Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2012) 11:2739
DOI 10.1007/s11157-011-9261-8
MINI-REVIEW
Coral reefs studies and threats in Malaysia: a mini review
Sarva Mangala Praveena Siti Shapor Siraj
Ahmad Zaharin Aris
Published online: 7 January 2012
 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Coral reefs in Malaysia are about
4,006 km2 with over 550 species contributed to
nations economy. Coral reefs studies and threats in
Malaysia have been reviewed briefly. Perspectives are
addressed as coral reefs studies, threats, gaps and
future studies. Coral reefs in Malaysia are being
damaged at an increasing rate where it faces natural
and anthropogenic stresses. Excellent summaries are
available in terms of coral reefs cover throughout
Malaysia however scarce in terms of qualitative,
quantitative and biogeographical data. There are also
limited studies on heavy metals concentration in corals
skeleton studies. Poor to fair conditions of coral reefs
in Peninsular Malaysia is due to increases of sedi-
mentation and tourism impacts. Overfishing and fish
blasting were main threats of coral reefs damage in
S. M. Praveena (&)
Centre of Marine Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: smpraveena@gmail.com
S. S. Siraj
Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
A. Z. Aris
Centre of Excellence for Environmental Forensics,
Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Malaysia
Sabah. In Sarawak, coral reefs are threatened by high
sedimentation and sand mining. The 19981999
bleaching event also affected coral reefs in Malaysia
due to climate change. Gaps in coral reefs studies can
be completed by continuous collaborations between
local and international researchers as well as research
by local universities. Economic valuation, policy
analysis and community participation are directions
in future coral reefs studies in Malaysia. Future studies
are to understand effects of management on coral reefs
health and impact of pollution on coral reefs growth
with a standard coral reefs methodology. Established
legal systems to reduce threats received by coral reefs
are also need to be introduced. Role of science-driven
management with community participation and media
mass are also gaps to be highlighted in future studies.
Keywords Malaysia
Coral reefs
Studies
Threats
1 Introduction
Coral reefs represent the most biologically diverse
ecosystems on Earth. Over 30% of the worlds coral
reefs are located in the Coral Triangle (Yasin 2011;
Buddumeir et al. 2004; Hillyard and Rosenberg 2000;
Bryant et al. 1998). Majority of reef building corals are
found within tropical and subtropical waters, provid-
ing critical habitat to approximately 25% of marine
species. The most extensive and diverse coral reefs
can be found in Southeast Asia with 28% of total
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global coral reefs (Burke et al. 2011). Coral reefs
ecosystem in Southeast Asia also provides economic
benefits via fisheries and tourism, source of food,
providing essential protein as well as help to protect
the island from storms and waves (McLeod et al. 2010;
Eghtesadi-Araghi 2009; Buddumeir et al. 2004).
Malaysia, one of the most prosperous countries in
Southeast Asia has is rich with coral reefs and marine
resources. This promotes Malaysia as an outstanding
tourist destination and brought a lot of benefits in
terms of economic growth. Much of development in
Malaysia is taking place near narrow coastal zone
affect coastal zone environment. Coastal zone
includes multiple large and small islands in West
and East Malaysia (Harborne et al. 2000).
Stresses associated with coral reefs systems are
climate change and human-induced (increased sedi-
mentation from land clearing, runoff, human sewage).
Coral reefs are well adapted to survive short-term
natural events and valuable in regards to biological
diversity. However, coral reefs are not well adapted to
long term events due to human-induced stresses
(McCulloch and Esat 2000). Climate change stresses
to coral reefs are namely coral bleaching, global
warming, reduced calcification potential, sea level, El
Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), ocean circulation
changes as well as precipitation and storm patterns.
Combinations of warming and intense El Nino events
have clearly linked with coral reefs bleaching. Global
warming with sea level rise will drown coral reefs and
decrease light availability. Reduction calcium carbon-
ate concentration effects skeletal deposition rate
which is a key role in coral calcification (Langdon
2003). Additionally, increases in precipitation and
storm will likely increase sedimentation rate lead to
mortality of coral reefs (Buddumeir et al. 2004).
World coral reefs (about 27%) have been effectively
lost due to climate change by coral bleaching largely
during El Nino and La Nina. Near 60% of world
coral reefs are threatened by human-induced stresses
(Wilkinson et al. 2005). According to Wilkinson
(2008), coral reefs in the Coral Triangle Initiative
countries in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines,
Eastern Malaysiaand Timor Leste) continue to decline
due few factor such as overfishing, an increase in
sedimentation rate, as well as urban and industrial
pollution from the rapid economic development.
Economic growth and coastal population have also
increased rapidly due to human induced stresses to
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coral reefs ecosystem. Wilkinson (2008) reported
proficient opinion of 372 coral reef scientists and
managers from 96 countries and states mentioned that
15% of coral reefs in a critical state with possibility
loss within the next 1020 years. About 20% of coral
reefs are seriously threatened with loss predicted in
2040 years. On the other hand, about 46% of world
coral reefs are in healthy condition and not under any
threat except for unpredictable global climate change
impacts. However, there is limited quantitative data on
effects of anthropogenic however increasing human
activities and population in addition to climate change
impacts expands adjacent to coral reef communities.
Additionally, these are also evident to show coral reefs
of Southeast Asia are being degraded and even
destroyed (McLeod et al. 2010; Chou 1998; Hillyard
and Rosenberg 2000).
Objective of this paper is to review corals reefs
studies and threats in Malaysian aquatic environment.
This review focused perspectives of coral reefs
studies, threats, gaps and future studies in Malaysia.
This review output can be considered as a milestone to
integrate existing coral reefs information scattered
throughout the literature on past coral reefs studies and
threats in Malaysia. Difficult decision on coral reefs
management is often made without adequate scientific
information. Thus, an overall brush up on corals reefs
studies and threats will provide adequate scientific
information to assist coral reef management, a clear
direction for future studies and rapid access to
information during critical emergencies such as the
tsunami.
2 Coral reefs in Malaysia
Southeast Asia waters are located in Indo-West Pacific,
the most species rich region in the world. It comprises
one of the largest continental shelves of coral reefs
species in the world (Table 1). Malaysias coral reefs
extend from the renowned Coral Triangle connect-
ing it with Indonesia, Philippine, Papua New Guinea
and Australia (Lee and Mohamed 2009). These
ecosystems are crucial economically in fisheries and
tourism, coastal habitat protection as well as preserva-
tion of natural resource for future generation. Accord-
ing to Coral Reef Monitoring Report (2008), there are
4,006 km2 of coral reefs with over 550 species in
Malaysia (Fig. 1). This represents approximately 80%
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2012) 11:2739
Table 1 Coral reef region of the world
Region Southeast Asia Pacific Ocean
Area (km2) 70,000 85,000
Source: Burke et al. (2011)
of the number of species identified in Coral Triangle
(UNEP 2007). According to Chou (1998), coral reefs
are richer on east coast than west coast around offshore
islands in Peninsular Malaysia. Corals reefs on Penin-
sular Malaysia are along eastern coast and offshore
islands and west coast. Corals reefs fringe the northern
offshore islands of Pulau Langkawi, Pulau Payar and
Pulau Perak in the state of Kedah and Pulau Pangkor,
Pulau Jarak and Pulau Sembilan in the state of Perak.
Small, poorly developed and heavily degraded coral
reefs occur in the southern state of Negeri Sembilan, at
Port Dickson and Tanjung Tuan. Extensive fringing
coral reefs are also found in Sabah, East Malaysia also
associated with offshore islands away from southeast
coast. Coral reefs in Sipadan were found to be in the
best condition in Sabah. Moreover in Sarawak, most
abundant corals are found in coast off Miri primarily
offshore Luconia reefs (Ridwan and Cabanban 1994).
Coral reefs of Malaysia are protected under Envi-
ronmental Quality Act (1974), Fisheries Act (1985),
Pesticides Act (1974), Plant Quarantine Act (1976)
and Customs (Prohibition of Exports Amendment No.
4) Order (1993) as federal legislation, may apply to
Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak (Fourth
National Report to the Convention on Biological
Diversity 2009). Table 2 lists partial list of legislations
of relevant to biological diversity including for coral
reefs in Malaysia. Department of Marine Park Malay-
sia managed 235,723 ha of marine protected areas
which include 40 islands in Peninsular Malaysia and
federal territories that are gazetted as marine parks.
Marine protected areas covering 57,533 ha in Sabah
are managed by Sabah Parks. In Sarawak, marine
protected areas are managed by the Sarawak Forestry
Department and covers an area of 206,344 ha. First
marine protected area in Malaysia was Tunku Abdul
Rahman Park (Sabah) declared in 1974 by Sabah state
government. Fishings are prohibited within Marine
Parks. However, heavy exploitation of coral reefs
occurs outside of the Parks (National Action Plan for
the Management of Coral Reefs in Malaysia 2008).
29
Australia Indian Ocean Atlantic Middle East
42,000 33,000 27,000 14,000
Department of Marine Park Malaysia and Depart-
ment of Fisheries conducts regular monitoring at
limited areas in Marine Parks. The departments also
work closely with local universities and interna-
tional agencies (Coral Cay foundation, World
Wildlife Fund) for monitoring programs. In East
Malaysia, Departments of Marine Park Malaysia and
Fisheries work together with Sabah Parks to monitor
Tiga Island, Tunku Abdul Rahman, Turtle Islands
and Tun Sakaran Park Marine Parks in Sabah. While
in Sarawak, Sarawak Forestry Department with
Department of Fisheries monitor coral reefs in
Northeast and Southwest Sarawak with local uni-
versity and private sector. The biggest obstruction in
this monitoring process is coordination and compi-
lation of data. To current state, all agencies,
organizations and institutions manage their own
data without data centralization for data analysis or
archival. However, efforts are currently being done
for data compilation and centralization from a
variety of data sources.
3 The known and past studies
Excellent summaries are available in terms of coral
reefs cover throughout Malaysia (Toda et al. 2007;
Harborne et al. 2000). Coral reefs surveys were done
with collaborations (ASEAN-Australian, Coral Cay
foundation, World Wildlife Fund) between local and
foreign marine biologists have produced significant
findings on coral reefs biodiversity in Malaysia
(Mazlan et al. 2005). Extensive information on coral
reefs species especially in marine park areas can be
found in Mazlan et al. (2005) and Ridzwan (1994). On
the other hand, qualitative, quantitative and biogeo-
graphical data on coral reefs communities are limited
in Malaysia. Thus, this limits the analysis of temporal
change of coral reefs health status. Coral reefs studies
in Malaysia are summarized in Table 3. Coral reefs
condition was determined using percentage of live
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Number of Species
Less than 50
50 - 100
Fig. 1 Coral reefs distribution including Malaysia. Source: Veron (2000)
coral cover according to criteria from the ASEAN
Australia Living Coastal Resources Project (Chou
et al. 1994).
Study done by Toda et al. (2007) in Peninsular
Malaysia showed that live corals coverage ranged
from 17.9 to 68.6%. Coral communities were domi-
nated by Acropora, Porites and Montipora for 74.5%
of total live coral coverage. Goniastrea, Heliopora,
Galaxea and Pavona were occupied between 2 and 5%
of live coral coverage. Major reason for the poor to fair
conditions of corals in Peninsular Malaysia is due to
increases of sedimentation (Yasin et al. 1998). Huge
amount of sediment changes biological, physical and
chemical environment of coral reefs contribute to the
restriction of corals growth. Additionally, tourism
impact is also one of the major reasons to the decrease
of live corals coverage in Peninsular Malaysia. Such
condition can be observed in Perhentian, Redang and
Tioman islands (Chai 2009). Snorkelers, scuba divers
and reef walkers have become a major concern in the
degradation of coral reefs. Lim and Spring (1995)
reported that physical damage to corals are caused by
snorkelers in Tioman Island. Similarly in Paya Island,
most of corals have been damaged due to uncontrolled
diving and snorkeling. According to Lee (2005),
presence of small corals colonies is a sign of recol-
onisation process in Payar Island. Main factor con-
tributing to coral damage in Payar Island is prevalent
wind and waves during the monsoon season. Addi-
tionally, collaboration from park managers and Pulau
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101 200 301 - 500
201 - 300 Over 500
Payar Marine Park authority has helped to protect
corals from athropogenic threats. Ridzwan (1994)
explained that poor coverage of corals in Tinggi Island
was affected by a major coral bleaching event where
corals cover has been reduced from 1998. High
sedimentation rates, direct flow of sewage into the
sea and over development in coastal zones are few of
the factors contribute to poor corals cover was found in
Tanjung Tuan and Port Dickson. This is supported by
study done by Lee and Mohamed (2011) on sedimen-
tation rate in Malaysia. Higher sedimentation rates
were observed in the west coast than east coast of
Peninsular Malaysia. Highest sedimentation rate was
found in Port Dickson with 76.83 mg/cm2/day at 3 m
depth. The sandy beach in Port Dickson is flat and
coral reefs are exposed to air during low tide. These
would increase the re-suspended sediment during
changes of tides. Sustainable management of the
coastline with involvement of all stakeholders is
urgently needed in Tanjung Tuan and Port Dickson
is needed to improve its environment including corals
cover. In Langkawi Island, some parts along the same
island have good coral cover and other parts have low
corals cover. High sedimentation rate is the main
problem in Langkawi Island. Post-tsunami surveys
carried out in the Langkawi archipelago in January
2005 showed that corals did not suffer any significant
structural damage. Death corals in this island are
mainly due to heavy sedimentation rates by intense
coastal development (Lee et al. 2005; Abdullah and
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2012) 11:2739
Table 2 List of legislations of relevant to biological diversity
including for coral reefs in Malaysia
Federal
Environmental Quality Act 1974
Fisheries Act 1985
Pesticides Act 1974
Plant Quarantine Act 1976
Customs (Prohibition of Exports Amendment No.4)
Order 1993
Peninsular Malaysia
Waters Act 1920
Taman Negara (Kelantan) Enactment 1938
Taman Negara (Pahang) Enactment 1939
Taman Negara (Terengganu) Enactment 1939 (The
State Parks from the above three Enactments
constitute Taman Negara)
Aboriginal Peoples Act 1954
Land Conservation Act 1960
National Land Code 1965
Protection of Wildlife Act 1972
National Parks Act 1980
National Forestry Act 1984
East Malaysia
Sabah Parks Enactment 1984
Forest Enactment 1968
Fauna Conservation Ordinance 1963
Sarawak National Parks Ordinance 1956
Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1958
Forests Ordinance 1954
Natural Resources Ordinance 1949 as amended by
Natural Resources and Environment
(Amendment) Ordinance 1993
Public Parks and Greens Ordinance 1993
Water Ordinance 1994
Source: Fourth National Report to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (2009)
Yasin 2002; Abdullah et al. 2002). Coral Reef
Monitoring Report (2008) concluded that general
health of corals on the East Coast Peninsular Malaysia
is good with total live corals from the survey is 52.3%.
Moreover, killed corals are less than 1% indicating
combinations of human and natural damage to corals
were low. Moreover, low percentage of silt indicated
turbidity and sedimentation is not a problem in East
Coast Peninsular Malaysia (Abdullah et al. 2010).
Similarly both studies of Chou (1998) and Ridzwan
(1994) concluded that coral reefs in Redang and
Tioman islands are in good conditions.
31
Combinations of human induced and natural
stresses threaten corals of Sabah. Low tides and
occasional tropical storms also have significant effects
on corals however rarely cause permanent damage.
Sedimentation impacts on coral reefs are more signif-
icant in southeast and central compared with other
parts of Sabah. Poor corals conditions were observed
in Semporna Islands. Corals have been damaged and
broken into pieces possibly caused by natural causes
(storms) as well as dynamite fishing (Yasin et al.
1998). High covers of coral reefs are found in Gaya
and Sepanggar island because its ability to withstand
wave action (Waheed et al. 2007). Moroever, high
percentage of sand with high energy and strong wave
action was found in Sepanggar Bay contribute to low
coral reefs cover. Sediments decrease light penetration
and clogs coral polyps. Corals are sensitive to
sediment and have limited abilities in trapping and
removing sediments from their surfaces. Over-fishing
and fish blasting have caused damage of vast corals
tracts accounting loss of more than 80% of original
coral cover in Sabah (Yasin et al. 1998). Natural
stresses associated with coral reefs in Eastern Malay-
sia are corals bleaching. Rising sea surface tempera-
tures was associated with La Nina event in 1998 after
El Nino from 1997. Slowly rising sea surface temper-
atures have resulted in a large scale bleaching and
mortality of many scleractinian corals. Excellent coral
reefs condition in LayangLayang Island is probably
the most pristine environments, where largely unex-
plored. The banned of blast and cyanide fishermen has
helped to recover the corals in Sipadan Island.
However, this action has dissuaded fishermen to
Mabul Island. Corals in Southeast Sabah (Mabul,
Kapalai, Ligitan, Si Amil, and Semporna) have been
damaged by over-fishing, fish blasting and cyanide.
Corals of Southeast Sabah were among the worst due
to the fact that these islands are far from land and out
of the normal range of enforcement operations. Corals
in Central Sabah including Lahad Datu have been
extensively bombed, but isolated patches remain with
high coral cover and fish diversity. Western coast of
Sabah including Tunku Abdul Rahman Park has
declined dramatically since 1994. High coral reefs
cover in south and southeast of Banggi Island reported
by Koh et al. (2002) was characterized by light
anthropogenic impacts with high value for conserva-
tion and recreation. However, Teh and Cabanban
(2007) reported corals cover in Banggi Island is in
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Table 3 Summary of coral reefs studies in Malaysia

Reference Study area Site % live % dead Corals Number
corals corals condition of genera

Toda et al. (2007) East Coast Perhentian, Tioman 38.6 42.2 Fair 14
& Sibu islands
Hussin et al. (2003) West Coast Sibu Island Pangkor & Paya 38.4 44.7 Fair 10
Pasir Bay 24.8 65.6 Poor 13
Rimba Reef 33.8 62.8 Fair 14
Tioman Island Tulai Reef 34.6 53.2 Fair 15
Manggo Reef 31.1 26.9 Fair 15
Renggis Reef 68.6 17.0 Good 9
Perhentian Island Dalam Bay 55.8 18.6 Good 19
Ruang Bay 21.3 51.3 Poor 13
Paya Island House Reef 40.8 43.7 Fair 11
Japanese Garden 59.2 37.1 Good 9
Pangkor Island Dedan Bay 17.9 59.5 Poor 10
Raja Bay 35.8 38.6 Fair 8
Coral Reef Monitoring Aur Island Atlantis Bay House High
Report (2008) Reef Medium
Pinang Medium
Pulau Lang Medium
Reyners Rock
Affendi et al. (2005)
Yusuf et al. (2001)
Zaidnuddin Ilias
et al. (2000)
Perhentian Island Batu Nisan High
Batu Layar Medium
Batu Tabir Medium
Lighthouse Front Low
Tanjung Besi Medium
Redang Chagar Hutang Eas Low
Pulau Kerengga East Medium
Pulau Paku Kecil SW Medium
Pulau Pinang Marine Medium
Park High
Tioman Chebeh Low
Kabor Bay Medium
Malang Rock Medium
Pirates Reef High
Semporna Semporna Islands Poor
Harborne et al. (2000) Redang Island 43.7 Good
Tioman Island 45.3 Good
Tinggi Island 34.5 Poor
Waheed et al. (2007) Gaya Island 59.3 Good
Sepanggar Island 60.1 Good
Sepanggar Bay 33.9 Fair

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Table 3 continued
Reference Study area Site % live % dead Corals Number
corals corals condition of genera

Lee (2000) Payar Island 23.3 1.2 Poor

Lee et al. (2000)
Yusuf and Ali (2000)
Segantang Island 36.3 1.0 Fair
Lee (2005) Tanjung Tuan & 14.3 12.0 Poor
Port Dickson
Lee et al. (2005) Langkawi Island Pulau Beras Basah 30 15 Poor
Pulau Anak Burau 33 13 Poor
Pulau Tepor 53.0 3 Good
Pulau Anak Datai 50.5 1 Good
Pilcher and Sabah Lahad Datu 50.4 10.7 Fair
Cabanban (2000) Chambers Reef 43.6 33.3 Fair
Irene Rocks 21.5 29.1 Poor
Kukaban 75.0 12.5 Excellent
Kudat 38.0 12.4 Fair
Billean Island 28.5 9.0 Poor
Spinundung Cay 34.7 9.1 Fair
Tigabu 56.5 12.3 Good
Sipadan Island 47.8 5.6 Fair
LayangLayang 65.2 7.1 Excellent
Island 17.9 5.9 Poor
Kapalai Island 18.7 18.9 Poor
Ligitan Island 15.8 14.1 Poor
Mabul Island 27.3 14.7 Poor
Si Amil Island 56.3 2.7 Good
Batu Mandi Rocks 64.6 10.8 Good
Mantanani Island 65.2 34.6 Good
Dinawan Island 43.2 53.2 Fair
Tiga Island 43.6 11.0 Fair
Gaya Island 22.0 1.0 Poor
Tanjung Totong Semburong 74.0 13.0 Good
Ambong Bay 71.1 19.5 Good
Usukan Bay 53.1 7.3 Good
Usukan Island 41.0 4.2 Good
Teluk Tengah 21.6 0.9 Poor
Balak Island 39.6 36.3 Fair
Selingan Island 31.9 33.2 Fair
Bakkungan Kecil 32.9 22.7 Fair
Gulisaan Island
Koh et al. (2002) Sabah South and southeast, 63.0 Good
Banggi Island
Teh and Cabanban Sabah Banggi Island 15.0 Poor 71 (hard corals)
(2007)
Lee (2007) Sabah Baik Island 55.0 Good

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Table 3 continued
Reference Study area Site % live % dead Corals Number
corals corals condition of genera

Kushairi (1997) Labuan 32.3 6.0 Fair

Pilcher and Cabanban Sarawak Miri 28.4 5.6 Poor 10
(2000)
Pilcher and Cabanban Sarawak Batu Penyu, Sematan 10 Very poor
(2000)
Idris et al. (2006) Sarawak Patricia shoal, Bintulu 43.1 18.7 Fair

Table 4 Studies of heavy metals concentration in corals skeleton in Malaysia

Reference Species Location Cd Cu Fe Mn Ni Zn

Malaysia
Mokthar et al. (2011) H. microconos Sabah, Malaysia 1.84 7.71 37.28 9.20 23.8 3.74
F. speciosa 1.79 8.72 35.31 9.13 22.4 4.69
P. lobata 1.37 6.97 22.53 7.00 22.9 4.12
Lee and Mohamed (2009) Porites sp. Tioman Island 23.73
Redang Island 39.96
Langkawi Island, 118.03
Malaysia
Mokthar et al. (2001) P. lutea Langkawi Island, Malaysia 3.8 3.6 5.0 16.8
Mokthar et al. (1994) H. microconos Mengalum Island, Sabah, Malaysia 19.4 7.4
F. speciosa 16.0 7.6
P. lobata 16.4 8.1
Mokthar et al. (1994) H. microconos Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia 14.2 7.8
F. speciosa 36.7 8.3
P. lobata 23.0 8.6

poor condition. Overexploitation, destructive fishing
practices, improper waste management and uncon-
trolled scuba diving has caused extensive damage to
its corals cover. There is no any data available on
species and provide a brief description of coral cover
in Labuan. Kushairi (1997) has provided brief coral
reefs status of Labuan Marine Park although there is
no any description on coral reefs species composition.
Anthropogenic threats affecting Labuan corals are
such as fish blasting and cyanide. According to Pilcher
and Cabanban (2000) as well as Idris et al. (2006),
Sarawak coral reefs are threatened by high sedimen-
tation and sand mining. Seabed is mostly sandy with
rock and dead coral boulders covered with sediment
and macroalgae. Presence of macroalgae is a signal to
show the coral reefs are stressed by human activities
from the shore.
In addition, studies are also available in terms of
heavy metals concentration in corals skeleton. How-
ever, these studies are generally very limited. Few
researchers worldwide also pointed out that corals
skeleton usage in environmental pollutions based on
heavy metals and rare earth elements is less devel-
oped (Bastidas and Garca 1999; Sholkovitz and
Shen 1995; Shen and Boyle 1988). Table 4 summa-
rizes studies regarding heavy metals in Malaysian
coral reefs and worldwide. Heavy metals studies on
Malaysian coral reefs studies were done in West and
East Malaysia. Recent study done by Lee and
Mohamed (2009) showed that Porites corals in
Langkawi Island is highly polluted compared to
Tioman and Redang islands. If this alarming situa-
tion is not addressed, the corals, which are the actual
attractions of coastal environment, will eventually be

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Table 5 Reefs at risk summary (Malaysia)
Country Reef area Reefs at risk threat index
(km2)
Low Medium
km % km
Malaysia 4,006 533 13 1,771
Source: Burke et al. (2002)
destroyed. Study conducted by Mokthar et al. (2011)
revealed that corals in Sabah are not highly
contaminated compare to other study area in Malay-
sia however received local anthropogenic impacts.
To be noted, it is not possible for a comparative
study of heavy metals between coral reefs species
due to few reasons (Mokthar et al. 1994, 2001).
Different methods and techniques of analysis used,
various coral species have been used in the different
studies and places as well as different environmental
availabilities (marine sediment and seawater proper-
ties) are few of the reasons. Thus, interactions
between coral reefs and environmental availabilities
(marine sediment and seawater properties) and
bioaccumulation can be used for a better under-
standing. Coral skeletons studies summary (Table 4)
showed more monitoring programmes are needed to
update and fill the significant gaps in limited studies
on heavy metals in Malaysian coral skeleton as
environmental pollution evaluation. Moreover, future
monitoring studies including multispecies are neces-
sary the selection of bioindicator. Bioaccumulation
values of corals skeleton species will be a good
reference for biomonitoring purpose and environ-
mental pollution impacts evaluation.
Burke et al. (2002) summarized percentage at
medium or higher threats of coral reefs are 87% in
Malaysia (Table 5). According to Mazlan et al.
(2005), corals reefs threats are combinations of natural
hazards and anthropogenic. However, threats facing
Malaysian coral reefs are vary by its location. Table 6
summarizes threats received by West and East
Malaysia in scale values. According to Reef Check
Malaysia Annual Survey Report (2010) and Tun et al.
(2004), a mass coral bleaching event affected coral
reefs in Coral Triangle region including Malaysia,
Indonesia and Thailand due to global climate change.
Average annual seawater temperature pattern of 2010
was observed warmer than 2009 in Malaysia. An
increase of seawater temperature was the result of the
35
Percentage at medium
or higher threat
High Very high
% km % km %
44 1541 38 161 4 87
El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event, where
warm water from the Western Pacific and Indian
oceans spread into the Eastern Pacific Ocean. High
seawater temperature triggered zooxanthellae to pro-
duce products that are harmful to the coral hosts. Coral
hosts had to expel the zooxanthellae. Without zoo-
xanthellae, corals look pale, white or even luminescent
in colour. At the height of the bleaching in July
August, coral reefs in Malaysia were badly affected
where about 90% of reefs bleached in some areas.
Although most of Malaysias coral reefs with mortal-
ity rate between 1015%, it is suggested that tropical
seas will continue to warm in future years, increasing
both the probability and severity of mass bleaching
events (Wilkinson 2008; Kaur 2010; Ministry of the
Environment 2010). Reef Check (2010) done by Reef
Check Malaysia completed 93 surveys, 46 in Penin-
sular Malaysia and 47 in East Malaysia. Surveys in
Peninsular Malaysia was conducted round the five
main islands off the East coast (Aur, Perhentian,
Redang, Tenggol and Tioman) and new sites on the
islands of Kapas, Bidong and Yu were added into the
survey programme in 2010. In East Malaysia, the 2009
Expedisi Perdana (a collaboration between a number
of universities and government departments) visited a
large number of previously un-surveyed, remote sites.
These have not been revisited in 2010 due to lack of
resources and manpower therefore total number of
surveys for East Malaysia is lower for 2010. This
survey output showed that although a mass coral
bleaching event that affected coral reefs in the whole
of Southeast Asia in 2010, percentage of Recently
Killed Coral (RKC) detected by the surveys was still
low at 3.3%. This value indicates that damage to reefs
in the last year due to natural or human factors was
relatively low. Since a large proportion of the surveys
were conducted before the full effects of the bleaching
event were felt, and it is likely that post-bleaching
surveys (to be conducted in 2011) will show a higher
level of RKC.
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36 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2012) 11:2739

Table 6 Threat to coral reefs in Malaysia which vary by its location

Threats West coast East coast East Scale value
of Peninsular of Peninsular Malaysia
Malaysia Malaysia

Sedimentation ????? ??? ??? ?: none to rare

Population pressure ???? ??? ???? ??: very low concentration
Domestic and agriculture pollution ??? ?? ???? ???: some damage, some stress
Industrial pollution ??? ? ? ????: medium to high damage
Fishing intensity ???? ??? ????? ?????: very high stress,
very damaging
Fishing damage ??? ??? ?????
Fish blasting ?? ?? ????
Gleaning ?? ? ???
Boat scouring ?? ??? ????
Oil spill ?? ? ??
Disease and predation ?? ???? ???
Dredging ?? ? ??
Coral mining ? ? ???
Tourist activities ? ?? ??
Coral bleaching ? ? ??
Source: Modified from UNEP (2007)

Sedimentation rate is the main problem in West
Malaysia whereas overfishing and fishing blasting are
main threats associated in East Malaysia. High density
shipping lanes through the Straits of Malacca and
western coast of Peninsular Malaysia have impacted
huge damage towards pristine coral reefs in this area.
Moreover, agriculture and development have
increased sedimentation rate and nutrient runoff to
coastal waters cause coral reefs damage. Moreover,
domestic, agriculture and industrial pollution will
results pollutants to accumulate in coral skeletons. On
the other hand, East Malaysia faces different threats
towards coral reefs. Destructive fishing practices
(blast and cyanide) have ruined coral reefs areas in
Sabah due to lower enforcement and high dependence
on coastal fisheries. Coastal pollution are growing in
Southeast Asia and over 80% of the populations of
Malaysia living live within 50 km of the coast. As a
result, exploitation of coastal resources are increas-
ingly beyond its sustainable limit. Overfishing causes
a variety of impacts such as breeding population
reduced, reefs fish species changed and smother coral
reefs. In Sarawak, river sedimentation, nutrient runoff
and pollution from land play a significant role in
ecological response of coral reefs ecosystem. Coral
reefs depend on photosynthetic zooxanthellae for
nutrients in clear tropical waters. High rate of
sedimentation and turbidity values will significantly
affect coral growth and can even result in coral dying
(Coral Reef Monitoring Report 2008; UNEP 2007;
Tun et al. 2004; Burke et al. 2002).
4 Gaps and future studies in coral reefs studies
in Malaysia
Despite a long history in coral reefs studies in Malaysia,
gaps still remain to be addressed to fill in the qualitative,
quantitative and biogeographical data on coral reefs
communities in Malaysia. Continuous collaborations
between local and international researchers and research
by local universities to conduct coral reefs studies are
initiatives to collect needed information needed. More-
over, Chong et al. (2004) listed future research directions
for sustainable management of coral reefs namely
economic valuation, policy analysis and community
participation. Economic valuations of coral reefs need to
understand impact of changes in management on coral
reefs biophysical characteristics. Studies to understand
effects of marine protected areas management on coral
reefs health and impact of pollution on coral reefs
growth are also need to be focused. In order to classify

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Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2012) 11:2739 37

and compare coral reefs sites, a standard coral reefs surviving corals and successful larval recruitment from
valuation techniques and methodology are also needed. within the area or from adjacent areas. Resilience factors
Standards on monitoring activities, staffing patterns, fall into two broad categories namely intrinsic and
equipment and standardization across laboratories are extrinsic. Intrinsic refers to the ecological characteristics
also crucial to produce systematic survey as well as of the particular coral reef community whereas extrinsic
monitoring output. In policy analysis aspect, well factors are physical characteristics that render a reef
established legal systems for fisheries, marine ecosys- more or less likely to receive larvae on prevailing
tems and coastal management is lacking in Malaysia. A currents, or that favor successful settlement and recruit-
well established legal system is a focus to reduce ment by those larvae. Future studies of coral reefs
pollution, illegal and destructive activities, such as resilience. Future studies of coral reef resilience should
fishing, mining and habitat degradation. Community focus to minimize human activities of overfishing,
participation is also a gap that needs to be addressed in sedimentation rate due to poor land use, nutrient runoff
the management of coral reef areas. Science-driven and unsustainable development (West and Salm 2003).
management with community participation must be
designed with clear goals and past experience for
verifiable information to help future initiatives. Impor-
5 Conclusion
tantly, public should have access to information in order
to understand better the value of their environment. This
The review highlights coral reefs studies carried out in
role can be played by mass media to continually remind
Malaysia. Perspectives such as coral reefs studies,
people of the value of coral reefs. Looking into impacts
threats, gaps and future studies were analyzed and
of global climate change and reef resilience in future
discussed. In a nutshell, coral reefs studies have been
studies, Marshall and Schuttenberg (2006) outlined
limited in terms of coral reefs distribution and heavy
actions can be taken by managers as well as researchers.
metals investigation. Review output on corals reefs
Establishment of Bleaching Response Plan proposed by
studies and threats in Malaysian aquatic environment
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority is an assess-
suggests that these studies are still in their infancy and
ment for environmental, ecological and socioeconomic
clearly has to go a long way. Further studies on
of mass bleaching impacts can be implemented in
qualitative and quantitave studies on coral reefs in
Malaysia. This assessment consists of routine, respon-
Malaysia are crucially needed to provide a milestone
sive, and strategic tasks to be conducted by reef
to integrate existing coral reef information, scientific
researchers as well as managers. Future mass coral
information input in coral reefs management, a clear
bleaching studies involving environmental conditions
direction for future studies and rapid information
monitoring (regional warming trends, sea surface and
access. Key issues in future studies should focus
water temperatures, and climate change patterns) can
effects of management on coral reefs health and
provide reef researchers and managers with an effective
impact of pollution on coral reefs growth with a
early warning system for bleaching events and its risk.
standard coral reefs methodology, established legal
Furthermore, studies involving environmental condi-
systems to reduce threats received by coral reefs and
tions monitoring can also provide a useful indication of
role of science-driven management with community
reef resilience. Approaches for future studies dealing
participation. This is crucial step in a way to fill in the
with ecological and socioeconomic of mass bleaching
knowledge gap of coral reefs studies in Malaysia.
events due to global climate change will rapidly detect
the onset of bleaching and support timely management
decisions. It will also provide information to stakehold-
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