Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1
2 2 HISTORY
in western Pakistan.[32] These gradually developed into nence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[45]
the Indus Valley Civilisation,[33] the rst urban culture in Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Bud-
South Asia;[34] it ourished during 25001900 BCE in dha attracted followers from all social classes except-
Pakistan and western India.[35] Centred around cities such ing the middle class; chronicling the life of the Bud-
as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, dha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in
and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation India.[46][47][48] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both
engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[49] and both es-
trade.[34] tablished long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by
the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had an-
During the period 2000500 BCE, in terms of culture,
many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the nexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan
Empire.[50] The empire was once thought to have con-
Chalcolithic to the Iron Age.[36] The Vedas, the oldest
scriptures associated with Hinduism,[37] were composed trolled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south,
but its core regions are now thought to have been sep-
during this period,[38] and historians have analysed these
to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the up- arated by large autonomous areas.[51][52] The Mauryan
per Gangetic Plain.[36] Most historians also consider this kings are known as much for their empire-building and
period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan determined management of public life as for Ashoka's
migration into the subcontinent.[39][37] The caste system renunciation of militarism and far-ung advocacy of the
arose during this period, creating a hierarchy of priests, Buddhist dhamma.[53][54]
warriors, free peasants and traders, and lastly the indige- The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals
nous peoples who were regarded as impure; and small that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern
tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical, state- peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas,
level polities.[40][41] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeolog- and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with
ical evidence from this period suggests the existence of the Roman Empire and with West and South-East
a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[36] In south- Asia.[55][56] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal
ern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by control within the family, leading to increased subordina-
the large number of megalithic monuments dating from tion of women.[57][50] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the
this period,[42] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain
irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[42] a complex system of administration and taxation that be-
came a model for later Indian kingdoms.[58][59] Under the
Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather
than the management of ritual began to assert itself.[60]
The renewal was reected in a owering of sculpture
and architecture, which found patrons among an urban
elite.[59] Classical Sanskrit literature owered as well, and
Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics
made signicant advances.[59]
cial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just
in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.[150] India hosts under two years.[162] Elections were held again in 1991;
more than ve hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen no party won an absolute majority. The Congress, as the
biosphere reserves,[151] four of which are part of the largest single party, was able to form a minority govern-
World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-ve wet- ment led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[163]
lands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[152]
5 Politics
Main article: Politics of India
India is the worlds most populous democracy.[153] A par-
by law". Federalism in India denes the power distri- state laws which contravene the constitution,[188] as
bution between the federal government and the states. well as to invalidate any government action it deems
The government abides by constitutional checks and bal- unconstitutional.[189]
ances. The Constitution of India, which came into eect
on 26 January 1950,[168] states in its preamble that India
is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[169] 5.2 Subdivisions
Indias form of government, traditionally described as
quasi-federal with a strong centre and weak states,[170] Main article: Administrative divisions of India
has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a See also: Political integration of India
result of political, economic, and social changes.[171][172] A clickable map of the 29 states and 7 union territories
of India
The federal government comprises three branches:
neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war United States and the European Union.[204] In 2008, a
four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and
these wars were fought over the disputed territory of the United States. Although India possessed nuclear
Kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear
Indias support for the independence of Bangladesh.[193] Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the
After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian War and the 1965 war International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear
with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on Indias nu-
ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet clear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India
Union was its largest arms supplier.[194] became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[205] In-
Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, In- dia subsequently signed co-operation agreements involv-
ing civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[206] France,[207]
dia has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and [208]
France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the the United Kingdom, and Canada.[209]
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and The President of India is the supreme commander of
the World Trade Organisation. The nation has provided the nations armed forces; with 1.325 million active
100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN troops, they compose the worlds third-largest mili-
peacekeeping operations across four continents. It partic- tary.[210] It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy,
ipates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other mul- and the Indian Air Force; auxiliary organisations include
tilateral forums.[195] India has close economic ties with the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitary
South America,[196] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a Look groups: the Assam Ries, the Special Frontier Force,
East policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with and the Indian Coast Guard.[211] The ocial Indian
the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83%
around many issues, but especially those involving eco- of GDP.[212] For the scal year spanning 20122013,
nomic investment and regional security.[197][198] US$40.44 billion was budgeted.[213] According to a 2008
SIPRI report, Indias annual military expenditure in terms
of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion.[214] In
2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%,[215]
although this does not include funds that reach the mil-
itary through other branches of government.[216] As of
2012, India is the worlds largest arms importer; between
2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spent
on international arms purchases.[217] Much of the mili-
tary expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan
and countering growing Chinese inuence in the Indian
Ocean.[215]
India is home to two major language families: Indo- and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices
Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and which still exist today, such as dhrma, krma, yga,
Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come and moka, were established.[20] India is notable for its
from the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan language fami- religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism,
lies. India has no national language.[277] Hindi, with the Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nations major
largest number of speakers, is the ocial language of the religions.[284] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has
government.[278][279] English is used extensively in busi- been shaped by various historical schools of thought, in-
ness and administration and has the status of a subsidiary cluding those of the Upanishads,[285] the Yoga Sutras, the
ocial language";[4] it is important in education, espe- Bhakti movement,[284] and by Buddhist philosophy.[286]
cially as a medium of higher education. Each state and
union territory has one or more ocial languages, and
the constitution recognises in particular 22 scheduled 9.1 Art and architecture
languages. The Constitution of India recognises 212
scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about Main article: Architecture of India
7.5% of the countrys population.[280] The 2011 census
reported that the religion in India with the largest number Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal,
of followers was Hinduism (79.8% of the population), other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian
followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining[lower-alpha 3] architecture, blends ancient local traditions with im-
were Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism ported styles.[287] Vernacular architecture is also highly
(0.70%) and Jainism (0.36%).[8] India has the worlds regional in it avours. Vastu shastra, literally sci-
largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bah' popu- ence of construction or architecture and ascribed to
lations, and has the third-largest Muslim populationthe Mamuni Mayan,[288] explores how the laws of nature
largest for a non-Muslim majority country.[281][282] aect human dwellings;[289] it employs precise geome-
try and directional alignments to reect perceived cos-
mic constructs.[290] As applied in Hindu temple archi-
9 Culture tecture, it is inuenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series
of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is
Main article: Culture of India the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the
Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[283] "absolute".[291] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between
1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in mem-
ory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO
World Heritage List as the jewel of Muslim art in In-
dia and one of the universally admired masterpieces of
the worlds heritage.[292] Indo-Saracenic Revival archi-
tecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century,
drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.[293]
9.2 Literature
Main article: Indian literature
of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh,
Indian literary works diered signicantly from clas- manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya of
sical traditions.[303] In the 19th century, Indian writers Assam.[306] Theatre in India melds music, dance, and im-
took a new interest in social questions and psychologi- provised or written dialogue.[307] Often based on Hindu
cal descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances
was inuenced by the works of Bengali poet and novel- or social and political events, Indian theatre includes the
ist Rabindranath Tagore,[304] who was a recipient of the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki
Nobel Prize in Literature. and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra,
burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu,
and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[308]
9.3 Performing arts
9.5 Cuisine
Rukmini Devi Arundale, one of the foremost revivalists of Main article: Indian cuisine
bharatnatyam dance in the 20th century, performs at a concert. Indian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of regional
Main articles: Music of India and Dance in India
soor (most often red lentils), toor (pigeon peas), uradranged by their parents or other elders in the family.[323]
(black gram), and mong (mung beans). Lentils may Marriage is thought to be for life,[323] and the divorce
be used whole, dehuskedfor example, dhuli moong rate is extremely low.[324] As of 2001, just 1.6 percent
or dhuli urador split. Split lentils, or dal, are of Indian women were divorced but this gure was rising
used extensively.[316] The spice trade between India and
due to their education and economic independence.[324]
Europe is often cited by historians as the primary catalyst
Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas;
for Europes Age of Discovery.[317] many women wed before reaching 18, which is their le-
gal marriageable age.[325] Female infanticide and female
foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the
9.6 Society sex ratio, as of 2005 it was estimated that there were 50
million more males than females in the nation.[326][327]
Main article: Culture of India However a report from 2011 has shown improvement in
Traditional Indian society is sometimes dened by so- the gender ratio.[328] The payment of dowry, although
illegal, remains widespread across class lines.[329] Deaths
resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on
the rise.[330]
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best
known include Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal,
Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and
Vaisakhi.[331][332] India has three national holidays which
are observed in all states and union territories Republic
Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets
of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are o-
cially observed in individual states.
9.7 Clothing
10 See also
Outline of India
A game of kabaddi in Bagepalli, Karnataka
Index of India-related articles
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set-72157625560847260/ Original artist: The White House
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BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by BishkekRocks using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original
15.2 Images 35