acid behavior requires the loss of proton, we
K b (base) x K a ( its conjugate acid) K W
expect acid strength to be related to bond
length
C 2H 3O 2 H 2O H C 2H 3O 2 OH
Within a Group
KW [ HC 2H 3O 2 ] [ OHAcidity
] increases with increasing bond length
K b
K a (HC 2H 3O 2 ) [ C 2H 3O 2 ] (atomic radius) and when dissociation energy
decreases
Acidity: H I H B r H C l H F
NH 4 H 2 O N H 3 H 3O
Within a Period

KW [ NH 3 ][ H 3 O ] The greater the electronegativity difference
K a
K b (N H 3) [ NH (EN) is the bond HX, the more polar the
4 ]
bond. The lose of H+ to a molecule occur
more readily from a polar bond than from a
nonpolar bond

44
Acidity: C H 4 N H 3 H 2 O H F Sulfuric acid vs Sulfurous acid


O O
EN: 0.4 < 0.9 < 1.4 < 1.9

H O S O
H H O S O
H


O

Acidic, Basis, and Amphoteric

E XO Y H 2 O E O H
Acetic acid vs Ethanol
Acid Anhydride, ExOY
H O

When E is a nonmetal such as Cl, S, N, or P H H

(highly electronegative), it attracts H C C O
H H C C O

H
electrons away from the OH bond in the E H H H
O H (an oxoacid)
The Cl atom withdraws electrons more
E O H O H EO H2O strongly when it is directly adjacent to the
carboxyl group

H C l O H H O

Base Anhydride, ExOY

H C C C O H Cl C C C O H
If E has low electronegativity such as Na

and K there is an actual transfer of an H H H H

electron from the OH group in the hydroxo
compound
E O H H 3 O E 2H 2 O
Amphoteric
Its hydroxo compound may act either as an
acid or a base. Amphoterism is associated
with elements having electronegativities in an
intermediate range (about 1.6 2)
Lewis Acids and Bases
G. N. Lewis (1923) proposed an acid-base
theory closely related to bonding and
structure
Lewis Acid-Base Theory
Not limited to reaction involving H + and OH,
and it extends to acid-base concepts to
reaction in gases and in solids

Lewis Acid a species (an atom, ion, or

Strength of Oxoacids molecule) that is an electron pair acceptor
Acidity:
H O

Cl H


O

I

Lewis Base a species that is an electron
pair donor


F H
F H
Cl is more electronegative than I

F

B N H F B N H
A highly electronegative terminal O atoms
F
H
F H
tends to withdraw electrons from the OH
bonds, weakening the bonds and increasing Lew is Lewis
adduct
the acidity of the molecule: acid base
Ex. Acidity: H2SO4 > H2SO3

45
In general, to identify Lewis acids we should
look for species with vacant orbitals that can Common buffer solutions are described
accommodate electron pairs, and for Lewis either as a mixture of
bases, species having lone pair electrons (1) a weak acid and its conjugate base
(2) a weak base and its conjugate acid
OH , a Bronsted-Lowry base, is also a Lewis
base
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation:
Not all Bronsted-Lowry acids are Lewis acids Equations for Buffer Solution
Ex HCl it is not a Lewis acid because it (1) H A H 2 O H 3 O A
does not have vacant orbitals
[ A ] [ H 3 O ]
K a
[HA ]
[HA ]
[ H 3 O ] K a
Chapter 18: Additional Aspects of [A ]

Acid-Base Equilibria
[A ]
pH p K a log
[HA ]
Common Ion Effect the suppression of the
ionization of a weak electrolyte
caused by the addition of an ion that
is also a product (2) B H 2 O B H O H
[ B H ] [ O H ]
K b
0.1 M NH3 and 0.1 M NaOH [B]
N H 3 H 2 O NH 4 OH [ OH ]
K W
[ H 3O ]
O.1 M NH3 and 0.1 M NH4Cl [ BH ] K W
K b
NH3 H2O NH 4 OH [ B ] [ H 3O ]
K W [ BH ]
[ H 3O ]
O.1 M HC2H3O2 and 0.1 M NaC2H3O2 Kb [B]
Let Ka be the acid ionization constant of the
H C 2H 3O 2 H 2O C 2H 3O 2 H 3O
conjugate acid of the base B
K a KW/K b
O.1 M HC2H3O2 and 0.1 M HCl [ BH ]
[ H 3O ] K
H C 2H 3O 2 H 2O C 2H 3O 2 H 3O a
[B]

[B]
pH p K a log
[ BH ]
Buffer Solutions solution whose pH
values change only very slightly on the
addition of small amounts of either an acid or
a base
In general:

46
 pH p K a log
[ conjugate base ] buffer capacity exists when the
[ acid ] concentrations of a weak acid and its
conjugate base are kept large and
or approximately equal to each other
n conjugate base / V Buffer Range the pH range in which a
pH p K a log
n acid / V buffer effectively neutralizes added acids and
bases and maintain a fairly constant pH

For HOAc/NaOAc buffer: pH range p K a 1

Use Ka for HOAc
[conjugate base] = [OAc]
[acid] = [HOAc] Buffer Solution Buffer Range
HOAc/NaOAc 3.7 5.7
For NH3/NH4Cl buffer:
NH3/NH4Cl 8.3 10.3
Use Ka for NH4+
[conjugate base] = [NH3]
[acid] = [NH4+]
Neutralization Reactions and Titration
Diluting a buffer solution means increasing Curves
its V by adding water. This action produces Equivalence point of a neutralization
the same change in both the numerator and reaction the point in the reaction at which
denominator. The ratio itself remains both acids and bases have been consumed
unchanged, as does the pH. Thus, dilution that is, in which neither is in excess
has no effect on the pH of the buffer
solution Endpoint of the indicator the point in a
titration at which the indicator changes color
Limitation for Henderson-Hasselbalch
Equation Titration Curve a graph of pH versus
(1) the ratio [conjugate base]/[acid] is volume of titrant
within the limits
[ conjugate base ] See pp 639-641 Ex. 18-8: titration of weak
0.10 10 acid with strong base
[ acid ]

(2) the molarity of each buffer Ex. What is the pH of 0.1M NaOH and 0.2M
component exceeds the value of K a NH4Cl?
by a factor of at least 100 NH
4 OH NH 3 H 2 O
All the NaOH will react to produce 0.1M NH 3.
see p. 629 Ex. 18-5 Hence, the solution becomes a buffer
0.1M NH3 0.1M NH4+

Buffer Capacity refers to the amount of Chapter 19: Additional Aspects of

acid or base a buffer can neutralize before its Acid-Base Equilibria
pH changes appreciably. The maximum

47
Ca F2 ( s) Ca 2 (aq) 2 F (aq) Nonspontaneous Process a process that
will not occur unless some external action is
K c K sp [ Ca 2 ] [ F ] 2 continuously applied

Solubility Product Constant ( K sp ) the If a process is spontaneous, the reverse

equilibrium constant for the equilibrium
established between a solid solute
Ex. Calculate the molar solubility of PbI 2 in
0.1M KI (aq)
Pb I 2 ( s) Pb 2 (aq) 2 I (aq)
I: 0.1 M
C: s 2s
E: s 0.1 2 s 0.1
K sp [ Pb 2 ] [ I ] s ( 0.1) 7.1 x 10 9
2 2
s 7.1 x 10 7 M
s is the solubility, not 2s, because we are
considering 1 mole of solute
Limitation of the K sp Concept
(1) K sp is used only for slightly soluble
solutes
(2) K sp for high ionic compounds such as
NaCl must be based on ion activities rather
than concentrations. For ionic solutions
concentrations and activities are not equal
Criteria for Precipitation
(1) If Q sp K sp : precipitation should occur,
the solution is supersaturated
(2) If Q sp K sp : no precipitation, the
solution is unsaturated
(3) If Q sp K sp : the solution is just
saturated
process is nonspontaneous
Both spontaneous and nonspontaneous
processes are possible, but only
spontaneous process will occur without
intervention. Nonspontaneous processes
require the system to be acted on by an
outside force
Entropy the thermodynamic property
related to the degree of disorder in a system;
SI: J/K
The greater the degree of randomness, or
disorder, in a system, the greater its entropy
Entropy is based on 2 measurable quantities
that affect the degree of disorder in a system:
heat and temperature
q
S rev
T
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
S univ S sys S surr 0
All spontaneous processes produce an
increase in the entropy of the universe
The heat experienced by the surrounding is
negative of that for the system
q surr q sys H sys

H sys
Chapter 20: Spontaneous Change: S univ S sys
T
Entropy and Free Energy Multiply by T
T S univ H sys T S sys
Spontaneous Process a process that
occurs in a system left to itself Gibbs Free Energy, G

48
 G = H TS The entropy of a pure perfect crystal at OK is
Let G T S univ zero

G H sys T S sys Relationship Between G o to the

Equilibrium Constant K eq
For a process occurring at constant T and P,
if:
(1) G 0 : the process is G o R T ln K eq
spontaneous
(2) G 0 : the process is G G o R T ln Q
nonspontaneous
(3) G 0 : the process is at where G is in J/Kmol
equilibrium

H S G Result
+ spontaneous at all T
spontaneous at low T
+ nonsponstaneous at high T
+ + + nonspontaneous at low T
spontaneous at high T
+ + nonspontaneous at all T
See p. 698 Ex. 20-3
Criterion for Spontaneous Change
The direction of spontaneous change in both
the forward and reverse reaction is that in
which free energy decreases: G < 0. As a
consequence, free energy reaches a
minimum at some point. This is the
equilibrium point
p. 706 Fig 20-10

Phase Transition
G 0 H tran T S tran
H t ran Thermodynamic Equilibrium Constant
S tran K eq is an equilibrium constant base on
Ttran
activities
Troutons Rule for many liquids at their
normal boiling points K eq is sometimes identical to K c and K p
H vap J ; and in other instances this is not the case
S vap 87
Tvap K mol

For liquids with stronger bonding such as

Convention
water and ethanol
J
(1) For pure solids and liquids: the activity
S vap 87 a=1
K mol
(2) For gases: activity is replaced by gas
pressures in atm
(3) For solutes in aqueous solution: activity is
3rd Law of Thermodynamics
replaced by the molarity

49
Examples: Half-Cell a combination of an electrode
Ca F2 ( s) Ca 2 (aq) 2 F (aq) and a solution
K eq [ Ca 2 ] [ F ] 2 K s p Electrochemical Cell a combination of 2
half cells

C ( s) H 2O ( g) CO( g) H 2 ( g) Electrons flow from the electrode with the

P CO P H 2 higher build up of electron charge density to
K eq Kp the one with the lower electron charge
PH 2O
density

O 2 ( g) 2 S 2 (aq) H 2 O (l) Electrode Potential a measure of the

4 OH 2 S ( s) electric charge density on an electrode at
which an oxidation-reduction equilibrium has
[OH ] 4
K eq been established
PO 2 [S 2 ] 2
* K eq is not equal to Kp or Kc The difference in electrode potential
between 2 electrodes set up a flow of
electrons an electric current
G o R T ln K eq
If G 0 , K eq 1 : spontaneous Electromotive Force (emf)/ Cell Potential/
If G 0 , K eq 1 : equilibrium Cell Voltage the potential difference
If G 0 , K eq 1 : nonspontaneous between electrodes in a voltaic cell

Cell Diagrams
Relation between the K eq of a reaction and
T
Zn ( s) Zn 2 (aq) 2e
K 2 H 1 1 Cu 2 (aq) 2e Cu ( s)
ln
K1 R T1 T2
Zn ( s) Cu 2 (aq) Zn 2 (aq) Cu ( s)

The redox reaction can be represented by:

Zn (s) / Zn 2 (aq) // Cu 2 (aq) / Cu (s)

Chapter 21: Electrochemistry

Conventions
Terms (1) The anode (electrode at which
Electrode a metal surface on which an oxidation occurs) is placed at the
oxidation-reduction equilibrium is established left side of the cell diagram
between a substance on the surface and
substances in solution (2) The cathode (electrode at which
reduction occurs) is placed at the
right side of the cell diagram

50
 C
96,485
(3) / represents the boundary between mol e
different phases

(4) // represents boundary between half- If G 0 , E cell 0 : spontaneous

cell compartments If G 0 , E cell 0 : equilibrium
If G 0 , E cell 0 : nonspontaneous

Types of Electrochemical Cell

Voltaic/Galvanic Cell electrochemical cell Relationship Between E ocell and K eq
in which a spontaneous reaction produces
Go n E o
cell R T ln K eq
electricity
R T
E ocell ln K eq
Electrolytic Cell electrochemical cell in n
which electricity is used to accomplish a
nonspontaneous chemical change 0. 0257
Eo
cell ln K eq
n

Standard Electrode Potential G Go R T ln Q

Eo : n E cell n E ocell R T ln Q
(1) it is an intensive property it does
not depend on the quantities of 0. 0592
E cell E ocell log Q
substances involved n

(2) not affected when the coefficients of

half cell equations are multiplied by a
constant factor

(3) also known as standard reduction

potentials
ex.
o
E Cu 2
/ Cu and
E oZn 2 / Zn

Battery stores chemical energy for later

release as electricity

E cell and Spontaneous Change (1) Primary Batteries/Cells the cell

reaction is not reversible; when the reactants
Go n E ocell have been mostly converted to products, no
G n Ecell more electricity is produced and the battery
is dead
where n is the number of moles of electrons
is the faraday constant (2) Secondary Batteries/Cells the cell
reaction can be reversed by passing
electricity through the battery (charging)

51
 Ca(OH) 2 ( s) CO 2 ( g) CaCO 3 ( s) H 2 O(l)

Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis stalactites ceiling of the cave

1 mol e 96,485 C stalagmites floor of the wall
C 1 mol e
mol e current time ( s ) Temporary Hard Water contains
s 96,485 C
bicarbonate ion, HCO 3
see p. 752 Ex. 21-12

When heated produces CO 23 , CO 2 , and

H2O . The CO 23 forms MgCO 3 and
Chapter 22, Chapter 23: Main Group
CaCO 3 (boiler scale). It lowers the
Elements
efficiency of water heater and can eventually
Sodium Carbonate (soda ash) cause a boiler to overheat, and perhaps
Mainly used in glass manufacturing even to explode
(1) Solvay Process by Ernest Solvay the
process of manufacturing Na2CO3 from NaCl, Boiler scale can be removed by adding
CaCO3, and NH3 HOAc
see p. 770 Fig 22-4
Temporary hard water can be softened by
(2) LeBlanc Process see p. 768 Ex 22-1 adding Ca(OH)2

Detergent a cleansing agent used primarily Permanent Hard Water contains

because of its ability to emulsify oils significant concentrations of anions other
than HCO 3 such as SO 24
Soaps a specific kind of detergent that is
the salt of metal hydroxide and a fatty acid To soften it add Na2CO3

Magnesium metal obtained by electrolysis

of the molten chloride in the Dow Process

Limestone Aluminum Halides dimers

CaO quicklime Al 2 X 6 AlX 3 AlX 3
Ca(OH)2 slaked lime
Adduct the formation of a covalent bond
Calcination between the Lewis acid and Lewis base

CaCO 3 ( s) CaO( s) CO 2 ( g)
Moissans Method the process of
Slaking preparing F2 by electrolysis of HF
CaO( s) H 2 O(l) Ca(OH) 2 ( s)
Frasch Process a method of extracting
Carbonation sulfur from underwater deposits. It is based

52
on the use of superheated water to melt the Ionizing Radiation interacts with matter to
sulfur produce ions; it has sufficient energy to break
chemical bonds
Contact Process a process for
manufacturing sulfuric acid that has as its Alpha Particles, 42 He 2
key reaction the oxidation of SO 2 (g) to
Penetrating power is low they can be
SO3(g) in contact with a catalyst
stopped by a sheet of paper
Eutrophication the deterioration of a 238 234 4
92 U Th 2 He
freshwater body caused by nutrients such as 90

nitrates and phosphates that result in

growth of algae, oxygen depletion, and fish Beta Particles,
kills Beta particles are electrons that originate
from the nuclei of atoms in nuclear decay
processes

Chapter 24: Transition Elements 234

Th 234
0
90 91 Th 1

Mainly used as Catalyst

Ni used in the hydrogenation of oils Positron,

Pt, Pd, Rh used in the catalytic converters 30

30
0
15 P 14 Si 1
of automobiles

Fe3O4 main component of the catalyst in Electron Capture (EC), 01 e

the synthesis of NH3 An electron from an inner electron shell (n=1)
is absorbed by the nucleus
V2O5 conversion of SO2 to SO3 in the
manufacture of sulfuric acid 202
0
202
81 Ti 1 e 80 Hg

Cd poisoning causes an extremely painful

skeletal disorder known as itai-itai kyo or
ouch-ouch disease

Chapter 26: Nuclear Chemistry

Gamma Rays,
Z > 83: all have unstable nuclei (radioactive)
Some radioactive decay processes yielding
alpha or beta particles leave a nucleus in an
Marie Curie proposed the term
excited state. The nucleus then loses energy
radioactivity to describe the emission of
in the form of electromagnetic radiation a
ionizing radiation by some of the heavier
gamma ray
elements
Gamma rays are highly penetrating form of
radiation

53
 238 234 4 (2) Slight Exposure to Ionizing Radiation
92 U 90 Th 2 He changes in cell chromosomes
234 234
90 Th 90 Th (3) Low Dosage of Ionizing Radiation
birth defects, leukemia, bone cancer,
Neutrons, 01 n and other forms of cancer

Rate of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive Decay Law:
The rate of disintegration of a radioactive
material called activity, A, or the decay
rate is directly proportional to the number
of atoms present

rate of decay N
A k N

Taking the ratio

No A
o
N A

1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.70 x 10 10 atoms/s

Radioactive decay is a 1st order process

N
ln kt
No
0.693
t1 / 2
k

where N represents the number of atoms

Geiger-Muller Counter the most common

device for detecting and measuring ionizing
radiation

Ionizing Power :

Effect of Ionizing Radiation

(1) Large Dosage of Ionizing Radiation
the living organisms are killed

54