Double Bass

Double bass - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Double_bass
Double bass
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The double bass or simply the bass (and numerous other

names) is the largest and lowest-pitched bowed string Double bass
instrument in the modern symphony orchestra. It is a
transposing instrument and is typically notated one octave
higher than sounding to avoid excessive ledger lines
below the staff. The double bass is the only modern
bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a
viol), rather than fifths, with strings usually tuned to E1,
A1, D2 and G2. The instrument's exact lineage is still a
matter of some debate, with scholars divided on whether
the bass is derived from the viol or the violin family.
The double bass is a standard member of the orchestra's

string section,[1] as well as the concert band, and is
featured in concertos, solo and chamber music[2] in
Western classical music. The bass is used in a range of Side and front views of a modern double bass with
other genres, such as jazz, 1950s-style blues and rock and a French-style bow
roll, rockabilly, psychobilly, traditional country music, String instrument
bluegrass, tango and many types of folk music.
Other names Bass, string bass, upright
The double bass is played either with a bow (arco) or by bass, acoustic bass, acoustic
plucking the strings (pizzicato). In orchestral repertoire string bass, contrabass,
and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed. In contrabass viol, bass viol,
jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm. Classical standup bass, bull fiddle and
music uses just the natural sound produced acoustically by bass fiddle
the instrument; so does traditional bluegrass. In jazz,
blues, and related genres, the bass is typically amplified Classification String instrument (bowed or
with an amplifier and speaker. plucked)
HornbostelSachs 321.322-71
classification (Composite chordophone
Contents sounded by a bow)
Developed 15th-19th century
1 Description Playing range
2 Playing style
3 History
4 Terminology
5 Design
5.1 Construction Related instruments
5.1.1 Travel instruments
5.2 Strings Viol
5.3 Bows Viola
5.3.1 German bow Cello
5.3.2 French bow
Bass guitar
5.3.3 Bow construction and materials
Acoustic bass guitar
5.3.4 Rosin
Electric upright bass
6 Pitch
Diyingehu
7 Tuning
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Double bass - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bass
7.1 Regular tuning Bazantar

7.2 C extension
7.3 Other tuning variations Musicians
8 Playing and performance considerations
8.1 Body and hand position List of double bassists
8.2 Physical considerations
8.3 Volume
8.4 Transportation
8.5 Accessories
9 Classical repertoire
9.1 Solo works for double bass
9.1.1 1700s
9.1.2 1800s
9.1.3 1900spresent
9.2 Chamber music with double bass
9.3 Orchestral passages and solos
9.4 Double bass ensembles
10 Use in jazz
11 Use in bluegrass and country
11.1 Slap-style bass
12 Use in popular music
13 Modern playing styles
14 Double bassists
14.1 Historical
14.2 Modern
14.3 Contemporary (1900s)
14.3.1 Classical
14.3.2 Jazz
14.3.3 Other popular genres
15 Pedagogy and training
15.1 Formal training
15.2 Informal training
16 Careers
16.1 Classical music
16.2 Performance jobs
17 See also
18 References
19 External links
Description
The double bass stands around 180 cm (6 feet) from scroll to endpin.[3] However, other sizes are available,
such as a 12 or 34, which serve to accommodate a player's height and hand size. These sizes do not reflect
the size relative to a full size, or 44 bass; a 12 bass is not half the size of a bass but is only slightly smaller.[4]
It is typically constructed from several types of wood, including maple for the back, spruce for the top, and
ebony for the fingerboard. It is uncertain whether the instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or of
the violin, but it is traditionally aligned with the violin family. While the double bass is nearly identical in
construction to other violin family instruments, it also embodies features found in the older viol family.
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Playing style
Like other violin and viol-family string instruments, the double bass is played either with a bow (arco) or by
plucking the strings (pizzicato). In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are
employed. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm, except for some solos and also occasional
written parts in modern jazz that call for bowing.
In classical pedagogy, almost all of the focus is on performing with the bow and producing a good bowed
tone; there is little work done on developing significant pizzicato skills. Bowed notes in the lowest register of
the instrument produce a dark, heavy, mighty, or even menacing effect, when played with a fortissimo
dynamic; however, the same low pitches played with a delicate pianissimo can create a sonorous, mellow
accompaniment line. Classical bass students learn all of the different bow articulations used by other string
section players (e.g., violin and cello), such as dtach, legato, staccato, sforzato, martel ("hammered"-
style), sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato and sautill. Some of these articulations can be combined;
for example, the combination of sul ponticello and tremolo can produce eerie, ghostly sounds. Classical bass
players do play pizzicato parts in orchestra, but these parts generally require simple notes (quarter notes, half
notes, whole notes), rather than rapid passages.
Classical players perform both bowed and pizz notes using vibrato, an effect created by rocking or quivering
the left hand finger that is contacting the string, which then transfers an undulation in pitch to the tone.
Vibrato is used to add expression to string playing. In general, very loud, low-register passages are played
with little or no vibrato, as the main goal with low pitches is to provide a clear fundamental bass for the
string section. Mid- and higher-register melodies are typically played with more vibrato. The speed and
intensity of the vibrato is varied by the performer for an emotional and musical effect.
In jazz, rockabilly and other related genres, much or all of the focus is on playing pizzicato. In jazz and jump
blues, bassists are required to play extremely rapid pizzicato walking basslines for extended periods. As well,
jazz and rockabilly bassists develop virtuoso pizzicato techniques that enable them to play rapid solos that
incorporate fast-moving triplet and sixteenth note figures. Pizzicato basslines performed by leading jazz
professionals are much more difficult that the pizzicato basslines that Classical bassists encounter in the
standard orchestral literature, which are typically whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, and occasional
eighth note passages. In jazz and related styles, bassists often add semi-percussive "ghost notes" into
basslines, to add to the rhythmic feel and to add fills to a bassline.
The double bass player stands, or sits on a high stool, and leans the instrument against their body, turned
slightly inward to put the strings comfortably in reach. This stance is a key reason for the bass's sloped
shoulders, which mark it apart from the other members of the violin familythe narrower shoulders
facilitate playing the strings in their higher registers.[3]
History
The double bass is generally regarded as a modern descendant of the string family of instruments that
originated in Europe in the 15th century, and as such has been described as a bass Violin.[5] Before the 20th
century many double basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments
in the viol family or the four strings of instruments in the violin family. The double bass's proportions are
dissimilar to those of the violin and cello; for example, it is deeper (the distance from front to back is
proportionally much greater than the violin). In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double
basses have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viol family. Many very old
double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques. Before these
modifications, the design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.
The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a viol), rather than
fifths (see Tuning below). The issue of the instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the
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supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viol

family is one that has not been entirely resolved.
In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts, with
many references, that the double bass has origins as the true bass
of the violin family. He states that, while the exterior of the double
bass may resemble the viola da gamba, the internal construction of
the double bass is nearly identical to instruments in the violin
family, and very different from the internal structure of viols.[6]
Double bass professor Larry Hurst argues that the "modern double
bass is not a true member of either the violin or viol families." He
says that "most likely its first general shape was that of a violone,
the largest member of the viol family. Some of the earliest basses Some early basses were conversions of
extant are violones, (including C-shaped sound holes) that have existing violones. This 1640 painting
shows a violone being played.
been fitted with modern trappings."[7] Some existing instruments,
such as those by Gasparo da Sal, were converted from
16th-century six-string contrabass violoni.[8]
Terminology
A person who plays this instrument is called a "bassist", "double
bassist", "double bass player", "contrabassist", "contrabass player" or
"bass player". The names contrabass and double bass refer to the
instrument's range and use in the contra octave below the cello, also
called the 16' octave relative to the church pipe organ.[9] The terms
for the instrument among classical performers are contrabass (which
comes from the instrument's Italian name, contrabbasso), string bass
(to distinguish it from brass bass instruments in a concert band, such
as tubas), or simply bass.
In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres outside of classical music,

this instrument is commonly called the upright bass, standup bass
or acoustic bass to distinguish it from the electric bass guitar. In folk
and bluegrass music, the instrument is also referred to as a "bass
fiddle" or "bass violin" (or more rarely as "doghouse bass" or "bull
fiddle"). The upright bass is different from the acoustic bass guitar,
which is a guitar-family instrument that is built like an acoustic guitar
(although the acoustic bass guitar typically has four strings, tuned
EADG and a sturdier construction).
The double bass is sometimes confusingly called the violone, bass

violin or bass viol. Other colourful nicknames are found in other
languages; in Hungarian, the double bass is sometimes called nagy
bg, which roughly translates as "big crier", referring to its large
voice. In Brazil, specifically the northeast region, it is also called
rabeco, meaning "big rabeca". The rabeca (or rabeca chuleira) is a Jazz bassist Ron Carter pictured
type of fiddle from northeastern Brazil and northern Portugal used in playing with his Quartet at "Altes
Brazilian forr music. The rabeca is descended from the medieval Pfandhaus" in Cologne
rebec.
Design
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In general, there are two major approaches to the design outline shape of the
double bass: the violin form (shown in the labelled picture to the right); and
the viol da gamba form (shown in the header picture). A third less common
design, called the busetto shape, can also be found, as can the even more rare
guitar or pear shape. The back of the instrument can vary from being a
round, carved back similar to that of the violin, to a flat and angled back
similar to the viol family.
The double bass features many parts that are similar to members of the violin
family, including a wooden, carved bridge to support the strings, f-holes, a
tailpiece, a scroll near the pegbox, and a sound post, which transmits the
vibrations from the top of the instrument to the hollow body and supports the
pressure of the string tension. Unlike the rest of the violin family, the double
bass still reflects influences from, and can be considered partly derived, from
the viol family of instruments, in particular the violone, the lowest-pitched
bass member of the viol family. As with the other violin and viol family
instruments that are played with a bow (and unlike mainly plucked or picked
instruments like guitar), the double bass's bridge has a arc-like, curved shape.
This is done because with bowed instruments, the player must be able to play
individual strings. If the double bass were to have a flat bridge, it would be Example of a Busetto-shaped
impossible to bow the A and D strings. double bass: remake of a
Matthias Klotz (1700) by
The double bass also differs from members of the violin family in that the Rumano Solano
shoulders are typically sloped, the back is often angled (both to allow easier
access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range).
Machine tuners are always fitted, in contrast to the rest
of the violin family, where traditional wooden friction
pegs are still the primary means of tuning. Lack of
standardization in design means that one double bass can
sound and look very different from another.
Construction
The double bass is closest in construction to violins, but

has some notable similarities to the violone (literally
"large viol"), the largest and lowest member of the viol
family. Unlike the violone, however, the fingerboard of
the double bass is unfretted, and the double bass has
fewer strings (the violone, like most viols, generally had
six strings, although some specimens had five or four).
An important distinction between the double bass and

other members of the violin family is the construction of
the pegbox. While the violin, viola, and cello all use
friction pegs for fine tuning adjustments, the double bass
has metal machine heads. The key on the tuning machine
turns a metal worm, which drives a worm gear that winds
a string. While this development makes fine tuners Principal parts of the double bass
unnecessary, a very small number of bassists use them
nevertheless. At the base of the double bass is a metal rod with a spiked or rubberized end called the endpin,
which rests on the floor. This endpin is generally thicker and more robust than that of a cello, because of the
greater mass of the instrument.
The materials most often used in double bass construction for fully carved basses (the type used by
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professional orchestra bassists and soloists) are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony
(fingerboard, tailpiece). Exceptions to this include less-expensive basses that have laminated (plywood) tops,
backs, and ribs, and some newer lower- to mid-priced basses are made of willow. Fully laminated basses are
resistant to changes in heat and humidity and accidental droppage or impacts, which can cause cracks in
carved wood tops and bodies (a crack is most serious on the top).
Laminated (plywood) basses, which are widely used in music schools, youth orchestras, and in popular and
folk music settings (including rockabilly, psychobilly, blues, etc.), are very resistant to humidity and heat, as
well to the physical abuse they are apt to encounter in a school environment (or, for blues and folk
musicians, to the hazards of touring and performing in bars). Another option is the hybrid body bass, which
has a laminated back and a carved or solid wood top. It is less costly and somewhat less fragile (at least
regarding its back) than a fully carved bass. In 2015, the least expensive entry-level new, fully carved basses
range from $2,750[10] to $4,950[11] USD, although a higher-end new carved instrument may cost from
$9,000 to $24,000 USD.[12] In 2015, bassists in top professional orchestras may have antique carved
instruments valued at hundreds of thousands of dollars. In 2015, new fully laminated basses are sold for
about $1,350[10] to $4,500[13] USD. New hybrid basses range from $3,000[11] to $6,400[13] USD.
The soundpost and bass bar are components of the internal construction. All the parts of a double bass are
glued together, except the soundpost, bridge, and tailpiece, which are held in place by string tension
(although the soundpost usually remains in place when the instrument's strings are loosened or removed).
Basic bridges are carved from a single piece of wood, which is customized to match the shape of the top of
the instrument. Professional bassists are more likely to have adjustable bridges, which have a metal screw
mechanism. This enables the bassist to raise or lower the height of the strings to accommodate changing
humidity or temperature conditions. The metal tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with
metal screws. While tuning mechanisms generally differ from the higher-pitched orchestral stringed
instruments, some basses have non-functional, ornamental tuning pegs projecting from the side of the
pegbox, in imitation of the tuning pegs on a cello or violin.
Famous double bass makers come from around the world and often represent varied national characteristics.
The most highly sought (and expensive) instruments come from Italy and include basses made by Giovanni
Paolo Maggini, Gaspar da Salo, the Testore family (Carlo Antonio, Carlo Giuseppe, Gennaro, Giovanni,
Paulo Antonio), Celestino Puolotti, and Matteo Gofriller. French and English basses from famous makers are
also sought out by players.
Travel instruments
As of 2016, several manufacturers make travel instruments, which are double basses that have features which
reduce the size of the instrument so that the instrument will meet airline travel requirements. Travel basses
are designed for touring musicians. One type of travel bass has a much smaller body than normal, while still
retaining all of the features needed for playing. While these smaller-body instruments appear similar to
electric upright basses, the difference is that small-body travel basses still have a fairly large hollow acoustic
sound chamber, while many EUBs are solid body, or only have a small hollow chamber. A second type of
travel bass has a hinged or removable neck and a regular sized body. The hinged or removable neck makes
the instrument smaller when it is packed for transportation.
Strings
The history of the double bass is tightly coupled to the development of string technology, as it was the
advent[9] of overwound gut strings, which first rendered the instrument more generally practicable, as (over)
wound strings attain low notes within a smaller overall string diameter than non-wound strings.[14] Professor
Larry Hurst argues that had "it not been for the appearance of the overwound gut string in the 1650s, the
double bass would surely have become extinct."[7] because thicknesses needed for regular gut strings made
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the lower-pitched strings almost unplayable and hindered the development of

fluid, rapid playing in the lower register.
Prior to the mid-20th century, double bass strings were usually made of gut,
but, since that time, steel has largely replaced it, because steel strings hold
their pitch better and yield more volume when played with the bow.[15] Gut
strings are also more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature, and
break more easily than steel strings.
Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in baroque
ensembles, rockabilly bands, traditional blues bands, and bluegrass bands. In
some cases, the low E and A are wound in silver, to give them added mass.
Gut strings provide the dark, "thumpy" sound heard on 1940s and 1950s
recordings. The late Jeff Sarli, a blues upright bassist, said that, "Starting in Detail of the bridge and
the 1950s, they began to reset the necks on basses for steel strings."[16] strings
Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists also prefer gut because it is much easier to
perform the "slapping" upright bass style (in which the strings are
percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard) with gut strings
than with steel strings. A less expensive alternative to gut strings is nylon
strings; the higher strings are pure nylon, and the lower strings are nylon
wrapped in wire, to add more mass to the string, slowing the vibration, and
thus facilitating lower pitches. (For more information on slapping, see the
sections below on Modern playing styles, Double bass in bluegrass music,
Double bass in jazz, and Double bass in popular music).
The change from gut to steel has also affected the instrument's playing Gut strings
technique over the last hundred years. Steel strings can be set up closer to the
fingerboard and, additionally, strings can be played in higher positions on the
lower strings and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does not use the
low E string in higher positions because older gut strings, set up high over the fingerboard, could not produce
clear tone in these higher positions. However, with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in
higher positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when they use modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension
steel strings. For information on the strings used in regular and solo tuning and with different types of basses,
see the section below on tuning.
Bows
The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms (shown below). The "French" or "overhand" bow is similar
in shape and implementation to the bow used on the other members of the orchestral string instrument
family, while the "German" or "Butler" bow is typically broader and shorter, and is held in a "hand shake"
(or maybe "hacksaw") position.
These two bows provide different ways of moving the arm and
distributing force on the strings. Proponents of the French bow argue
that it is more maneuverable, due to the angle at which the player holds
the bow. Advocates of the German bow claim that it allows the player to
apply more arm weight on the strings. The differences between the two,
however, are minute for a proficient player, and modern players in major
orchestras use both bows.
German bow French and German bows

compared
The German bow (sometimes called the Butler bow) is the older of the
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two designs. The design of the bow and the manner of holding it
descend from the older viol instrument family. With older viols,
before frogs had screw threads to tighten the bow, players held the
bow with two fingers between the stick and the hair to maintain
tension of the hair.[17] Proponents of the use of German bow claim
that the German bow is easier to use for heavy strokes that require a
lot of power.
Compared to the French bow, the German bow has a taller frog, and
the player holds it with the palm angled upwards, as with the upright
members of the viol family. When held in the traditionally correct
manner, the thumb applies the necessary power to generate the
German-style bow
desired sound. The index finger meets the bow at the point where the
frog meets the stick. The index finger also applies an upward torque
to the frog when tilting the bow. The little finger (or "pinky") supports the frog from underneath, while the
ring finger and middle finger rest in the space between the hair and the shaft.
French bow
The French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by
19th-century virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. This style is more similar
to the traditional bows of the smaller string family instruments. It is
held as if the hand is resting by the side of the performer with the
palm facing toward the bass. The thumb rests on the shaft of the bow,
next to the frog while the other fingers drape on the other side of the
bow. Various styles dictate the curve of the fingers and thumb, as do
the style of piece; a more pronounced curve and lighter hold on the
bow is used for virtuoso or more delicate pieces, while a flatter curve
and sturdier grip on the bow sacrifices some power for easier control
in strokes such as detach, spiccato, and staccato.
French-style bow
Bow construction and materials
Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from 60 to 75 cm

(2430 in). In general, a bass bow is shorter and heavier than a cello
bow. Pernambuco, also known as Brazilwood, is regarded as an
excellent quality stick material, but due to its scarcity and expense,
other materials are increasingly being used. Inexpensive student bows
may be constructed of solid fiberglass, which makes the bow much
lighter than a wooden bow (even too light to produce a good tone, in
some cases). Student bows may also be made of the less valuable
varieties of brazilwood. Snakewood and carbon fiber are also used in
bows of a variety of different qualities. The frog of the double bass
A bassist holding a French bow; note
bow is usually made out of ebony, although snakewood and buffalo
how the thumb rests on the shaft of
horn are used by some luthiers. The frog is movable, as it can be
the bow next to the frog.
tightened or loosened with a knob (like all violin family bows). The
bow is loosened at the end of a practice session or performance. The
bow is tightened before playing, until it reaches a tautness that is preferred by the player. The frog on a
quality bow is decorated with mother of pearl inlay.
Bows have a leather wrapping on the wooden part of the bow near the frog. Along with the leather wrapping,
there is also a wire wrapping, made of gold or silver in quality bows. The hair is usually horsehair. Part of the
regular maintenance of a bow is having the bow "rehaired" by a luthier with fresh horsehair and having the
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leather and wire wrapping replaced. The double bass bow is strung with either white or black horsehair, or a
combination of the two (known as "salt and pepper"), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on
the bows of other string instruments. Some bassists argue that the slightly rougher black hair "grabs" the
heavier, lower strings better. As well, some bassists and luthiers believe that it is easier to produce a
smoother sound with the white variety. Red hair (chestnut) is also used by some bassists. Some of the lowest-
quality, lowest cost student bows are made with synthetic hair. Synthetic hair does not have the tiny "barbs"
that real horsehair has, so it does not "grip" the string well or take rosin well.
Rosin
String players apply rosin to the bow hair so it "grips" the string and
makes it vibrate. Double bass rosin is generally softer and stickier than
violin rosin to allow the hair to grab the thicker strings better, but
players use a wide variety of rosins that vary from quite hard (like violin
rosin) to quite soft, depending on the weather, the humidity, and the
preference of the player. The amount used generally depends on the type
of music being performed as well as the personal preferences of the
player. Bassists may apply more rosin in works for large orchestra (e.g., A variety of rosin types.
Brahms symphonies) than for delicate chamber works. Some brands of
rosin, such as Pop's double bass rosin, are softer and more prone to
melting in hot weather. Other brands, such as Carlsson or Nyman Harts double bass rosin, are harder and less
prone to melting.
Pitch
The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at
approximately 41 Hz or a C1 (33 Hz), or sometimes B0 (31 Hz), when five
strings are used. This is within about an octave above the lowest frequency
that the average human ear can perceive as a distinctive pitch. The top of the
instrument's fingerboard range is typically near D5, two octaves and a fifth
above the open pitch of the G string (G2), as shown in the range illustration
found at the head of this article. Playing beyond the end of the fingerboard
can be accomplished by pulling the string slightly to the side.
Double bass symphony parts sometimes indicate that the performer should
play harmonics (also called flageolet tones), in which the bassist lightly
touches the stringwithout pressing it onto the fingerboard in the usual The bass (or F) clef is used
fashionin the location of a note and then plucks or bows the note. Bowed for most orchestral double
harmonics are used in contemporary music for their "glassy" sound. Both bass music.
natural harmonics and artificial harmonics, where the thumb stops the note
and the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at
the relative node point, extend the instrument's range considerably. Natural and artificial harmonics are used
a great deal in virtuoso concertos for the double bass.
Orchestral parts from the standard Classical repertoire rarely demand the double bass exceed a two-octave
and a minor third range, from E1 to G3, with occasional A3s appearing in the standard repertoire (an
exception to this rule is Orff's Carmina Burana, which calls for three octaves and a perfect fourth). The
upper limit of this range is extended a great deal for 20th- and 21st-century orchestral parts (e.g., Prokofiev's
Lieutenant Kij Suite (c.1933) bass solo, which calls for notes as high as D4 and E4). The upper range a
virtuoso solo player can achieve using natural and artificial harmonics is hard to define, as it depends on the
skill of the particular player. The high harmonic in the range illustration found at the head of this article may
be taken as representative rather than normative.
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Five-string instruments have an additional string, typically tuned to a low B below the E string (B0). On rare
occasions a higher string is added instead, tuned to the C above the G string (C3). Four-string instruments
may feature the C extension extending the range of the E string downwards to C1 (sometimes B0).
Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of the double bass's range lies below
the standard bass clef, it is notated an octave higher than it sounds to avoid having to use excessive ledger
lines below the staff. Thus, when double bass players and cellists are playing from a combined bass-cello
part, as used in many Mozart and Haydn symphonies, they will play in octaves, with the basses one octave
below the cellos. This transposition applies even when bass players are reading the tenor and treble clef
(which are used in solo playing and some orchestral parts). The tenor clef is also used by composers for cello
and low brass parts. The use of tenor or treble clef avoids excessive ledger lines above the staff when
notating the instrument's upper range. Other notation traditions exist. Italian solo music is typically written at
the sounding pitch, and the "old" German method sounded an octave below where notation except in the
treble clef, where the music was written at pitch.
Tuning
Regular tuning
The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other members

of the orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths. The standard
tuning (low to high) is EADG, starting from E below second low C
(concert pitch). This is the same as the standard tuning of a bass guitar and
is one octave lower than the four lowest-pitched strings of standard guitar
tuning. Prior to the 19th-century, many double basses had only three
strings; "Giovanni Bottesini (18211889) favored the three-stringed
instrument popular in Italy at the time",[7] because "the three-stringed
instrument [was viewed as] being more sonorous."[18] Many cobla bands in
Catalonia still have players using traditional three-string double basses
tuned ADG.[19] Double bass player Vivien
Garry playing a show in New
Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the range of York City in 1947.
a standard double bass. Notes below low E appear regularly in the double
bass parts found in later arrangements and interpretations of Baroque
music. In the Classical era, the double bass typically doubled the cello part an octave below, occasionally
requiring descent to C below the E of the four-string double bass. In the Romantic era and the 20th century,
composers such as Wagner, Mahler, Busoni and Prokofiev also requested notes below the low E.
There are several methods for making these notes available to the player. Players with standard double basses
(EADG) may play the notes below "E" an octave higher or if this sounds awkward, the entire passage
may be transposed up an octave. The player may tune the low E string down to the lowest note required in
the piece: D or C. Four string basses may be fitted with a "low-C extension" (see below). Or the player may
employ a five-string instrument, with the additional lower string tuned to C, or (more commonly in modern
times) B, three octaves and a semitone below middle C. Several major European orchestras use basses with a
fifth string.[20]
C extension
In Britain, the USA and Canada, most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a C
extension. This is an extra section of fingerboard mounted on the head of the bass. It extends the fingerboard
under the lowest string and gives an additional four semitones of downward range. The lowest string is
typically tuned down to C1, an octave below the lowest note on the cello. More rarely this string may be
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tuned to a low B0, as a few works in the

orchestral repertoire call for such a B, such as
Respighi's The Pines of Rome. In rare cases,
some players have a low B extension, which has
B as its lowest note. There are several varieties
of extensions:
In the simplest mechanical extensions, there are

no mechanical aids attached to the fingerboard
extension except a locking nut or "gate" for the E
note. To play the extension notes, the player
reaches back over the area under the scroll to
press the string to the fingerboard. The advantage
of this "fingered" extension is that the player can
adjust the intonation of all of the stopped notes
on the extension, and there are no mechanical A low-C extension with wooden mechanical "fingers" that
noises from metal keys and levers. The stop the string at C, D, E, or E. For orchestral passages
disadvantage of the "fingered" extension is that it which only go down to a low E, the "finger" at the nut is
can be hard to perform rapid alternations usually closed.
between low notes on the extension and notes on
the regular fingerboard, such as a bassline that quickly alternates between G and D.
The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use of wooden "fingers" or "gates" that can be closed to press the
string down and fret the C, D, E, or E notes. This system is particularly useful for basslines that have a
repeating pedal point such as a low D, because once the note is locked in place with the mechanical finger
the lowest string sounds a different note when played open (e.g., a low D).
The most complicated mechanical aid for use with extensions is the mechanical lever system nicknamed the
machine. This lever system, which superficially resembles the keying mechanism of reed instruments such as
the bassoon, mounts levers beside the regular fingerboard (near the nut, on the E-string side), which remotely
activate metal "fingers" on the extension fingerboard. The most expensive metal lever systems also give the
player the ability to "lock" down notes on the extension fingerboard, as with the wooden "finger" system.
One criticism of these devices is that they may lead to unwanted metallic clicking noises.
Once a mechanical "finger" of the wooden "finger" extension or the metal "finger" machine extension is
locked down or depressed, it is not easy to make microtonal pitch adjustments or glissando effects, as is
possible with a hand-fingered extension.
While the most common type of extension is the C extension, in rare cases, owners of five-string basses, in
which the lowest string is normally a low B, may use either a two semitone extension, providing a low A, or
the very rare low G extension.
Other tuning variations
A small number of bass players tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (CGDA low to
high). This tuning was used by the jazz player Red Mitchell and is used by some classical players, notably
the Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington. Advocates of tuning the bass in fifths point out that all of the other
orchestral strings are tuned in fifths (violin, viola and cello), so this puts the bass in the same tuning
approach. Fifth tuning provides a bassist with a wider range of pitch than a standard EADG bass, as it
ranges (without an extension) from C1 to A2. Some players who use fifths tuning who play a five-string bass
use an additional high string (thus, from lowest to highest: CGDAE). Some fifth tuning bassists who
only have a four string instrument and who are mainly performing soloistic works use the GDAE tuning,
thus omitting the low C string but gaining a high E. Some fifth tuning bassists who use a five-string use a
smaller scale instrument, thus making fingering somewhat easier.
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In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (FBEA). This higher
tuning is called "solo tuning", whereas the regular tuning is known as "orchestral tuning". Solo tuning strings
are generally thinner than regular strings. String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning
that a different set of strings is often employed that has a lighter gauge. Strings are always labelled for either
solo or orchestral tuning, and published solo music is arranged for either solo or orchestral tuning. Some
popular solos and concerti, such as the Koussevitsky Concerto are available in both solo and orchestral tuning
arrangements. Solo tuning strings can be tuned down a tone to play in orchestra pitch, but the strings often
lack projection in orchestral tuning and their pitch may be unstable.
Some contemporary composers specify highly specialized scordatura. Berio, for example, asks the player to
tune their strings EGDG in Sequenza XIVb and Scelsi asks for both FADE and FAFE in Nuits.
A variant and much less-commonly used form of solo tuning used in some Eastern European countries is
(ADGC), which uses three of the strings from orchestral tuning (ADG) and then adds a high "C"
string. Some bassists with five-string basses use a high "C" string as the fifth string, instead of a low "B"
string. Adding the high "C" string facilitates the performance of solo repertoire with a high tessitura (range).
Another option is to utilize both a low C (or B) extension and a high C string.
When choosing a bass with a fifth string, the player may decide between adding a higher or lower-tuned
string. Six-stringed instruments are generally regarded as impractical. To accommodate the additional string,
the fingerboard is usually slightly wider, and the top slightly thicker to handle the increased tension. Some
five-stringed instruments are converted four-string instruments. Because these do not have wider
fingerboards, some players find them more difficult to finger and bow. Converted four-string basses usually
require either a new, thicker top, or lighter strings to compensate for the increased tension.
The BerliozStrauss Treatise on Instrumentation (first published in 1844) states that, "A good orchestra
should have several four-string double-basses, some of them tuned in fifths and thirds." The book then shows
a tuning of (EGDA) from bottom to top string. "Together with the other double-basses tuned in fourths, a
combination of open strings would be available, which would greatly increase the sonority of the orchestra."
Playing and performance considerations

Body and hand position
Double bassists either stand or sit to play the instrument. The instrument
height is set by adjusting the endpin such that the player can reach the
desired playing zones of the strings with bow or plucking hand. Bassists
who stand and bow sometimes set the endpin by aligning the first finger
in either first or half position with eye level, although there is little
standardization in this regard. Players who sit generally use a stool about
the height of the player's pants inseam length.
Traditionally, double bassists stood to play solo and sat to play in the
orchestra or opera pit. Now, it is unusual for a player to be equally
proficient in both positions, so some soloists sit (as with Joel
Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, Thierry Barb, and others) and some
orchestral bassists stand. French double-bass player and
composer Renaud Garcia-Fons
When playing in the instrument's upper range (above G3, the G below pictured during a performance.
middle C), the player shifts the hand from behind the neck and flattens it
out, using the side of the thumb to press down the string. This techniquealso used on the cellois called
thumb position. While playing in thumb position, few players use the fourth (little) finger, as it is usually too
weak to produce reliable tone (this is also true for cellists), although some extreme chords or extended
12 de 31 28/01/2017 10:08
techniques, especially in contemporary music, may require its use.
Physical considerations
Performing on bass can be physically demanding, because the strings are

large and thick. Also, the space between notes on the fingerboard is
large, due to scale length and string spacing, so players must hold their
fingers apart for the notes in the lower positions and shift positions
frequently to play basslines. As with all non-fretted string instruments,
performers must learn to place their fingers precisely to produce the
correct pitch. For bassists with shorter arms or smaller hands, the large
spaces between pitches may present a significant challenge, especially in
the lowest range, where the spaces between notes are largest. However,
the increased use of playing techniques such as thumb position and
modifications to the bass, such as the use of lighter-gauge strings at
lower tension, have eased the difficulty of playing the instrument.
Bass parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops, or large
jumps in range. These parts are usually given to the cello section, since
the cello is a smaller instrument on which these techniques are more
easily performed.
The upright bass player of the
rockabilly band Lucky Dados. Until the 1990s, child-sized double basses were not widely available,
Rockabilly style can be very and the large size of the bass prevented children from playing the
demanding on the plucking hand, instrument until they grew to a height and hand size that let them to play
due to rockabilly's use of a 34-size model (the most common size). Starting in the 1990s, smaller
"slapping" on the fingerboard.
12, 14, 18, and even 116-sized instruments became more widely
available, so children could start younger.
Volume
Despite the size of the instrument, it is not as loud as many other instruments, due to its low range. In a large
orchestra, usually between four and eight bassists play in the same bassline in unison to produce enough
volume. In the largest orchestras, bass sections may have as many as ten or twelve players, but modern
budget constraints make bass sections this large unusual.
When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber music, composers typically ensure the
orchestration is light so it does not obscure the bass. While amplification is rarely used in classical music, in
some cases where a bass soloist performs a concerto with a full orchestra, subtle amplification called
acoustic enhancement may be used. The use of microphones and amplifiers in a classical setting has led to
debate within the classical community, as "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of [Classical]
voices [or] instruments in a given hall should not be altered."[21]
In many genres, such as jazz and blues, players use amplification via a specialized amplifier and
loudspeakers. A piezoelectric pickup connects to the amplifier with a 14-inch patch cable. Bluegrass and jazz
players typically use less amplification than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players. In the latter cases, high
overall volume from other amplifiers and instruments may cause unwanted acoustic feedback, a problem
exacerbated by the bass's large surface area and interior volume. The feedback problem has led to
technological fixes like electronic feedback eliminator devices (essentially an automated notch filter that
identifies and reduces frequencies where feedback occurs) and instruments like the electric upright bass,
which has playing characteristics like the double bass but usually little or no soundbox, which makes
feedback less likely. Some bassists reduce the problem of feedback by lowering their onstage volume or
playing further away from their bass amp speakers.
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In rockabilly and psychobilly, percussively slapping the strings

against the fingerboard is an important part of the bass playing style.
Since piezoelectric pickups are not good at reproducing the sounds of
strings being slapped against the fingerboard, bassists in these genres
often use both piezoelectric pickups (for the low bass tone) and a
miniature condenser mic (to pick up the percussive slapping sounds).
These two signals are blended together using a simple mixer before
the signal is sent to the bass amp.
Transportation
The double bass's large size and relative fragility make it

cumbersome to handle and transport. Most bassists use soft cases,
referred to as gig bags, to protect the instrument during transport.
These range from thin unpadded cases used by students to thickly
padded versions for professional players. Some bassists carry their
bow in a hard bow case. Players also may use a small cart and end Psychobilly bassist Jimbo Wallace
pin-attached wheels to move the bass. onstage with Reverend Horton Heat;
note his large bass stack consisting of
Hard flight cases have cushioned interiors and tough exteriors of a 1x15" cabinet, a 4x10" cabinet, and
carbon fiber, graphite, fiberglass, or Kevlar. The cost of good hard an amplifier "head".
casesseveral thousand US dollarsand the high airline fees for
shipping them tend to limit their use to touring
professionals.
Accessories
Double bass players use various accessories to help

them to perform and rehearse. Three types of mutes
are used in orchestral music: a wooden mute that
slides onto the bridge, a rubber mute that attaches to Double bass is the standard bass instrument in bluegrass.
the bridge and a wire device with brass weights that The Norwegian band Ila Auto, shown here, shows that
fits onto the bridge. The player uses the mute when the bass can be a head taller than the bassist (Kristoffer
the Italian instruction con sordino ("with mute") Iversen).
appears in the bass part, and removes it in response
to the instruction senza sordino ("without mute").
With the mute on, the tone of the bass is quieter, darker, and more somber.
Bowed bass parts with a mute can have a nasal tone. Players use a third type of
mute, a heavy rubber practice mute, to practice quietly without disturbing others
(e.g., in a hotel room).
A quiver is an accessory for holding the bow. It is often made of leather and it
attaches to the bridge and tailpiece with ties or straps. It is used to hold the bow
while a player plays pizzicato parts.
A wolf tone eliminator is used to lessen unwanted sympathetic vibrations in the A wooden mute attached
part of a string between the bridge and the tailpiece which can cause tone to the bass bridge to
problems for certain notes. It is a rubber tube cut down the side that is used with
make the tone darker
a cylindrical metal sleeve which also has a slot on the side. The metal cylinder
has a screw and a nut that fastens the device to the string. Different placements
of the cylinder along the string influence or eliminate the frequency at which the wolf tone occurs. It is
essentially an attenuator that slightly shifts the natural frequency of the string (and/or instrument body)
cutting down on the reverberation.[22] The wolf tone occurs because the strings below the bridge sometimes
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resonate at pitches close to notes on the playing part of the string. When the intended note makes the below-
the-bridge string vibrate sympathetically, a dissonant "wolf note" or "wolf tone" can occur. In some cases,
the wolf tone is strong enough to cause an audible "beating" sound. The wolf tone often occurs with the note
G on the bass.[23][24]
In orchestra, instruments tune to an A played by the oboist. Due to the multiple octaves between the oboist's
tuning A and the open A string on the bass (for example, in an orchestra that tunes to 440 Hz, the oboist
plays an A at 440 Hz and the open A of the bass is 55 Hz) it can be difficult to tune the bass by ear during the
short period that the oboist plays the tuning note. Violinists, on the other hand, tune their A string to the same
frequency as the oboist's tuning note. To ensure the bass is in tune, some bassists use an electronic tuner that
indicates pitch on a small display. Bassists who play in styles that use a bass amp, such as blues, rockabilly,
or jazz, may use a stompbox-format electronic tuner, which mutes the bass pickup during tuning.
A double bass stand is used to hold the instrument in place and raise it a few inches off the ground. A wide
variety of stands are available, and there is no one common design.
Classical repertoire
Solo works for double bass
1700s
The double bass as a solo instrument enjoyed a period of popularity during the 18th century and many of the
most popular composers from that era wrote pieces for the double bass. The double bass, then often referred
to as the Violone used different tunings from region to region. The "Viennese tuning" (A1D2F2A2) was
popular, and in some cases a fifth string or even sixth string was added (F1A1D2F2A2).[25] The
popularity of the instrument is documented in Leopold Mozart's second edition of his Violinschule, where he
writes "One can bring forth difficult passages easier with the five-string violone, and I heard unusually
beautiful performances of concertos, trios, solos, etc."
The earliest known concerto for double bass was written by Joseph Haydn
c.1763, and is presumed lost in a fire at the Eisenstadt library. The earliest
known existing concertos are by Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, who composed
two concertos for the double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and
double bass. Other composers that have written concertos from this period
include Johann Baptist Wanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold
Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos),
and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18 concertos). While many of these names were
leading figures to the music public of their time, they are generally unknown by
contemporary audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's concert aria, Per Questa
Bella Mano, K.612 for bass, double bass obbligato, and orchestra contains
impressive writing for solo double bass of that period. It remains popular among
both singers and double bassists today.
The Italian bass virtuoso
The double bass eventually evolved to fit the needs of orchestras that required Domenico Dragonetti
lower notes and a louder sound. The leading double bassists from the mid-to-late helped to encourage
18th century, such as Josef Kmpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes composers to give more
Mathias Sperger employed the "Viennese" tuning. Bassist Johann Hindle difficult parts for his
(17921862), who composed a concerto for the double bass, pioneered tuning instrument.
the bass in fourths, which marked a turning point for the double bass and its role
in solo works.
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Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an acquaintance of Haydn and Ludwig van
Beethoven. His playing was known all the way from his homeland Italy to the Tsardom of Russia and he
found a prominent place performing in concerts with the Philharmonic Society of London. Beethoven's
friendship with Dragonetti may have inspired him to write difficult, separate parts for the double bass in his
symphonies, such as the impressive passages in the third movement of the Fifth Symphony, the second
movement of the Seventh Symphony, and last movement of the Ninth Symphony. These parts do not double
the cello part.
Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo works for bass and piano. During Rossini's
stay in London in the summer of 1824, he composed his Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and
the cellist David Salomons. Dragonetti frequently played on a three string double bass tuned GDA from
top to bottom. The use of only the top three strings was popular for bass soloists and principal bassists in
orchestras in the 19th century, because it reduced the pressure on the wooden top of the bass, which was
thought to create a more resonant sound. As well, the low E-strings used during the 19th century were thick
cords made of gut, which were difficult to tune and play.
1800s
In the 19th century, the opera conductor, composer, and bassist Giovanni
Bottesini was considered the "Paganini of the double bass" of his time, a
reference to the violin virtuoso and composer. Bottesini's bass concertos were
written in the popular Italian opera style of the 19th century, which exploit the
double bass in a way that was not seen beforehand. They require virtuosic runs
and great leaps to the highest registers of the instrument, even into the realm of
natural and artificial harmonics. Many 19th century and early 20th century
bassists considered these compositions unplayable, but in the 2000s, they are
frequently performed. During the same time, a prominent school of bass players
in the Czech region arose, which included Franz Simandl, Theodore Albin
Findeisen, Josef Hrabe, Ludwig Manoly, and Adolf Miek. Simandl and Hrabe
were also pedagogues whose method books and studies remain in use in the
2000s.
1900spresent The virtuoso nineteenth-

century bassist and
The leading figure of the double bass in the early 20th century was Serge composer Giovanni
Koussevitzky, best known as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Bottesini with his 1716
who popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument. Because Carlo Antonio Testore
of improvements to the double bass with steel strings and better set-ups, the bass bass.
is now played at a more advanced level than ever before and more and more
composers have written works for the double bass. In the mid-century and in the following decades, many
new concerti were written for the double bass, including Nikos Skalkottas's Concerto (1942), Eduard Tubin's
Concerto (1948), Lars-Erik Larsson's Concertino (1957), Gunther Schuller's Concerto (1962), Hans Werner
Henze's Concerto (1966) and Frank Proto's Concerto No. 1 (1968).
The Solo For Contrabass is one of the parts of John Cage's Concert For Piano And Orchestra and can be
played as a solo, or with any of the other parts both orchestral and/or piano. Similarly, his solo contrabass
parts for the orchestral work Atlas Eclipticalis can also be performed as solos. Cage's indeterminate works
such as Variations I, Variations II, Fontana Mix, Cartridge Music et al. can be arranged for a solo
contrabassist. His work 26.1.1499 For A String Player is often realized by a solo contrabass player, although
it can also be played by a violinist, violist, or cellist.
From the 1960s through the end of the century Gary Karr was the leading proponent of the double bass as a
solo instrument and was active in commissioning or having hundreds of new works and concerti written
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especially for him. Karr was given Koussevitzky's famous solo double bass by Olga Koussevitsky and
played it in concerts around the world for 40 years before, in turn, giving the instrument to the International
Society of Bassists for talented soloists to use in concert. Another important performer in this period,
Bertram Turetzky, commissioned and premiered more than 300 double bass works.
In the 1970s, 1980 and 1990s, new concerti included Nino Rota's
Divertimento for Double Bass and Orchestra (1973), Alan
Ridout's concerto for double bass and strings (1974), Jean
Franaix's Concerto (1975), Frank Proto's Concerto No. 2,
Einojuhani Rautavaara's Angel Of Dusk (1980), Gian Carlo
Menotti's Concerto (1983), Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985),
Henry Brant's Ghost Nets (1988) and Frank Proto's "Carmen
Fantasy for Double Bass and Orchestra" (1991) and "Four Scenes
after Picasso" Concerto No. 3 (1997). Peter Maxwell Davies'
lyrical Strathclyde Concerto No. 7, for double bass and orchestra,
dates from 1992.
In the first decade of the 21st century, new concerti include Frank
Proto's "Nine Variants on Paganini" (2002), Kalevi Aho's
Concerto (2005), John Harbison's Concerto for Bass Viol (2006),
Andr Previn's Double Concerto for violin, double bass, and
orchestra (2007) and John Woolrich's To the Silver Bow, for
double bass, viola and strings (2014).
Reinhold Glire wrote an Intermezzo and Tarantella for double Serge Koussevitzky popularized the
bass and piano, Op. 9, No. 1 and No. 2 and a Praeludium and double bass in modern times as a solo
Scherzo for double bass and piano, Op. 32 No. 1 and No. 2. Paul instrument
Hindemith wrote a rhythmically challenging Double Bass Sonata
in 1949. Frank Proto wrote his Sonata "1963" for Double Bass and Piano. In the Soviet Union, Mieczysaw
Weinberg wrote his Sonata No. 1 for double bass solo in 1971. Giacinto Scelsi wrote two double bass pieces
called Nuits in 1972, and then in 1976, he wrote Maknongan, a piece for any low-voiced instrument, such as
double bass, contrabassoon, or tuba. Vincent Persichetti wrote solo workswhich he called "Parables"for
many instruments. He wrote Parable XVII for Double Bass, Op. 131 in 1974. Sofia Gubaidulina penned a
Sonata for double bass and piano in 1975.
In 1977 Dutch-Hungarian composer Geza Frid wrote a set of variations on The Elephant from Saint-Sans'
Le Carnaval des Animaux for scordatura Double Bass and string orchestra. In 1987 Lowell Liebermann
wrote his Sonata for Contrabass and Piano Op. 24. Fernando Grillo wrote the "Suite No. 1" for double bass
(1983/2005). Jacob Druckman wrote a piece for solo double bass entitled Valentine. US double bass soloist
and composer Bertram Turetzky (born 1933) has performed and recorded more than 300 pieces written by
and for him. He writes chamber music, baroque music, classical, jazz, renaissance music, improvisational
music and world music
US minimalist composer Philip Glass wrote a prelude focused on the lower register that he scored for
timpani and double bass. Italian composer Sylvano Bussotti, whose composing career spans from the 1930s
to the first decade of the 21st century, wrote a solo work for bass in 1983 entitled Naked Angel Face per
contrabbasso. Fellow Italian composer Franco Donatoni wrote a piece called Lem for contrabbasso in the
same year. In 1989, French composer Pascal Dusapin (born 1955) wrote a solo piece called In et Out for
double bass. In 1996, the Sorbonne-trained Lebanese composer Karim Haddad composed Ce qui dort dans
l'ombre sacre ("He who sleeps in the sacred shadows") for Radio France's Presence Festival. Renaud
Garcia-Fons (born 1962) is a French double bass player and composer, notable for drawing on jazz, folk, and
Asian music for recordings of his pieces like Oriental Bass (1997).
Two significant recent works written for solo bass include, Mario Davidovsky's Synchronisms No.11 for
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double bass and electronic sounds and Elliott Carter's Figment III, for solo double bass. The German
composer Gerhard Stbler wrote Co-wie Kobalt (198990), "...a music for double bass solo and grand
orchestra." Charles Wuorinen added several important works to the repertoire, Spinoff trio for double bass,
violin and conga drums, and Trio for Bass Instruments double bass, tuba and bass trombone, and in 2007
Synaxis for double bass, horn, oboe and clarinet with timpani and strings. The suite "Seven Screen Shots" for
double bass and piano (2005) by Ukrainian composer Alexander Shchetynsky has a solo bass part that
includes many unconventional methods of playing. The German composer Claus Khnl wrote Offene Weite /
Open Expanse (1998) and Nachtschwarzes Meer, ringsum (2005) for double bass and piano.
Chamber music with double bass
Since there is no established instrumental ensemble that includes the double bass, its use in chamber music
has not been as exhaustive as the literature for ensembles such as the string quartet or piano trio. Despite this,
there is a substantial number of chamber works (http://www.paulnemeth.com/basschamber.htm) that
incorporate the double bass in both small and large ensembles.
There is a small body of works written for piano quintet with the instrumentation of piano, violin, viola,
cello, and double bass. The most famous is Franz Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major, known as "The Trout
Quintet" for its set of variations in the fourth movement of Schubert's Die Forelle. Other works for this
instrumentation written from roughly the same period include those by Johann Nepomuk Hummel, George
Onslow, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Louise Farrenc, Ferdinand Ries, Franz Limmer, Johann Baptist Cramer, and
Hermann Goetz. Later composers who wrote chamber works for this quintet include Ralph Vaughan
Williams, Colin Matthews, Jon Deak, Frank Proto, and John Woolrich. Slightly larger sextets written for
piano, string quartet, and double bass have been written by Felix Mendelssohn, Mikhail Glinka, Richard
Wernick, and Charles Ives.
In the genre of string quintets, there are a few works for string quartet with double bass. Antonn Dvok's
String Quintet in G major, Op.77 and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Serenade in G major, K.525 ("Eine kleine
Nachtmusik") are the most popular pieces in this repertoire, along with works by Darius Milhaud, Luigi
Boccherini (3 quintets), Harold Shapero, and Paul Hindemith. Another example is Alistair Hinton's String
Quintet (196977), which also includes a major part for solo soprano; at almost 170 minutes in duration, it is
almost certainly the largest such work in the repertoire.
Slightly smaller string works with the double bass include six string sonatas by Gioachino Rossini, for two
violins, cello, and double bass written at the age of twelve over the course of three days in 1804. These
remain his most famous instrumental works and have also been adapted for wind quartet. Franz Anton
Hoffmeister wrote four String Quartets for Solo Double Bass, Violin, Viola, and Cello in D Major. Frank
Proto has written a Trio for Violin, Viola and Double Bass (1974), 2 Duos for Violin and Double Bass (1967
and 2005), and The Games of October for Oboe/English Horn and Double Bass (1991).
Larger works that incorporate the double bass include Beethoven's Septet in E major, Op. 20, one of his
most famous pieces during his lifetime, which consists of clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and
bass. When the clarinetist Ferdinand Troyer commissioned a work from Franz Schubert for similar forces, he
added one more violin for his Octet in F major, D.803. Paul Hindemith used the same instrumentation as
Schubert for his own Octet. In the realm of even larger works, Mozart included the double bass in addition to
12 wind instruments for his "Gran Partita" Serenade, K.361 and Martin used the double bass in his nonet
for wind quintet, violin, viola, cello and double bass.
Other examples of chamber works that use the double bass in mixed ensembles include Serge Prokofiev's
Quintet in G minor, Op. 39 for oboe, clarinet, violin, viola, and double bass; Erwin Schulhoff's Concertino
for flute/piccolo, viola, and double bass; Frank Proto's Afro-American Fragments for bass clarinet, cello,
double bass and narrator and Sextet for clarinet and strings; Fred Lerdahl's Waltzes for violin, viola, cello,
and double bass; Mohammed Fairouz's Litany for double bass and wind quartet; Mario Davidovsky's Festino
for guitar, viola, cello, and double bass; and Iannis Xenakis's Morsima-Amorsima for piano, violin, cello,
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and double bass. There are also new music ensembles that utilize the double bass such as Time for Three and
PROJECT Trio.
Orchestral passages and solos
In the baroque and classical periods, composers typically

had the double bass double the cello part in orchestral
passages. A notable exception is Haydn, who composed
solo passages for the double bass in his Symphonies
No. 6 Le Matin, No. 7 Le midi, No. 8 Le Soir, No. 31 The opening of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, third
Horn Signal, and No. 45 Farewellbut who otherwise movement is often used as an orchestral excerpt
grouped bass and cello parts together. Beethoven paved during bass auditions.
the way for separate double bass parts, which became
more common in the romantic era. The scherzo and trio from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are famous
orchestral excerpts, as is the recitative at the beginning of the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth
Symphony. In many nineteenth century symphonies and concertos, the typical impact of separate bass and
cello parts was that bass parts became simpler and cello parts got the melodic lines and rapid passage work.
A double bass section of a modern orchestra typically uses eight double bassists in, usually in unison.
Smaller orchestras may have four double basses, and in exceptional cases, bass sections may have as many
as ten members. If some double bassists have low C extensions, and some have regular (low E) basses, those
with the low C extensions may play some passages an octave below the regular double basses. Also, some
composers write divided (divisi) parts for the basses, where upper and lower parts in the music are often
assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and "inside" players. Composers writing divisi parts for bass
often write perfect intervals, such as octaves and fifths, but in some cases use thirds and sixths.
The basses play the theme from the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
Where a composition calls for a solo bass part, the principal bass invariably plays that part. The section
leader (or principal) also determines the bowings, often based on bowings set out by the concertmaster. In
some cases, the principal bass may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate
the requirements of playing bass. The principal bass also leads entrances for the bass section, typically by
lifting the bow or plucking hand before the entrance or indicating the entrance with the head, to ensure the
section starts together. Major professional orchestras typically have an assistant principal bass player, who
plays solos and leads the bass section if the principal is absent.
While orchestral bass solos are somewhat rare, there are some notable examples. Johannes Brahms, whose
father was a double bass player, wrote many difficult and prominent parts for the double bass in his
symphonies. Richard Strauss assigned the double bass daring parts, and his symphonic poems and operas
stretch the instrument to its limits. "The Elephant" from Camille Saint-Sans' The Carnival of the Animals is
a satirical portrait of the double bass, and American virtuoso Gary Karr made his televised debut playing
"The Swan" (originally written for the cello) with the New York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard
Bernstein. The third movement of Gustav Mahler's first symphony features a solo for the double bass that
quotes the children's song Frere Jacques, transposed into a minor key. Sergei Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kij
Suite features a difficult and very high double bass solo in the "Romance" movement. Benjamin Britten's The
Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra contains a prominent passage for the double bass section.
Double bass ensembles
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Ensembles made up entirely of double basses, though relatively rare, also exist, and several composers have
written or arranged for such ensembles. Compositions for four double basses exist by Gunther Schuller,
Jacob Druckman, James Tenney, Claus Khnl, Robert Ceely, Jan Alm (http://www.janalm.se/), Bernhard Alt,
Norman Ludwin, Frank Proto, Joseph Lauber, Erich Hartmann, Colin Brumby, Miloslav Gajdos and
Theodore Albin Findeisen. David A. Jaffe's "Who's on First?,"[26] commissioned by the Russian National
Orchestra is scored for five double basses. Bertold Hummel wrote a Sinfonia piccola[27] for eight double
basses. Larger ensemble works include Galina Ustvolskaya's Composition No. 2, "Dies Irae" (1973), for
eight double basses, piano, and wooden cube, Jose Serebrier's George and Muriel (1986), for solo bass,
double bass ensemble, and chorus, and Gerhard Samuel's What of my music! (1979), for soprano, percussion,
and 30 double basses.
Double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members),[28] Bass Instinct (6 members),[29]
Bassiona Amorosa (6 members),[30] the Chicago Bass Ensemble (4+ members),[31] Ludus Gravis
(http://www.ludusgravis.com/index.html) founded by Daniele Roccato and Stefano Scodanibbio, The Bass
Gang (4 members),[32] the London Double Bass Ensemble (6 members) founded by members of the
Philharmonia Orchestra of London who produced the LP[33] Music Interludes by London Double Bass
Ensemble (http://www.discogs.com/London-Double-Bass-Ensemble-Jim-Lawless-Steve-Gray-Music-
Interludes/release/2008247) on Bruton Music records, Brno Double Bass Orchestra (14 members) founded
by the double bass professor at Janek Academy of Music and Performing Arts and principal double bass
player at Brno Philharmonic Orchestra Miloslav Jelinek, and the ensembles of Ball State University (12
members), Shenandoah University, and the Hartt School of Music. The Amarillo Bass Base of Amarillo,
Texas once featured 52 double bassists,[34][35] and The London Double Bass Sound, who have released a CD
on Cala Records, have 10 players.[36]
In addition, the double bass sections of some orchestras perform as an ensemble, such as the Chicago
Symphony Orchestra's Lower Wacker Consort.[37] There is an increasing number of published compositions
and arrangements for double bass ensembles, and the International Society of Bassists regularly features
double bass ensembles (both smaller ensembles as well as very large "mass bass" ensembles) at its
conferences, and sponsors the biennial David Walter Composition Competition, which includes a division for
double bass ensemble works.
Use in jazz
Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which played a mixture of marches, ragtime,
and Dixieland) was initially a marching band with a tuba or sousaphone (or occasionally bass saxophone)
supplying the bass line. As the music moved into bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these
wind instruments around the 1920s.[38] Many early bassists doubled on both the brass bass (tuba) and string
bass, as the instruments were then often referred to. Bassists played improvised "walking" bass linesscale-
and arpeggio-based lines that outlined the chord progression.
Because an unamplified upright bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the
1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings to produce a rhythmic "slap" sound
against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the
strings, and made the bass more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording equipment of that
time did not favor low frequencies.[39] For more about the slap style, see Modern playing styles, below.
Jazz bass players are expected to improvise an accompaniment line or solo for a given chord progression.
They are also expected to know the rhythmic patterns that are appropriate for different styles (e.g.,
Afro-Cuban). Bassists playing in a big band must also be able to read written-out bass lines, as some
arrangements have written bass parts.
Many upright bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz. Examples include swing era players
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such as Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar
Pettiford, who pioneered the instrument's use in bebop. Paul Chambers (who
worked with Miles Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album) achieved
renown for being one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with the
bow. Terry Plumeri furthered the development of arco (bowed) solos,
achieving horn-like technical freedom and a clear, vocal bowed tone, while
Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the
role of the bass in Free Jazz.
A number of other bassists, such as Ray Brown, Slam Stewart and Niels-
Henning rsted Pedersen, were central to the history of jazz. Stewart, who
was popular with the beboppers, played his solos with a bow combined with
octave humming. Notably, Charles Mingus was a highly regarded composer
as well as a bassist noted for his technical virtuosity and powerful sound.[40]
Jazz bassist Charles Mingus Scott LaFaro influenced a generation of musicians by liberating the bass
was also an influential from contrapuntal "walking" behind soloists instead favoring interactive,
bandleader and composer conversational melodies.[41] Since the commercial availability of bass
whose musical interests amplifiers in the 1950s, jazz bassists have used amplification to augment the
spanned from bebop to free natural volume of the instrument.
jazz.
While the electric bass guitar was used intermittently in jazz as early as 1951,
beginning in the 1970s bassist Bob Cranshaw, playing with saxophonist
Sonny Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began to commonly substitute the bass
guitar for the upright bass. Apart from the jazz styles of jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz however, the
upright bass is still the dominant bass instrument in jazz. The sound and tone of the plucked upright bass is
distinct from that of the fretted bass guitar. The upright bass produces a different sound than the bass guitar,
because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, instead having a continuous tonal range on the
uninterrupted fingerboard. As well, bass guitars usually have a solid wood body, which means that their
sound is produced by electronic amplification of the vibration of the strings, instead of the upright bass's
acoustic reverberation.
Demonstrative examples of the sound of a solo double bass and its technical use in jazz can be heard on the
solo recordings Emerald Tears (1978) by Dave Holland or Emergence (1986) by Miroslav Vitous. Holland
also recorded an album with the representative title Music from Two Basses (1971) on which he plays with
Barre Phillips while he sometimes switches to cello.
Use in bluegrass and country

The string bass is the most commonly used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is almost always plucked,
though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm
section, and is responsible for keeping a steady beat, whether fast, slow, in 4 2 3
4, 4 or 4 time. The
Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) brands of plywood laminate basses have long been popular choices for
bluegrass bassists. Most bluegrass bassists use the 34 size bass, but the full-size and 58 size basses are also
used.
Early pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the cello. The cellist Natalie Haas points out
that in the US, you can find "...old photographs, and even old recordings, of American string bands with
cello." However, "The cello dropped out of sight in folk music, and became associated with the
orchestra."[42] The cello did not reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century.
Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass, because it is easier to transport than the large
and somewhat fragile upright bass. However, the bass guitar has a different musical sound. Many musicians
feel the slower attack and percussive, woody tone of the upright bass gives it a more "earthy" or "natural"
sound than an electric bass, particularly when gut strings are used.
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Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some

exceptions) plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4 2
4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 4
time, and on the downbeat in 4 3 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass
lines are usually simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each
chord throughout most of a song. There are two main exceptions to
this rule. Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic walkup or walkdown,
in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically
when there is a chord change. In addition, if a bass player is given a
solo, they may play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or
play a pentatonic scale-influenced bassline.
An early bluegrass bassist to

rise to prominence was
Howard Watts (also known as
Cedric Rainwater), who
played with Bill Monroe's
Upright bass used by a bluegrass Blue Grass Boys beginning in
group; the cable for a piezoelectric 1944.[43] The classical bassist
pickup can be seen extending from Edgar Meyer has frequently
the bridge. branched out into newgrass, Country music bassist "Too Slim"
old-time, jazz, and other (Fred LaBour of Riders in the Sky)
genres. "My all-time favorite performing in Ponca City, Oklahoma
is Todd Phillips," proclaimed Union Station bassist Barry Bales in in 2008.
April 2005. "He brought a completely different way of thinking about
and playing bluegrass.[44]
An upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country western music. While the upright
bass is still occasionally used in country music, the electric bass has largely replaced its bigger cousin in
country music, especially in the more pop-infused country styles of the 1990s and 2000s, such as new
country.
Slap-style bass
Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass bass playing. When bluegrass bass players slap the string by
pulling it until it hits the fingerboard or hit the strings against the fingerboard, it adds the high-pitched
percussive "clack" or "slap" sound to the low-pitched bass notes, sounding much like the clacks of a tap
dancer. Slapping is a subject of minor controversy in the bluegrass scene. Even slapping experts such as
Mike Bub say, "Don't slap on every gig," or in songs where it is not appropriate. As well, bluegrass bassists
who play slap-style on live shows often slap less on records. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely do
slap bass on recordings. While bassists such as Jack Cook slap bass on the occasional faster "Clinch
Mountain Boys song," bassists such as Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel, and Barry Bales [rarely] slap
bass.[45]
Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass Bass DVD
acknowledges that slap bass "...has not been stylistically very predominant in the music I have recorded." He
notes that "Even in traditional bluegrass slap bass only appears sporadically and most of what I've done has
been on the more contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O'Brien)." Schatz states that he would be
"... more likely to use it [slap] in a live situation than on a recordingfor a solo or to punctuate a particular
place in a song or tune where I wouldn't be obliterating someone's solo."[46] Another bluegrass method,
Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass, by Earl Gately, also teaches bluegrass slap bass technique. German bassist
Didi Beck plays rapid triplet slaps, as demonstrated in this video.[47]
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Use in popular music

In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the standard bass instrument in the emerging style of rock and roll
music, Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets being but one example. In the 1940s, a new style of dance
music called rhythm and blues developed, incorporating elements of the earlier styles of blues and swing.
Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured an upright bass in his group, the Tympany Five.[48]
The upright bass remained an integral part of pop lineups throughout the 1950s, as the new genre of rock and
roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and blues, with strong elements also derived from jazz,
country, and bluegrass. However, upright bass players using their instruments in these contexts faced
inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and later amplified electric
guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear. The upright bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue
settings, because it can be prone to feedback howls. As well, the upright bass is large and awkward to
transport, which also created transportation problems for touring bands. In some groups, the slap bass was
utilized as band percussion in lieu of a drummer; such was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen (the
forerunner group to the Comets), which did not use drummers on recordings and live performances until late
1952; prior to this the slap bass was relied on for percussion, including on recordings such as Haley's
versions of "Rock the Joint" and "Rocket 88".[49]
In 1951, Leo Fender released his Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass guitar.[50]
The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in magnetic pickups, easily portable (less than a foot
longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune than an upright bass, thanks to the metal frets. In the
1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and performing in larger venues. The electric bass
was able to provide the huge, highly amplified stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this
era demanded, and the upright bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene.
Photos of bassist Miroslav Vitous:
The upright bass began making a comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed
interest in earlier forms of folk and country music, as part of the roots rock and Americana trends. In the
1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses
made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Some popular
bands decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass, such as the Barenaked
Ladies. A trend for "unplugged" performances on MTV, in which rock bands performed with solely acoustic
instruments, further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars.
Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies primarily plays upright bass, although he has increasingly played bass
guitar throughout the band's career. Chris Wyse of alternative rock group Owl uses a combination of electric
and double bass. Athol Guy of the Australian folk/pop group The Seekers plays an upright bass. Shannon
Birchall, of the Australian folk-rock group The John Butler Trio,[51] makes extensive use of upright basses,
performing extended live solos in songs such as Betterman. On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop
band Department of Eagles, a bowed upright bass is featured quite prominently on the songs "Teenagers" and
"In Ear Park". Norwegian ompa-rock band Kaizers Orchestra use the upright bass exclusively both live and
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on their recordings.[52] French contemporary pop duet "What a day" uses

double bass extended pizzicato technique with vocals and type writer[53]
Hank Williams III's bass players (Jason Brown, Joe Buck and Zach Shedd,
most notably) have used upright basses for recording as well as during the
country and Hellbilly sets of Hank III's live performances before switching to
electric bass for the Assjack set.
The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded

upon the rockabilly tradition of slap bass. Bassists such as Kim Nekroman
and Geoff Kresge have developed the ability to play rapid slap bass that in
effect turns the bass into a percussion instrument.
Jim Creeggan of Barenaked

Modern playing styles Ladies, pictured at a 2009
show.
In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification
and almost exclusively played with the fingers, pizzicato style. The
pizzicato style varies between different players and genres. Some
players perform with the sides of one, two, or three fingers,
especially for walking basslines and slow tempo ballads, because this
is purported to create a stronger and more solid tone. Some players
use the more nimble tips of the fingers to play fast-moving solo
passages or to pluck lightly for quiet tunes. The use of amplification
allows the player to have more control over the tone of the
instrument, because amplifiers have equalization controls that allow
the bassist to accentuate certain frequencies (often the bass
frequencies) while de-accentuating some frequencies (often the high
frequencies, so that there is less finger noise).
An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency

responsiveness of the instrument's hollow body, which means that the
very low pitches may not be as loud as the higher pitches. With an
amplifier and equalization devices, a bass player can boost the low
frequencies, which changes the frequency response. In addition, the
use of an amplifier can increase the sustain of the instrument, which
is particularly useful for accompaniment during ballads and for A mid-sized bass amp used to
melodic solos with held notes. amplify a double bass at a small jazz
gig.
In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, it
is sometimes played in the slap style. This is a vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are "slapped"
against the fingerboard between the main notes of the bass line, producing a snare drum-like percussive
sound. The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and
releasing it so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack in addition to the
expected pitch. Notable slap style bass players, whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and
virtuosic, sometimes interpolated two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the bass line.
"Slap style" may have influenced electric bass guitar players who, from the mid-sixties (particularly Larry
Graham of Sly and the Family Stone), developed a technique called slap and pop that used the thumb of the
plucking hand to hit the string, making a slapping sound but still letting the note ring, and the index or
middle finger of the plucking hand to pull the string back so it hits the fretboard, achieving the pop sound
described above.
Double bassists
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Historical
Domenico Dragonetti (17631846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor

Giovanni Bottesini (18211889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Franz Simandl (18401912) Virtuoso, composer, pedagogue
Edouard Nanny (18721943) Virtuoso, composer
Serge Koussevitzky (18741951) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Modern
Gary Karr (1941 ) Virtuoso

Edgar Meyer (1960 ) Virtuoso, composer, teacher
Contemporary (1900s)
Classical
Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass

players are known as much for their contributions to pedagogy as for
their performing skills, such as US bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman
(19101987), known for his teaching at the Eastman School of Music
and, for 44 summers at the Interlochen National Music Camp in
Michigan and French bassist Franois Rabbath (b. 1931) who
developed a new bass method that divided the entire fingerboard into
six positions. Bassists noted for their virtuoso solo skills include
American pedagogue and performer Gary Karr (b. 1941), Finnish
composer Teppo Hauta-Aho (b. 1941), Italian composer Fernando
Double bass soloist Gary Karr
Grillo, and US player-composer Edgar Meyer. For a longer list, see
the List of contemporary classical double bass players.
Jazz
Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s included bassist Jimmy Blanton (19181942) whose short
tenure in the Duke Ellington Swing band (cut short by his death from tuberculosis) introduced new melodic
and harmonic solo ideas for the instrument; bassist Ray Brown (19262002), known for backing Beboppers
Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, Art Tatum and Charlie Parker, and forming the Modern Jazz Quartet; hard
bop bassist Ron Carter (born 1937), who has appeared on 3,500 albums make him one of the most-recorded
bassists in jazz history, including LPs by Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery and many Blue Note
Records artists; and Paul Chambers (19351969), a member of the Miles Davis Quintet (including the
landmark modal jazz recording Kind of Blue) and many other 1950s and 1960s rhythm sections, was known
for his virtuosic improvisations.
The experimental post 1960s era, and free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, produced several influential bassists.
Charles Mingus (19221979), who was also a composer and bandleader, produced music that fused hard bop
with black gospel music, free jazz, and classical music. Free jazz and post-bop bassist Charlie Haden
(19372014) is best known for his long association with saxophonist Ornette Coleman, and for his role in the
1970s-era Liberation Music Orchestra, an experimental group. Eddie Gmez and George Mraz, who played
with Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively, and are both acknowledged to have furthered expectations
of pizzicato fluency and melodic phrasing. Fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is notable for his
dexterity on both the upright bass and the electric bass. Terry Plumeri is noted for his horn-like arco fluency
and vocal-sounding tone.
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In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, one of the new "young
lions" was Christian McBride (born 1972), who has performed with a
range of veterans ranging from McCoy Tyner to fusion gurus Herbie
Hancock and Chick Corea, and who has released albums such as 2003's
Vertical Vision. Another young bassist of note is Esperanza Spalding
(born 1984) who, at 27 years of age, had already won a Grammy for
Best New Artist. For a longer list, see the List of jazz bassists, which
includes both double bass and electric bass players.
Other popular genres

Christian McBride (born 1972),
one of the new "young lions" in
In addition to being a noted classical player, Edgar Meyer is well known
the jazz scene, has won four
in bluegrass and newgrass circles. Todd Phillips is another prominent
Grammy Awards.
bluegrass player. Well-known rockabilly bassists include Bill Black,
Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets) and Lee Rocker (with
1980s-era rockabilly revivalists the Stray Cats).
Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and
first decade of the 21st century include Scott Owen (from the Australian band
The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US band Reverend Horton Heat),
Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), Geoff Kresge
(Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Willie Dixon (19151992) was one of the most
notable figures in the history of rhythm and blues. In addition to being an
upright bassist, he wrote dozens of R&B hits and worked as a producer. He
also plays bass on numerous Chuck Berry's rock and roll hits. Many other
rockabilly bands like El Rio Trio (from the Netherlands) also use this
instrument in their work. See also the List of double bassists in popular
music.
Scott Owen, double bass
player for Australian rock
Pedagogy and training band The Living End.
The pedagogy and training for the double bass varies widely by genre and
country. Classical double bass has a history of pedagogy dating back several centuries, including teaching
manuals, studies, and progressive exercises that help students to develop the endurance and accuracy of the
left hand, and control for the bowing hand. Classical training methods vary by country: many of the major
European countries are associated with specific methods (e.g., the Edouard Nanny method in France or the
Franz Simandl method in Germany). In classical training, the majority of the instruction for the right hand
focuses on the production of bowing tone; little time is spent studying the varieties of pizzicato tone.
In contrast, in genres that mainly or exclusively use pizzicato (plucking), such as jazz and blues, a great deal
of time and effort is focused on learning the varieties of different pizzicato styles used for music of different
styles of tempi. For example, in jazz, aspiring bassists have to learn how to perform a wide range of pizzicato
tones, including using the sides of the fingers to create a full, deep sound for ballads, using the tips of the
fingers for fast walking basslines or solos, and performing a variety of percussive ghost notes by raking
muted or partially muted strings.
Formal training
Of all of the genres, classical and jazz have the most established and comprehensive systems of instruction
and training. In the classical milieu, children can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and
performing in children's or youth orchestras. Teens who aspire to becoming professional classical bassists
can continue their studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories, and
universities. Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass performance.
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Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and
in Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral experience for
double bass players. Universities offer a range of double bass programs,
including bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of
Musical Arts degrees. As well, there are a variety of other training programs
such as classical summer camps and orchestral, opera, or chamber music
training festivals, which give students the opportunity to play a wide range of
music.
Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M.) are

four-year programs that include individual bass lessons, amateur orchestra
experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and
liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more
well-rounded education. Usually, bass performance students perform several
recitals of solo double bass music, such as concertos, sonatas, and Baroque
suites.
Master of music degrees (M.mus.) in double bass performance consist of

private lessons, ensemble experience, coaching in playing orchestral double
Jazz singer/bassist Esperanza
bass parts, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along
Spalding performing on 10
with one or two solo recitals. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an
M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required credential for people who wish to December 2009 at the Nobel
become a professor of double bass at a university or conservatory. Peace Prize Concert of 2009
Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or

A.Mus.D.) degrees in double bass performance provide an opportunity
for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level,
requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's
degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree). For this
reason, admission is highly selective. Examinations in music history,
music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination-recital,
are required. Students perform a number of recitals (around six),
including a lecture-recital with an accompanying doctoral dissertation,
advanced coursework, and a minimum B average are other typical
requirements of a D.M.A. program.
Manhattan School of Music
professor Timothy Cobb teaching Throughout the early history of jazz, double bass players either learned
a bass lesson in the late 2000s. the instrument informally, or from getting classical training early on, as
His bass has a low C extension in the case of Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s,
with a metal "machine" with colleges and universities began to introduce diplomas and degrees in
buttons for playing the pitches on jazz performance. Students in jazz diploma or Bachelor of Music
the extension. programs take individual bass lessons, get experience in small jazz
combos with coaching from an experienced player, and play in jazz big
bands. As with classical training programs, jazz programs also include
classroom courses in music history and music theory. In a jazz program, these courses focus on the different
eras of jazz history. such as Swing, Bebop, and fusion. The theory courses focus on the musical skills used in
jazz improvisation and in jazz comping (accompanying) and the composition of jazz tunes. There are also
jazz summer camps and training festivals/seminars, which offer students the chance to learn new skills and
styles.
Informal training
In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the pedagogical systems and training sequences
are not as formalized and institutionalized. There are not degrees in blues bass performance, or
27 de 31 28/01/2017 10:08
conservatories offering multiple-year diplomas in rockabilly bass. However, there are a range of books,
playing methods, and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to play rockabilly-style slap bass).
As such, performers in these other genres tend to come from a variety of routes, including informal learning
by using bass method books or DVDs, taking private lessons and coaching, and learning from records and
CDs. In some cases, blues or rockabilly bassists may have obtained some initial training through the classical
or jazz pedagogy systems (e.g., youth orchestra or high school big band). In genres such as tango, which use
a lot of bowed passages and jazz-style pizzicato lines, the bassists tend to come from classical or jazz
training routes.
Careers
Careers in double bass vary widely by genre and by region or country. Most bassists earn their living from a
mixture of performance and teaching jobs. The first step to getting most performance jobs is by playing at an
audition. In some styles of music, such as jazz-oriented stage bands, bassists may be asked to sight read
printed music or perform standard pieces (e.g., a jazz standard such as Now's the Time) with an ensemble.
Similarly, in a rock or blues band, auditionees may be asked to play various rock or blues standards. An
upright bassist auditioning for a blues band might be asked to play in a Swing-style walking bassline, a
rockabilly-style "slapping" bassline (in which the strings are percussively struck against the fingerboard) and
a 1950s ballad with long held notes. A person auditioning for a role as a bassist in some styles of pop or rock
music may be expected to demonstrate the ability to perform harmony vocals as a backup singer.
Classical music
In classical music, bassists audition for playing jobs in orchestras and for
admission into university or Conservatory programs or degrees. At a
classical bass audition, the performer typically plays a movement from a
J.S. Bach suite for solo cello or a movement from a bass concerto and a
variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature. The excerpts are
typically the most technically challenging parts of bass parts and bass
solos from the orchestral literature. Some of the most commonly
requested orchestral excerpts at bass auditions are from Beethoven's
Symphonies Nos. 5, 7 and 9; Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan;
Mozart's Symphonies Nos. 35, 39 and 40; Brahms' Symphonies Nos. 1
and 2; Stravinsky's Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5;
Ginastera's Variaciones Concertante; Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4;
Mahler's Symphony No. 2; J. S. Bach's Suite No. 2 in B; Berlioz's
Symphonie Fantastique, Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4; and the bass
solos from Verdi's opera Otello, Mahler's Symphony No. 1, Britten's The A German double bass section in
Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra and Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije 1952. The player to the left is
Suite.[54] using a German bow.
Orchestral bass auditions are typically held in front of a panel that

includes the conductor, the concertmaster, the principal bass player and possibly other principal players such
as the principal cellist. The most promising candidates are invited to return for a second or third round of
auditions, which allows the conductor and the panel to compare the best candidates. Performers may be
asked to sight read orchestral music. The final stage of the audition process in some orchestras is a test week,
in which the performer plays with the orchestra for a week or two, which allows the conductor and principal
players to see if the individual can function well in an actual performance setting.
In 2013, an article in Mother Jones about the role of women in music stated that double bass sections are
mostly male. The article stated that while "[m]any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership
women outnumber men in the New York Philharmonic's violin sectionand several renowned ensembles,
including the National Symphony Orchestra, the Detroit Symphony, and the Minnesota Symphony, are led
28 de 31 28/01/2017 10:08
by women violinists", the double bass, brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "...are still
predominantly male."[55] A 2014 BBC article stated that the "...introduction of blind auditions, where a
prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or
racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually
shift."[56]
Performance jobs
Performance jobs include playing as a freelancer in small groups, large ensembles, or performing solo music,
either live onstage or as a session player for radio or TV broadcasts or for recordings; and working as the
employee of an orchestra, big band, or recording studio (as the studio's house bassist). Many bass players
find extra work by substituting ("subbing") for bassists who are double-booked or ill. It is hard for bass
players to find full-time, full-year work at a single job. About the closest that a bass player can come to this
is in the case of classical bass players who win an audition at a professional orchestra or the tiny number of
top session pros that are hired by recording studios. Even full-time orchestra jobs do not usually last for the
entire year. When the orchestra stops playing (which is often in the summer), orchestral bassists have to find
other work, either as a teacher or coach, or in another group.
Teaching work for double bassist includes giving private lessons in the home or at colleges and universities;
coaching bass players who are preparing for recordings or auditions; doing group coaching at music camps
or for youth ensembles; and working as a high school music teacher.
In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres, most bassists cannot earn a living from playing in a single group
(with the exception of the small number of bassists in top touring bands or groups with recording contracts),
so they work in different bands and supplement their income with session playing and teaching. Due to the
limited number of full-time orchestral jobs, many classical bassists are similarly not able to find full-time
work with a single orchestra. Some bassists increase their employ-ability by learning several different styles,
such as classical and jazz or rockabilly and bluegrass.
In some cases, bassists supplement their performing and teaching income with other related music jobs, such
as working as a bass repairer (luthier); as a contractor who hires musicians for orchestras or big bands,
composing music (e.g., Dave Holland), songwriting, conducting (e.g., David Currie), acting as a bandleader
(e.g., Charles Mingus), or coordinating jam sessions (e.g., John Geggie). Some regions may not have enough
work in music to provide a living, even if a bassist plays several styles and does recordings and teaching. As
such, in some regions, bassists may have to supplement musical work with income from another field.
See also
Bach: Unaccompanied Cello Suites Performed on Double Bass
Double bass concerto
Electric upright bass
List of historical classical double bass players
Octobass
Triple contrabass viol
Piccolo bass
Tololoche
References
1. The Orchestra: A User's Manual (http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/manual), Andrew Hugill with the
Philharmonia Orchestra
2. Chamber Music in the Vienna Double Bass Archive (http://www.earlybass.com/chamber.htm), Alfred Planyavsky
29 de 31 28/01/2017 10:08
3. Double Bass Sizing FAQ (http://www.gollihurmusic.com/faq/2-SIZES_DOUBLE_BASS_SIZING_FAQ.html),

Bob Gollihur
4. Amro Music http://www.amromusic.com/bass-sizes. Missing or empty |title= (help)
5. The Double Bass (http://www.contrabass.com/pages/stringbass.html), Jacob Head
6. "A New History of the Double Bass". Paulbrun.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
7. "A Brief History of the Double Bass". Oocities.org. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
8. Planyavsky 1998
9. "A Brief History of the Double Bass, Lawrence Hurst, Professor of Double Bass, School of Music, Indiana
University". Web.archive.org. 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009. Retrieved
21 July 2012.
10. Upright Basses and EUBs at Gollihur Music (http://www.gollihurmusic.com/category/6-BASSES.html)
11. Upright Basses at Upton Bass (http://www.uptonbass.com/instruments/ub-standard-double-basses/)
12. Upright Basses at Lemur Music (http://www.lemurmusic.com/BASSES/departments/20/)
13. Upright Basses at New Standard Basses (http://www.newstandardbass.com/cleveland.htm)
14. Strings, standing waves and harmonics (http://www.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/strings.html#music), Prof. Joe Wolfe,
University of New South Wales
15. Article on bass strings by the Double Bass Workshop (http://doublebassworkshop.com/double-bass-strings-
articles-44) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120325185214/http://doublebassworkshop.com/double-
bass-strings-articles-44) 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
16. "Jeff Sarli". Jeff Sarli. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
17. "Viola da Gamba". musicolog.com. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
18. "Double bass." Encyclopdia Britannica. 1911 Edition [en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclopdia_Britannica
/Double_bass]
19. Three-string double bass in the cobla band (http://www.coblabaixllobregat.com/Contrabaix.htm) Website of Cobla
Baix Llobregat
20. "Bill Bentgen 5 String Basses". Billbentgen.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
21. "Sound Systems- Why?!". Harada-sound.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
22. Freiberg, Sarah. "How to Tame Annoying Howling Wolf Tones / CARE & MAINTENANCE / Instruments / All
Things Strings". Allthingsstrings.com. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
23. Dnnwald, H. (1979). "Versuche zur Entstehung des Wolfs bei Violininstrumenten". Acustica. 41 (4): 23845.
24. Firth, Ian M. (1973). "The wolf in the cello". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 53 (2): 457.
doi:10.1121/1.1913343.
25. David Chapman. "Historical and Practical Considerations for the Tuning of Double Bass Instruments in Fourths"
p.228229, The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 56, (June 2003), pp. 224233.
26. "Who's on First? for five double-basses". Terra Non Firma Press. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
27. "Bertold Hummel work commentaries". Bertoldhummel.de. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
28. Official website of L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (http://www.musicaguild.com/odbc/index.php?page=9&
langue=anglais) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120311231052/http://www.musicaguild.com
/odbc/index.php?page=9&langue=anglais) 11 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
29. "Bass Instinct Live In Vienna by none on DVD". LOVEFiLM.com. 16 April 2007. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
30. "bassiona-amorosa.de". bassiona-amorosa.de. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
31. "Chicago Bass Ensemble Home". Chicagobassensemble.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
32. Pighi Andrea. "The Bass Gang". Thebassgang.org. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
33. Music Interludes
34. [1] (http://home.mchsi.com/~donovan.stokes/volumeone.html)
35. "Bassgirls". Bassgirls. 21 August 1974. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
36. "The London Double Bass Sound: Gary Karr, Ernest Bloch, Paul Desmond, Edward "Duke" Ellington, Jerome
Kern, John & Paul McCartney Lennon, Niccolo Paganini, Cole Por". Amazon.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
37. "Wacker Consort and Northwestern Music Faculty to Perform". Northwestern University. 27 March 2007.
Retrieved 21 July 2012.
38. Siemers, Bryan. "Double bass". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
39. "Historic Jazz Fotos". Peterunbehauen.de. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
40. Hentoff, Nat (April 1999). "Charles Mingus -A musician beyond category". Gadfly Online. Retrieved 21 July
2012.
41. Scott Yanow, AllMusic Guide, http://www.allmusic.com/artist/p95770 retrieved 3 November 2009.
42. Looming Large: What's a cello got to do with a famous fiddler's tale? By Natalie Haas
(http://www.allthingsstrings.com/article/default.aspx?articleid=21495) Archived (https://web.archive.org
/web/20110103024640/http://www.allthingsstrings.com/article/default.aspx?articleid=21495) 3 January 2011 at
the Wayback Machine.
30 de 31 28/01/2017 10:08
43. Howard "Cedric Rainwater" Watts (http://doodah.net/bgb/HowardCedricRainwaterWatts.html), Stewart Evans

44. Johnston, Richard. "Barry Bales Expands The Spectrum With Alison Krauss & Union Station". Guitar Player.
NewBay Media, LLC. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
45. The Low End, February-02-2001 2001 iBluegrass.com. By Kip Martin (http://www.ibluegrass.com
/vi_posting3.CFM?p__i=1004&p__r=&p__a=bass)
46. "Learn How to Play Bass Guitar With Free Online Lessons". Rockabillybass.com. 2015-04-10. Retrieved
2015-12-23.
47. "The Art of Slap Bass Presents DIDI BECK". YouTube. 2010-03-31. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
48. Dallas Bartley Small town Boy: Playing in the bands (http://library.missouristate.edu/archives/exhibits/bartley
/index.htm), Special Collections and Archives Department, Missouri State University
49. BBC Radio 2, Just Keep on Rockin' , broadcast 17 April 2004. On this radio documentary, host Suzi Quatro
expresses disbelief that no drums were played on the recording of Rock the Joint.
50. The Electric Guitar: How We Got From Andrs Segovia To Kurt Cobain (http://mickcervino.com/the-electric-
guitar/), Monica M. Smith
51. "In Australia, the John Butler Trio has established itself as one of the most successful independent acts in recent
history. Their U.S. debut, Sunrise Over Sea, features gritty and soulful vocals, elements of hip-hop and
Appalachian folk." The John Butler Trio's Fresh Blends (http://www.npr.org/templates/story
/story.php?storyId=4814948)
52. "Kaizers Orchestra official web page". Kaizers.no. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
53. What a day - Closet http://www.notreble.com/buzz/2015/08/08/what-a-day-closet/
54. Jason. "Double Bass Orchestral Audition Lists A Survey Jason Heath's Double Bass Blog".
Doublebassblog.org. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
55. Hannah Levintova. "Here's Why You Seldom See Women Leading a Symphony". Mother Jones. Retrieved
2015-12-23.
56. Burton, Clemency (2014-10-21). "Culture - Why aren't there more women conductors?". BBC. Retrieved
2015-12-23.
External links
The dictionary definition of double bass at Wiktionary
Wikisource has the text of
Media related to Double basses at Wikimedia Commons the 1911 Encyclopdia
Bass (https://www.dmoz.org//Arts/Music/Instruments/Stringed Britannica article Double
/Bowed_Strings/Bass/) at DMOZ bass.
EarlyBass.com by Jerry Fuller (http://www.EarlyBass.com)
List of chamber music pieces with double bass (http://www.paulnemeth.com/basschamber.htm)
Polish folk music double basses (http://ludowe.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/instruments-/categories
/category/317)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Double_bass&oldid=760748038"
Categories: Bass (sound) Bowed instruments Compositions for double bass

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Jazz instruments Rockabilly instruments Blues instruments Amplified instruments
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Double bass - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

The double bass or simply the bass (and numerous other

The double bass is a standard member of the orchestra's

7.1 Regular tuning Bazantar

supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viol

In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres outside of classical music,

The double bass is sometimes confusingly called the violone, bass

The double bass is closest in construction to violins, but

An important distinction between the double bass and

the lower-pitched strings almost unplayable and hindered the development of

German bow French and German bows

Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from 60 to 75 cm

The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other members

tuned to a low B0, as a few works in the

In the simplest mechanical extensions, there are

Other tuning variations

Playing and performance considerations

techniques, especially in contemporary music, may require its use.

Performing on bass can be physically demanding, because the strings are

In rockabilly and psychobilly, percussively slapping the strings

The double bass's large size and relative fragility make it

Double bass players use various accessories to help

1900spresent The virtuoso nineteenth-

Chamber music with double bass

Orchestral passages and solos

In the baroque and classical periods, composers typically

Double bass ensembles

Use in bluegrass and country

Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some

An early bluegrass bassist to

Use in popular music

Photos of bassist Miroslav Vitous:

on their recordings.[52] French contemporary pop duet "What a day" uses

The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded

Jim Creeggan of Barenaked

An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency

Domenico Dragonetti (17631846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor

Gary Karr (1941 ) Virtuoso

Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass

Other popular genres

Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M.) are

Master of music degrees (M.mus.) in double bass performance consist of

Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or

Orchestral bass auditions are typically held in front of a panel that

3. Double Bass Sizing FAQ (http://www.gollihurmusic.com/faq/2-SIZES_DOUBLE_BASS_SIZING_FAQ.html),

43. Howard "Cedric Rainwater" Watts (http://doodah.net/bgb/HowardCedricRainwaterWatts.html), Stewart Evans

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Double_bass&oldid=760748038"

Categories: Bass (sound) Bowed instruments Compositions for double bass

This page was last modified on 18 January 2017, at 21:17.

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