Basic Manufacturing Processes

Module-IV Metal Forming

Department of Mechanical Engineering
School of Engineering

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 Stress strain curve
For metals plotted from tensile tests
Developed from physical testing
Carefully prepared specimen is subjected to stress in UTM
Testing procedure guided by ASTM
Graphically identifies important mechanical properties

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Hydraulic universal testing machine
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 F Results from applied load
Stress( ) Can be tension, compression, shear,
A torsion or any combination

l Physical deformation response to

Strain( ) applied stress
L Eg. elongation

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 When specimen is subjected to stress and load is increased, strain
increases proportionally
Linear portion in S-S diagram
Release the stress. Specimen comes back to its original shape/size- no
deformation

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E

The slope in elastic region is Modulus of elasticity or material stiffness

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 Increase load further, no longer linear behavior- proportional limit

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 0.2%

0.2% strain

With more load past proportional limit, noticeable deformation- Yield

stress
Yield stress starts at 0.2% of strain
i.e. if we stop test at this stage, we find the strain in the specimen is 0.002
At microscopic level, dislocation motion and permanent deformation
occur
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 elastic plastic0.2%

0.2% strain

Now the material enters the plastic region

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 elastic plastic 0.2%

0.2% strain

Additional load causes specimen to neck

ultimate tensile strength (UTM)- max plastic deformation that the
material can take in tension
Additional load causes specimen to fail

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 elastic plastic

0.2% strain

Fracture occurs
All the bonds are completely broken

Components should not go beyond yield strength or UTS while in service

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 Work hardening
Work hardening/strain hardening= strengthening of metal by plastic
deformation
Increases the hardness of metal deliberately by continuous deformation of
metal
Applied stress causes the slip of crystals against each other, slips are
multiplied
The more the slips, the more is the tendency to obstruct slippage, means
hardened metal

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 Recrystalization

Original grains

Rolling a metal bar

Grains are elongated, and carry more internal energy
Additional dislocation, increased grain boundary
surface area
Recrystalization helps restore grains

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 Recrystalization

Cold working
Strength increases
Ductility decreases
Energy level increases

Metal now might not be suitable for further plastic

deformation
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 Recrystalization

Recrystalization keeps metal from strain hardening

When heat is added, it lowers the energy level of the
bond
Keeps yield strength and hardness low
Keeps ductility high
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 Recrystalization

Addition of heat:
when temperature is raised, new grains nucleate and
replace old grains
Nucleation of new grains- Recrystalization
Metal becomes more ductile
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 Recrystalization
Recrystallisation is the point that defines hot working and cold
working condition
recrystalization temperature is usually one-third to hald the
melting point (in Kelvin) of the metal
Depends on material and percentage of work it has received
before heating it up
Hot working
Recrystallisation
temperature
Cold Working

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 Metal forming
Change in shape of ingot, essentially by nonremoval of material, brought
about by the application of pressure, with or without use of heat
Shaping in solid state:
Non cutting shaping such as forging, rolling, pressing
Cutting shaping by use of machines
Non cutting shaping process is mechanical working of metals
Mechanical working intentional and permanent deformation

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 Metal forming range
Metals are worked by plastic deformation
Plastic deformation takes place when stress in the metal, due to the
applied force, reaches yield point producing plastic deformation
Deformation can happen in normal temperature or elevated temperature
(hot working)
At higher temperature, deformation is faster due to reduced bond
between the atoms of the metal grains
Hot working reduces the stress required to produce the yielding

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 Recrystallisation
Metal flows and shape of grains is changed, during plastic deformation
When plastic deformation is carried out at elevated temperature, new
grains grow at the locations of internal stress

If the temperature is high enough, growth of new grains is accelerated,

and metal now comprises only new grains- Recrystallisation
Metal working above Recrystallisation temperature is hot working, that
below is coldworking
During Recrystallisation, deformed grains are replaced by a new set of
unreformed grains that nucleate and grow until the original grains have
been entirely consumed
usually accompanied by a reduction in the strength and hardness of a
material and a simultaneous increase in the ductility

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Recrystalization temperature
for common metals

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 Impact of cold work
Increases Decreases
Yield Strength Ductility decreases
Tensile strength (dramatically)
Hardness Percentage elongation
Fatigue strength
Residual stress

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 Metal forming processes
Hot working (above recrystalization temp.)
Hot rolling
Hot forging
Hot extrusion
Hot drawing
Hot spinning
Hot piercing
Tube forming

Cold working (below recrystalization temperature)

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HOT WORKING

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 Effects of hot working
Performed on metal at a temp. where it does not work-harden
Hot working lowers the stress required to produce deformation
Hot working produces the same net results on a metal as cold
working and annealing
compositional irregularities are ironed out and nonmetallic
impurities are broken up into small-
Hot working such as rolling process refines grain structure
Surface finish of hot worked metal is not nearly as good as with cold
working, because of oxidation and scaling
be very careful of the temperatures at which hot working starts and
stops
Too high a temperature may cause phase change and overheat the
steel
too low temperature may result in excessive work hardening.

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 Hot working
temperature ranges
Material Forging Temperature, C
Mild Steel 800-1300
Medium carbon steel 750-1250
High Carbon Steel 825-1150
Wrought Iron 900-1275
Aluminum and Magnesium Alloy 350-500
Copper, Brass, Bronze 600-950

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 Metal Rolling
most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by plastic
deformation
through compressive stresses using two or more than two rolls
main objective of rolling is to convert larger sections such as ingots into
smaller sections
Steels can be formed to useful products in two ways:
1. The ingot is rolled into intermediate shapes: Blooms, Billets and Slabs.
2. These are further rolled into plated, sheets, bars stock, structural shapes or
foils.
The ingots are uniformly heated in furnace (soaking Pit) to the temp of
1200C and taken out and rolled in rolling mills.

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 Rolling contd...
various mechanical properties such as toughness, ductility,
strength and shock resistance
Popular rolling mills (RM) are:
Two High R.M, Three-High RM, Four-High RM, Cluster Mill

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 Rolling contd...
Two high RM
Two horizontal rollers rolling at same speed but in opposite direction
Space between rollers can be adjusted by lowering or raising the
upper roller
Reduction in thickness can be achieved by feeding the ingot from one
direction only, however some reverse rollers can do that from either
direction
Three-High RM
Three parallel rollers arranged one above another
The directions of rotation of the upper and lower rolls are the same
but the intermediate roll rotates in a direction opposite to both of
these
a higher rate of production than the two-high rolling mill.
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Rolling Contd...

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 Rolling contd...
Four-High Rolling Mill
a two-high rolling mill, but with small sized rolls.
consists of four horizontal rolls, the two middle rolls are smaller in size
than the top and bottom rolls
smaller size rolls are known as working rolls which concentrate the
total rolling pressure over the workpiece
larger diameter rolls are called back-up rollers and their main function
is to prevent the deflection of the smaller rollers
Cluster Rolling Mill:
a special type of four-high rolling mill in which each of the two smaller
working rolls are backed up by two or more of the larger back-up rolls
for rolling hard materials, generally used for cold rolling

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Rolling contd...

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 Seamless tubing
Hot Piercing or seamless tubing or roll piercing
For making thin-walled round objects/pipes
Piercing does not break through the metal's surface, like a drilling
operation
Popular and economical process- saves material wastage due to boring of
parts

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 Seamless tubing contd..
Rotary piercing process employing a pointed mandrel that passes through
billet in a special rolling mill (two-high with two rollers set at an angle to
each other, or three-high)
The billet under the rolls is deformed and a cavity formation is initiated at
the centre due to tensile stressing
carefully profiled shape of the mandrel assists and controls the formation
of cavity

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 Hot extrusion
Metal forming process in which heated billet in a closed cavity is pushed
through a die having smaller cross section area
The CS will be uniform over the entire length of extrusion process
The pressure is applied hydraulically or mechanically
Brittle materials can also be extruded, intricate details, sharp angles can
also be captured
Single pass process unlike rolling

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 Hot extrusion contd...
Set up consists of a cylinder with heated billet or slug of metal
One end of container has die of necessary opening, other end receives the
force required to extrude metal out of the die opening
Extrusion ratio=CSA of billet/CSA of extruded section

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Hot extrusion contd...

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 Hot extrusion contd...
Methods:
Seamless
Direct or forward hot extrusion
Tube???
Indirect or backward hot extrusion
Tube extrusion

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 Hot Drawing
pulling of metal through a die or a set of dies for achieving a reduction in a
diameter
multiple dies are also used to accomplish the stages in drawing process
Kitchen utensils and components of food processing industries are
manufactured by this process

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 Hot Forging
oldest shaping process used for the producing small articles for which
accuracy in size is NOT so important
plastic deformation of metals at elevated temperatures into a
predetermined size or shape using compressive forces exerted through
some means
parts are shaped by heating them in an open fire or hearth by the
blacksmith and shaping them through applying compressive forces using
hammers
forging tempr~980C, at which the metal is entirely plastic and can be
easily deformed

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 Forging contd...
Forgeability
as the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under
compression without rupture
The pure metals have good malleability and thus good forging
properties. The metals having high ductility at cold working
temperature possesses good Forgeability

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 Forging- merits
Advantages of forging over machining/casting
Inherent improvement in grain size, uninterrupted grain flow
Greater strength, toughness
Relatively lighter
Eliminates internal defects like cracks, blowholes,
Able to withstand unpredictable loads during operation,
Minimum machine finish required

Casting- no grain/random grain orientation

Rolled/machined- interrupted grain

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Hot Forging contd...

Hand Forging tools

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Forging contd...

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 Drop Forging
Dies, to produce to desired shape are matched and separately attached to
the moveable ram and fixed anvil.
The forging is produced by impact or pressure, which compels the hot and
pliable metal to take shape of the die.
Repeated blows of ram causes drastic flow to the metal in the dies.
Complicated, irregular and bigger shapes can be forged.
Pneumatic hammer and gravity drop or board hammer are main drop
forging hammers; working at 300 blows in a minute.
Pneumatic hammers are faster and more powerful than gravity drop
hammers

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Drop forging contd...

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 Drop forging contd...

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bochumer_Verein-03-50142.jpg
 Open die forging
Open die forging
deforming a piece of metal between multiple dies that do not
completely enclose the material
Products formed through open forging often need secondary
machining and refining to achieve the tolerances required for the
finished specifications
blacksmithing is an open die forging
simple open-die forging- upsetting

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 Closed die forging
Closed die forging
also referred to as impression die forging
uses pressure to compress a piece of metal to fill an enclosed die
impression

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 Press forging
Slow squeezing action in deforming the plastic metal in presses as
contrasted to the rapid impact blows of hammer
These presses are the vertical type and may be either mechanically
or hydraulically operates.
Forging presses are often used for sizing operations on parts made
by other processes
Hammer forging can only affect the surface of the workpiece
whereas press forging can change the shape and interior of the
workpiece at the same time
a little more controlled than hammer forging and gives us a better
knowledge of a parts strain rate
is more efficient- greater proportion of the total energy input is
transmitted to the metal

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Press forging contd...

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 Upset forging
employs gripping a bar of uniform section in dies and applying pressure on
the heated end, causing it to be formed to shape
The length of stock to be upset cannot be more than three times the
diameter

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Upset forging

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 Roll forging
These machines are primarily adapted to reducing and tapering
operations on short length of bar stock.
The rolls on the machine are not completely circular to permit the job to
enter between rolls.
The circular portion of rolls are grooved as per required shape of job

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END OF HOT WORKING

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Cold working processes

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 Cold working contd...
Cold rolling:
Sheet metal is introduced between the rollers, compressed and
squeezed
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Internal stress induced can be removed by proper heat treatment
Cold extrusion
Similar to hot working, but metal should possess good ductility
without heating

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 Wire drawing
Wire is made by cold-
drawing of hot-rolled rod
through one or more dies.
Wire drawn through each
die is cleaned in acid bath to
remove scale, rust and is
coated.

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 Cold drawing contd...
Die made up of carbide/diamond
No force applied at the entrance side of metal, so metal
should be sufficiently ductile as it is pulled by tensile force
To achieve complex CS of excellent precision

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 Tube Finishing
Tubing, which requires dimensional accuracy, smooth surface,
and improved physical properties, is finished by either Cold
Drawing or Tube Reducer.
Hot rolled tube is chemically treated to wash all scales and is
drawn in draw bench

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 Metal spinning
It is the operation of shaping thin metal by pressing it against
a form while it is rotating at high speed
The process is limited to axially- symmetrical products
Area of the final component is approximately equal to that of
the flat sheet metal bland and little or no reduction in the wall
thickness occurs
Work is done in speed lathe provided with some means of
holding work against form
Lubricants as soap wax, oil are used.
Used for kitchen wares, Funnels etc

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Metal spinning

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 Shear spinning
Shear forming/shear spinning
Power driven rollers are used in
place of conventional hand
spinning
Reduction in wall thickness is
reduced, final wall thickness (up
to 80% by the combination of
rolling and spinning) is achieved
by controlling the gap between
the roller and the mandrel

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 Other cold working processes
Sizing is the simplest form of cold forging, which is process of
slightly compressing of steel to obtain close tolerance
Cold heading of bolts, rivets is process to produce heads by
cold forming
Incorporates forging, extruding, upsetting process
Carried out by machines called header

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 Coining
Coining is performed in dies that confine metal and restrict its
flow in lateral direction.
Flashless precision forging operation
Pressures can be as high as 6X the flow stress of the material
to produce fine details
Due to need of high pressure, restricted to soft alloys
Lubrication is not tolerated

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 Embossing
Embossing is more of drawing or stretching operation and
doesn't require high pressure.
Punch diameter is reduced so it touches only a part of the
blank that is being embossed.
Used for making name plates, identification tags etc., where
embossed design is raised from the parent metal.
There is very little squeezing

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 Seaming
Used in the manufacture of drum, cans and products made of
light-gage metals.
Different types of seam are used.

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 ShotPeening
cold working method to improve the fatigue resistance of the metal by
setting up compressive stresses in its surface.
This is done by blasting a rain of small shot at high velocity against the
surface to be peened.
As shots (grit) strikes, small indentations are produced causing a slight
plastic flow of the surface metal.
This causes the setting compressive stress on outer and tension on inner
layer of surface.
Surface is slightly hardened and strengthened by cold working.
Surface roughness and finish can be varied according to the size of shots.

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 Fullering and edging
Performed on a bar to distribute metal in certain region prior to forging
In edging, metal is gathered in a localized area whereas in fullering, the
metal is distributed away from the area
Fullering uses convex die, edging employs concave die
Both processes use open die to redistribute bulk metal

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 Self assessment
Forgeability (upsetting test, hot twist test)
Lubrication in metal forging
Defects in forging
Flashless forging

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END OF MODULE-IV METAL WORKING
Next lecture: Introduction to Machine Tools

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Guidelines for lab report MEEG212

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