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blocks into multiple blocks. The more recent of during a gas/oil drainage process has not been
these publications on dual-porosity modelling deal extensively treated in the literature.
with enhancements of the representation of gravi-
ty effects in the matrix-fracture transfer calcula- It is obvious that the current computational proce-
tion. dures are insufficient to represent the physical
flow phenomena taking place between fracture
In the North Sea, the Ekofisk Field has been sub- and matrix in highly fractured reservoirs such as
ject to several simulation studies, such as Phillips' in the North Sea. Clearly, additional details in
study of water imbibition13 and Petrofina's study,14
which includes an evaluation of the effect of ca-
pillary continuity on recovery.
Fig. 2 Effect of vertical capillary continuity on Especially the gas-oil gravity-drainage process in
saturation distribution (from Fung15) fractured reservoirs will require improved model-
ling in order to obtain efficient field-scale simula-
None of the models treats the reinfiltration phe- tion. The gravity segregation in a dual-porosity
nomenon properly (Fig. 3). Finally, the im- medium is highly affected by capillary continuity
portance of the effect of gas-gas and gas-liquid between matrix blocks across fractures, and by the
diffusion on recovery from fractured reservoirs process of oil reinfiltration from fractures to ma-
trix blocks. These mechanisms are not adequately
represented in today's simulation models and sev-
Dual Porosity, Dual Permeability Formulation for Fractured Reservoir Simulation
eral research groups are working on the prob- reinfiltration should be used instead of the much
lem.15-19 Luan20 presented a systematic study and a used word reimbibition, since the latter could im-
comprehensive discussion of the fundamental ply the capillary effect only.
physical involved in gravity drainage of fractured
reservoirs. The flow from one block to another (reinfiltration)
is either achieved by 1) film flow across contact
The computational side of fractured reservoir points or 2) by liquid bridges. This liquid trans-
modelling is particularly difficult due to the large missibility across the fracture is therefore an im-
scale differences. Important flow processes are portant parameter for calculating the rate of drain-
taking place at a scale much smaller than the grid age of a stack of matrix blocks. Fig. 3 illustrates
blocks normally employed in dual porosity mod- the contact points and the liquid bridges.
els. Uleberg21 has made a study of application of
local grid refining techniques in dual-porosity Experimental results18 have shown that the trans-
formulations for detailed computation of matrix- missibility across a fracture is very sensitive to the
fracture fluid exchange. fracture aperture, but not so sensitive to the num-
ber of contact points or contact area. The reinfil-
Physical Characteristics and tration mechanism is also time dependent, since
liquid bridging provides the main transmissibility
Fluid Flow Mechanisms in the initial stage of the gravity drainage process.
Later the oil saturation in the fractures will be
Capillary Continuity very low and the main liquid transmissibility from
The concept of capillary continuity between ma- block to block is due to film flow. This final peri-
trix blocks in fractured reservoirs is now widely od is of long duration and is very important for
accepted. A schematic comparison of capillary- the overall recovery. The reinfiltration process is
gravity dominated saturation distributions for a not adequately modelled in the reservoir simula-
discontinuous system and a system with capillary tors used to predict gravity-drainage oil recovery
contact between matrix blocks is shown in Fig. 2. in fractured reservoirs.
However, the discontinuous concept is still being
used in most commercial dual-porosity models to Da Silva and Meyer16 conducted a simulation
handle block to block interactions. study of reinfiltration, and concluded that this
may be an important mechanism for systems of
Festy and van Golf-Racht22 presented simulation capillary continuity and large fracture angles.
results where the fracture system allowed for var-
ious degrees of matrix to matrix contact. Their Diffusion
results show dramatically higher recoveries for Oil may be recovered by diffusion during gravity
capillary continuous systems compared to discon- drainage in fractured reservoirs. Methods for es-
tinuous ones. They suggested that the matrix is timating the amount and rate of this recovery in
better described as tortuously continuous. such reservoir processes are in early stages of de-
velopment and poorly tested. It is very limited
Luans20 discussion on this subject concludes that published data against which theories and predic-
the end effects may be important in a drainage tion methods can be tested adequately. However,
process in fractured reservoirs. The saturation dis- according to Orr,25 the scaling efforts based on
tribution at the endface of the blocks is dependent fundamental physics must be continued, specially
on the wetting conditions and the properties of the in fractured reservoir problems, including work on
fractured medium. Experimental studies23,24 show diffusion/dispersion as well as gravity, viscous
that the end effects (caused by saturation disconti- and capillary forces. An interesting effect may be
nuity) can be reduced by increased contact areas due to interfacial tension gradients caused by dif-
between blocks (applying overburden pressure in fusion of gas into the oil. The interfacial tension
the laboratory). induced capillary pressure gradients may result in
unexpected saturation profiles.26-27 Hua et al.27
Reinfiltration conducted a series of simulations, and were able
An important aspect in gas-oil gravity drainage of to reproduce the experimental results. However,
fractured reservoirs is the process of reinfiltration. the effects of diffusion on overall recovery is
When drained oil from an upper matrix block en- probably very small and can for most systems be
ters into a matrix block underneath, the process is neglected for practical purposes.
called reinfiltration. Several publications17,18 have
shown that the reinfiltration is a function of both Matrix Block Shape and Size
capillary forces and gravity, therefore the term
Combined Gas/Water Injection Subprogram
The shape and size of matrix blocks will strongly pressure and relative permeability curves used in
affect the matrix-fracture fluid exchange process. the simulations were measured at flow conditions
Torster and Silseth28 conducted water imbibition different from those of the experiments. An im-
experiments on chalk and sandstone cores of dif- portant issue to be addressed in fractured reservoir
ferent shapes and sizes, and typical results are simulations is the one of co-current vs. counter-
presented in Fig. 4. Obviously, within a gridblock current flow. As reported by Bourbiaux and
of a dual-porosity simulation model, matrix Kalaydjian,36 the experimental imbibition results
blocks of varying shape and size will exist.29 One are very much affected by the boundary condi-
improvement that could be incorporated in such tions imposed.
models, would be the inclusion of some form of
distribution of size and shape, as indicated in Fig. Water Flooding Simulation
5. The computation of fluid exchange between
matrix and fracture in a matrix block would then Studies
be the sum of computed exchange from a number
of different geometries. Matrix-fracture fluid exchange in a fractured res-
ervoir is controlled mainly by a combination of
capillary and gravity forces. The shape and size of
matrix blocks, and the inclination of fractures will
affect recovery of oil by water flooding. Several
simulation studies37-42 investigating the effects of
these factors have been conducted. In the follow-
ing, the most important results will be presented.
Fig. 5 Frequency distribution of representative Pratap40 conducted fine grid simulations using a
matrix blocks (from Torster et al.29) similar geometry in order to understand in detail
the block to block processes involved in oil dis-
placement by water in a fractured reservoir.
Co-Current and Counter-Current Flow GeoQuests Eclipse 100 model was used for the
Several authors have reported simulation studies
simulations. The study makes use of oil-water
for the purpose of matching results of laboratory
relative permeability and capillary pressures for
experiments.30-35 Such matching of experimental the Ekofisk Field, as reported by Thomas et al.45
results is not trivial, as reported by Kvalheim23
and by Beckner et al.24 The outcome of the simu-
Results of the study show that a significant frac-
lations is very sensitive to the shape and magni- tion of oil expelled from the down-dip matrix
tude of the capillary pressure curve. block into the separating fracture reinfiltrates
into the block above. This reentering of oil into
A major cause of the difficulties reproducing ex-
the matrix block above is a result of the change in
perimental results is probably that the capillary
Dual Porosity, Dual Permeability Formulation for Fractured Reservoir Simulation
termediate wet rock has been extensively studied Physically, the mechanism for gas entering from
for the first time. the fracture to an undersaturated oil would require
an ultra-thin contact zone at the fracture/matrix
High Pressure Gas Injection interface. In this zone a small amount of equilibri-
um gas will exist, and diffusion transfer between
fracture and matrix can occur via this zone, as
Despite the efficiency of waterflooding in frac-
gas-gas diffusion between fracture gas and equi-
tured reservoirs, considerable oil will be left be-
librium gas in the two-phase zone, and as liquid-
hind due to relatively high residual saturations.
liquid diffusion between undersaturated matrix oil
This residual oil may be a target for high pressure
and saturated oil in contact zone.
gas injection.
Fig. 8 shows the system layout of an experiment
The recovery mechanisms involved in high pres-
performed at Reslab by yno and Whitson,46
sure gas injections in fractured reservoirs are
where methane was injected around cores filled
complex and not fully understood. They include
with a highly undersaturated oil. The cores were
viscous displacement, gas gravity drainage, diffu-
initially filled with Ekofisk oil, and methane gas
sion, swelling and vaporization/stripping of the
was then injected into the annulus system.
oil. Interfacial tension gradients caused by diffu-
sion may also play an important role on the over-
all recovery. Viscous displacement normally plays
a minor role, except perhaps in the near vicinity of
the wells where the pressure gradients are large.
where Td is the diffusion transmissibility, Dip is Fig. 8 Laboratory setup (from yno and Whit-
the effective diffusion coefficients, and the prod- son46)
uct Scp represents the fraction of the gridblock
interface where diffusion takes place. The satura- The experiment was simulated using a fully im-
tion term, Scp, is normally chosen as the minimum plicit compositional simulator (SSI's COMP4
saturation of the adjacent grid blocks. Using this model) that accounts for both molecular diffusion
formalism, a problem arises when gas is injected and dynamic IFT-scaled capillary pressure. The
in an undersaturated reservoir. The minimum con- effective matrix block height of the laboratory
tact saturation, Scp, between the fracture and ma- system was lower than the capillary entry pres-
trix grid block will be zero, and no diffusion be- sure, so without any modifications to the system
tween the two media will be calculated. With ma- set-up, no oil production could be observed in the
trix block heights lower than the capillary entry simulations. When a thin (1 mm) two phase zone
height, no mass transfer between fracture and ma- was introduced (Fig. 9), mass transfer by diffusion
trix systems will occur. In some simulators this could take place. Fig. 10 shows the experimental
problem is circumvented by choosing Scp as the results and the simulated best-fit using a thin two-
maximum saturation between neighbouring grid phase zone.
blocks or by introducing gas-liquid diffusion. This
does not give a physically correct description of a
diffusion process in general, and is therefore not
recommended.
Dual Porosity, Dual Permeability Formulation for Fractured Reservoir Simulation
The simulated results indicate that the recovery Fig. 11 IFT profile at core center as function of
can roughly be divided into three production stag- time - with diffusion (from yno et al.49)
es negligible production by gravity drainage. The
1. primary swelling of the oil IFT changes due to diffusion may in other cases
2. secondary swelling and vaporization have a drastic effect on the recovery.47-48 Fig. 11
3. final vaporization of the oil. shows the interfacial tension profile in a core after
The initial stage is dominated by swelling of the high pressure gas injection around a core filled
oil inside the core, due to liquid-liquid diffusion with recombined reservoir oil.49
between the undersaturated oil inside the core and
the saturated oil at the outer surface of the core. In this experiment the frontal IFT is reduced dras-
The light components of the oil (mostly methane), tically as gas advances down the core. Composi-
diffuse into the core, while the intermediate oil tional changes due to gas diffusion cause the IFT
components from the core diffuse to the outer behind the gas front to increase again. The result-
Combined Gas/Water Injection Subprogram
ing IFT gradient is so strong that oil is sucked that the dynamic composition variations, and the
upward against gravity, resulting in the somewhat influence on IFT's, are important issues that need
strange saturation profile given in Fig. 12. to be addressed in more detail.
Mathematical Model
Fig. 12 Saturation profile at core center as func-
tion of time - with diffusion (from yno et al.49) Development
Current state of the art has been reviewed by
Fung.15 Current models are insufficient for proper
modelling of most fluid exchange processes be-
tween matrix blocks and fractures. In North Sea
fractured reservoirs, matrix blocks sizes are typi-
cally much less than 1 m3. Thus, a normal grid
block employed in reservoir simulations would
contain several tens of thousands of matrix
blocks. Obviously, some form of detailed descrip-
tion of the flow processes must be included in the
models.
20. Luan, Z.: "Oil Recovery Mechanisms in Natu- 34. Luan, Z.: "Discussion of Analytical and Nu-
rally Fractured Reservoirs," RUTH Project merical Solution of Waterflooding in Fractured
Report, NTH, Nov. 1992. Reservoirs With Emperical Transfer Func-
21. Uleberg, K.: "Improved Methods for Simula- tions," SPERE (July, 1992).
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Thesis, NTH, May 1993. Review of Fluid Flow Mechanisms for Model-
22. Festy, S. and van Golf-Racht, T.: "Gas Gravi- ling of North Sea Fractured Reservoirs," Proc.,
ty Drainage in Fractured Reservoirs Through a 1993 RUTH Seminar, Stavanger, Oct. 13-14.
New Dual-Continuum Approach," SPERE 36. Bourbiaux, B.J. and Kalaydjian, F.J.: "Experi-
(Aug. 1989) 271-278. mental Study of Cocurrent and Countercurrent
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and Gravity Drainage Tests to Support the De- 1990) 361-368.
velopment of a Dual Porosity Simulator," pa- 37. Klv, T.: "Et studium av fluidstrm mellom
per presented at the 6th European IOR- matriseblokk og sprekk i et oppsprukket reser-
Symposium in Stavanger, May 21-23, 1991. voar," Project Report, NTH, June 1994
24. Catalan, L. and Dullien, F.A.L.:"Applications 38. Skaar, I.: "Toporsitetssimulering," Project
of Mixed-Wet Pastes in Gravity Drainage Ex- Report, NTH, June 1994.
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seminar, Stavanger, Dec. 7-8. NTH, Dec. 1994.
26. Schechter, D.S., Dengen, Z., and Orr, F.M. Jr.: 40. Pratap, M.: "A study of the effect of vertical
"Capillary Imbibition and Gravity Segregation capillary contact between matrix blocks in a
in Low-IFT Systems" paper SPE 22594 pre- fractured reservoir under water injection,"
sented at 1991 SPE Annual Technical Confer- M.Sc. Thesis, NTH, Dec. 1994.
ence and Exhibition, Dallas, Oct. 6-9. 41. Ese, A. M.: "Effect of gravity and capillary
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Recovery Mechanisms in a Nitrogen Diffusion reservoirs," Project Report, NTH, June 1995.
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pean Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, fracture fluid exchange in fractured reservoirs
Stavanger, May 21-23, 1991. under various processes," Project Report,
28. Torster, O. and Silseth, J.: "The Effects of NTH, June 1995.
Sample Shape and Boundary Conditions on 43. Kyte, J. R.: "A Centrifuge Method to Predict
Capillary Imbibition" paper presented at the Matrix-Block Recovery in Fractured Reser-
1985 Chalk Symposium, Stavanger, May 21- voirs," SPEJ (June 1970) 164-170
22. 44. Saidi, A. M., Tehrani, D. H., and Wit, K.:
29. Torster, O., Kleppe, J. and van Golf-Racht, "Mathematical Simulation of Fractured Reser-
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Corapcioglu (eds.), NATO ASI Series, Nijhoff 45. Thomas, L. K., Thomas, N. D., and Pierson, R.
Publishers, Dordrecht (1986) G.: "Fractured Reservoir Simulation," SPEJ
30. Kleppe, J. and Morse, R.A.: "Oil Production (Feb. 1983) 42-54
From fractured Reservoirs by Water Dis- 46. yno L. and Whitson C. H.: "Experimental
placement" paper SPE 5084 presented at 1974 Study of Gas Injection for Secondary and Ter-
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibi- tiary Recovery in Fractured Chalk Reservoirs,"
tion, Houston, Oct. 6-9. Proc., 1993 RUTH Seminar, Stavanger, Oct.
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Cores" SPEJ (June 1979) 175-182. Thiebot, B.: "Diffusion Effects in Gas Flooded
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Numerisk simulering av laboratorieforsk," 20516 presented at the 1990 SPE Annual
Sivilingenir Thesis, NTH, Dec. 1984. Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
33. Beckner, B.J. et al.: "Imbibition-Dominated Orleans, Sept. 23-26.
Matrix-Fracture Fluid Transfer in Dual Porosi- 48. Hu, H., Whitson, C.H., and Yuanchang, Q.: "A
ty Simulators" paper SPE 16981 presented at Study of Recovery Mechanisms in a Nitrogen
1987 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Diffusion Experiment," Proc., Sixth European
Exhibition, Dallas, Sept. 27-30.
Combined Gas/Water Injection Subprogram