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1. 2. 3.
Solutions
A solution is a mixture of 2 or more
pure substances. We will be
studying homogeneous solutions
all components are in the same
phase (can be solid, liquid, or gas)
103mL = 1L
molarity(mol/L) glycine
Working with Solutions
From the equation moles of solute = Molarity
Liters of solution
Avogadros number
M, molarity, moles/L
(molecules/mol)
A. 0.500 M
B. 1.00 M
C. 2.00 M
D. 3.00 M
E. 4.00 M 11%
0% 1% 3%
0M
M
00
00
00
00
50
1.
2.
3.
4.
0.
Solution Terminology
Molarity =
moles
liter
Working with Solutions
Diluting Solutions
The molarity of a solution and its volume are
inversely proportional. Therefore, adding
water makes the solution less concentrated.
This inverse relationship takes the form of:
Moles = Moles
M i Vi M f V f
So, as water is added, increasing the final volume,
Vf, the final molarity, Mf, decreases.
How many liters of 0.100 M HCl will be needed
to prepare 0.500 L of 0.0750 M HCl?
(b) a volumetric
(transfer) pipet
is designed to
measure one volume
accurately.
Dilution Procedure
a) About 100 mL of water is added to a 500 mL flask.
(b) A measuring pipet is then used to transfer 375 of 0.100 M HCl
solution to a volumetric flask.
(c) Water is added to the flask to the calibration mark.
(d) The resulting solution is 0.0750 M HCl.
Always add
acids to water
to prevent
violent boiling!
Sample Problem Preparing a Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution
Isotonic saline is a 0.15 M aqueous solution of NaCl that
PROBLEM: simulates the total concentration of ions found in many
cellular fluids. Its uses range from a cleaning rinse for contact
lenses to a washing medium for red blood cells. How would
you prepare 0.80 L of isotonic saline from a 6.0 M stock
solution?
PLAN: It is important to realize the number of moles of solute does
not change during the dilution but the volume does. The new
volume will be the sum of the two volumes, that is, the total
final volume. MdilxVdil = #mol solute = MconcxVconc
volume of dilute soln
Vconc = (MdilVdil/Mconc)
multiply by M of dilute solution SOLUTION:
moles of NaCl in dilute soln = mol NaCl 0.80 L soln x 0.15 mol NaCl = 0.12 mol NaCl
in concentrated soln L soln
divide by M of concentrated soln 0.12 mol NaCl x L solnconc = 0.020 L soln
L of concentrated soln 6 mol
NaCl
Dilute 0.020 L stock solution to 0.800 L with deionized water!
How many L of 0.100 M HCl are
needed to prepare 1.00 L of 0.005 M
HCL? MiVi = MfVf
84%
A. 0.020 L
B. 0.050 L
C. 0.100 L
D. 0.500 L
9%
0L 4% 3%
0L
0L
0L
02
05
10
50
0.
0.
0.
0.
Stoichiometry Steps for Reactions in
Solution.
Sample Problem Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products for a
Reaction in Solution
PROBLEM: Specialized cells in the stomach release HCl to aid digestion. If they
release too much, the excess can be neutralized with antacids. A
common antacid contains magnesium hydroxide, which reacts with
the acid to form water and magnesium chloride solution. As a
government chemist testing commercial antacids, you use 0.10M HCl
to simulate the acid concentration in the stomach. How many liters
of stomach acid react with a tablet containing 0.10g of magnesium
hydroxide?
Write a balanced equation for the reaction; find the grams of
PLAN:
Mg(OH)2; determine the mol ratio of reactants and products;
use mols to convert to molarity.
mass Mg(OH)2 L HCl
divide by divide by
Mm Molarity
mol Mg(OH)2 mol HCl
mol Mg(OH)2
0.10g Mg(OH)2 = 1.714 x10-3 mol Mg(OH)2
58.33g Mg(OH)2
2 mol HCl
1.714 x10-3 mol Mg(OH)2 = 3.429 x10-3 mol HCl
1 mol Mg(OH)2
1L
3.429 x10-3 mol HCl = 3.4 x10-2 L HCl
0.10mol HCl
Electron distribution in molecules of H2 and H2O.
Some Properties of Water
+ -
26
Table Salt Dissolving in Water
Each ion is attracted to
the surrounding water
molecules and pulled
off and away from the
crystal.
When it enters the
solution, the ion is
surrounded by water
molecules, insulating it
from other ions.
The result is a solution
with free-moving
charged particles able to
conduct electricity.
27
Ionic Theory of Solutions
Substances that dissolve in water are either
electrolytes or nonelectrolytes.
Nonelectrolytes form nonconducting solutions
because they dissolve as molecules (see slide
with interaction between ethanol & water).
2% 3%
be
s
No
Ye
ay
M
strong weak nonelectrolyte
Electrical
conductivity
of aqueous
solutions.
PracticeWrite the equation for the process
that occurs when the following strong
electrolytes dissolve in water.
H2O
CaCl2 CaCl2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq)
H2O
HNO3 HNO3(s) H+(aq) + NO3(aq)
H2O
(NH4)2CO3 (NH4)2CO3(s) 2 NH4+(aq) + CO32(aq)
31
Sample Problem Determining Moles of Ions in Aqueous Ionic
Solutions
PROBLEM: How many moles of each ion are in the following solutions?
(a) 5.0 mol of ammonium sulfate dissolved in water
(b) 78.5 g of cesium bromide dissolved in water
(c) 7.42x1022 formula units of copper(II) nitrate dissolved in water
(d) 35 mL of 0.84 M zinc chloride
PLAN: We have to relate the information given and the number of moles
of ions present when the substance dissolves in water.
H2O
SOLUTION: (a) (NH4)2SO4(s) 2NH4+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
2 mol NH4+
5.0 mol (NH4)2SO4 = 10. mol NH4+
1 mol (NH4)2SO4
1 mol SO42-
5.0 mol (NH4)2SO4 = 5.0 mol SO42-
1 mol (NH4)2SO4
Sample Problem Determining Moles of Ions in Aqueous Ionic
Solutions
continued
..
..
e
2.
2.
...
es
)+
)+
)
th
aq
D. None of these
aq
aq
l(
of
(
(
HC
H+
H+
ne
+2
No
+2
+2
(s)
(s)
(s)
D.
2
2
H)
H)
H)
(O
(O
(O
Zn
Zn
Zn
What is the net ionic equation for the complete ionic
equation shown below?
Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq) Zn2+ (aq)+ 2 Cl-(aq)
+ 2 H2O (l)
A. Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq)
+ 2 H2O (l)
B. Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)
Zn2+ (aq)+ 2 Cl-(aq) + 2 H2O (l)
C. Zn2+ (s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)
Zn2+(s)+ 2 H2O (l)
D. None of these
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
If40 you are not part of the solution, youre the precipitate!
The reaction of Pb(NO3)2 and KI.
for net ionic equation All reactants and products are soluble so no reaction
occurs.
Which is the precipitation reaction?
1. 211%NaCl (aq) + MgBr2 (aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2 NaBr (aq)
84%
2. Pb(NO 3)2 (aq) + 2 NaCl (aq) PbCl2 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)
5%
3. 2H 2 (g) + O2(g) 2 H2O (l)
Sample Problem Solving Limiting-Reactant Problems for Reactions in
Solution
Mercury and its compounds have many uses, from fillings for
PROBLEM:
teeth (as an alloy with silver, copper, and tin) to the industrial
production of chlorine. Because of their toxicity, however,
soluble mercury compounds, such mercury(II) nitrate, must be
removed from industrial wastewater. One removal method
reacts the wastewater with sodium sulfide solution to
produce solid mercury(II) sulfide and sodium nitrate solution.
In a laboratory simulation, 0.050L of 0.010M mercury(II)
nitrate reacts with 0.020L of 0.10M sodium sulfide. How
many grams of mercury(II) sulfide form? What is the
concentration of excess reactant still in solution?
PLAN: As usual, write a balanced chemical reaction. Since this is a problem
concerning a limiting reactant, we proceed as we would for a
limiting reactant problem. Find the amount of product which would
be made from each reactant. Then choose the reactant that gives
the lesser amount of product.
Mercury(II) nitrate (aq) + sodium sulfide (aq) mercury(II) sulfide (s) + sodium
nitrate(aq)
Hg(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2S (aq) HgS (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)
0.050 L of 0.010 M 0.020 L of 0.10 M
Hg(NO3)2 Na2S
How many grams of mercury(II) sulfide form?
Determine the limiting reagent: calculate moles of each reactant and determine
which is in short supply. Since L x M = moles
Moles Hg(NO3)2 = 0.050 L x 0.010 M = 0.00050 moles of Hg(NO3)2 and
0.00050 mole Hg(NO3)2 x (1 mole HgS/1 mole Hg(NO3)2 )= 0.00050 mole HgS
H+ = H3O+
Types of Chemical Reactions
Acid-Base Reactions
The Brnsted-Lowry Concept
In the reaction of ammonia with water,
NH 3 (aq ) H 2O(l ) NH 4 (aq ) OH (aq )
H+
the H2O molecule is the acid because it donates a
proton. The NH3 molecule is a base, because it accepts
a proton.
A flowchart for naming acids. An acid is best
considered as one or more H+ ions weakly
bonded to an anion.
Acids
Strong acids - react completely to produce H+ in
solution molecular compounds with very polar
bonds between H and second bonding atom
(halogen, oxygen)
hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
HCl H2SO4
CH3COOH or HC2H3O2
An aqueous
solution of sodium
hydroxide.
ResponseCard
Channels: 41
Are You Here?
A. Yes
96%
B. No
C. Maybe
2% 3%
be
s
No
Ye
ay
M
Selected Acids and Bases Know these strong acids and bases
Acids Bases
Strong Strong
Neutralization Reactions
One of the chemical properties of acids and bases
is that they neutralize one another.
A neutralization reaction is a reaction of an acid
and a base that results in an ionic compound and
water.
The ionic compound that is the product of a
neutralization reaction is called a salt.
HCN(aq ) KOH(aq ) KCN(aq ) H 2O(l )
acid base salt
HCN (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l) + CN- (aq)
In ionic equations, we will write strong acids as completely
reacted (as separate ions) and weak acids as unreacted.
Soluble salts are dissociated in aqueous solution.
HC2H3O2 (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) Na+ (aq) + C2H3O2- (aq) + H2O(l) Complete
ionic
HC2H3O2 (aq) + OH- (aq) C2H3O2- (aq) + H2O(l) Net ionic
Polyprotic Acids and Polybasic Bases
Polyprotic Acids have more than 1 acidic hydrogen. The acids may be strong or
weak depending on the strength of the bond between the acid hydrogen and its
bonding partner.
1st ionization: H2SO4 (aq) H+(aq) + HSO4- (aq)
strong
2nd ionization: HSO4- (aq) H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
weak
Polybasic bases have more than one OH- or accept more than 1 proton. The bases can
be strong or weak depending on the ability of the base to accept a proton.
PROBLEM: Write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic equations for
each of the following acid-base reactions and identify the
spectator ions.
(a) Barium hydroxide(aq) + perchloric acid(aq)
(b) strontium hydroxide(aq) + sulfuric acid(aq)
PLAN: SOLUTION:
SOLUTION: One mole of H+(aq) is released per mole of nitric acid (HNO3)
H2O
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Reaction of
iron with Cu2+
(aq).
Photo courtesy of
American Color.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
2 2
Fe(s ) Cu (aq ) Fe (aq ) Cu(s )
Gain of 2 e-1 reduction
Types of Chemical Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation number is 1+
Oxidation number is -1
Types of Chemical Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation Numbers
PLAN: Write the formula for the compound. The O.N.s of the ions in a polyatomic
ion add up to the charge of the ion and the O.N.s of the ions in the
compound add up to zero.
Sum of + oxidation number + sum of oxidation number =
SOLUTION:
0 (neutral compound) or charge on ion
(a) CsCl. The O.N. for cesium is +1 and that for chloride is -1.
(b) NO2. Each oxygen is an oxide with an O.N. of -2. Therefore the O.N. of
nitrogen must be +4.
(c) HNO3. H has an O.N. of +1 and each oxygen is -2. Therefore the N
must have an O.N. of +5.
NO3- X 6 = -1
Let X = o.n. of N, then
X + (total charges on O) = charge on ion where X is the O.N. of N
What is the oxidation number of the Cl
in ClO4- ion?
A. 1-
86%
B. 3+
C. 5+
D. 7+
E. 8-
6% 5%
2% 1%
3+
5+
7+
1-
8-
Oxidation and Reduction
Another Definition
Reducing Oxidizing
Agent Agent
Fe + MnO4 + 4 H+ Fe3+ + MnO2 + 2 H2O
0 +7 2 +1 +3 +4 2 +1 2
Reduction Gain 3 e-
Oxidation
Lose 3 e-
83
ExampleAssign oxidation states, determine the elements
oxidized and reduced, and determine the oxidizing agent and
reducing agent in the following reaction.
PROBLEM: Identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent in each of the following:
continued +2 -2 +2 -2 0 +4 -2
0 0 +1 -2
4% 1. An oxidation reaction
30% 2. A reduction reaction
67% 3. Neither an oxidation nor a reduction reaction
The Activity Series of the Elements
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(g) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
GER
LEO
Oxidation (electron loss) always accompanies reduction
(electron gain).
REDUCTION
Other reactant gains electrons. Hydrogen ion gains
electrons.
Oxidizing agent is reduced. Hydrogen ion is the oxidizing agent and
becomes reduced.
Oxidation number decreases. The oxidation number of H decreases
from +1 to 0.