AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS VOLUME 38, NUMBER 2 FEBRUARY 1970 Algebraic Solution of the Kepler Problem Using the Runge-Lenz Vector Ponce Comas ‘San Fernando Volley Sinte College, Northridge, California 91826 (Received 29 October 1968; revision received 1 Oetober 1969), ‘The Runge-Lenz vector is used to obtain the equation for the Kepler orbits algebraically and, the frequency of small opillations of a partiole about table cirear orbit. The invariance of the Hamiltonian under the Lie algebras generated by the components of the Rungo-Lonz ind angular momentum vectors is discussed, 1. INTRODUCTION In this paper we present a new and simple algebraic way of obtaining the equation of the orbit for the Kepler problem. The method requires: only elementary Newtonian mechanies and does not involve solving a differential equation or performing any integrations.” This method has been used in mechanics courses at all levels but is particularly suited to a junior level course, in which students will be solving a number of orbit problems by the standard techniques. Apart from its simplicity, the method is intrinsically interesting beeause it makes use of an unuswal conserved quantity, the so-called Runge-Lenz vector. In the corresponding quan- tum mechanical ease, the hydrogen atom, the conservation of the Runge-Lena vector and the associated invariance under the group O(4) have been used to obtain the spectrum algebraically and to understand the so-called accidental degeneraey.> ‘Thus the student may encounter generalizations of the ideas considered here in more advanced courses. Tn See. TE we show that the Runge-Lenz vector is a constant of the motion and subsequently use this fact to obtain the equation of the orbit and the frequency of small oscillations about a perturbed circular orbit, In Seo. IIT we outline briefly the connection between the conservation of the Runge-Lenz vector and the invarianee of the Kepler problem Hamiltonian under the groups O(4) or OG, 1). The contents of See, ITE are in no way necessary for the results of Sec. IT and are included for the benefit of readers who might wish to pursue the subject more deeply. UL. KEPLER’S PROBLEM We begin by showing that in the case of a potential V(r) =~a/r, ‘tho Rungo-Leng veetor Asvxl-at/r, a is a constant of the motion. In Eq, (1), Vand L are, respectively, the velocity and orbital angular ‘momentum of a particle of mass. Since for central foreesi=0, the total time derivative of A is, Mat xl-av/rta(t-v)r/n, where we have used also the fact that r» Substituting 1=ur xv above and using the vector identity a x (b xe) =(a+e)b—(a-b)e, we obtain (wie) (ut-n)v—av/r-ba(rev)r/e ‘The Newtonian equation of motion is n= —ar/, and upon substitution in the expression for A we find that A=0. We now proceed to find the equation for the orbit, In eylindrical eoordinates we have urtée., @ nd A= (uae) ey urbe, @) where ¢, @1, e, are unit vectors, Clearly the constant vector A lies in the plane of the motion and determines a direction which for simplicity wwe choose as our polar axis, Using r=re, and Eg. (3), we have 1A cosd=r(ur6!— a) (4) Finally, making use of Eq. (2) to eliminate # from Eq, (4), we obtain the equation for the orbit, (Pfau) (1/r) = (A/a) cox0-+1. @) ‘The eccentricity ¢ and the length of the latus 258254 Fa 1. Arrangement ofthe vectors fortwo postions on an elliptical orbit. A=ae Lar/r|=const, | ¥X1 |=1~s, Theing constant. reetumm & are given by «= A/a, §=20/(am), From Bq, (4) we see that A is parallel to r(@=0) = Toja; We illustrate the situation in Fig. 1 We can also obtain the frequency of small ‘oscillations about a stable cireular orbit which results if the particle is given a small radial im- pulse changing its energy but not its angular ‘momentum.* ‘From Eqs. (2) and (8) we have A= (Pura) +08, o) and since for a circular orbit, at r=r, A and fy must vanish, we obtain from Eq. (6) B/ (ute) =a. (7) We perturb the orbit, letting ron-t2 with fain Eq, (6): At= ([P/u(rot2) ]—a)* +0 (8) Assuming that 2/1 and using Eq. (7) twiee, we approximate Eq. (8) a8 Atewal(x/1)*+ aurea. (9) Since the particle is still moving in the same foree field, we must have A=0; thus from Eq. (9) we have 24 dw2aures2-+ax/ (un?) ]=0, PETER COLLAS or tax) (ure) =0, which gives us taf (ur). Il. CONNECTION WITH LIE ALGEBRAS ‘The existence of tho additional constant of the motion is due to the faet that the Hamiltonian, H, ‘for the Kepler problem is invariant not only under the 3-dimensional rotation group 0(8) (angular momentum conservation) but also under the 4- dimensional rotation group O(4) if H<0, or the group O(, 1) if H>0. It is somewhat tedious but not diffieult to show that the components of the orbital angular momentum 1 along with the ‘components of the veetor N=[u/(2| 1) !8 are the generators of the Lio algebra of O(4) or 0(3,1). Tn particulsr the following Poisson brackets hold (lay Ip) =Lay (Toy ba) Ley (Ley be) (ly Ny) = (Ne, by) = Ney (ly Ns) = (Ny, Le) = Ney (L, Na) = (NL) = Ny, (le, Na) = (ly, Ny) = (ly NV.) =0, (Na, Ny) = ale, (Nyy No) = tly (Ne, Ne) = sel the (+) sign for 17<0 and the (—) sign for H>0. ‘There is only one invariant® (Casimir operator) Faye+ny, ‘=0, Finally the Hamiltonian can the other @= be written as H= —(w/2)(at/(N*+P)] and is thus manifestly invariant under O(4) oF 08, 1). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS wish to thank 'T. Azzarelli and R. W. Huff for enlightening conversations on the algebra of{0(4) and its application to the hydrogen atom. For a geometric approach to the problem see W. C. Parke and O. Bergmann, Amer. J. Phys. 95, 1131 (1967).ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION OF THE KEPLER PROBLEM AW, Pauli, Z. Physik 96, 336 (1926) ; V. Fock 98, 145 (2038); V. Bargmenn 98, 576 (1096); L. D. Landau and EL M. Lishita, Quantum Mechanies—Non-Relatiistie ‘Theory (Bergamon Press, Ine., New York, 1985), 2nd ed., p. 128, *L, D. Landan and B. M. Lifshits, Mechanics (Pergamon, Press, Inc, New York, 1960), p. 39. Although we consider hero an attractive potential our results, with appropriato changes, hold for the ease of a repulsive potential also. ‘The particle moves onto a nearly cirular ellipse, which intersects the cirvular orbit and has as one of its foci the center of the eitele. Seo, for example, L. A. Pare, Tniroduo- 255 tion to Dynomies (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1953), p. 273. "it ean be shown that all claasioal dynamic systems with f degrees of freedom aro invariant under the O(F+1) algebras. Seo N. Mukunda, Phys. Rev. 158, 1388 (1987); P. Stehle and M. Y. Han, Phys. Rev. 168, 1076 (1967), ‘and references therein. For additional examples of Runge ‘type constants of the motion snd ow to find them in ‘certain cases, seo V. A, Dulock and HL. V. Metntosh, Amer. 45. Phys. 32, 109 (1965) and Ref. 3, problems on p. 154, An invariant is a quantity whose Poisson bracket with sny generator vanishes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS VoLUME a8, NUMBER 2 FEBRUARY 1970 Core Course for Science Majors Combining Material from Physics, Chemistry, and Biology* Anxoup D. Presant Department of Physics, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon 97301 (Received 22 July 1969) |In view of the inoreasing interdependence of the acioness and of the growing curricular demands upon students of science, a now program encompassing material from introduatory majors-lovel courses in physics, chemistry, and biclogy has been developed. This core course isa two-year sequence which is designed to prepare students to undertake an advaneed under= graduate program in any of these felds beginning in their sophomore year. The syllabus snd special features of the course are discussed and several of the ongoing prublems are roviowed. INTRODUCTION An emerging concern among college science teachers in recent years has been with the develop- ment of multidisciplinary courses at the under graduate level." A common ¢ombination has been physics and chemistry, but a number of significant attempts have been made involving the biological seiences as woll, The incentives under lying these developments are manifold. One can cite: (a) the rapidly growing body of inter disciplinary scientific research such as biophysies, environmental science, and molecular biology; (b) the desire to eliminate overlap among the disciplines in the teaching of eertain subject matter in the face of expanding curricular demands; (e) a need to serve the science student who has not committed himself to a major, as well as the nonseienee student who ineressingly requires a, brond background in science; (d) the multi- disciplinary background required of science oriented professionals such as medieal doctors and oceanographers; (e) the recent development of multidiseiplinary high sehool eourses?* which argues for a similar orientation in the training of secondary schiool science teachers; and finally, (i) a growing ecumonieal feeling that new channels and dialog should be created among heretofore fragmented areas of science.” ‘The record of success in these undertakings has been spotty. Courses for nonscience majors have, in many eases, prospered. An outstanding example is the baccalaureate science program developed at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.” Despite powerful reasons for the erention of combined courses designed for science majors, these shudents have not in general been the beneficiaries of the multidiseiplinary fervor. Of the 520 multidis ciplinary courses reported upon by Fuller,’ only 51 were designated as being suitable for science majors. OF these, 11 are concerned with the three core sciences: physics, chemistry, and biology.