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A New Cosmological Theory on the Birth of the Cosmos, our Universe and It’s Fate
A. Karel Velan
Montreal, Canada
akvelan@velanvalve.com
The present leading cosmological theory of the classical Big Bang with its various refinements, as well as the prevailing theory of
chaotic inflation, do not provide any explanation on the creation of the Singularity, matter and energy, the nature of the Nothingness
or the environment in which the Singularity appeared as well as the explosion process of the Singularity or an acceptable explanation
for the creation of cosmic structures (galaxies).
The most striking recent development in cosmology has come from explosion studies of supernovae which seemingly reveal that
the expansion speed of the universe changes with time and presently the Universe accelerates, having a negative pressure to
counterbalance the energy density.
Here I present a few comments on the difficulties and issues published by the world’s leading cosmologists.
1
ON EXPANSION
2
ON INFLATION
“So far, the data gathered by the Supernova Cosmology Project, based on observations of more than 72 type Ia supernovae, points
to neither a flat universe as depicted by inflation theories or a universe that is closed depicted by the Velan theory. Instead, the data
imply an open, accelerating universe with a positive cosmological constant (Λ>0). Though these results are truly revolutionary, at
present they are still being tested and remain highly speculative.”
3
THE MULTI-UNIVERSE COSMOS
A NEW COSMOLOGICAL THEORY ON THE BIRTH OF THE COSMOS
AND THE HISTORY AND FATE OF OUR UNIVERSE
by A. Karel Velan, P. Eng.
I propose an entirely new approach to the origin of our universe, one of many in a Multi-Universe Cosmos. The new
model eliminated the mysterious singularity at time 0, the origin of which and its explosion no one can explain.
It is the first cosmological theory (1) which goes beyond the creation of our own Universe, (2) introduces many
innovations to explain the present mysteries: a) what was created first? The Cosmic Space-Time with all the prevailing
laws of physics; b) the Cosmic Space-Time contains a primordial radiation field which, together with "virtual particles"
plays a major role in creation of matter and energy, resulting in the birth of universes in the Cosmos, (3) it is the first
cosmological theory where "the laws of physics hold everywhere, including at the beginning of the universe and at the
same time embody the conservation of energy" (as demanded by Stephen Hawking).
Then approximately 18 billion years ago, our Universe emerged from a superhot, dense fireball of matter and radiation
created in the 4-dimensional cosmic space-time vacuum. A massive appearance of virtual particle pairs due to quantum
fluctuations in the cosmic space-time (Quantum Field Theory) was followed by interaction with a powerful primordial
cosmic radiation field, the missing link to any viable theory of creation, which provided the virtual particle pairs their
rest mass (new hypothesis), creating a large cloud of matter and radiation.
Gravitational implosion of the just created cloud led to the formation of a fireball with a much hotter and denser core.
During the implosion, more elementary particles were created, now directly from radiation at temperatures far exceeding
their threshold creation levels.
Finally, the enormous pressure created by the large thermal energy of the trapped superheated radiation and matter
overpowered the gravitational forces, causing a gigantic explosion of the entire fireball which initiated the expansion and
evolution of our universe. As the universe expanded and cooled, it spawned galaxies, stars, planets and life as we observe
on earth. While the Big Bang theory, despite its successes, cannot explain satisfactorily the origin of density ripples leading
to the formation of large structures, the new theory provides a unique and complete solution to this important issue.
INTRODUCTION
In this paper I explore dramatically new ideas on the origin of The consequences of the ensuing explosion of the fireball on
the Cosmos and our Universe as one of many, a unique current observational discoveries are discussed in Section 4,
cosmological model free of an initial singularity, yet including the formation of large structures. Section 5 concludes
compatible with the large-scale features of the Universe which with the description of the fate of the Universe.
we observe today. All relevant sections contain the mathematical calculations of
Section 1 outlines the concept of the 4-dimensional Cosmic thermal and gravitational energies in the imploding and
Space-Time continuum with the same features as found in our exploding fireball, the expansion speeds and the parameters
Universe but containing a primordial radiation field. related to the fate of the universe. Using well established laws
The particle creation process and the birth of our Universe as a of physics and formulas and respecting the laws of conservation
large fireball is developed in Section 2. Section 3 covers the of energy that "nothing can be created from nothing", except the
physics of the gravitational implosion leading to the gigantic initial Cosmic Primordial Space-Time.
explosion and expansion of the fireball.
4
SECTION 1
THE CREATION OF THE 4-DIMENSIONAL COSMIC SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM
The Cosmos at this stage was in profound darkness with no The lifetime of virtual particles (∆t) can be calculated from
matter but it contained 3 basic characteristics designed to create Heisenberg’s equation of quantum uncertainty, which relates
large clouds of matter and radiation which, by gravity, were time and energy in the following way: ∆t = h/∆E,- where h- is
transformed into fire balls, or baby universes: Planck’s constant and ∆t and ∆E are the uncertainties of time
1. Tiny space cells of 10-33 cm undergo dynamic fluctuations and energy. For the smallest particle pair of an electron-positron
in their topology. They vibrate, expand and collapse in a most and a mass of 0.00102 GeV, the lifetime is 10-10 second. (3) (8)
active way just as in our own vacuum of space-time in 3. The cosmic primordial energy field (Figure 2)
compliance with General Relativity. (Figure 2) a major hypothesis introduced in the new theory, is a
2. Virtual particles (Figure 2) emerge from the vacuum, which powerful electromagnetic field with an energy density of
has a very small but non-zero energy, appearing spontaneously 1012 - 1014 GeV/cm3 which permeates the inter-universe
as particle-antiparticle pairs such as electrons and positrons. cosmic space-time and provides the missing link to any theory
Their lifetime is extremely short, 10-23 to 10-10 second before of creation that is consistent with energy conservation. Virtual
disappearing back into the vacuum. Such virtual particle pairs, particle pairs are transformed into real matter - antimatter
however, can be brought into permanent existence by the particle pairs when the primordial radiation field interacts.
application of an energy input equal to the rest mass of the Direct detection of the primordial radiation field in our universe
particles, in accordance with the equivalence equation of is difficult because it is shielded by a curved region of space-
Einstein: E = Mc2. (3) time outside our universe, created by the tremendous amount of
The density of virtual particles in cosmic space-time, equal to mass-energy contained within. However, as I first predicted in
the space-time in our universe in accordance with the Quantum 1985, the primordial gamma radiation can occasionally enter
Field Theory of 1094 g/cm3 is enormous. Theoretically, less our universe from the cosmic space-time by penetrating the
than 1 cm3 of cosmic space-time has the potential to create the surrounding space-time shell and in my view accounts for the
total mass of our universe of 5.7×1056 g in presence of an super energetic γ rays and cosmic radiation observable bursts
equivalent energy providing the virtual particles their rest mass. detected by space probes. (7)
As the energy equivalent of 1 gram of matter is 5.6×1023 GeV,
it would require an energy of 5.7×1056×5.6×1023 or 32×1079
GeV to create our universe from 1cm3 of cosmic space-time.
(3) (8)
5
THE MULTI-UNIVERSE COSMOS
Over the eons, primordial space-time transformed itself into They expand, evolve and collapse - some becoming black
a vast cosmos containing millions of universes – each with holes and others beginning a new cycle of expansion. If one
its own initial configuration, and each in various stages of could stand 20 billion light-years away, in the gravitationally
development. Some illuminate the profound darkness of the
"inter-universe" space-time continuum, appearing like curved space-time surrounding our universe, it would look
flashes of light or shining like mighty galaxies; others are like a sphere covered with galaxies (Figure 3). However, this
opaque or invisible. view would be obscured by a sphere of radiation, located
Created at different times, each universe is filled with matter and ahead of the expanding universe, which escaped at the speed
radiation, some similar in structure to our own. Some are still of light during the radiation decoupling era, some 815,000
young and active, full of galaxies and stars: all are guided years after the initial explosion.
from birth by the same universal physical laws.
H0 = Hubble constant,
G = gravitational constant
Figure 3. Our universe in the Multi-Universe Cosmos. Figure 4. Curved space sphere
around universes.
6
SECTION 2
THE BIRTH OF OUR UNIVERSE
THE PARTICLE CREATION PROCESS FROM VIRTUAL PARTICLES AND PRIMORDIAL RADIATION
7
THE CLOUD OF PARTICLES BECOMES SPHERICAL
Figure 6. The embryonic universe, a cloud of matter and radiation turned into a sphere created by gravity.
THE CREATION PROCESS IS IN FULL COMPLI- OTHER KNOWN CREATION PROCESSES ARE
ANCE WITH ALL THE LAWS OF NATURE AND VIOLATING THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
EMBODYING THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. ENERGY.
The just created, massive and dense cloud of particles and 1. BIG BANG.
radiation turned into a sphere subjected to rapid implosion E. Tryon 1973
under gravitational forces created by the mass density of “The universe was created from a virtual particle.”
matter and radiation. The pressure of the radiation which is
R. Brout 1978
proportionate to the 4th power of temperature was too weak to
“A fluctuation in space-time created a superparticle with
resist.
1019 GeV mass which triggered more and more
At the early stage, particles and antiparticles annihilated each superparticles and finally a fireball which exploded.”
other into γ photons while other particle pairs from virtual A. Vilenkin 1982
particles were created, maintaining a balance, the number of “The universe appeared from literally nothing by quantum
photons being about the same as the number of particles. tunneling to a non-empty space.”
The kinetic energy (Mv2 /2) of the infalling particles towards S. Hawkings 1995
the centre at increasing velocities, as well as the powerful “The universe was created out of nothing, because there is
collisions between particles and scattering of photons by nothing outside the universe”.
electrons and quarks were all turning into thermal energy, A. Guth 1997 “The Big bang theory does not address the
substantially increasing the temperature. origin as it describes the universe only after its creation.
The entire creation process in this new theory of creation 2. CHAOTIC INFLATION – A. Linde 1994
complies with the laws of physics which hold everywhere and “Vacuum of space-time has a scalar field called ‘inflaton’.
all field equations can be defined. As the scalar field evolves it produces many inflationary
domains. Some will sprout inflationary bubbles. When
inflation stops, its energy disintegrates into elementary
particles of matter and another big bang follows.”
8
A SUPERHEATED FIREBALL WITH A DENSER AND HOTTER CORE.
THE HOT PARTICLE CREATION PROCESS
Mc2
(1) T = —— [6]
k
where T = Temperature, Mc2 = rest mass in MeV and
k = Boltzmann constant = 0.00008617 eV/K Figure 7. The superheated fireball with a denser
and hotter core.
THRESHOLD TEMPERATURES FOR ELEMENTARY PARTICLES OF THE COSMOS
PARTICLE SYMBOL REST MASS Mc2 in MeV THRESHOLD TEMPERATURE IN K
PHOTON γ N/A N/A
ELECTRON-NEUTRINO υe
_ ? 1 eV ?
ELECTRON-ANTINEUTRINO υe ? 1 eV ?
ELECTRON e- 0.511 5.93 × 109
POSITRON e+ 0.511 5.93 × 109
QUARK u, d ~ 312.75 3,692 × 1012
ANTIQUARK –u, –d ~ 312.75 3,692 × 1012
When the temperature of the cosmic fireball reached and 1076 photons for a total mass of 1.6×1056 g with
12×109 K, more electron-positron pairs were produced, approximately 25% of it in the core. There were less photons
directly from radiation and at 7×1012 K, heavy pairs of quarks in my theory than in the standard Big Bang model due to the
and antiquarks. Under these enormously high temperature hot particle creation process in the fireball consuming
and density levels, the number of particles was controlled by photons. The moment of a gigantic explosion of the fireball
the thermal equilibrium between particles and radiation which was nearing.
prevailed in the imploding hot cosmic soup.
Soon the temperature of the fireball surpassed considerably RADIUS AND DENSITY OF THE FIREBALL
the threshold temperature of the heaviest elementary particles AT 1017 K AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
of matter and reached a thousand trillion K (1015 K) with an Volume Vq of 3 × 1080 quarks (largest particle)
energy level of 100 GeV per photon. The particles of matter with a quark radius of 0.5 × 10-13 cm
and radiation were squeezed into an enormous density of
3.34×1015 g/cm3 (compared to nuclear density of 1014 g/cm3). Vq = –43 π Rq3 × 3 × 10 80
The core was even much denser and hotter at 1019 K. = –43 π (0.5 × 10-13)3 × 3 × 10 80 = 1.57 × 10 41 cm3
The particle creation process reached its final stage and it is The radius RFB can be calculated from the volume.
assumed that the high prevailing energy allowed the 3
transformation of antimatter into matter. Positrons, antiquarks –43 πRFB3 = 1.57 × 10 41 RFB = √ 37.5 × 10 39 = 3.34 × 10 13 cm.
and antineutrinos turned into electrons, quarks and neutrinos. With a total mass of the fireball MFB = 5.7 × 1056 g
Nature must have had a preference for matter to allow
CP symmetry to be violated. How else could antiparticles 5.7 × 1056 = 3.6 × 1015 g/cm3
the density was dFB = ––––––––––
disappear? 1.57 × 1041
The superheated cosmic soup contained at this time Radius RFB = 3.34 × 1013 cm
approximately 3×1080 quarks, 1080 electrons, 1089 neutrinos Density dFB = 3.6 × 1015 g/cm3
9
SECTION 3
THE EXPLOSION OF THE FIREBALL
The explosion of the fireball took place from the center, In the fireball, at temperature way above the threshold level
similar to supernova explosions of large stars. As the outer (1017 K) electrons and quarks behaved like photons.[5]
envelope of the fireball reached the quark-electron density As the volume of quarks surpassed the volume of radiation,
(3.6 ×1015 g/cm3), its core density was 1018 g/cm3 or more. particles of matter contributed decisively to the total thermal
All the electrons, quarks, neutrinos and photons in the core energy, while the mass density of the hot radiation contributed
merged to form a single gigantic nucleus. In this form, to gravitation. For comparison, the energy which set the
particles show a strong resistance to further compression. universe expanding was 10102 erg – about 1046 times greater
This, however, did not stop the particles in the outer layers of than the most powerful supernova detonation known.
the fireball from imploding further and squeezing the core
even more. While the size of the universe in the classical Big Bang theory
[5] was only 10-33 cm or smaller than an electron (10-17 cm)
At the surface of the hard core, the particles stopped suddenly, 10-45 seconds after the Big Bang, the fireball in our theory
but not fully. The compressibility of elementary particles is
before explosion had already a sizeable radius of
low at this density, but not zero. The momentum of the
3.34×1013 cm or 300 times larger than the sun.
particles, falling at very high speed, compressed the core to
about 10 times the equilibrium density (1018 g/cm3) - or what The mathematical computations which follow, using proven
can be called the point of "maximum squeeze". formulas for thermal and gravitational forces, arrive at
The outer layer of the core rebounded, like a hard rubber ball meaningful results and substantiate the described events.
that was compressed and released, setting off huge sound To my knowledge it is the only meaningful mathematical
shock waves and releasing gravitational energy. The outward computation ever presented to back up a theory of cosmology
pressure generated by the thermal energy of matter and using the same laws of physics applying to the universe,
radiation at the core was 2.9 ×10102 erg – 10 million times as well as to its birth.
greater than the gravitational energy (7 ×1095 erg); and about
10 billion times greater than the energy of the envelope THE INTERACTING FORCES DURING THE
EXPLOSION OF THE FIRE BALL
(1092 erg) as calculated below. The shock waves and the over-
powering outward pressure triggered a titanic cosmic FIREBALL THE CORE
MASS 5.7 × 1056 g MASS .4 × 1056 g
explosion, setting the "baby universe" on an 18 billion year TEMPERATURE AV. 1017 K 10 K15
TEMPERATURE 1019 K
path of expansion and evolution. DENSITY 3.6 × 1015 g/cm3 DENSITY 4.1 × 1018 g/cm3
RADIUS 3.34 × 1013 cm RADIUS 8.4 × 1012 cm
GRAVITY 1019 K GRAVITY
10
(5) Number of photons in 1 cm3 = 20.3 × T 3 6.67 × 10-8 × (1058)2
EGRAV = –––––––––––––––– = 7.9 × 1095 ergs
Total number of photons NPH = 10 76 8.4 × 1012
NPH Total gravitational Energy = 7.9 × 1095 ergs
(6) Total volume of photons VPH = –––––––– cm 3
20.3 × T 3 Thermal Energy ERT = aT 4 × Vc ergs (T = 1019 )
7.5647 × 10-15 × T 4 1076
MRT = ––––––––––––––––– × –––––––––– g Vc = Volume of quarks
(2.997 × 1010 )2 20.3 × T 3
or = –43 π Rq3 × Nq
MRT = 4.1 × 10-37 × T × NPT g = –43 π(0.5 × 10 -13)3 × .75 × 10 80 = 3.9 × 1040 cm3
= 4.1 × 10-37 × 1017 × 1076 = 4.1 × 10 56 g
ERT = 7.56 × 10-15 × 1076 × 3.9 × 1040 = 2.95 × 10102 ergs
Total Mass MT = MP + MRT = 5.7 × 10 56 g
Thermal Energy was 107 or 10 million times larger
G × M T2 than Gravitation 2.95 × 10102 > 107 than 7.9 × 1095
Total gravitational energy = ––––––– = 5.11 × 1092 ergs
RFB and overpowered gravity
(7) Total Thermal Energy ERT = aT 4 ×Vq ergs Alternative with 10% of mass in the core:
Particles of matter at this high temperature behaved equal MP = .1 × 1.6 × 1056 g = 1.6 × 1055 g
to photons and the largest volume in the plasma was MCT = MP + MRT = 1.6 × 1055 + 1058 = 1058 g
occupied by quarks.
V = –4 π R 3 N = –4 π (.5×10-13)3 × .3 × 1080 = 1.6 × 1040
Volume Vq of 3 ×1080 quarks (largest particles) with a quark c 3 q q 3
radius of 0.5 ×10-13 cm: ERT = 7.56 × 10-15 × 1076 × 1.6 × 1040 = 1.4 × 10102 ergs
Vq = –43 π Rq3 × 3 ×1080 = –43 π(0.5 ×10-13) 3 × 3 ×1080 ERT = 1.4 × 10102 > EGRAV = 3.6 × 1095
= 1.57×1041 cm3
There are no significant differences in the overall results
ERT = 7.56×10-15 ×10 68 ×1.57 × 1041=1.18 ×1095 ergs with 10, 15, 20 or 25% of the total mass in the core.
The Thermal Energy was one thousand times larger than THE INITIAL VELOCITY OF THE EXPANDING
gravity overall. UNIVERSE AFTER THE EXPLOSION
ERT = 1.18 × 1095 > EGRAV = 5.11 × 1092 ergs The initial speed of the expanding universe of particles of
matter and radiation, after the explosion, can be determined in
CONDITIONS IN THE CORE two ways. The first approach is to apply the formulas used in
The thermal energy of radiation and particles of matter was even supernova explosions of large stars 30-50 Mo [10].
more overwhelming in the core at temperature of T=1019 K The thermal energy of the core is “dumped” into the
with approximately 25% of the total mass. A calculation with “envelope” of the fireball and using relativistic equations for
10% of total mass does not change the principle of the model. kinetic energy the initial speed of the explosion is determined.
The second approach is to use the virial theorem which takes
GM 2CT into consideration the gravitational forces, acting in opposite
Gravitational Energy EGRAV = –––––
Rc direction.
where MCT is total mass of MP (particles) + MRT (radiation)
MP = 0.4 × 10 56 g (25%) aT 4 × V g
1. SUPERNOVA METHOD
MRT = ———
c2 PH
The thermal energy 2.95×10102 ergs of the core turned into
kinetic energy “Wk” and propelled the particles of matter and
Number of photons in 1 cm 3 = 20.3 × T 3
radiation to the initial speed “u”. The relationship between a
Total of photons NPH = .25 × 1076 = 2.5 × 1075
moving mass “m” at relativistic velocities “u”, the rest mass
NP “Mo” and total energy “W” is:
VPH = –––––––
20.3 × T 3 Mo 1 Moc2 Mo2c6
aT 4 NPH u2 2 u2 √
M= –––– g, W= –– Mc2 = –––– erg, u = c2 - ––––
W2
cm/sec
MRT = ––– × –––––––– = 4.1×10-37 × T × NPH g 1- –– 1- ––
c2 20.3 × T 3 = 4.1×10-37 ×1019 ×2.5×1075 = 1058 g √ c2 √ c2
or MCT = 10 58 g To comply with the law of energy conservation in relativistic
The contribution of radiation to the total mass was 102 larger dynamics we subtract the static energy “Moc2” of particles
than those of particles of matter from total energy and obtain the final equations for kinetic
Density of the core d = 4.1 × 1018 g/cm3 energy “Wk” and initial speed “u”.
2 1
Volume of core (8) KINETIC ENERGY Wk = Mo (
–––– -1 ergs )
1058
MCT particles = ––––––––
Vc = ––––––––––– = 2.5 × 1039 cm3 √ 1- c—
u2
2
density 4.1 × 1018
Mo2c6
(9) INITIAL SPEED u =
√c
3 2- –––––––––– cm/sec
Radius Re = 3 V = 3 –––
––– 3 2.5 × 1039 = 8.4×1012 cm 2
√ 4π c √ 4π (Wk + Moc )2
11
The initial speeds in relation to the kinetic energy plotted on solving Eq. (16) for u yields
the diagram (Figure 10) for a mass of 2 ×1056 g clearly
indicate that there was sufficient thermal energy to propel the
newly created universe of particles of matter and radiation to
(17)
GMo2 c2
u = ——— •
4 ER2
-1+ [
————————
G Mo2 c
•
√ G2 Mo4 c2 + 16 E 2 R4
]
a speed of 0.999 of light. with G = 6.67 × 10-8 cm3 /g sec2 R = 4.3 × 1013 cm
Mo = 2 × 1056 g c = 2.9973 × 1010 cm
0.999...C
1
The initial speeds in relation to the Energy Time Rate plotted
on the diagram (Figure 11) for the mass 2×1056 g clearly
0.8 indicate that there was sufficient thermal energy to propel the
mo2c4 newly created universe of particles of matter and radiation to a
0.75 u =
––– 1 - –––––––––
c √ (W k+moc )
2 2 speed of 0.999 of light.
0.6
0.999...C
1
u/c
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.6
Figure 10. Initial speed scaled with the speed of light 0.4
u/c plotted against the kinetic energy Wk of the expanding
universe with mass 2 ×1056 g.
0.2
12
SECTION 4
THE YOUNG UNIVERSE AFTER EXPLOSION OF THE FIREBALL IN THE VELAN COSMOLOGICAL MODEL
JUST AFTER THE EXPLOSION number +1) in the hot electron-quark soup for each electron
The temperature of the hot electron-quark-gluon plasma, just (-1), and so, during the transformation of quarks into protons
after explosion, was in the range of 1017 K and was rapidly and neutrons later, the baryon number was conserved.
cooling down, inversely proportional to the rate of expansion of
the universe, or radius R (T ~ 1/R ). In other words, when the Conservation of Lepton Number
universe was a billion times hotter than it is at present At the creation process, there were as many electrons (lepton
(3 K), it was a billion times smaller. Radiation dominated and number +1) as positrons (lepton number –1) and neutrinos
made the fireball nontransparent, foggy, and opaque. All (lepton number +1) as antineutrinos (lepton number –1), with
particles intensively collided with each other and scattered the the result of a 0 lepton number during the birth of the universe.
photons and neutrinos, preventing their escape. The photons Quarks and hadrons have a 0 lepton number.
moved with the speed of light between collisions with electrons
and quarks and scattered. Nevertheless, the radiation redshifted
with the expansion of the universe. Due to frequent collisions, EVENTS IN THE FAST-EXPANDING AND COOLING
all particles had the same temperature and the universe was in UNIVERSE
full thermal equilibrium. In order to determine the type of interactions and events that
The weak and electromagnetic forces acted as one unified force took place in the fast-expanding and cooling universe, we
while gravitation and the strong force were always acting.The must establish the relationship between temperature, density,
free quarks were very close to each other and the temperature and energy of the particles.
was too high for the gluons and the strong nuclear force to The predominant role in the hot, early universe was played by
contain them within protons and neutrons. the energy of radiation, which changes with the fourth power
of temperature (T 4 ) and was considerably greater than the
energy contained in the particles of matter, up to 3,000 K
CONSERVATION LAWS WERE CONSERVED
when matter took over.
The major conservation laws were respected during the creation
The energy of particles of matter relates to the Einstein
process and in the expanding, hot universe now in full thermal
formula E = mc 2 and is expressed in the so-called rest mass:
equilibrium.
0.938 GeV for protons, approximately 0.312 GeV for quarks
u and d, and 0.511×10-3 GeV for electrons.
Conservation of Energy
The total energy of all particles never changed, though Density and Temperature
collisions transferred energy from one particle to another.
The behavior of particles and forces in the hot plasma
The energy of the primordial cosmic radiation field has been
depended entirely on the prevailing density and temperature,
partially transformed into particles of matter. A portion of
and the temperature depended on the size of the universe
radiation was trapped and became an important part of the
(T ~ 1/R), directly related to the time elapsed from the
newly created universe. Today, it has cooled down to 3 K and
explosion, time t = 0.
lost its dominating role overtaken by matter when the universe
cooled down to 3,000 K. We have established that the energy of radiation Er is
Er = aT 4 erg/cm3
Conservation of Electrical Charge where a = 7.564 ×10-15 erg/cm3 K4.
Today, the universe is electrically neutral. There are as many
positively charged protons (+1) as negatively charged electrons Therefore, density in accordance with the Einstein equation
(-1). In the early universe, after the short annihilation period of E = mc 2 is
electron-positron and quark-antiquark pairs, there was a Er aT 4
(18) dr = –––– = –––– = 0.84×10-35T 4 g/cm3
balance between electrons (-1) and quarks u (+ –32) and d (- 13– ) to c2 c2
maintain the electrical neutrality of the young universe.
Equation 18 establishes the relationship between density and
1 e- to 2 u and 1 d temperature of radiation.
-1 + (2 × 23–) + (- 13– ) = 0
Time and Density
Conservation of Baryon Number We must now establish the relationship between the time
A baryon number of +1 is given to protons and neutrons while elapsed from the explosion and density, which will give us the
leptons and photons have a baryon number of 0. Antiprotons basis to interrelate time, temperature, density and
have a baryon number of -1. The significance of the baryon energy of particles.
number, which does not create an electrical, magnetic, or
similar charge, lies in the requirement to be conserved in We will be using already known formulas from the Hubble
interactions of particles. expansion laws and the standard Newton formulas of
gravitation.
The quarks u and d, which were contained in the early universe,
have a baryon number of + 13– . There were three quarks (baryon
13
As the time after explosion t is reciprocal to the
(22)
1
( )
3
t ≅ ––– = –––––
H 8πdG
1/2
R
where n = 3 for matter and n = 4 for radiation.
(23)
2
( )
3
t = –– –––––
n 8πGd
1/2
Figure 13. A sphere with mass M, radius R, and mass M1 For the radiation-dominated period of the expanding
at the perisphere universe up to a temperature of 3,000 K, the final equation is
4πR
M = ––––– d 1 For the matter-dominated period of T < 3,000 K
3
According to Newton’s theory, the potential energy PE of the TIME 1/2 8 1/2
mass M1 on the rim of the sphere is:
PE = ––––––– = - –––––––––––
R 3
Energy of Photons and Particles of Matter
where G is the gravitational constant. In order to determine the energy Eph of a photon in electron
The velocity v of M1 according to Hubble’s law is volts at a given temperature T, we proceed as follows
v = HR Eph = aT 4 = 7.56 × 10-15 × T 4 erg/cm3
The kinetic energy KE of the motion of M1 is As 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-12 erg,
1 1
KE = –2 M1v 2 = –2 M1H 2R 2 -15
7.56 × 10
(26) Eph = ––––––––– × T 4 = 4.722 × 10 -3 × T 4 eV
The total energy ET of M1 is 1.6 × 10-12
The number of photons N is
(19) ET = -PE +KE = M1R2 –12 H 2 - 4–3 πdcG
( ) N = 20.3 × T 3 photons/cm3
If M1 eventually ceases to expand in a closed universe with
The energy of one photon is
slightly more than critical mass, ET must become 0.
Equation (19) therefore becomes Eph 4.722 × 10 -3 × T 4
(27) = ––– = –––––––––––––– = 0.232 × 10 -3 × T eV
1 4
N 20.3 × T 3
(20) –2 H 2 = –3 πdc G
The rest mass of energy E of particles
and we can calculate the critical density dc Proton 0.939 GeV
3H 2 = 4.5 ×10-30 g/cm3 u or d quark 0.313 GeV
dc = –––– Electron 0.511 × 10 -3 GeV
8πG
with H = 15 km/sec per 106 light-years. We have now established all of the required formulas to
calculate time, density, and energy of radiation and particles at
From Eq. (20) we can establish that
a given temperature and can proceed to describe the major
events that occurred in the early expanding universe after
(21)
( )
8πdG 1/2
H = –––––
3
explosion.
14
MAJOR LANDMARK EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
Figure 14. The young universe after explosion of the fireball in the Velan cosmological model.
From the vast spaces of the cosmos, our universe at this stage
■
1. T =1015 K
would look like a non-transparent ball of fog. Photons are
Elapsed Time [ Eq.23] scattered by electrons (Figure 14).
8 1/2
t = 0.067
( )
10
––– = 7.3 × 10-10 sec
d
■
3. T =1012 K
Quarks combine to create protons and neutrons
Energy of 1 photon
E1ph = 0.232 × 10-3 × T = 0.232 × 1012 = 23.2 GeV Density d = 0.84 × 10-35 × 1048 = 0.84 × 1013 g/cm3
Elapsed Time [ Eq.23]
Energy of quark Eq = 0.313 GeV E1ph > Eq
8 1/2
The electromagnetic and weak force decoupled. Gravitation
and the strong force were always active. Plasma of quarks,
t = 0.067
( )
10
––– = 7.3 × 10-4 sec
d
electrons, neutrinos and photons. Energy of 1 photon
E1ph = 0.232 × 10-3 × T = 0.232 × 109 = 0.232 GeV
■
2. T =1013 K
Energy of proton Epr = 0.939 GeV E1ph < Epr
Density d = 0.84 × 10-35 × 1052 = 0.84 × 1017 g/cm3
Elapsed Time [ Eq.23] Energy of electron Ee = 0.00051 GeV E1ph > Ee
8 1/2
t = 0.067
( )
10
––– =7.3 × 10-6 sec
d
The free quarks u and d in the fireball did not enjoy their
asymtotic freedom for very long. They were free when their
Energy of 1 photon separation distances were less than 2 ×10-14 cm. Quarks as
color singlets with specific charges and gluons responsible
E1ph = 0.232 × 10-3 × T = 0.232 × 1010 = 2.32 GeV
for forces acting between them could act as free particles.
Energy of quark Eq = 0.313 GeV E1ph > Eq Now at temperatures of 1012 K, due to the rapid expansion,
quarks came within 10-13 cm and even if they passed each
All 4 forces active. Quarks too close to each other to be bound. other at close to the speed of light they could not escape
The universe is still in perfect thermal equilibrium filled with confinement. Interactions took place as fast as 10-23 sec
radiation and particles of matter in the form of electrons, a and the entire quark-gluon plasma turned into protons
quark-gluon plasma, photons and neutrinos. and neutrons.
15
Three quarks in three different color singlets became confined The universe still appeared as one unified cloud of matter and
into "white" colorless protons and neutrons. The strong radiation, nontransparent and opaque, though the energy of
nuclear force of confinement, effected by gluons, is very photons dropped below the energy of protons but surpassed
powerful. The force is approximately 15 tons strong in the rest mass of electrons (0.00051 GeV). Its dense fog
comparison to 10-11 ton for the electric force attracting an appearance was caused by scattering of photons by free
electron to a proton in a hydrogen atom. Imagine 15 tons electrons.
acting on a small pointlike particle such as a quark with a
radius of 13– ×10-13 cm. The universe was transformed suddenly When a free electron was hit by an impinging photon, it was
from a quark-gluon-electron-photon-neutrino plasma to a accelerated by the pulse of electromagnetic energy of the
universe of protons, neutrons, electrons, photons, and photon and gained momentum, as shown in Figure 17.
neutrinos. It is assumed that at this time, much less than 1 sec
after the explosion of the fireball, neutrons and protons
appeared in equal numbers. However, there was a continuous
transmutation of both nuclear particles into each other in weak
nuclear force reactions:
p + e-↔ n + ν or n → p + e- + ν–
(photon)
e e
n
■
4. T =1011 K
Neutrinos uncoupled.
Figure 15. Decay of neutrons in beta radiation process. Density d = 0.84 × 10-35 × 1044 = 0.84 × 109 g/cm3
Elapsed Time
(2) the neutrinoless transformation where the neutrino from 8 1/2
the first neutron is absorbed by the second neutron, as
shown in Figure 16.
t = 0.067
( )
10
––– = 7.3 × 10-2 sec
d
Energy of 1 photon
E1ph = 0.232 × 10-3 × T = 0.232 × 108 eV = 0.0232 GeV
Energy of electron Ee = 0.00051 GeV E1ph > Ee
16
■
5. T =109 K helium nucleus and combine into carbon (24He + 4He → C)
and later into oxygen (C + 4He → O).
Nucleosynthesis creation of helium nuclei. Let us review in more detail the thermonuclear reactions that
Density d = 0.84 × 10-35 × 1036 = 8.4 g/cm3 took place during the nucleosynthesis. At temperatures of 109
K, the collisions between particles, this time between protons,
Elapsed Time neutrons, and electrons as well as scattering with photons,
8 1/2 continued though the energy of photons dropped below the
t = 0.067
( )
10
––– = 231 sec
d
level of electrons for the first time. When protons and neutrons
came within a distance of 10-13 cm, they were subjected to the
Energy of 1 photon enormously strong nuclear force. The same force responsible
E1ph = 0.232 × 10-3 × T = 0.232 × 10 6 eV = 0.00023 GeV for holding quarks firmly in protons and neutrons by the
massless gluons, extended its sphere of influence to hold a
Energy of electron Ee = 0.00051 GeV proton and neutron in a nucleus of heavy hydrogen called
deuterium. The nucleus of deuterium does not have a very
For the first time the energy of a photon dropped below the strong bond between the proton and neutron. The temperature
energy of an electron. of the plasma had to be exactly right to avoid blasting apart the
deuterium nucleus.
E1ph < Ee
At a temperature slightly lower than 109 K, the bond between
the proton and neutron in deuterium nuclei became strong and
At 109 K, dramatic events took place in the evolution of the the creation of heavier nuclei became possible. The nuclei of
universe. This period is called nucleosynthesis and starts to take deuterium readily capture neutrons. It is for this reason that
shape at 231 sec after explosion when free protons and heavy water or DHO (water enriched in deuterium) is used in
neutrons become bound into atomic nuclei of helium. At the nuclear reactors to absorb neutrons.
end of this period, lasting approximately 30 min., almost all
The deuterium nucleus colliding with other particles can
neutrons ended up in helium nuclei and the final makeup of the
capture a proton and create a nucleus of the light isotope of
massive clouds of matter and radiating energy consisted of
helium-3 (3He), which consists of two protons and one
75% protons or nuclei of hydrogen atoms and 24% nuclei of
neutron, or it can capture a neutron and create a nucleus of the
helium atoms, containing two protons and two neutrons, a total
heaviest isotope of hydrogen called tritium (3H), which
of about 87% of protons and 13% of neutrons.
consists of one proton and two neutrons.
The process of nucleosynthesis, which resembles the Finally, 3He collides with a neutron and creates the stable
thermonuclear reactions taking place in the cores of stars, helium-4 (4He), or a nucleus of 3H collides with a proton and
complies with two basic rules of nature that apply to the also creates 4He. Alternatively, a nucleus of 3He collides with
formation of atomic nuclei. An atomic nucleus can capture another nucleus of 3H, creating 4He and two protons. As well,
neutrons only one at a time and there cannot be a stable atom a nucleus of tritium can collide with another nucleus of tritium
with atomic mass 5 or 8. In other words, under normal and create 4He and two neutrons.The nucleosynthesis process
circumstances, a helium nucleus, which is one of the most is shown schematically in Figure 18.
stable cannot capture another proton, neutron, or helium
nucleus and form another stable element. Since helium core requires equal numbers of protons and
neutrons, the formation of helium stopped when all neutrons
By the time the atomic helium nucleus was created, the density were used up. The universe consisted of approximately 24%
and temperature of the plasma were not sufficiently high for an helium nuclei, 75% free protons, with traces of deuterium
alternative process where two helium nuclei capture another nuclei, electrons, photons and neutrinos.
17
There was obviously one electron present for each free or The universe became transparent and matter became
bound proton. The temperature was still much too high for dominant. Local mass concentrations became more
nuclei to capture electrons and form atoms. Fast-moving pronounced and the universe suddenly became a red super-
photons would knock out the electrons. Nuclei of heavier giant with a brilliant red light in every part of the sky.
elements were not created during the nucleosynthesis as the
universe was steadily expanding and cooling down. Every point of the universe at this time glowed with the
It remained a hot soup of matter and radiation, still in thermal brilliance of the sun. The decoupling of radiation radically
equilibrium. changed the behavior of matter. The small density
The universe continued to expand and nothing eventful took fluctuations in the early stages now become gravitationally
place for nearly 815,000 years, when the temperature dropped very important. The enormous masses of gravitating
to 3,000K. hydrogen and helium gas started to break up into individual
giant gas clouds, slowly drifting apart as the universe
continued its fast expansion.
■
6. T = 3 × 103 K
Decoupling of radiation, creation of hydrogen A contributing factor to the breakup of the single mass into
individual gas clouds was the sudden drop in pressure when
and helium gas
radiation decoupled and moved away with the speed of light.
Density d = 0.84 × 10-35 × 81 × 1012 = 6.8 × 10-22 g/cm3
Elapsed Time ■
7. T = 3 K
8 1/2
t = 0.067
( )
10
––– = 0.0257 × 1015 sec
d
Elapsed Time
t = ~ 1 billion years
1 year = 3.155 × 107 sec At this stage, individual gas clouds which formed earlier,
began to collapse gravitationally into protogalaxies and later
0.0257×1015 into galaxies and stars.
t = ––––––––––– = 815,000 years
3.155 × 107
The radiation temperature continued to drop as the universe
expanded and it is presently at 2.73 K. The universe expanded
Energy of 1 photon
at this time 1000-fold for the radiation temperature to fall
E1ph = 0.232 × 10-3 × T = 0.232 × 10-3 × 3 × 103 = 0.69 eV from 3,000 K to 2.73 K. Obviously, the wavelength of the
Energy of 1 electron Ee = 0.51 × 106 eV radiation also expanded by a factor of 1,000. Matter, after
decoupling of radiation, cooled much faster than radiation, as
Ee > E1ph the random motion of the atoms of hydrogen and helium
could no longer keep up with the expansion of the universe
and the larger and larger distances between the individual
At this stage, a significant event took place in the evolution of atoms.
the universe. The temperature dropped to a level that made the
particle-photon scattering process lose its effect and finally In accordance with the theory of relativity, the photons
electrons and nuclei could form stable atoms. Protons moving at the speed of light lost the acquired energy slower
captured electrons and bound them through the than did particles of matter, now atoms of hydrogen and
electrodynamic force, in compliance with quantum helium gas, which moved at a lower speed. Matter was
electrodynamics, into atoms of hydrogen and nuclei of rapidly losing its heat energy and had achieved the 3 K
helium-captured electrons, and created stable atoms of temperature, approximately 1 billion years after expansion
helium. Suddenly the entire universe was transformed into a and should, presently, theoretically have a temperature of less
ball of hydrogen (75%) and helium gas (24%) with traces of than 1 K. It is, however, possible that due to outside sources
deuterium. of heat and energy during the formation of galaxies and stars,
matter heated up slightly.
Radiation, which
became, much, Using contemporary theoretical physics, interpreting
much less energetic observational astronomical data, and contributing with my
than matter, thinning own vision expressed in this theory of creation, we were able
out with the fourth to go back in time and witness the actual birth of our universe
power of expansion in a cosmos containing other similar or perhaps different
and not being types of universes and returned to the time when simplicity
scattered by free and symmetry still prevailed in the universe with no
electrons, suddenly structures, only hydrogen and helium gas, photons, and
decoupled from neutrinos.
matter and escaped
with the speed of
light (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Atoms of hydrogen and
helium and radiation.
18
FORMATION OF PROTOGALAXIES, GALAXIES AND STEP 4: During the decoupling of radiation at 3,000 K with
PROTOSTARS - BASIC PRINCIPLE ONLY a density of 3 billion photons per cm3, the pressure dropped
A completely smooth and uniform Universe, when it started to considerably, moving the particles around once more and
expand, would remain so even after 18 billion years, cold and allowing gravity to complete the job. This obviously could not
dull with no galaxies and stars, no chemical elements, be “recorded” on the spectrum of the cosmic background
no people. radiation which decoupled.
Formation of structures as we observe them require ripples or
local variations in density created in the early Universe to
allow big enough gas clouds with slightly above average
density, expanding more slowly than average to condense out
because of the extra gravity.
Cosmologists, defendants of the standard Big Bang theory,
consider the primordial fluctuations of 10-5 discovered by
Cobe and corresponding to density fluctuations of matter,
sufficient for formation of galaxies.
Others think that the Big Bang theory failed completely to
explain the formation of large structures and “without the
magic of inflation, any physical origin for fluctuations fails
dramatically.” [7]
19
OBSERVATIONAL SUPPORT FOR THE VARIOUS isotropically distributed across the sky, they could be assumed
HYPOTHESIS OF THE NEW VELAN to be of cosmological origin. At the time, NASA team leader,
COSMOLOGICAL THEORY Dr. Gerald Fishman, declared that: “…this is a fundamentally
1. The expansion from an extremely hot and dense new aspect of the universe, because the discovery cannot be
beginning. explained by any existing theory.”
a) A.R. Penzias and R.W. Wilson’s discovery of the cosmic In addition, the “Fly’s Eye” observatory in Utah detected cosmic
background radiation, which decoupled at a temperature of rays in the upper atmosphere with an energy of 3×1011 GeV!
3,000 K, about 815,000 years after the explosion of the Several similar events have been detected by other cosmic ray
fireball. observatories around the world. Some astronomers suggest that
b) The relative abundance of light elements (Hydrogen 75% this powerful cosmic radiation bursts originate from colliding
and Helium 24%) formed by primordial nucleosynthesis. neutron stars. These collisions would have to occur, however,
consistently in many randomly located galaxies, to account for
c) There were 1,000 times more quasars and radio galaxies, their even distribution.
2 to 3 billion years after the explosion of the fireball, than
there are now. Perhaps a more reliable explanation might be that the observed
gamma ray bursts and cosmic ray events represent penetrations
d) Edwin Hubble’s discovery in 1930, that the universe of the primordial cosmic radiation into our universe. As the
is expanding. primordial radiation interacts with distant clumps of matter, it
releases great bursts of energy and the powerful cosmic rays of
2. Galaxies receding through static space-time. 3×1011 GeV could as well be the result of interaction with the
One hypothesis of this new cosmological model is that galaxies primordial radiation, resulting in the enormous level of energy.
recede through space, rather than being swept along by expand-
ing space-time as suggested in the big bang theory. In fact, there Unless another reliable explanation will be forthcoming for the
is substantial proof that galaxies do move through space. detected high energy gamma ray bursts and cosmic rays, it is
a) Hubert Reeves writes, in Dernières Nouvelles du Cosmos conceivable that we are observing penetrations of the
(1994), “…Do galaxies themselves have a movement or primordial, cosmic radiation into our universe.
are they simply carried along by the expansion of space?
A priori, both statements are possible…”
b) The Andromeda galaxy located 2.2 million light-years
away, and our own Milky Way, are approaching each other
at about 100 km/s on a collision course.
c) All the galaxies in our local cluster are moving at a speed
of 500 km/s, toward the Virgo Cluster as well together
including the Hydra-Centaurus supercluster are moving at a
speed of over 600 km/s toward an enormous concentration
of galaxies called the Great Attractor or Great Wall.
d) Recently astronomers Lauer and Postman observed a
billion light-year wide flow of galaxies moving against the
outward expansion of the universe. Figure 23. Virtual particles Figure 24. A high energy
in vacuum become real electron attracting virtual
particles when the electrical positrons from the vacuum
field of a capacitor provides of space-time.
their rest mass.
4. Do virtual particles & quarks exist?
The existence of virtual particles appearing out of the vacuum
of space-time has been proven in laboratory experiments using
electrically loaded capacitors.
a) Virtual electrons and positrons are separated by an electric
field of loaded capacitors in vacuum, which also provides the
virtual particles with mass. They then appear as particles of
real matter attracted to the two plates of opposite charge.
(Figure 23.)
b) Laboratory experiments also indicate that when two high
energy electrons come closer than 10-11 cm, their force of
repulsion is weaker than that calculated by Coulomb’s law.
Figure 22. Clusters of galaxies move towards the The explanation is that a high energy electron attracts
Great Wall. virtual positrons, shown schematically in Figure 24.
This causes the vacuum around the electron to become
3. The Primordial Cosmic Radiation Field polarized which results in a partially shielded charge.
(the major hypothesis in the Velan Theory) Such an electron is called "dressed" or physical, in contrast
NASA’s Compton Gamma Ray Observatory detected powerful to a "naked" electron, which has an ideal charge that
gamma ray bursts in 1992. Since these bursts of radiation were complies with Coulomb’s law.
20
c) In 1988, at CERN (Centre européen pour la recherche confinement in protons, neutrons and mesons. Colliding
nucléaire) a quark-gluon plasma was created by colliding nuclei of lead (208 protons and neutrons) at near speed of
relativistic sulfur ions against stationary ions of gold light with a thin stationary foil of lead has shown
(Figure 25, 26). The resulting "fireball" of quarks and (Figure 27) that more than 1,600 particles sprayed out
gluons was extremely dense and short-lived - lasting only from a single collision, carrying evidence of a quark-
6.5×10-23 second. Similar experiments have been repeated gluon plasma. The tremendous energy and pressure of the
in recent years (1993–1999 at CERN) confirming that at plasma caused it to explode outward. When temperature
extreme energy densities, quarks can exist freely without and density dropped, the quarks rapidly paired off again
into protons and neutrons.
Figure 25 Soup of quarks (dark grey) is set free from In recent years, however, large concentrations of previously
protons and neutrons (light grey) when they collided. unobserved ordinary matter have been found, thereby
reducing the need for “dark matter”. These discoveries
include supergiant galaxies that contain 100 trillion stars and
measure 40 times the diameter of the Milky Way; as well as
a new class of previously unseen, low surface brightness
galaxies which exist by the millions.
Until recently, the largest known galaxy was Markarion 348,
1.3 million light-years wide, or 13 times larger than our own
Milky Way and 100,000 light-years across. A newly
discovered galaxy in the cluster Abell 2029 is about 6 million
light-years in diameter and contains more than
100 trillion stars.
In addition, giant agglomerations of supergalaxies, at least
500 million light-years long and 15 million light-years wide,
called great walls or great attractors, have been observed and
Figure 26 Quark-gluon plasma at Cern, Geneva. are most probably evenly spread through the entire universe.
1988 Thirteen more great walls and the first cluster of great walls
have also been seen stretching out in a line of over 7 billion
light-years long. To these gigantic clusters of clusters of
galaxies we must add the enormous mass contained in
powerful quasars formed earlier in the universe, small dark
stars, brown dwarfs, billions of white dwarfs, remnant cores
of stars of less than 8 solar masses which lived fast and died
young, billions of large black holes, remnant cores of large
short-lived stars 6–50 solar masses, and 1089 neutrinos with a
small mass which fill the universe.
According to recent discoveries, the electron-neutrino has a
possible rest mass of 1 eV. If this could be confirmed,
the total mass contribution from 1089 neutrinos would be:
Mνe = 1 eV ×1089 = 1089 eV
since 1 eV = 1.72 ×10-33 g,
Mνe = 1.72 ×10-33 × 1089 = 1.72 ×1056 g
21
SECTION 5
THE FATE OF THE UNIVERSE
Standstill
/s
ed
cm
CONTR
e
ns ON
sp
R = 3.34 x 1013 cm
0
10 1
I
on
ex NS
i
1x
PA
ACTIO
pa
EX
ge
ra
N
/s
e
cm
1.25 x 10 28 cm
Av
nd iv ON
0 10
3 x 10 28 cm
I
se
ex ew LOS
x1
s er
P
2 .5
pa un
EX
N
Present
Explosion 18 56 71.5 Billions of years
of the Time cycle
fireball
Figure 28. The fate of the universe.
collapse into a fireball. Soon after, an explosion will set up the where k for a closed universe is 1 and d is density. The R
universe on a new cycle of expansion and its glorious represents a radius of a spherical universe at any moment t.
evolution. For a closed universe the OMEGA (Ω) constant
By using the definition of the velocity in the form:
of density must be larger than 1 (>1).
(30) u = ∂R ––
d0 today’s density ∂t
Ω0 = –––– = –––––––––––––– > 1
dcrit critical density The equation (29) can be rewritten in the form:
With a Hubble constant of 58 km sec-1 Mpc-1 and an u2 = GM
(31) –– –– + constant
18 billion year universe, the complete cycle would amount to 2 R
71.5 billion years. When the universe will come to a standstill:
∂R
The maximum expansion radius of the universe Rmax and the (32) –– = 0
elapsed time since the explosion of the fireball tmax can be ∂t
calculated from two familiar equations describing the Taking a time derivative of Eq. (29) and substituting it into
expansion of a gaseous sphere. Eq. (28) yields the following relation:
2 2 (33) 2
∂–– ∂R
(28)
–– ∂R
1 –––
R2 ∂t ( ) 2
+ ––
R ( )
2R
∂t2
+ ––
R2
k c2
=0 ( ) = ––AR - kc
––
∂t
2
22
Where A is the integration constant to be determined from Average deceleration over 56 billion years:
initial values. For our case of k = 1 the positive expansion 299,999
vanishes and is replaced by contraction at Rm, when Eq. (33) ––––––– = 5305 km/sec/1 billion years
takes zero value. In that case it can be rewritten as: 56
A Speed of recession after 18 billion years ∼ 200,000 km/sec
(34) Rm = ––
c2
Average speed over 18 billion years 2.5 × 1010 cm/sec
To evaluate Eq. (34) we need to find the constant A.
By applying the present epoch values to Eq. (33) we find Present Radius
that: v 2.5 × 1010 × 1024
R0 = ––– = –––––––––––––– = 1.25 × 1028 cm
H0 20 × 105
(35) A = 2 q0 H02 R03
R0 = 1.25 × 1028 cm
Eq. (26) and (27) gives Today’s Density d0
(36) Rmax = –– 2 q H2R3 4πR03
c2 0 0 0 M = ––––– d0 g
3
By substituting Eq. (36) into Eq. (28) we finally obtain the where M is the mass of the universe
equation for maximum radius Rmax : Only particles of matter contribute now to the mass energy
of matter as the radiation mass energy at prevailing temper-
2q c
0
k3
= –––– ature is relatively low. It nevertheless played a major role
√ (2 q
(37) Rmax –––––––––
H0 3 - 1)
0 when the universe was very hot (above 109 K).
In order to obtain Eq. (37), q0 was introduced and is called R0= 1.25 × 1028 cm
“decelarion parameter” defined as: M = 1.6 × 1056 g
2
1 ∂R 3 × 10 × 3
56
(38) q0 = - –––––– ––––0
∂t
d0 = ––––– =1.6
–––––––––––
2
R0 H 2 4πR 3 4π 1.9 ×1084
0
d0 = 1.96 × 10-29 g/cm3
The deceleration parameter relates the deceleration of the
universe to it’s radius the same way as Hubble’s constant H d0 1.96 × 10 -29
Ω0 = –––– = –––––––––– = 2.45 > 1
relates the velocity of the universe and can be determined dcrit 8 × 10-30
from observations and expressed by formula: for Ω0 >1 the universe is closed.
4πGd
(39) q0 = ––––––
2
0
3H
23
WHAT ARE THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE NEW THEORY TOWARDS THE EVERLASTING QUEST OF
HUMANITY TO DISCOVER THE SECRETS OF NATURE AND ITS ORIGINS?
1. Our Universe was created in a new environment, the cosmic 4-dimensional spacetime of the Multi-Universe Cosmos,
contrary to Nothingness, the environment in all other present and past cosmological theories.
2. The primordial cosmic radiation field or the missing link to any viable theory of creation, not violating the law of
conservation of energy.
3. The massive interaction of virtual particles contained in the cosmic space-time with the primordial cosmic radiation
field as a basis for creation of universes.
4. The hot particle creation process during the gravitational implosion of a baby universe before explosion
5. Galaxies recede through space-time rather than being swept along by the expanding space-time in all other
cosmological theories.
1. It eliminates the need for the mysterious primordial singularity, the origin of which was never explained.
2. The new model probes further into the past than anyone has previously ventured explaining
the origins of matter and radiation.
7. The theory breaks through the theoretical constraints of the Big Bang Singularity Model
filling the gap in the understanding of the universe.
8. The new multi-universe theory postulates that the cosmic fireball was initially quite sizeable, with a radius of
2.17×1013 cm, or 300 times larger than the sun while in the big bang theory the initial size was only 10-33 cm (smaller
than an electron) 10-45 sec. after the explosion. While both theories account for the observed expansion of the universe,
the multi-universe theory does so by means of fairly well-understood physical principles.
1. The multi-universe theory makes a number of measurable predictions which can be put to the test as more sophisticated
technology becomes available. Perhaps the gravitational wave “observatories” of the future might even be able to “see”
the relic vibrations of space-time caused by the explosion of the fireball.
2. We need the reconciliation within a single framework of the following theories: Quantum Mechanics (duality of wave
particle), Special Relativity (space-time geometry, motion), Newtonian Mechanics (universal gravitation, acceleration),
Quantum Field Theory (Virtual Particles) and General Relativity (dynamic space time, equivalence principle).
3. While the parameters of the multi-universe model (such as mass, time, energy and velocity) may change as more precise
observational data emerge, the basic principles of the theory should remain unaffected.
24
PEERING BACK TO GENESIS AND COMPARING THE PRESENT THEORIES OF CREATION
Contents of the singularity Not fully defined Mainly radiation energy Not applicable
The creation process of matter ? Radiation from nothing, From virtual particles & cosmic
and radiation matter later primordial radiation in
from radiation the cosmic space-time
Explanation for the Big Bang No explanation. What force Thermal forces overcame
explosion of the Singularity could overcome infinite gravity ? gravitation
What expands? Space-time carrying galaxies Space-time carrying galaxies The galaxies expand in space-time
Expansion speed at the Big Bang Up to 1026 times speed of light Up to 101012 times speed of light 0.999 of speed of light
Violation of Einstein theory? No. Space can expand>c No. Space can expand>c No. Expansion speed<c
Does the Universe have an edge? No. No. Yes. Cosmic space-time
25
REFERENCES
[1] Ferreira, P.G.: The Quintessence of Cosmology, Cern Courier, June 1999
[2] Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose: The Nature of Space and Time, Princeton Press, New Jersey 1995
[3] Guth, A.H.: The Inflationary Universe, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts 1997
[5] Rees, M.: Before the Beginning, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. 1997
[6] Weinberg, S.: The First Three Minutes, Basic Books Inc., New York 1988
[7] Silk, J.: The Big Bang, W.H. Frieman, New York 1997
[8] Velan, A.K.: The Multi-Universe Cosmos, Plenum, New York 1992
[9] Velan, A.K.: The Multi-Universe Cosmos, Velan Inc., Montreal 2001
[8] McMahon, A.J.: Astrophysics and Space Science, Prentice Hall, New York 1965
26