THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACTUAL JOB DUTIES AND WELLNESS

AMONG SCHOOL COUNSELORS

A Capstone Presented to

The Graduate Faculty at Governors State University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Education

Counselor Education and Supervision

Nicole M. Randick

March 2014
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACTUAL JOB DUTIES AND WELLNESS

AMONG SCHOOL COUNSELORS

Nicole M. Randick

Capstone Project

Approved: Accepted:

__________________________ ________________________
Shannon Dermer, Ph.D Shannon Dermer, Ph.D
Committee Chair Chair, Division of
Psychology and
Counseling

__________________________ ________________________
Jon Carlson, Psy.D, Ed.D Karen DArcy, Ph.D
Committee Member Dean of the College of
Education

__________________________ ________________________
Rebecca Michel, Ph.D Beth Cada, Ed.D
Committee Member Dean of Graduate School

__________________________ ________________________
John Cook, Ph.D Date
Committee Member

ii
 Abstract

The purpose of this research was to investigate what factors were most influential

in leading to increased levels of wellness among school counselors. The Five Factor

Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel; Myers & Sweeney, 2005) measured participant overall

wellness. The School Counselors Activity Rating Scale (SCARS; Scarborough, 2005)

measured participant actual job duties. The SCARS subscales, consisting of counseling,

curriculum, consultation, coordination, and other duties, are based on the

recommendations made by the ASCA National Model (2012). These work activities

describe the job duties in which school counselors should be doing under the domains

described in the ASCA National Model. The relationship among overall wellness,

performance of actual job duties, and organizational variables were also explored. The

organizational variables examined in this study included working in a Recognized ASCA

Model Program (RAMP), supervision, and the degree to which counselors felt supported.

The sample for this study consisted of 108 school counselors who worked in the

elementary, middle, and the high school setting. Data were collected via a convenience

sampling from national, state, university, and professional school counselor listserves.

Responses were analyzed using a correlational research design to look at the relationship

between performing or not performing counseling duties as outlined by the ASCA

National Model, and the overall wellness of school counselors. The predictive

relationship between organizational factors on the frequency professional school

counselors perform these duties and overall wellness was examined through regression

analyses.

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 Statistically significant correlations were found between performing counseling,

consultation, and coordination duties and overall wellness. No statistical relationship was

found between performing duties under the curriculum subscale and other subscale. In

the regression analyses, coordination was found to be predictive of overall wellness in

school counselors. In addition, working in a supportive environment was the only

variable that was significant for increased performance in all the subscales of the SCARS.

Working in a RAMP program was found to predict increased performance in the

counseling and coordination subscales. No significant outcomes were found in predicting

wellness based on support, supervision, or working in a RAMP designated school.

iv
 Acknowledgments

Pursuing this degree has been a journey of professional and personal growth. The

relationships that were built and the experiences I have had throughout this doctoral

program have enriched my life. There are many wonderful people who have supported

me along the way and made this dream possible.

First and foremost I would like to thank my family. My loving husband Chad,

through unwavering patience and support, championed right beside me from start to

finish. My daughter Rachel, whos words Im proud of you, will resonate with me

forever. My daughter Danielle and son Todd, who provided hugs and kisses when they

were most needed, helped me stay grounded. I would like to thank my parents, Lorraine

and Terry Peterson, for their support, encouragement, and belief in me. Thank you for

instilling in me the value of education and hard work. I would also like to thank my

brother and sister in-law, Robert and Maria Peterson, for making sure I had the biggest

and best chocolate cake upon completion of this paper.

Thank you to all the professors and support staff at Governors State University

that helped me throughout this process. Their support, encouragement, and feedback

helped me to cultivate my abilities and blaze my own professional path. And to my

capstone committee, Dr. Shannon Dermer, Dr. Jon Carlson, Dr. Rebecca Michel, and Dr.

John Cook, I could not have completed this paper and degree without each of your unique

contributions and devotion to my professional growth as a Counselor Educator.

To Dr. Shannon Dermer, without your patience, guidance, wisdom, and

motivation, I do not believe that I would have completed this paper and degree. Your

endearing humor and quips lightened my heart when it felt heavy. You taught me to

v
laugh and enjoy the process and experience of being a doctoral student. Thank you for

your late night edits and teaching me that I did and probably still have issues with

anthropomorphism. You have taught me that anything is possible, and modeled what it

means to be a true mentor, teacher, supervisor, and friend.

To Dr. Jon Carlson, a living legend (literally) in the field of Counseling and

Psychology, thank you for teaching me to look to the past in order to understand the

future. Thank you for your candidness, realism, and encouragement when I came to you

with my ideas. Without your dedication to the wellness of others, I would have never

thought of pursuing this topic. Thank you for sharing your vast experience and expertise

to teach me about the things that cannot be found in journals. Most of all, thank you for

teaching me to enjoy the present moment, and to never stop being curious.

To Dr. Rebecca Michel, thank you for pushing me to reach beyond my own

expectations. You have taught me that hard work reaches beyond the classroom walls.

Your encouragement to pursue further publications, provide service in our field, and

make research fun has truly been a gift. Your passion to the field of Counselor Education

and Supervision has taught me to explore the unknown, conquer my fears, and dream big.

I am thankful to have had the experience working with you on many projects, especially

the completion of this paper.

To Dr. John Cook, a true leader, motivator, and role model. You modeled the

sophistication needed to be able to be an effective leader. You taught me that true leaders

know themselves, have a passion for the work that they do, and reach beyond the stars to

explore the unknown and execute new ideas. Most of all, you emulated pure genuineness

and care for my professional endeavors. I thoroughly enjoyed having you as a professor.

vi
 There are so many others who have supported and encouraged me along the way,

including coworkers and friends. I want to thank Mike Blacharczyk, who mentored me

and helped me mature in my personal and professional life. His gift to me was helping

me to enjoy each and every special moment and blessing along my path. To Gina, Jake,

and Liz, I have been truly blessed to have such incredible people in my life. This list

cannot be inclusive of all of the people, past and present, who have guided me along this

journey, but you know who you are.

vii
 Table of Contents

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi

List of Figures................................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER I: Introduction .............................................................................................13

Background............................................................................................................14

Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................16

Purpose of the Study..............................................................................................17

Assumptions and Limitations ................................................................................20

Definition of Key Constructs.................................................................................21

CHAPTER II: Review of the Literature .......................................................................23

Introduction............................................................................................................23

Historical Overview...............................................................................................25

Transforming School Counseling ..........................................................................33

The ASCA National Model ...................................................................................34

Foundation .................................................................................................35

Delivery .....................................................................................................36

Management System..................................................................................38

Accountability............................................................................................38

Comprehensive School Counseling Program Outcomes.......................................38

Defining the Role of the Professional School Counselor ......................................40

Preferred and Actual Job Functions...........................................................42

Others Perceptions....................................................................................45

Training and Supervision...........................................................................47

viii
 Wellness.................................................................................................................50

Wellness of Counselors .........................................................................................58

Summary................................................................................................................60

CHAPTER III: Research Methods ................................................................................63

Sample Selection ...................................................................................................63

Research Questions and Hypotheses .....................................................................64

Instruments ............................................................................................................66

Demographic Questionnaire ......................................................................67

School Counselor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS) ...................................67

Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel).................................................72

Data Collection Procedure.....................................................................................75

Data Analysis.........................................................................................................77

Validity Threats .....................................................................................................79

Summary................................................................................................................80

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS..............................................................................................81

Descriptive Analysis..............................................................................................81

Results....................................................................................................................88

Research Hypothesis 1...............................................................................88

Research Hypothesis 2...............................................................................89

Research Hypothesis 3...............................................................................90

Research Hypothesis 4...............................................................................92

Research Hypothesis 5...............................................................................94

Summary................................................................................................................94

ix
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION .........................................................................................96

ASCA National Model Duties ...............................................................................97

Non-Counseling Duties .........................................................................................99

Organizational Variables .....................................................................................100

RAMP ......................................................................................................101

Support.....................................................................................................103

Supervision ..............................................................................................104

Limitations...........................................................................................................106

Implications and Future Research .......................................................................107

Conclusion ...........................................................................................................110

References........................................................................................................................112

Appendix A: Demographic Survey .................................................................................130

Appendix B: The School Counselor Activity Rating Scale.............................................132

Appendix C: Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel) Permission...............................136

Appendix D: List of Actual Counselor Duties (1931).....................................................137

Appendix E: Appropriate and Inappropriate Activities...................................................139

Appendix F: ASCA National Model ...............................................................................140

Appendix G: IRB Approval Letter ..................................................................................141

Appendix H: Request to Participate ................................................................................142

Appendix I: Informed Consent ........................................................................................143

x
 List of Tables

Table 1. The 5F-Wel Second and Third Order Factors .....................................................55

Table 2. Reliability Coefficients for Subscales on SCARS...............................................71

Table 3. Reliability Coefficients: Wellness Score and Five Second Order Factors ..........74

Table 4. Frequencies and Percentages of Responses to Demographic Survey..................82

Table 5. Frequencies and Percentages of Organizational Variables..................................85

Table 6. Non-supported Activities.....................................................................................86

Table 7. Mean and Standard Deviation for Total Wellness...............................................87

Table 8. Mean and Standard Deviation for SCARS Subscales .........................................87

Table 9. Correlation Summary ..........................................................................................89

Table. 10 Wellness and Non-counseling Duties................................................................90

Table 11. Descriptive Statistics for Multiple Regression ..................................................91

Table 12. Model Summary ................................................................................................91

Table 13. Variables Removed............................................................................................92

Table 14. Unstandarized Coefficients................................................................................92

Table 15. Stepwise Regression Model for SCARS ...........................................................93

Table 16. Coefficient Summary.........................................................................................93

xi
 List of Figures

Figure 1. Five Factor Model of Wellness..........................56

xii
 CHAPTER I: Introduction

The duties of school counselors have multiplied over the years, propelling them to

be involved with all aspects of the school, taking on different roles and functions. These

roles include advocating for underrepresented students (Amatea & Clark, 2005; Lambie

& Williamson, 2004), providing system wide leadership (Dollarhide, 2003), collaborating

with others (Curry & Bickmore, 2012), understanding and disseminating data (Isaacs,

2003; Young & Kaffenberger, 2011), and enhancing the growth of students through the

delivery of outcome producing interventions (Galassi & Akos, 2004). School counselors

are finding themselves in systems with no defined role (Young & Lambie, 2007), lack of

support (DeMato & Curcio, 2004), and performing duties that are not congruent with

their training (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006). With expanding duties and responsibilities

comes the danger of role ambiguity (Lambie & Williamson, 2004; Young & Lambie,

2007) that leads to increased stress, conflict, burnout (Demato & Curcio, 2004; Lambie,

2006; Rayle, 2011), and a decrease in job satisfaction (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006), and

mattering (Rayle, 2011). This increased role ambiguity may have adverse effects on the

wellness of school counselors (Venart, Vassos, Pitcher-Heft, 2007; Walsh & Walsh,

2002).

The field of counseling is rooted in the concept of wellness, but counselors do not

always follow the wellness-enhancing advice they provide others (Cummins, Massey, &

Jones, 2007). When counselors lack wellness in their own lives they are no longer able to

nurture wellness in others (Lawson, Venart, Hazler, & Kottler, 2007, p. 6). The mental

health and wellness of counselors has been the focus of many research studies.

Researchers have studied wellness of counselor educators (Wester, Trepal, & Myers,

13
2009), counseling students (Myers & Sweeney, 2004; Roach & Young, 2007; Smith,

Robinson, & Young, 2008), and professional counselors (Lawson & Myers, 2010;

Lawson, 2007; Walsh & Walsh, 2002). Research has also been conducted on school

counselor job satisfaction (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006; Demato & Curcio, 2004; Pyne,

2011), passion (Sumerline & Littrel, 2011), self-efficacy (Sutton & Fall, 1995), and

mattering (Rayle, 2011). Lack of clearly defined roles and performing inappropriate

school counseling tasks have adverse affects on school counselors (Baggerly & Osborn,

2006). There is a need to understand what factors contribute to the wellness of school

counselors, specifically when it relates the role and function the school counselor plays

within the school setting.

Background

In 1989, the American Counseling Association for Counseling and Development

(AACD), later renamed the American Counseling Association (ACA), proposed a

resolution for optimal health and wellness (Myers, 1992). The resolution, The Counseling

Profession as Advocates for Optimum Health and Wellness established the future of the

wellness paradigm as the cornerstone of counseling, promoting a developmental

approach to optimum health and wellness over the lifespan (AACD, 1989, 1991). The

counseling profession shifted away from the medical model and the culture of pathology

of other mental health professions and moved toward a holistic approach to counseling,

emphasizing the connection between mind, body, and spirit (Myers & Sweeney, 2007).

The wellness paradigm developed from several concepts including wellness in relation to

self, others, and the environment (Dunn, 1957, 1959; Travis, 1978; Adler, 1956, 1998);

viewing people as active in their decision making toward a more successful existence

14
(Hettler, 1984, 1998); the active connection between the physical, psychological, and

spiritual self (Cowen, 1991); and preventative and proactive approaches emphasizing

self-care (Hatfield & Hatfield, 1992). Today, professional counselors seek to encourage

wellness, a positive state of well-being, through developmental, preventive, and wellness-

enhancing interventions (Myers & Sweeney, 2008, p. 482).

Although discussions of wellness usually focus on clients, the discussion also

applies to counselors. Section C of the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2005) states that

Counselors engage in self-care activities to maintain and promote their emotional,

physical, mental, and spiritual well-being to best meet their professional responsibilities

(p. 9). In addition, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational

Programs (CACREP) states counselors should engage in self-care strategies appropriate

to the counselor's role (Standard II.G.d). Unfortunately, the wellness of school

counselors has not received much attention in the literature (Lawson et al, 2007).

There has been some attention paid to the wellness of school counselors related to

their job duties (Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008). In 1997, ASCA published the National

Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). These standards

created a framework to help school counselors navigate the emerging responsibilities of

the 21st century school counselor (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). These responsibilities

included helping students focus on academic, personal/social, and career development so

students can be successful in their careers and life after graduation. The goal was to

ensure that all students needs were being met and that there was a seamless delivery

model between counseling services and education (ASCA, 2012). In addition, the

standards also provided examples of appropriate and inappropriate duties that outline the

15
role and function of the professional school counselor (Baggerly & Osborn, 2008). The

2003 publication, The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling

Programs, provided school counselors an outline as how to deliver proactive and

effective interventions to meet the comprehensive needs of all school students (ASCA,

2003, 2005, 2012). Results from past research has demonstrated that the overall wellness

and job satisfaction of school counselors may be influenced by performing or not

performing the duties as outlined within the ASCA National Model (Scarborough &

Culbreth, 2008).

Statement of the Problem

Brott and Meyers (1999) highlighted the incongruence between actual roles and

duties of school counselors and those defined by credentialing and professional

organizations. The school counseling profession is still fluctuating between historical

influences and the modern day comprehensive needs of students (Lambie & Williamson,

2004). The National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) and the ASCA National Model

(2012) provided school counselors a framework of how they should be spending their

time in school related activities. However, school counselors report that there is still a

discrepancy between what school counselors prefer and were trained to do in their jobs

and the non-preferred job activities they find themselves doing (Scarborough & Culbreth,

2008). In addition, school counselors reported doing more clerical duties (i.e., scheduling,

maintaining records, testing coordination) than non-clerical duties (Nelson, Robles-Pina,

& Nichter, 2008; Scarborough, 2005). Organizational factors within the school

environment may also impact the wellness of school counselors as they may not have any

control over their actual job duties (Culbreth, Scarborough, Banks-Johnson, & Solomon,

16
2005; Venart et al., 2007).

The wellness of school counselors continues to be challenged by role ambiguity

(Young & Lambie, 2007). The lack of having a clearly defined role within a systematic,

collaborative, and supportive environment has a significant impact on school counselors

job satisfaction (Rayle, 2006) that may result in role stress and impairment (Young &

Lambie, 2007). For example, Baggerly and Osborn (2006) found that the combination of

performing ASCA National Model school duties and receiving supervision significantly

influenced school counselors satisfaction and attrition. They suggested that the

incongruence between performing or not performing appropriate duties as outlined by the

ASCA National Model caused frustration and stress significantly increase[ing] school

counselors career dissatisfaction (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006, p. 203). In addition, Pyne

(2011) found high positive correlations among job satisfaction, positive experiences at

work, and having system wide support for performing preferred duties. However, not all

schools have a comprehensive school program for school counselors to operate within,

thus adding to role ambiguity, conflict, and stress as professional school counselors

attempt to navigate historical influences, current expected functions, and the role they

were trained to perform (Curry & Bickmore, 2012). What follows is a description of the

purpose, assumptions, and limitations of the research study.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of the ASCA National Model

to define the role and function of the school counselor, and its relationship to school

counselor wellness. The Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel; Myers & Sweeney,

2005) measured overall wellness. The School Counselors Activity Rating Scale (SCARS;

17
Scarborough, 2005) measured the performance of school counselor actual job duties. The

relationship among overall wellness, performance of actual job duties, and organizational

variables were also explored. The organizational variables, working in a Recognized

ASCA Model Program (RAMP), supervision, and the degree to which counselors feel

supported were also examined. A correlational research design was used to examine the

relationship between performing or not performing counseling duties and the overall

wellness of school counselors. In addition, the predictive relationship between

organizational factors on the frequency professional counselors perform these duties and

overall wellness was examined using regression analyses.

This study examined four research questions:

1. What is the relationship between performance of actual counseling duties (i.e.,

counseling, consultation, curriculum, coordination) and overall wellness

functioning?

2. What is the relationship between performance of non-counseling duties (i.e.,

clerical, fair-share, administrative) and overall wellness functioning?

3. Does performance of actual counseling duties, (i.e., counseling, consultation,

curriculum, coordination) significantly predict overall wellness functioning?

4. Do organizational demographic factors (i.e., practicing at a RAMP school,

supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported)

significantly predict overall wellness and performance of actual counseling

duties?

Derived from the above research questions, the following hypotheses intended to

explore and fill a gap in the literature:

18
 Hypothesis 1: There is a significant relationship between the performance of

actual counseling duties (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum,

coordination) and overall global wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1a: There is a significant positive relationship between

counseling duties and overall wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1b: There is a significant positive relationship between

consultation duties and overall wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1c: There is a significant positive relationship between

curriculum duties and overall wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1d: There is a significant positive relationship between

coordination duties and overall wellness functioning.

Hypothesis 2: There is a significant negative relationship between performing

non-counseling duties (i.e., clerical, fair-share, administrative) and overall

wellness functioning.

Hypothesis 3: The performance of actual counseling duties (i.e., counseling,

consultation, curriculum, coordination) significantly predicts overall wellness

functioning.

Hypothesis 4: Organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at a RAMP

school, supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported)

significantly predicts frequency of performing actual counseling duties.

Hypothesis 5: Organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at a RAMP

school, supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported)

significantly predicts overall wellness functioning.

19
 Assumptions and Limitations

There were several assumptions integral to this study. First, surveyed

professionals were graduates from master level programs in their field and spent more

than half their time in the school setting providing services to students that may or may

not align with the ASCA National Model. Another assumption was that the sample

acquired was a representation of different demographic and gender groups. The

demographic questionnaire collected demographic and organizational data from the

participants. Four assumptions were made based on using correlational research: (a)

independent random sampling, (b) normal distribution, and (c) there was a bivariate

normal distribution. The assumptions for regression analyses included: (a) there was a

normal distribution (the variables must be either interval or ratio), (b) multicollinearity

(too highly correlated), (c) there was a linear relationship between two variables, and (d)

there was homoscedasticity of the data (outliers kept at a minimum; Cohen, 2008). The

limitation of doing correlational and regression research was that regardless of statistical

significance, a causal relationship can not be made.

There were several limitations to this investigative study. The first limitation is

that it may lack external validity. Self-report surveys measure participants attitudes.

Attitudes are subjective in nature and can only produce information specific to the

surveyed participants; thus the results may not be generalizable to the whole profession.

Further, information gathered only gave a snapshot of the participants who were filling

out the surveys and may misrepresent the overall population in the profession, making

reliability a limitation. Second, the instruments were administered on-line. On-line

instruments do not control for reliability, on-line surveys lack control for who is taking

20
the survey. Third, the ASCA National Model may not have been taught in graduate

programs before 2003; therefore, some participants may not have been adequately trained

to incorporate it in their work. Fourth, the ASCA and ACA professional organizations

were used to recruit participants. This sample may only represent a small portion of

professionals working the schools, because not every school counselor belongs to these

organizations. A non-response bias was also considered. Overall, there was enough

respondents (N = 108) that completed the surveys to be used for this study. The following

is a list of key terms relevant to this study.

Definition of Key Constructs

The following definitions are given to provide clarity of major terms and concepts

that were used in this research:

Actual duties: For the purpose of this study, those duties that professional school

counselors perform in their everyday job related activities. The actual duties refer to those

activities defined as appropriate by the American School Counseling Association

(ASCA) as measured by the School Counselor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS). These

activities fall into the following categories: counseling, coordination, curriculum, and

consultation.

ASCA National Model. The ASCA National Model (2012) is a comprehensive

and systematic approach to school counseling. It serves as a framework in developing,

implementing, and evaluating comprehensive school counseling programs. It consists of

four interrelated domains: (a) foundation, (b) delivery systems, (c) management systems,

and (d) accountability, in which school counselors function as leaders, advocates,

collaborators, and change agents within the school system (Erford, 2011).

21
 Non-counseling duties. Non counseling duties refers to those activities defined as

inappropriate by the American School Counseling Association (ASCA) as measured by

the other subscale on the SCARS. These activities can include test administration,

clerical work, teaching, disciplining students, and scheduling.

Professional school counselor. Professional school counselors are

certified/licensed educators with a minimum of a masters degree in school counseling

making them uniquely qualified to address all students academic, personal/social and

career development needs by designing, implementing, evaluating and enhancing a

comprehensive school counseling program that promotes student success (ASCA,

2009).

Role ambiguity. Role ambiguity refers to having unclear expectations, no defined

role or the role is incongruent with the training and values inherent in ones professional

identity (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011).

Wellness. For the purpose of this study, wellness refers to the Adlerian theoretical

concept as defined by Myers, Sweeney, and Witmer (2000) as a way of life oriented

toward optimal health and well-being, in which body, mind, and spirit are integrated by

the individual to live life more fully within the human and natural community. Ideally, it

is the optimum state of health and well-being that each individual is capable of

achieving (p. 252).

22
 CHAPTER II: Review of the Literature

Introduction

The professional school counselors role and function looks different today than it

did when the profession began in the 1900s (Bain, 2012). The professional identity of

school counselors has evolved from providing vocational and guidance services, to

meeting the mental health needs of students, to creating comprehensive school counseling

programs through leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and accountability (Lambie &

Williamson, 2004). The roles, expectations, and functions of school counselors have

paralleled changes in legislation, changing needs of students, and expanding roles of

school systems through accountability efforts (Isaacs, 2003).

The history of the school counseling profession provides a glimpse into the

evolution and construction of its identity (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). Vocational

training and matching student abilities with employer needs led to the first systematic

guidance programs in schools in the early 1900s (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006). At this

time, guidance and vocation defined the role and function of the school counselor

(Lambie & Williamson, 2004). Developmental and student centered approaches to

learning emerged in the subsequent decades (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006). A paradigm

shift transpired in the 1950s with the formation of the American School Counseling

Association (ASCA) influencing the role, function, and training of the school counselor

(Froehlich, 1949; Lambie & Williamson, 2004). During the second half of the century,

education reform propelled school counseling into a distinct, viable profession within

educational systems, pushing for student achievement and accountability (Isaacs 2003;

Lambie & Williamson, 2004). However, leaving the profession void of a unified role and

23
function of the professional school counselor (Brott & Myers, 1999). The professional

identity of school counselors has been and continues to be influenced by external forces,

such as government legislation (i.e. No Child Left Behind Act, 2001, The Elementary and

Secondary Education Act, 1965, 1969) and internal professional initiatives, including the

National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997), Transforming School Counseling

Initiative (Education Trust, 2003), and the ASCA National Model (2012) to name a few.

These initiatives influenced the role of school counselors by articulating appropriate and

inappropriate job duties (i.e. National Standards), and defining training and supervision

standards for the profession (i.e. No Child Left Behind; Isaacs, 2003; Lambie &

Williamson, 2004).

Over the years, the transformation of school counselors professional identity

posed challenges to desired and prescribed roles and functions. School counselors seem

to have one foot stuck in the past expectations of its vocational and guidance counseling

roots and one foot stuck in current expectations based on the ASCA National Model. The

duties that school counselors struggle with, such as assessment (testing) and academic

and vocational planning (scheduling), are connected to this early history in vocation and

guidance (Lambie & Williamson, 2004, p. 125).

Although the roles and functions of school counselors have changed over time,

At the core of [school counseling] will always be a unique and distinct calling to help

students and promote their academic, physical, and emotional well-being (Bain, 2012, p.

6). However, school counselors may be asked to perform non-counseling related duties

such as scheduling, maintaining records, and coordinating testing (Nelson et al., 2008).

Therefore, there is sometimes incongruence between the school counselors expectations

24
of his/her role and the educational systems (i.e. principal, teacher, student) expectations

of the counselors role and function. This incongruence can lead to role ambiguity,

conflict, stress, and burnout (Demato & Curcio, 2004; Lambie, 2006; Lambie &

Williamson, 2004; Rayle, 2011; Young & Lambie, 2007). While Bain (2012) emphasized

a school counselors calling to promote the well-being of students, differences between

expected and actual roles/functions of school counselors may jeopardize the well-being

of the school counselor (Young & Lambie, 2007). Counselor wellness has a direct

impact on the quality of services that clients receive, but little is known about the

wellness of counselors (Lawson, 2007, p. 20). The wellness of school counselors may be

in more jeopardy than for other counselors because they may have less control over their

job duties (Young & Lambie, 2007) and a larger discrepancy between trained job duties

and their actual job duties (Culbreth et al., 2005).

This review of literature will provide further confirmation of the need for research

in the wellness of school counselors by: (1) reviewing the historical roots of school

counseling; (2) reviewing school reform initiatives that set into motion the transformation

of the school counseling profession; (3) reviewing the ASCA National Standards and

National Model; (3) examining the role of the professional school counselor, including

supervision, training, and others perceptions; and (4) examining wellness and its relation

to professional school counselors.

Historical Overview

Vocational guidance emerged on the heels of the industrial revolution and as

immigration increased and people sought new job opportunities (Gysbers & Henderson,

2006). Vocational counseling was created to address the quality of industrial education

25
and the preparation of workers for a chosen occupation (Zytowski, 2001). Although there

were several pioneers who experimented with vocational guidance in schools, Frank

Parsons is considered the father of vocational guidance (Erford, 2011; Lambie &

Williamson, 2004). His most famous contributions were his 1909 publication of the book,

Choosing a Vocation, the establishment of the Vocation Bureau in 1908, and the training

of future counselors (Zytowski, 2001). The field of vocational counseling is based on the

early and foundational work of Parsons. Parsons advocated for people to make positive

career choices based on their personal traits (aptitude, abilities, interests, resources) with

job factors (wages, environment). His approach to vocational guidance looked similar to

what school counselors advocate for today: (1) stressing individual career counseling and

decision making, (2) career to work transitions, and (3) understanding the interpersonal

and intrapersonal barriers that one may have in choosing a career (OBrien, 2001). The

work of Frank Parsons led to the emergence of the profession of vocational guidance in

schools (Hartung & Blustein, 2002).

The roots of the professional school counselors role can be traced back to

providing vocational guidance (Erford, 2011). In 1909 Boston schools were the first to

design and implement guidance programs district wide (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006).

Boston school officials wanted professionals trained to help youth make choices about

their lifes work (Zytowski, 2001). The training of Boston teachers in occupational choice

and methods of guidance led to the first organized effort to match student abilities and

aptitudes with the requirements of a vocational environment (Gysbers & Henderson,

2006; Zytowski, 2001). These movements led to the establishment of guidance

counselors, albeit teachers, in school systems across the country.

26
 The first national conference of vocational guidance convened in Boston in

November of 1910. The meeting was attended by education, social work, and psychology

disciplines with the goal of promoting vocational guidance (Zytowski, 2001). It was here

where the first principles of vocation were defined, which still resonates through career

theories today:

(a) The dignity of useful work; (b) that elementary schools should not train for a

particular vocation but develop the mind in a broad sense; (c) that high schools

should enable students to know about different vocations; and (d) warning against

the prescription of vocations (Zytowski, 2001, p. 64).

The national conference spawned the development of the National Vocational

Guidance Association (NVGA) in 1913, later known as the American Personnel and

Guidance Association (APGA), known today as the American Counseling Association

(ACA). With its diverse makeup of professional occupations: education, psychology,

community service, business, and government, the NVGA was influential in shaping the

vocational guidance counselors role (Erford, 2011; Lambie & Williamson, 2004). The

ensuing decades brought about new theories, research, and accountability to add to the

emerging role of the guidance counselor.

The 1920s was an era of expansion for vocational guidance and counseling in

schools (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006). The progressive education movement,

psychological measurement, and new record keeping systems influenced this era. The

progressive education movement emphasized the study of the development of students.

John Dewey proposed that students need motivation and age-appropriate, stimulating

classroom instruction at different phases in their development (Lambie & Williamson,

27
2004). In addition, school guidance counselors became responsible for measuring the

outcomes of such programs (Gysbers, & Henderson, 2006). An educational emphasis

surfaced and vocational education and vocational counseling become synonymous, thus

leaving vocational guidance counselors without defined roles or functions (Erford, 2011).

Non-counseling duties began to materialize in the form of clerical and administrative

tasks, such as enrollment, record keeping, placement services, and providing student

orientation (Erford, 2011; Gysbers & Henderson, 2006; Myers, 1923). George E. Myers

(1923), a professor of vocation guidance at the University of Michigan, published an

article expressing his concerns with the ambiguity of the role of the vocational guidance

counselor. He wrote [A] tendency dangerous to the cause of vocational guidance is the

tendency to load the vocational counselor with so many duties foreign to the office that

little real counseling can be done (p. 141). Myers (1931) compiled a list of 37 actual

duties (See Appendix D) that were performed by vocational guidance counselors at that

time. His list provided the first comprehensive list of duties that were identified as either

appropriate for a school counselor to perform and those that were outside the scope of the

counseling profession (Myers, 1931). He also stressed the need for research and data

collection in order for vocational guidance programs to continue to be viable.

Vocational guidance counselors owed much to psychology as testing surfaced in

the 1930s to provide credibility to the profession (Erford, 2011). Accountability began to

emerge in the schools with the development of interest inventories, aptitude and

achievement tests, and diagnostic testing. Tests provided information about students that

contributed to the role of the guidance counselor as someone who could provide

specialized services to students who were struggling educationally and behaviorally

28
(Erford, 2011). As a result, mental health and the well-being of students started to make

its appearance within the schools.

The focus on vocational guidance began to shift as the terms guidance and

counseling became synonymous, drawing attention to the social and emotional growth of

students (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006). In a 1941 journal article, Arthur J. Jones stated

We cannot separate the vocational wholly from the other elements, no more than we can

separate the social or the personal from the vocational (p. 31). This movement toward

encouraging the personal and social well-being of students was supported by the work of

Carl Rogers, a pioneer in psychotherapy research. Rogers (1942) seminal book,

Counseling and Psychotherapy, greatly influenced the profession of school counseling.

His client-centered counseling and student-centered education approaches drew attention

to the growth enhancing relationship between the counselor and client, and introduced the

concepts of understanding and empathy (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). This new role

drew attention for the need for training and accountability.

The passage of the Vocational Education Act (P.L 586) of 1946 impacted the

growth and development of guidance programs in schools. It provided federal funding to

schools for guidance and counseling activities, including salaries for counselor trainers

and supervisors, research, and maintenance of state programs overseeing school

counseling programs (Erford, 2011). By the end of the 1940s professional training and

accountability became a driving force in the recognition of the specific skills and

knowledge that counselors must possess (Froehlich, 1949). To this point, the evaluation

of the knowledge, skills, and activities demonstrated by guidance counselors confirmed

29
the importance of creating a distinct role and function for the guidance counselor

(Froehlich, 1949).

The American School Counseling Association (ASCA) was established in 1952 to

promote the professional identity of school counselors. Not until ASCA joined APGA did

the profession begin to emerge with the development of their first journal, The School

Counselor, and the collaborative effort between professionals to promote the professional

identity of school counselors through training and preparation (Lambie & Williamson,

2004). The Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) along with

ASCA began to develop the role of the professional school counselor through an

emphasis on the training, education, and supervision of school counselors (Gysbers &

Henderson, 2006).

As the number of school counselors multiplied through the 1940s and 1950s, the

transformation and construction of the profession was just beginning. At this time the

profession stressed the training of one-to-one counseling relationships, record keeping,

placement, and evaluation skills (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). Several major events

occurred during the next 50 years that transformed the professional identity of school

counselors: The National Defense Education Act (NDEA; 1958), school reform

initiatives (e.g. No Child Left Behind Act), the development of the Initiative for

Transforming School Counseling (TSCI; Education Trust, 1999), National Standards for

School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997), and the ASCA National Model

(ASCA, 2012) all had a vast influence in the development of the school counseling

profession.

30
 The Soviet Unions launch of Sputnik I into space in 1957 changed the face of

education in the United States (Erford, 2011). As other countries demonstrated their

knowledge in science, mathematics, and engineering, the USA was falling short of

expectations to increase these competencies (Erford, 2011). Enacted in 1958, NDEA

identified professional school counselors as political catalysts in helping the United

States improve education (Erford, 2011; Lambie & Williamson, 2004). The NDEA

mandated secondary schools to identify talented students in math and science and

encouraged college placement for these students. This propelled the training of

professional school counselors in identifying and testing students. Not only were school

counselors hired and trained, existing school counselors were retrained to meet this new

need (Erford, 2011). The role of the vocational guidance counselor, however, was

ambiguous and training programs emphasized that the counselors role cannot be

predetermined (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006, p 16). Although the role of the counselor

was still ambiguous, the NDEA was the start of the pioneering efforts to establish more

comprehensive school counseling programs.

The 1960s emphasized personal and social counseling services with the goal of

promoting students holistic development (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). At this time the

developmental nature of students was emphasized with a focus on individual and group

work (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006). Further, the role of the school counselor began to

take the place of guidance counselor (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). C. G. Wrenn's 1962

book, The Counselor in a Changing World emphasized the value of school counseling.

He recommended four roles that still define the role and function of the professional

school counselor today: (1) counseling, (2) consulting, (3) collect and interpret data, and

31
(4) collaboration. In addition, amendments were made to expand guidance and

counseling to students in elementary schools. The Elementary and Secondary Education

Act (ESEA; 1965) provided funding for guidance and counseling and the Vocational

Education Act Amendments of 1969 expanded services to people who were

disadvantaged and disabled (Erford, 2011). By the end of the 1960s, school counseling

emerged as a vital profession within school systems. The emphasis on counseling,

consulting, accountability, and collaboration in the following decades gave interest to the

development of comprehensive systematic approaches to counseling.

With increased changes to state and federal policies, more pressure was placed on

schools to define their guidance services with research and theory (Gysbers &

Henderson, 2006). The inception of the 1975 Education Act for All Handicapped

Children (also known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), and The No

Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, set into motion a new era of inclusion and

specialized programs for students with disabilities. School counseling began to take shape

as an integrated, planned, and systematic profession within the schools (Erford, 2011).

The role of school counselors continued to evolve with the 1983 publication of A

Nation at Risk commissioned by the National Commission of Excellence in Education.

The report identified the academic decline of students in the United States compared to

other industrialized nations. Reform initiatives went into effect to strengthen curriculum

and increase testing, strongly influencing the professional role of school counselors

(Erford, 2011). For example, the 1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STW) was a

nation-wide government program that influenced school counselors to help students focus

on vocational learning, preparation for meaningful work, and preparation for school-to-

32
work transitions (Granello & Sears, 1999). The role of the professional school counselor

commenced in 1990 when ASCA officially changed the professions name from

guidance counseling to professional school counseling. Although this was an era of

revitalization and a movement toward embracing comprehensive developmental guidance

programs within the schools, the role of the professional school counselor continued to

fall back on traditional methods (Sink & MacDonald, 1998).

Transforming School Counseling

School counselors met the education federal reform challenges that thwarted

schools throughout the decades, nevertheless, leaving the role of the school counselor to

take on different forms based on the different values and priorities at the federal, state,

and district levels (Herr, 2002). Past education reform initiatives focused on the education

of students and discounted identifying the role and function of the professional school

counselor (Herr, 2002). During the 1990s and the early 2000s new initiatives were

created to clarify the professional identity of the school counselor. The Education Trust,

funded by the DeWitt Wallace Foundation, introduced the National Initiative for

Transforming School Counseling (TSCI; Education Trust; 1999). The TSCI identified

goals for the future of school counseling and graduate-level-education and training

(Isaacs, 2003; Prusse & Goodnough, 2001). A New Vision was established that defined

the role and function of school counselors within five domains: leadership, advocacy,

teaming and collaboration, counseling and coordination, and assessment and use of data

(Education Trust, 1999). Each domain encompassed specific duties that a school

counselor would do within the school setting as well as duties that were inappropriate for

a school counselor to perform (Education Trust, 1999; Prusse & Goodnough, 2001).

33
This new initiative identified school counselors as leaders and advocates within the

school setting, providing data-driven interventions, ensuring access and equality of all

students, and identifying the diverse needs of students (Gysbers & Henderson, 2006). In

the following years, the TSCI and The Center for School Counseling Outcome Research

and Evaluation (CSCORE) worked together to provide guidelines for the practice of

school counseling and establish research based best practices for school counselors

(Carey & Dimmitt, 2006). The newly defined focus of the professional school counselor

now included best practice interventions to provide empirical support and legitimacy of

school counseling programs (Isaacs, 2003; Prusse & Goodnough, 2001).

The ASCA National Model

The role of the school counselor continued to evolve with the ASCA publication

of The National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997).

The standards were created to support school counselors efforts to help students focus on

three domains of learning and growth: (a) academic, (b) personal/social, and (c) career

development. The purpose was to ensure that all students needs were being met and to

ensure that there was a seamless delivery model between counseling services, education,

and the delivery of proactive and effective interventions to meet the comprehensive needs

of all school students (ASCA, 2012). The publication of the National Standards provided

school counselors a framework that defined the knowledge, attitudes, and skills students

should obtain by participating in a comprehensive school counseling program (Campbell

& Dahir, 1997). The standards also provided examples of appropriate and inappropriate

school counselor duties (See Appendix D). There was still, however, a need to define a

systematic way to perform the duties within the school system.

34
 In 2003, the ASCA published The National Model: A Framework for School

Counseling Programs, providing school counselors an outline as how to deliver proactive

and effective interventions to meet the National Standards (ASCA, 2012). The National

Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) and the National Model (ASCA, 2012) provided a

comprehensive school counseling model that helped to define the role and function of

professional school counselors, along with guidelines in how to accomplish their job

duties (Isaacs, 2003). It also served as a guide for stakeholders and administrators of

schools to understand how school counseling programs are implemented and to answer

the question, How students are different as a result of the program (ASCA, 2012, p.

147). School counseling programs that have fully implemented the ASCA National

Model within their programs can apply to ASCA for the Recognized ASCA Model

Program (RAMP) designation. This recognition demonstrates that school counseling

programs are committed to delivering data-driven comprehensive programs (ASCA,

2012). The four domains within the model that define the functions of the school

counselor include: (a) foundation, (b) delivery system, (c) management system, and (d)

accountability. These four domains presented a guideline as how to provide integrated,

planned, and systematic guidance and counseling services (A diagram of the ASCA

National Model can be seen in Appendix E). The following provides an explanation of

each of the four domains within the ASCA National Model (2012).

Foundation

The foundation of a comprehensive school counseling program incorporates the

purpose, goal, and mission of the school. The ASCA standards form the theoretical

underpinnings of the foundation, creating a framework of student goals and competencies

35
that drive interventions and prevention efforts. These standards are meant to help students

develop competence and resilience in the following domains: (a) academic development,

(b) career development, and (c) personal/social development (ASCA, 2012).

Academic. The academic development domain focuses on student attitudes,

preparation, social skills and knowledge influencing a students life and work choices

(ASCA, 2012). By participating in an effective school counseling program that focuses

on strengths, students can obtain the tools to be able to demonstrate healthy life choices

(Galassi, Griffin & Akos, 2008).

Career development. The career development domain encompasses students

ability to understand personal strengths and knowledge, and how this relates to the world

of work. Students are expected to acquire strategies to achieve future career goals and

understand their unique qualities as they relate to work, lifestyle, and future career

ambitions (ASCA, 2012).

Personal/social. Under the personal/social development domain students learn

the necessary social skills to be able to respect self, others, and the world. Students must

be able to make good decisions and create pro-social goals as they relate to how one

belongs to and contributes back to society. Competencies in this domain include

acquiring interpersonal skills, self-knowledge application, and acquiring personal safety

skills (ASCA, 2012).

Delivery

According to the ASCA National Model (2012), the delivery of services by

school counselors falls in two categories, indirect student services and direct student

services. Indirect services include performing activities on behalf of the students to

36
promote student achievement and ensure equal access and attainment of resources.

Activities in this domain include making referrals, providing consultation, and

collaborating with other educators, parents, and community stakeholders. Direct student

services include implementing (a) core curriculum, (b) individual planning, (c) and

responsive services. The core guidance curriculum encompasses delivering structured

developmentally appropriate lessons designed to assist students in increasing knowledge

and skills. Individual student planning involves working with students on establishing

personal career goals and plans for the future (ASCA, 2012). Direct services are informed

by data to help school counselors make decisions about different interventions to use to

promote academic, career, and personal/social development.

Guidance activities. Guidance activities can be done in the classroom and out of

the classroom. The delivery of individual student planning is done through systematic

activities that are ongoing within school and community environments. Individual

planning is designed to assist students with establishing personal goals and developing

future plans (ASCA, 2012). Activities in this domain include doing individual student

appraisals (i.e. interest inventories) and advisement (i.e. establishing goal plans).

Response Services. Responsive services include those services that are developed

to meet the immediate needs and concerns of students. School counselors work with

students who are experiencing barriers to their learning and develop strategies designed

to help students resolve issues they are having in the academic, career, or personal/social

domains. Types of responsive services include individual and group counseling,

consultation, crisis response, and counselor led peer assistance programs (i.e. peer

mediation) (ASCA, 2012; Whiston & Quinby, 2009). Activities in this domain should not

37
encompass long term therapy. School counselors recognize the mental health needs of

students and make referrals within the community to address these needs.

Management System

To ensure that comprehensive school programs are organized, solid, and reflective

of the overall school philosophy, management systems are put in place that include

agreements, advisory councils, data collection, action plans, effective use of time, and

calendars. Counselors are responsible for spending 80% of their time with the students

and the rest of their time devoted to duties that express the accountability of the school

wide counseling program (ASCA, 2012).

Accountability

To hold programs accountable, school counselors must collect data to measure the

results against how well students are achieving the school-based competencies of

academic development, career development, and personal/social development. Activities

in this domain include creating results reports, analyzing data, and evaluating for

improvement (ASCA, 2012). Evaluation of the school counseling program helps to

inform decisions, determine effectiveness, and answer the question, How students are

different as a result of the program (ASCA, p. 147).

Comprehensive School Counseling Program Outcomes

The ASCA National Model (2012) established the underpinnings of how a school

counselor should function within a comprehensive school counseling environment. It is

important to the discussion of defining the role of the school counselor to discuss student

outcomes based on operating within a comprehensive school counseling program. The

results from research studies indicated that positive student outcomes were associated

38
with the elements associated with developmental comprehensive school counseling

programs: higher attainment, focus on career and future, positive school climate,

equitable services, and overall student satisfaction. By studying outcome data from

Missouri schools (N = 236), Lapan, Gysbers, and Sun (1997) found positive student

outcomes in schools that had more fully implemented school counseling programs. The

researchers found that students earned higher grades, reported they were more prepared

for the future, college information was made available to them, and the overall climate of

the school was positive. Similarly, Lapan, Gysbers and Petroski (2001) collected outcome

data from teachers and students from Missouri schools (N = 84) that implemented a

comprehensive school counseling program and found that students increased academic

outcomes, reported feeling safe in their school, satisfied with the school climate, and felt

prepared for the future.

Sink and Stroh (2003) reported a causal relationship between attending a fully

implemented program and higher student outcomes. The researchers compared

achievement test data from fully implemented comprehensive school counseling

programs (N = 150) with non-comprehensive school counseling programs (N = 83)

throughout the state of Washington. They found that students who attended schools with

fully implemented programs throughout their academic careers scored higher on state

achievement tests. Sink, Akos, Turnbull, and Mvududu (2008) found similar results in

Washington State middle schools (N = 187). Their research concluded that students

attending comprehensive school programs outperformed those that did not attend fully

implemented programs.

39
 More recently, since its inception in 2003, research has focused on student

outcomes associated with the ASCA National Model. Carey, Harrington, Martin and

Stevenson (2012) concluded that positive student outcomes were correlated with

attending schools with fully implemented comprehensive school counseling programs.

The researchers surveyed school counselors (N = 88) from Utah public high schools (N

=144) and collected academic outcome data from state achievement tests. Higher

graduation rates and higher student interest in careers and the future were found in the

schools with comprehensive counseling programs. A notable finding was the positive

correlation between student outcomes and school counselor data usage and regular

program orientation, both activities prescribed by the ASCA National Model. In a similar

research study, Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Hoffman (2012) obtained outcome data

from school counselors (N = 128) in Nebraska schools that used the ASCA National

Model to inform their delivery of services. They found enhanced student outcomes in

student retention (drop out, attendance), academics (graduation rate, test scores), and

behavior (discipline referrals, suspensions) in schools that had comprehensive school

counseling programs and used the ASCA National Model to inform the delivery of

services. Although this is promising research in school and student outcomes, school

counselors working within comprehensive school counseling programs vary among their

commitment and implementation (Dahir, Burnham, & Stone, 2009).

Defining the Role of the Professional School Counselor

The professional identity of school counselors is influenced by external and

internal variables. The internal variables of school counselors have been of particular

interest to researchers who have studied levels of job satisfaction (Pyne, 2011), passion

40
(Sumerlin & Littrell, 2011), mattering (Curry & Bickmore, 2012), role balance (Bryant &

Constantine, 2006), and effectiveness (Brott, 2006). For example, Pyne (2011) found a

positive correlation between school counselor job satisfaction and working within a

comprehensive school counseling model (e.g., ASCA National Model). Scarborough

(2002) found that years of experience and training are two factors that impact ones

experiences in his or her role. She found that inexperienced counselors tend to have

different role expectations than more senior school counselors. Some of the external

variables that may effect the healthy internal development of a school counselor include

performing duties as outlined by the ASCA National Model (Scarborough & Culbreth;

Nelson et al., 2008), applying evidence-based best practices (Myrick, 2003), preparation

and training (Brott, 2006), supervision (Studer & Oberman, 2006), and others

perceptions of the function of the school counselor (Culbreth et al., 2005). Defining the

role and function of the school counselor begins with accountability (Myrick, 2003;

Young & Kaffenberger, 2011). Knowing what works and learning how to make a

difference in the life of a student makes school counselors an integral part in transforming

the school counseling profession (Gysbers, 2004).

Historically, as the literature review revealed, accountability has been the

cornerstone of the school counselors role. Accountability demonstrates the effectiveness

of a program in measurable terms and allows school counselors to identify areas for

improvement (Isaacs, 2003; Myrick, 2003; Young & Kaffenberger, 2011). The

publication of the ASCA National Model (2012) provided a comprehensive framework

for the activities that should be central to the role of the professional school counselor

(Rayle, 2006). The ASCA defines the role of the professional school counselor as

41
someone who is uniquely qualified to address all students academic, personal/social

and career development needs by designing, implementing, evaluating and enhancing a

comprehensive school counseling program that promotes student success (ASCA,

2009). The ASCA National Model also defines how one spends his or her time and

provides a framework for the delivery of services within the schools (Clemens, Milsom,

& Cashwell, 2009). ASCA recognized the importance of working within a

comprehensive program with its RAMP award recognition for schools that have

demonstrated how the school counseling program aligns with the ASCA National Model

(Young & Kaffenberger, 2011).

Research indicates that there is still an ambiguity among how school counselors

define their role and function. For example, Dahir, Burnham, and Stone (2009) found that

school counselors from all levels (elementary, middle, and high school) described their

priorities and beliefs differently. This is similar to what previous researchers had found

(Dahir, 2004; Prusse, Goodnough, Donegan, & Jones, 2004; Scarborough, 2005). The

following is a review of school counselors preferred and actual job duties, others

perceptions of the school counselors job, and the influence training and supervision has

on defining the role of the professional school counselor. It concludes with a review of

how these variables affect the wellness of school counselors.

Preferred and Actual Job Functions

People choose careers where their skills and abilities can be expressed (Holland,

1959). Conflict arises when there is incongruence between ones preferred job duties and

actual duties performed (DeMato & Curcio, 2004). With the fluctuating landscape of the

school counseling profession, school counselors struggle with role ambiguity (Lambie &

42
Williamson, 2004), role conflict (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011), and stress and

burnout (Culbreth et al., 2005; Curry & Bickmore, 2012). School counselors experience a

decrease in job satisfaction (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011) as they find themselves

powerless and continue to struggle between performing non-counseling duties, crisis

intervention, administrative directives, and their desire to enhance the well-being of

students (Chandler, Burnhan, & Dahir, 2008; Dahir et al., 2009). Although ASCA has

defined the role of the professional school counselor and created a framework of

appropriate activities school counselors should be doing, school counselors find

themselves in organizations where discrepancies still exist (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack,

2011). For example, Scarborough and Culbreth (2008) investigated the discrepancies and

factors predictive of the inconsistency between school counselor actual and preferred

practice. The researchers surveyed school counselors (N = 361) across all grade levels

(elementary, middle, and high school) on how they actually spent their time and how they

would prefer to spend their time in specific school counseling activities. Results indicated

that high school counselors would prefer to do activities that align with the ASCA

National Model; however, they were least likely to perform these duties as compared to

elementary school counselors. They also found that school counselors who attempted to

incorporate the National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) in their practice, engaged

in outcome producing tasks, were supported by others, and were more likely to perform

preferred duties. These research findings support the concept of organizational factors as

a variable in influencing actual and preferred job duties among school counselors.

Although school counselors benefit from functioning within the ASCA National Model,

not all school counselors work within the model.

43
 School counseling literature supports higher job satisfaction and commitment in

counselors who align their job activities with the ASCA National Model (2012). For

example, Baggerly and Osborn (2006) found that performing ASCA National Model

school duties, obtaining supervision, and engaging in self-care significantly influenced

Florida school counselors (N = 1,280) satisfaction and commitment. They found that

44.7% of school counselors across all school levels (elementary, middle, high school)

reported being somewhat satisfied with their career, and 39.8% reported being very

satisfied in their career. Their research also concluded that 76.4% indicated that they

would continue in their career. They concluded that school counselors could increase

their satisfaction in their jobs by performing duties as outlined within the ASCA National

Model. Using a self designed survey instrument, Comprehensive School Counseling

Implementation Measure (CSCIM), and the Job in General (JIG) scale, Pyne (2011)

surveyed Michigan school district school counselors (N = 110) on job satisfaction and

working within a comprehensive school counseling program (identified by the ASCA

National Model [2012)]). High positive correlations between job satisfaction, positive

experiences at work, and having system wide support for performing preferred duties

were found. Although research indicated performing job duties within a comprehensive

school counseling model (e.g. ASCA National Model) can increase job satisfaction and

commitment, school counselors find themselves performing duties beyond the scope of

their training and job description (Bemak, 2000; DeMato & Curcio, 2004; Scarborough &

Culbreth, 2008). School counselors balance multiple professional roles and

organizational stressors (Bryant & Constantine, 2006). Not all school personnel perceive

44
the school counselors role the same way, thus creating unsupportive environments in

which the school counselor must navigate (Clark & Amatea, 2004).

Others Perceptions

School counselor relationships with teachers, parents and guardians, and

community stakeholders all influence the role of the professional school counselor

(Culbreth et al., 2005; Prusse et al., 2004). School counselors may struggle with

adequately meeting the expectations of others as their role is defined differently among

teachers, administrators, students, and parents (Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008). Teachers

and administrators can lack the understanding of the role of the professional school

counselor, especially as it relates to achieving the goal and mission of the school (DeVoss

& Andrews, 2006). Role conflict may occur when there are different sets of expectations

and job duties are inadequately defined (Biddle, 1979).

Principals are ultimately in control of finding the most effective use and role for

the school counselor; however, school counselors and principals can differ in their

definition of appropriate and inappropriate job tasks (Amatea & Clark, 2005; Dahir,

2000; Prusse et al, 2004). In fact, research reveals that what some principals deem as

appropriate school counselors identified as inappropriate (Prusse et al., 2004).

Leuwerke, Walker, and Shi (2009) reported that over half of the principals they surveyed

reported that they were not aware of the ASCA National Model. Given the power

differential between their two roles, school counselors must act as advocates to promote

their role within the schools (Armstrong, MacDonald, & Stillo, 2010; Lieberman, 2004).

A review of the literature revealed that strong administrator-counselor

relationships (a) lead to more satisfied school counselors, (b) perceptions of school

45
counselors roles are more aligned, and (c) the more committed school counselors

become in their job (Armstrong et al., 2010; Baggerly & Osborn, 2006; Clemens et al.,

2009). In addition, RAMP designation provides a written framework in which counselors

function within the school program. Principals perceptions of school counselors from

RAMP designated school programs tend to be more aligned with the actual duties of

school counselors (i.e. guidance curriculum and consultation; Dodson, 2009).

School counselors are in a unique position to act as leaders, advocates, and

collaborators to enact systemic change, promote high academic achievement, and close

the attainment gap for underrepresented students (ASCA, 2012). High academic

achievement and closing the attainment gap not only affects counselors, but also the

administrators and teachers who are responsible for the management and delivery of

education services (Amatea & Clark, 2005; Clark & Amatea, 2004). Teacher consultation

within the school system is an integral function of a school counselors job function

(Baker, Robichaud, & Dietrich, 2009). Teachers seek out consultation for a variety of

reasons, such as getting to know their learners, student behavioral problems, and stress

(Dinkmeyer & Carlson, 2006; Tatar, 2009). Through their qualitative research, Clark and

Amatea (2004) found that teachers and administrators hold communication,

collaboration, and teamwork as a high priority among a school counselors role. In

addition, they also cited visibility, knowledge of exceptional students needs, and direct

services to students as major themes of their role. School counselors must act as leaders,

advocates, and stay abreast to the current trends in the education system to help stay

connected with principals, teachers, parents, and stakeholders (Dollarhide, Smith, &

Lemberger, 2007).

46
 It is important for school counselors to have close, meaningful, and collaborative

relationships with all school personnel (ASCA, 2012; Dinkmeyer & Carlson, 2006).

School counselors working in RAMP designated schools report having a more

collaborative relationship with teachers, administrators, parents, and stakeholders (Young

& Kaffenberger, 2011). School counselors help schools systematically by supporting the

mission of the school, providing leadership, helping close the achievement gap for

underrepresented students, working with parents, and consulting with teachers and

principals (ASCA, 2012; Baker et al., 2009). If school counselors are going to meet the

demands of 21st century comprehensive school counseling programs (as set forth by the

ASCA National Model) and the school personnel that encompass them, they must have

effective training and supervision to obtain the skills to support what they do (Baggerly &

Osborn, 2006; Brott, 2006). These skills should encompass wellness development in

order to promote counselors own well-being (Lenz, Sangganjanavanich, Balkin, Oliver,

& Smith, 2012).

Training and Supervision

Counselor educators are the gatekeepers of the profession, training effective

school counselors is an essential part of ensuring the accountability of the profession

(Brott, 2006). The CACREP (2009) training competencies mirrors the same training

competencies as the ASCA National Model (e.g. leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and

accountability). Students trained in programs based on the ASCA National Model are

better prepared to implement their skills and competencies within the school system

(Prusse & Goodnough, 2001). For example, their survey of school counselor role stress

(N = 512) Culbreth et al., (2005) found that training in the ASCA National Model highly

47
correlated with decreased role stress among school counselors. In fact, research revealed

that school counseling students reported increased self-efficacy in leadership, advocacy,

collaboration, and system change through training in schools that promoted the ASCA

National Model (Prusse & Goodnough, 2001). Appropriate training from the University

level down to the school level is essential in defining the role of the professional school

counselor (Curry & Bickmore, 2012).

Wellness training is also central in the development of future counselors (Lenz et

al., 2012). Section C of the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2005) states that counselors

engage in self-care activities to maintain and promote their emotional, physical, mental,

and spiritual well-being to best meet their professional responsibilities (p. 9). Personal

growth begins with training, supervision, and support from others (Yager & Tovar-Blank,

2007). Wellness training helps to prepare students to handle challenges once they are in

the workforce (Wolf, Thompson, & Smith-Adcock, 2012). These challenges have a direct

impact on a counselors personal and professional development (Lenz et al., 2012).

Research emphasized wellness in counselor training programs (Roach & Young,

2007) and supervision based in the wellness model (Lenz & Smith, 2010; Lenz et al.,

2012). For example, teaching wellness strategies to first-year students was shown to

improve the wellness of students at the masters and doctoral levels compared to general

education students (Myers, Mobley, & Booth, 2003). Similar results were found in a

study on master level students where lower levels of distress were found in students who

had higher levels of wellness (Smith et al., 2008). In another study, Roach (2007)

collected wellness data on master level students in counseling programs at three points

(beginning, middle, end) of their program. He concluded that although master level

48
students acknowledged the benefit of wellness practice and that the professors taught

wellness enhancing strategies, they were unable to sustain significant wellness levels

throughout their program. Self-report data, however, suggested that counseling students

believed wellness was a strength and had an impact on their work with clients (Roach,

2007). Supervision that encompasses wellness training can potentially have a long term

impact on effectiveness of counseling (Yager & Tovar-Blank, 2007), provide students

with the competence they need to meet the challenges they face once they are in the work

force (Wolf et al., 2012), and may be useful in addressing impairment and distress (Smith

et al, 2008).

Supervision is essential to the personal and professional development of being a

school counselor (Bernard & Goodyear, 2009). According to the ACA Code of Ethics,

counselors should monitor their effectiveness through data and seek out supervision to

evaluate their efficacy (ACA, 2005, C.2.d). Supervision meets not only the school

counselors professional needs, but also personal needs such as stress levels, feelings of

accomplishment, and overall confidence and well-being (Lambie & Williamson, 2004).

Further, peer and district supervision increases job satisfaction and decreases stress in

ones job (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006). School counselors find themselves in schools

where their actual duties and site supervision does not match up with their training and

preferred roles (Studor & Oberman, 2006). Frustration ensues and school counselors

receive inconsistent messages (Studor & Oberman, 2006). School counselors who receive

less supervision are less well and more likely to be impaired (Lawson, et al., 2007;

Witmer and Granello, 2005). Counselor impairment often occurs when counselors have

persistently focused on the plight of clients while ignoring, dismissing, or minimizing

49
their own needs for balance and self-care (Lawson et al., 2007, p. 5). Since the

impairment of counselors has been found to effect a counselors work with clients

(Lawson et al., 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007) it is imperative to investigate the variables

that enhance wellness. The next section of this literature review will cover wellness and

the relationship of wellness and school counselors.

Wellness

The wellness paradigm in counseling developed from several early concepts

rooted in medicine, physical science, education, and psychology (Dunn, 1957, 1959;

Hatfield & Hatfield, 1992; Hettler, 1984, 1998; Travis, 1978). Early definitions of

wellness emerged in the medical field in an attempt to find a more holistic approach to

health emphasizing physical, mental, and social well-being (Larson, 1999, p. 126). In

1947, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as a state of complete

physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or

infirmity (United Nations, 1984, as cited in Larson, 1999, p. 126). This definition

influenced the medical field; using the theme of wellness as a construct to define the

notion of positive health (Miller, 2005). The work of Halbert Dunn (1957) further

influenced the construct of wellness, stressing the influence of mental, spiritual, and

social factors as either promoting or hindering higher levels of wellness (Miller, 2005).

He defined wellness as the interconnectedness of mind, body, and spirit as working in

harmony with each other (Miller, 2005).

Building on Dunns work, John Travis (1978) added the notion of personal

responsibility as a catalyst to improved wellness and health. In addition, the work of

Donald Ardell (1985) suggested that people who are ill could still make good lifestyle

50
decisions that can lead to greater satisfaction and life enhancing behaviors (Miller, 2005).

Ardells concept of wellness, however, abandoned the idea of spirituality as a

contribution to wellness (Miller, 2005), a concept that is today essential to holistic

wellness (Myers & Sweeney, 2005).

Bill Hettler, a college campus physician, is recognized for bringing the concept of

wellness to University campuses and co-founding of the National Wellness Institute

(Hettler, 1998; Miller, 2005). His development of the Lifestyle Assessment Questionnaire

was widely used as an assessment tool across college campuses (Miller, 2005). It became

the first step in the creation of the first wellness model. His hexagonal model of wellness

became the foundation for the creation of more evidence-based models today (Myers &

Sweeney, 2005, 2008; Sweeney & Witmer, 1991). He defined wellness through six

dimensions: physical, emotional, social, intellectual, occupational, and spiritual (Hattie,

Myers, & Sweeney, 2004). According to Hettler (1998), having a healthy balance of time

and energy between the six dimensions leads to increased wellness.

Contributions from the Psychology field were also major influences in the

wellness movement. Abraham Maslows (1954, 1970) concept of self actualization and

Gordon Allports (1955) concept of self-esteem and having healthy social/emotional

connections with others began to create what we know today as the building blocks of

mental wellness (Miller, 2005, p. 91). Alfred Adler (1998) also influenced the wellness

paradigm in psychology. Adler stressed a strength-based holistic approach to viewing

people, believing that people strive to contribute socially and have the skills and courage

to overcome obstacles to attain their goals (Adler, 1956, 1998). These early influences

called for a more proactive counseling orientation based in wellness through (a) spiritual

51
development, (b) physical fitness, (c) positive physical development, (d) stress

management, and (e) social skills training (Carlson, 1979). Similar to Adlers view,

Emory Cowen (1991) described wellness as a state of satisfaction with ones life, as well

as having a feeling of purpose and belonging. Positive self-care also influenced the

wellness paradigm, emphasizing life-balance and people being active agents in their own

development of well-being (Hatfield & Hatfield, 1992). Hatfield and Hatfield (1992)

defined wellness as the conscious and deliberate process by which people are actively

involved in enhancing their overall well-being- intellectual, physical, social, emotional,

occupational, spiritual (p. 164). These early works and concepts of wellness began to

culminate into a unified direction for the field of counseling.

The early models and definitions of wellness helped to define how counselors

work with clients today. In 2005, the ACA adopted a definition of counseling that states

Professional counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals,

families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals

(Kaplan & Gladding, 2011). In addition, Myers (1992) wrote a seminal article that

declared the wellness paradigm as the cornerstone of the counseling profession. What

began to emerge in the field of counseling were four fundamental philosophies that

served as the foundation of a counselors professional identity: (a) wellness orientation,

(b) developmental orientation to mental health, (c) intervention and prevention, and (d)

empowerment of the individual. These four philosophical assumptions establish the

underpinnings of a counselors professional identity (Remley & Herlihy, 2009). What

came soon after was the development of the first model of wellness based in the field of

counseling.

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 Using Adlers Individual Psychology as a theoretical model, Sweeney and

Witmer (1991) and Witmer and Sweeney (1992) introduced the Wheel of Wellness as a

model of wellness to be used to inform the field of counseling. A basic assumption of

Individual Psychology is that peoples thoughts, feelings, and actions are all directed

toward a perceived goal (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999). This goal is always changing and is

influenced by an individuals perception of his or her experiences (Mosak & Maniacci,

1999). All goals have a unique meaning and in striving to reach these goals people

develop their unique lifestyle. Adler believed that we all strive to establish a sense of

belonging. Healthy people strive to cooperate in society, proceed with optimism, have a

useful motivation of behavior, and have a social interest in others (Bitter, 2007). For the

purpose of this study, wellness refers to the Adlerian theoretical concept as defined by

Myers et al., (2000) as a way of life oriented toward optimal health and well-being, in

which body, mind, and spirit are integrated by the individual to live life more fully within

the human and natural community. Ideally, it is the optimum state of health and well-

being that each individual is capable of achieving (p. 252).

Adler (1998) proposed that individuals must be viewed holistically and that

people are striving to function within life tasks: (a) society, (b) work, (c) love, (d)

spirituality, and (e) self. The Wheel of Wellness model was originally created by

organizing characteristics that correlated with a healthy lifestyle within Adlers five life

tasks (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999; Witmer & Sweeney, 1992) in a wheel pattern with the

tasks making up the spokes of the wheel. Adler believed that people strive to achieve

mastery in the life tasks (Adler, 1956, 1998; Mosak & Maniacci, 1999) and this striving

53
enables people to be creative to overcome challenges in their lives. The following is a

description of the five tasks and the original components that made up each task.

Social and relational wellness was organized under the love and friendship task.

Personal transcendence and universal connection was identified under the spirituality

task. Career satisfaction and the ability to establish significant career support networks

were organized under the work task. The self task encompassed an individuals ability to

set goals and direct behavior. It also included physical and nutritional health, self-esteem,

realistic beliefs, humor, sense of control, emotional awareness and coping, problem

solving/creativity, self-care, stress management, cultural identity and gender identity

(Witmer & Sweeney, 1992; Myers et al., 2000). The Wheel of Wellness was created

through a culmination of concepts from Individual Psychology, a focus on prevention,

wellness, and development across a persons lifespan (Myers et al., 2000).

Witmer and Sweeney (1992) listed several life forces that impact people within

the life tasks. These life forces include family, community, religion, education,

government, media, and business/industry. Later revisions of the Wheel of Wellness

incorporated diversity and self-direction (Myers et al., 2000), culminating their holistic

wellness model. The Five Factor Wellness Evaluation of Lifestyle (5F-Wel) was

developed to assess each component in the Wheel of Wellness. Hattie, Myers, and

Sweeney (2004) ran a confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis on the Wheel of

Wellness and discovered one composite overall factor (Wellness), with five second order

factors for wellness domain functioning. The five subscales included Essential Self,

Social Self, Creative Self, Physical Self, and Coping Self. They also identified 17 factors

that lead to the concept of holistic wellness. These factors included cultural identity,

54
gender identity, self-care, essence, love, friends, intelligence, control, emotions, humor,

work, exercise, nutrition, leisure, stress, worth, and beliefs (See Table 1).

Table 1

The 5F-Wel Second and Third Order Factors

Second Order Factors Third Order Factors

1. Essential Self Cultural Identity, Gender Identity, Self Care, Essence

2. Social Self Love & Friends
3. Creative Self Intelligence, Control, Emotion, Humor, and Work
4. Physical Self Exercise, Nutrition
5. Coping Self Leisure, Stress, Worth, Beliefs

Note. Adapted from Myers & Sweeney (2005)

A new model was constructed, the Indivisible Self, that encompassed these five

interrelated concepts (See Figure 1) with one overall factor that encompassed the middle

(Wellness). The Indivisible Self model provides a foundation for evidence-based

practice for mental health and counseling practitioners. It is based on characteristics of

healthy people and thus can be considered to be strength-based; it is choice-oriented in

that wellness behaviors reflect intentionality in lifestyle decisions; and it is theoretically

grounded (Myers & Sweeney, 2005, p. 277). The developers came to define wellness

through their five second order factors and seventeen third order factors. Next is a

description for each of the five second order factors and the 17 third order factors that

encompass them.

55
 Figure 1. Diagram of Indivisible Self Model of Wellness

The Essential Self factor represents an individuals sense of meaning and purpose

in life. Adler believed that holism and purposefulness was central in understanding

human behavior (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999). Concepts related to the essential self include

areas such as gender and cultural identity, spirituality, and self-care. Spirituality was

viewed by Adler as central to holism and well-being (Myers & Sweeney, 2005). Both

gender and cultural identity were seen as filters in which people view themselves, others,

and the world. Self-care encompasses ones decisions to maintain healthy habits for a

more fulfilling life. The absence of these four factors may cause despair or a feeling of

hopelessness and alienation from his or her future and opportunities.

The Creative Self encompasses peoples unique attributes and qualities that can

influence how they finds their unique place in the world (Hattie et al., 2004). Adler

believed that people are always creatively involved with constructing their lives through

56
their knowledge and social experiences (Adler, 1998; Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). This

factor includes questions related to the individuals thinking ability, emotions, control,

positive humor, and work. Thinking and emotions are believed to be intrinsically related

as one effects the other, therefore positive thoughts foster positive emotions (Myers &

Sweeny, 2005). Control encompasses an individuals attitude and beliefs about the

amount of internal and external control one has toward reaching his or her goals. Positive

humor is believed to have emotional and mental benefits, as this moves one toward social

interest in others. Work encompasses ones ability to obtain cognitive activity and

stimulation that increases ones sense of contribution and fullness of life (Myers &

Sweeny, 2005).

The Coping Self includes items related to leisure time, stress management, self

worth, and realistic beliefs (Hattie et al., 2004). These items are all related to the

development of healthy strategies to deal with life challenges and stressful events.

Leisure activities include those activities that one enjoys outside of the work tasks. Stress

management is ones ability to locate the appropriate resources to handle stressful

situations or events. Self-worth is the feeling of how valuable one feels about him or

herself. Realistic beliefs include setting attainable expectations for oneself and for others.

The absence of the ability to respond to lifes events, which may provide meaningful and

successful experiences, may render one frustrated and disappointed with life (Myers &

Sweeney, 2005).

The Social Self includes the ability to construct and maintain significant and

intimate relationships with others (Myers & Sweeney, 2005). The third order factors are

friendship and love. The overall quality of life and health of an individual has been

57
connected to having positive relationships with others (Myers & Sweeney, 2005). Every

persons experiences are different, biologically, culturally, and socially, which makes all

people unique (Eckstein & Kaufman, 2012). The relationships people have with others

continues to form throughout ones lifespan. Individuals who have not developed these

strong relationships may suffer from isolation, alienation, and poor health (Myers &

Sweeney, 2005).

The Physical Self is related to exercise and nutrition habits. Being physically well

has been linked to decreased stress in individuals and increase ones resiliency to illness

(Myers & Sweeney, 2005). Exercise includes being active and nutrition includes eating

well, limiting unhealthy snacks, having a healthy weight, and avoiding unhealthy eating

patterns (i.e. under eating or overeating). People with poor heath habits are more

susceptible to stress in their lives that may cause illness.

The Indivisible Self is an evidence-based model of wellness that can be used to

understand the interaction of each task in ones life and how these interactions relate to

ones overall well-being (Myers & Sweeney, 2005). Being well is linked to healthy

functioning, physical well-being, and satisfaction in ones career and life (Bryant &

Constantine, 2006; Young & Lambie, 2007). In addition, wellness may be essential in

strengthening counselor resilience to help increase a counselors performance and

decrease risk for impairment (Young & Lambie, 2007).

Wellness of Counselors

School counselors are trained professionals who meet with students individually

and in groups to address concerns that may be interfering with the students' learning and

personal development (Scarborough, 2005, p. 280). They encourage the wellness of

58
their students through developmental approaches and preventative interventions that

promote optimal functioning (Lawson, 2007). The American Counseling Associations

(ACA) Code of Ethics (2005) states, counselors are alert to the signs of impairment

from their own physical, mental, or emotional problems and refrain from offering or

providing professional services when such impairment is likely to harm a client or

others (Standard C.2.g). The ASCA also has their position statement on wellness stating

that the professional school counselor "monitors personal well-being and effectiveness

and does not participate in any activity that may lead to inadequate professional services

or harm to a student" (Standard E.l.b). Based on these professional statements one can

conclude that personal growth and wellness is central to a school counselors well-being.

However, the studies on school counselor wellness have been sparse even though

decreased wellness has been found to reduce the quality of services that counselors

provide (Lambie, 2007; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Venart et al., 2007).

According to Lawson, Venart, Hazler, and Kottler, (2007) Counselor wellness is

not a new issue in the profession, but it has not received nearly the attention that [we

believe] is due (p. 6). Research on counselor wellness is still emerging, although

wellness has been found to be vital to a counselors professional work (Lawson et al.,

2007; Myers & Sweeney, 2008; Young & Lambie, 2007; Venart et al., 2003). Studies

have been conducted with counselor educators (Wester et al., 2009; Yager & Blank,

2007), counseling students (Myers et al., 2003; Roach & Young, 2007; Smith et al.,

2008), and professional counselors (Day-Vines & Holcomb-McCoy, 2007; Lawson,

2007; Lawson & Myers, 2011). A review of the literature revealed that school counselors

face various challenges to their well-being. For example, a national survey concluded that

59
school counselors tend to score higher for burnout and compassion fatigue/vicarious

trauma than their counterparts in practice settings (Lawson, 2007). School counselors

tend to score lower in wellness scales than their counterparts in mental health and

community counseling settings (Lawson & Myers, 2011).

School counselors face organizational factors and demands (i.e., increased

caseloads, undefined roles, work overload, little control, lack of support) that affect their

wellness (Lawson, 2007; Venart et al., 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007). Organizational

factors (Venart at al., 2007), lack of supervision (Page, Pietrzak, & Sutton, 2001), and

difficult and stressful case loads (Lawson, 2007; Granello & Granello, 2007) further

increases the demands put on school counselors. The consequences of these demands

may lead to impairment, affecting ones overall wellness (Lawson, 2007; Lambie &

Young, 2007). Counselors are vulnerable to distress because of the nature of the work

that they do (Cummins et al., 2007, p. 36). Improving ones own wellness may be the

catalyst to overcome job stress (Cummins et al., 2007; Witmer & Young, 1996);

impairment (Young & Lambie, 2007); ambiguity (Butler & Constantine, 2005; Culbreth

et al., 2005; Lambie, 2007), and burnout (Maslach, 2003). Counselors must sustain their

wellness to overcome these challenges and improve their resiliency (Venart et al., 2007;

Young & Lambie, 2007).

Summary

The professional identity of school counselors has evolved over the decades from

providing vocational and guidance services, to meeting the mental health needs of

students, to creating comprehensive school counseling programs through leadership,

advocacy, collaboration, and accountability (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). The roles,

60
expectations, and functions of school counselors have paralleled changes in legislation,

services provided to students, and increased accountability of school systems (Isaacs,

2003). These changes have posed challenges for school counselors and have resulted in

role ambiguity (Lambie & Williamson, 2004; Young & Lambie, 2007) that leads to

stress, conflict, and burnout (Demato & Curcio, 2004; Lambie, 2006; Rayle, 2011).

School counselors are finding themselves working in unsupportive systems performing

duties that are not congruent with their training or role as a professional school counselor

(Baggerly & Osborn, 2006; DeMato & Curcio, 2004; Young & Lambie, 2007). This

increased role ambiguity may have adverse effects (i.e., impairment, decreased

satisfaction) on the wellness of school counselors (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011;

Culbreth et al., 2005; Young & Lambie, 2007).

There is a lack of research on the wellness of school counselors (Lawson, 2007;

Venart et al., 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007). With wellness being the foundation from

which school counselors operate from, it is imperative to identify the factors that lead to

the wellness of school counselors, thereby promoting their optimum health, performance,

and attrition. Role ambiguity has been identified in the literature as a factor that may

impact the wellness of school counselors (Young & Lambie, 2007). The ASCA National

Model defines the role of school counselors to be that of leaders, advocates,

collaborators, and change agents (ASCA, 2012; Erford, 2011). Counselors must work

within environments that are supportive, nurturing, and encouraging of a school

counselors optimum well-being (Cummins et al., 2007). If the lack of wellness leads to

impairment, one can conclude that professional school counselors who take care of

themselves and focus on their personal growth and well-being have a positive effect on

61
the students they serve (Lawson et al., 2007). This research study was conducted to

attempt to understand how school counselors function within their role as outlined by the

ASCA National Model. The results provide information about what factors are most

influential in leading to increased levels of wellness among school counselors.

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 CHAPTER III: Research Methods

The methodology of this research study is outlined in this chapter. The purpose of

this study was to understand how school counselors function within their role as outlined

by the ASCA National Model and what factors are most influential in leading to

increased levels of wellness. What follows is a description of the methodology, including

sample selection, description of instrumentation and data collection procedures. This is

followed by the studys research design, data analysis used for each research hypothesis,

and conclusion.

Sample Selection

The sample was a convenience sample of professional school counselors. A

convenience sample is a non-probability sampling technique where participants are

selected because of their convenient accessibility (Cohen, 2008). A representative sample

of a population allows for conclusions to be made about the entire population from which

the sample came from (Cohen, 2008). An invitation to participate in this research study

was sent to national, state, university, and professional school counselor listserves.

Participants in this study were professional school counselors who identified as currently

working or who have worked within an elementary, middle, or high-school system

providing school counseling services to students. Each state has its own education and

school licensing standards, therefore several national and state organizations were chosen

to ensure that a sample of participants that qualified to participate would be obtained.

Qualified participants were those who have gone through a school counseling training

program in order to obtain employment as a school counselor.

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 The goal was to acquire a sample of school counselors who would agree to

complete the informed consent, the demographic questionnaire, and the two inventories

sufficient to meet the requirements of an appropriate sample size. Based on the results

from a the G-Power analysis calculator (Faul, Buhner, & Lang, 2009), a minimum

sample size of 100 was needed for an anticipated effect size (Cohens d) of .5, a desired

statistical power of .8, and a probability level of .05. The sample size (N =108) used in

this study provided a reflective sample of the population with a representation of males

and females, different age groups, and different levels of experiences. It was important

that the sample was large enough to assure that responses would reflect most or all of the

variables essential to this research. In addition, having a big enough sample size would

account for outliers in the responses, which would become less serious as the sample size

increases (Cohen, 2008). Outliers are those responses that represent abnormal responses

that lead to inflated error rates and substantial distortions in the data collection (Cohen,

2008). More details about the data collection procedure and participants is described in

the Data Collection section of this chapter.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The relationship of wellness was examined, as well as the frequency of school

counselors performing the duties they were trained to do as informed by the ASCA

National Model. In addition, the relationship among overall wellness, performance of

actual job duties, and demographic organizational variables was explored. The following

research questions were used to guide the area of inquiry for the research study.

1. What is the relationship between performance of actual counseling duties (i.e.,

counseling, consultation, curriculum, coordination) and overall wellness

64
 functioning?

2. What is the relationship between performance of non-counseling duties

(clerical, fair-share, administrative) and overall wellness functioning?

3. Does performance of actual counseling duties, (i.e., counseling, consultation,

curriculum, coordination) significantly predict overall wellness functioning?

4. Do organizational demographic factors (i.e., practicing at a RAMP school,

supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported)

significantly predict overall wellness and performance of actual counseling

duties?

Derived from the above research questions, the following hypotheses were

intended to explore and fill a gap in the literature:

o Hypothesis 1: There is a significant relationship between the performance of

actual counseling duties (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum, coordination)

and overall global wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1a: There is a significant positive relationship between

counseling duties and overall wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1b: There is a significant positive relationship between

consultation duties and overall wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1c: There is a significant positive relationship between

curriculum duties and overall wellness functioning.

o Hypothesis 1d: There is a significant positive relationship between

coordination duties and overall wellness functioning.

65
 Hypothesis 2: There is a significant negative relationship between performing

non-counseling duties (i.e., clerical, fair-share, administrative) and overall

wellness functioning.

Hypothesis 3: The performance of actual counseling duties (i.e., counseling,

consultation, curriculum, coordination) significantly predicts overall wellness

functioning.

Hypothesis 4: Organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at a RAMP

school, supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported)

significantly predicts frequency of performing actual counseling duties.

Hypothesis 5: Organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at a RAMP

school, supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported)

significantly predicts overall wellness functioning.

Instruments

Professional school counselors who participated in the study were asked to

complete an informed consent, a demographic questionnaire, the School Counselor

Activity Rating Scale (SCARS; Scarborough, 2005), and the Five Factor Wellness

Inventory (5F-Wel; Myers & Sweeney, 2005). Surveys are a widely used research

technique (Erford, 2011). Using questionnaires is a broad research strategy that involves

asking questions of a sample of people in a fairly short amount of time and then testing

hypotheses based on the responses (Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2011). The following

is a description of the instruments that were used for this study.

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Demographic Questionnaire

A demographic questionnaire was used to collect demographic and organizational

information from a sample of participants. Organizational information collected included

the amount of supervision being received and the degree to which the counselor felt

supported by administration on using the ASCA National Model. Other organizational

factors included questions about the ASCA model, including the degree to which the

responder perceived his/her training to be reflective of understanding the ASCA National

Model, and how the responder gained his/her knowledge of the ASCA National Model.

Another question inquired if the school program was a Recognized ASCA Model

Program (RAMP) through ASCA. Working in a RAMP program would indicate the

school counselor was working in a fully recognized and implemented comprehensive

school counseling program. Therefore, performance of duties would be fully aligned with

the ASCA National Model. To understand the makeup of participants the questionnaire

included a question about grade level (i.e., elementary, middle, and high school),

employment status (i.e., full time, part time, retired), and years of experience (i.e., less

than 1 year, between 1 and 4 years, between 5 and 10 years, more than 10 years).

Demographic information (i.e., age, race/ethnicity, and gender) was collected by the 5F-

Wel instrument.

School Counselor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS)

Developed by Janna L. Scarborough in 2005, the SCARS instrument measures the

frequency of how school counselors actually spend their time versus how they would

prefer to spend their time with respect to the components of the ASCA National Model

(Scarborough, 2005). The 48-item scale was developed to gather process data, which is

67
used to describe what activities counselors are doing and if best practices in the

profession are being utilized. The items were designed to closely follow the

recommendations of best practices found in the ASCA National Standards, and the result

of a literature review of the common activities counselors reported doing (Scarborough,

2005). Items are grouped into five activity categories: (1) counseling activities, (2)

consultation activities, (3) curriculum activities, (4) coordination activities, and (5) other

activities. The other portion of the SCARS is divided into three subscales, the clerical

subscale (3 items), the fair share subscale (5 items), and the administrative subscale (2

items). The administrative and clerical subscales contain items considered non-

counseling duties as described by ASCA (2012). Participants are able to complete the

survey in less than 15 minutes.

Participants respond to a scale that measures how frequently an activity is

performed in the actual activity column and/or the preferred activity column. Participants

then rate each item as (1) - I never do this, (2) - I rarely do this, (3) - I occasionally do

this, (4) - I frequently do this, or (5) - I routinely do this. According to Scarborough &

Culbreth (2008) the SCARS subscales can report raw scores by calculating the total for

each subscale. Mean scores can also be reported by dividing the subscale total by the

number of items in the subscale. Next is a description of the process used to obtain the

reliability and validity of the SCARS.

It is important to choose instruments that are valid and reliable to reduce

measurement error and to ensure the instrument actually measures what it was intended

to measure (Kimberlin & Winterstein, 2008). Reliability can be defined as the

consistency of the instrument (Cone & Foster, 2006). Reliability assesses whether there is

68
a strong tendency for participants to obtain the same results after repeated attempts

(Cohen, 2008). Validity can be defined as the degree to which the instrument measures

what it intends to measure (Cone & Foster, 2006). Scarborough (2005) conducted several

tests to establish reliability and validity in designing the SCARS.

Scarborough (2005) surveyed a sample of high school counselors obtained from

state school counseling organizations to obtain the initial validity and reliability of the

SCARS. A total of 600 participants, 100 counselors per grade level (K-12) were

randomly selected to receive the survey. A large sample (N = 361) of usable surveys was

returned representing elementary school counselors (n = 117), middle school counselors

(n = 120), and high school counselors (n = 124). Content validity was based on utilization

of expert feedback and a thorough review of the literature. Below is a description of the

methods used to determine the reliability and validity of the SCARS instrument.

To assess construct validity a principle components factor analysis with

orthogonal transformation to identify factors was performed (Scarborough, 2005). The

author analyzed each category independently from the other using the orthogonal

rotation. Content and construct validity were further assessed by administering pretests,

using experts to review the test, and conducting a one way ANOVA of results from field

tests (Scarborough, 2005). This allowed the scale to be tested to determine if the items

tested what they were supposed to be testing, if there was a range of possible variations

of participant responses, and if it measured more than one variable (multidimensional).

Results of the analyses indicated that a four-factor solution was found for the original 40

items representing the counseling, coordination, consultation, and curriculum categories.

The amount of variance on the Actual scale was 47.29% and the amount of variance on

69
the Prefer scale was determined to be 45.22%. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)

measure of sampling adequacy was .91 (Actual Scale), .90 (Preferred Scale), and

Bartlett's test was significant for both (Scarborough, 2005). A separate analysis was

conducted on the 10 items reflecting the Other Scale. All factors met Kaisers criterion

with eigenvalues greater than one. Three factors in which non-counseling activities can

be categorized was supported: Clerical, Fair Share and Administrative (Scarborough,

2005).

Convergent construct validity was reported by Scarborough (2005) by utilizing an

analysis of variance (ANOVA) to examine group difference among grade levels. Using a

Scheffe's post hoc analysis a statistically significant effect was found on all subscales by

grade level of counselor, with high school counselors spending more time on clerical

duties and middle school counselors spending more time on administrative duties. Only

modest correlations were found between years of experience and the Coordination

subscale (r = .21, p < .001) and the Consultation subscale (r = .19, p < .001).

Internal consistency is concerned with whether a grouping of questions within the

instrument measures what it was intended to measure (Cone & Foster, 2006). Internal

consistency was determined by the use of Cronbachs alpha reliability coefficients.

Internal consistency for all four subscales was established. The coefficient alpha results

ranged between .77 and .93 in each activity category (Scarborough, 2005). Cronbachs

alpha reliability coefficients for each subscale are shown in Table 2.

70
Table 2

Reliability Coefficients for Subscales on SCARS

Subscale Reliability/Actual Reliability/Prefer

Curriculum 0.93 0.90
Coordination 0.84 0.85
Counseling 0.85 0.83
Consultation 0.75 0.77
Other
Clerical 0.84 0.80
Fair Share 0.53 0.58
Administrative 0.43 0.52

The SCARS was designed to collect frequency ratings on counselors actual and

preferred job duties, however, the data can be separated and the user can use only a

portion of the scale (actual or preferred). Higher frequencies in these categories would be

consistent with the use of the ASCA National Model. Other researchers have used this

instrument to compare school counselor services as outlined by the ASCA National

Model with non-counseling duties (Edwards, 2010; Nelson et al., 2008), school counselor

leadership duties (Berry, 2006; Shillingford, 2009), and school counselors skills and time

on specific tasks (Hebert, 2007). In her Doctoral Dissertation, Clark (2006) used the

actual portion of the scale to study school counselor self-efficacy as it related to

performing actual job duties as outlined by the ASCA National Model. For this study,

only the actual job duties portion of the scale was used. Frequency ratings were collected

for items in the counseling, consultation, curriculum, coordination, and other portions of

the scale. This portion of the instrument was used to assess how much time school

counselors spend on activities as outlined in the ASCA National Model.

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Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel)

The Indivisible Self (IS; Myers & Sweeney, 2005) is an evidence-based model of

wellness used to explore participants' current state of holistic wellness. Levels of wellness

based on the IS model are assessed by the 5F-Wel instrument by using the original 17

third-order factors described by the Wheel of Wellness model, five second-order factors

(Creative Self, Coping Self, Essential Self, Physical Self, and Social Self), and a single

higher order factor (Total Wellness). The five secondary factors and overall wellness

score can be used to examine relationships. There are several versions of the instrument

available, one for elementary students (5F-Wel E), one for middle school (5F-Wel T),

and one for adults (5F-Wel A; Myers & Sweeney, 2005a). The test was designed to be

taken in less than 20 minutes and can be given to individuals or to groups. For the

purpose of this study, survey licenses were purchased through MindgardenTM, an

independent publisher of psychological instruments (see Appendix C). This study used

the adult version (5F-Wel-A) of the instrument and was distributed to individual

participants via a web-based data collection site.

The 5F-Wel instrument produces individual scores for the 22 subscales (second

and third order factors) and one score for overall wellness for a total of 23 scores (Myers

& Sweeney, 2005a). Most of the 22 factors are determined by a series of four to six

items, for a total of 91 total response items. The first section of the 5F-Wel consists of

items focused around the area of wellness. The items appear in random order and each is

answered using the Likert-type scale (i.e. A = Strongly Agree, B = Agree, C = Disagree,

and D = Strongly Disagree). These items elicit information from individuals about

behaviors, emotions, and feelings relating to ones health, quality of life, and longevity.

72
Information can be utilized to help people make positive changes toward a healthier way

of life (Myers & Sweeney, 2005a). The second section of the 5F-Wel consists of 7

demographic items used to gather background information regarding the participants.

Questions in this section includes items to gather information related to the following

dimensions: (a) relationship status, (b) employment status, (c) student status, (d)

education level, (d) sex, and (f) cultural background (Myers, 2004). Each numerical score

from the test is converted to a numerical score to be summed for each subscale (Myers &

Sweeney, 2005a). Manually scoring the test is completed by dividing the mean score for

each scale by the numbers of items within the subscale and then multiply them my 25.

Scores can range from 25 to 100, with higher scores indicating higher levels of wellness

(Myers & Sweeney, 2005a). Web-based administration and scoring of the test is also

available.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to develop the 5F-Wel (Myers &

Sweeney, 2005a). The reliability of the 5F-Wel (adult version) was determined by

examining 3,043 responses from the original Wellness Evaluation of Lifestyle (WEL)

instrument (Myers & Sweney, 2005a). Only items used in the 5F-Wel were examined, for

a total of 73 items. Analysis of consistency (using Cronbachs alpha) performed during

the development of the 5F-Wel supports each of secondary factors as well as the overall

wellness score (see Table 3). Reliability scales were established that ranged from 0.90 to

0.99 (Hattie et al., 2004). In addition, once the new instrument was developed, five years

of responses (N = 2,093) were logged into a database to determine internal consistency.

73
Table 3

Reliability Coefficients: Wellness Score and Five Second Order Factors

Factor Reliability Coefficient Internal Consistency

Overall Wellness Score 0.94 0.98
Creative Self 0.93 0.96
Coping Self 0.92 0.89
Essential Self 0.91 0.95
Physical Self 0.90 0.90
Social Self 0.94 0.96

Validity is another measure that ensures scores are meaningful to a study (Cone &

Foster, 2006). Several types of validity were important to the creation of the 5F-Wel. The

first of these was construct validity. This refers to the ability of an instrument to measure

the construct being assessed (Cone & Foster, 2006). Research supporting the validity of

the 5F-Wel spanned over 10 years and examined several constructs in relation to the

scores on the 5F-Wel in order to improve the psychometric properties (Hattie et al.,

2004). Review of these results along with the factor analysis used to develop the 5F-Wel

ensured a high degree of construct validity (Myers & Sweeney, 2005a).

Multiple researchers have used the 5F-Wel to examine wellness among school

children (Villalba & Myers, 2008), adolescents (Myers, Willse, & Villalba, 2011),

undergraduate and graduate students (Smith et al., 2007), clinical populations (Degges-

White, Myers, Adelman, & Pastoor, 2003; Watson & Lemon, 2011), Counselor

Educators (Wester et al., 2009), and counselor wellness (Day-Vines & Holcomb-McCoy,

2007; Lawson, 2007). The 5F-Wel instrument produces several scores (one for overall

wellness and one for each of the five factors) that can be examined. For example,

74
Connolly & Myers (2003) used the total wellness score in their multiple regression

research to explore the relationship between overall wellness, job satisfaction, and

mattering among employees in business and industry settings. For the purpose of this

study only the total wellness score will be used because it encompasses a total score for

all the five factors of wellness. This should produce a score which would describe the

level of wellness for optimal functioning.

Data Collection Procedure

Data collection occurred in several steps, including getting approval of the

research proposal, creating the invitation and consent to participate, and collection of the

survey data. The first step in data collection was the submission of the research proposal

to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Governors State University. The purpose of

the IRB is to ensure the protection of human research subjects participating in research

conducted by faculty, staff, and students of the University. Once the submitted proposal

was reviewed and approved (see Appendix G) an invitation to participate in the study was

sent to participants (Appendix H).

The survey was administered on-line. Online surveys provide a quick response

rate, are inexpensive, easy for participants to respond to, and data can be summarized

electronically (Monette et al., 2009). The surveys were presented through the

SurveyMonkey on-line data collection system. Once the survey instrument was

prepared, an invitation e-mail went to members of ASCA through the ASCA Scene

Listserve. With over 25,000 members it was anticipated to get the response rate needed

for this study. When the anticipated responses were not obtained, it was decided to send

the invitation to additional organizations. Invitations were sent to several state, school,

75
and professional school counseling organizations. The following state organizations

forwarded the invitation to their membership lists: Minnesota School Counseling

Association (MSCA), Alaska School Counseling Association (AkSca), Florida School

Counselor Association (FSCA), Ohio School Counselor Association (OSCA), and the

New Jersey School Counseling Association (NJSCA). In addition, the on-line

professional organization, School Counselor Central, sent out the invitation to their

professional counselor membership consisting of over 9,000 members. The invitation

also went out to the Counseling and Psychology Listserve at Governors State University.

One other Listserve, Counselor Education and Supervision NETwork - Listserv

(CESNET), was used toward the end of my data collection to obtain participants that may

not have membership in professional organizations, but qualified to participate.

The email explained the purpose of the study. If participants were interested they

were directed to click on the provided link. Participants also had an option to be sent a

paper copy of the survey. Individuals who clicked on the survey link were directed to the

main survey page, which contained the electronic informed consent statement (see

Appendix I). The informed consent statement addressed the voluntary nature of

participation and served as an electronic agreement from the participants. In order to

participate in the study participants were required to click accept to obtain access to the

survey. They were then directed to complete the subsequent electronic survey.

Participants were asked to respond to a demographic survey, the SCARS, and the

5F-Wel. A simple set of directions were posted for each survey on the first page of the

respective survey. The on-line format did not allow participants to move on to the next

section until all questions were answered. This decreased the non-response and user error.

76
The surveys were open for approximately 4 weeks. Two follow-up messages requesting

participation were posted to the ASCA Scene Listserve during the survey period. Once

the surveys were completed, the responses were stored in the secure SurveyMonkey

on-line database.

Data Analysis

The statistical analyses used were determined based on the wording of the

hypotheses and the types of data collected. Data was analyzed using IBM Statistical

Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 22. A preliminary analysis of the data

included checking: (a) if the assumptions of the analyses were met, (b) reliability and

validity of the measures, (c) distributions of the variables, and (d) the extent of missing

data (Cone & Foster, 2006). The data from these surveys had to be completed to be part

of the data to be analyzed. Surveys that were not completed were thrown out and not

used. There was also a check for outliers before performing any statistical analyses.

Outliers may represent an unknown influence or an event that may or may not appear if

the study was replicated (Cohen, 2008).

Before uploading the data for the 5F-Wel into SPSS, the Total Wellness score

needed to be calculated. In order to obtain the Total Wellness score for the 5F-Wel the

data collected from SurveyMonkey needed to be downloaded into the Transform

system through MindgardenTM, an independent publisher of psychological instruments.

After downloading all the data, the Transform System calculated the Total Wellness

score for each participant. The following provides a description of the method in which

each hypothesis was explored.

77
 To analyze the first and second hypotheses a correlation was performed by

downloading participants mean subscale scores from the SCARS and the overall

wellness score from the 5F-Wel in SPSS. Correlational studies are used to look for

relationships between variables (Cone & Foster, 2006). Correlation studies fall under the

category of descriptive research, which examines a situation in one moment in time;

therefore, it is not intended to detect a causal relationship between variables (Cohen,

2008). Bivariate correlations are used to analyze and explain the relationship between

two variables in which data will be examined simultaneously to see if there is a linear

relationship between the variables and to examine the strength of this relationship (Cone

& Foster, 2006). An analysis of the Pearson correlation coefficients determined the

degree (positive or negative) to which the variables were related to each other.

To analyze the remaining hypotheses several multiple regressions were used.

Multiple regression analyses are used to determine the relationship between one criterion

variable (dependent variable) and one or more predictor variables (independent variables;

Cone & Foster, 2006). Many different forms of multiple regressions exist based on data

entry method (Cone & Foster, 2006). Stepwise regressions are the most popular

regression analysis due to the varied procedures for data entry (Cohen, 2008). In a

stepwise regression the data is analyzed by the computer program (i.e., SPSS) to

determine which variable predicts the criterion variable best. They can be used to: (a)

explore the relationships between variables, (b) to predict relationships, and (c) to test a

theory based on research or practical experience (Cone & Foster, 2006; Abbott &

Bordons, 1999). A stepwise multiple regression was performed to determine the distinct

78
contribution of each subscale on the SCARS (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum,

coordination, and other) on the overall wellness score.

Organizational variables identified by the school counseling literature that were

relevant to this study on school counselor wellness include working at a RAMP school,

supervision, and degree to which the counselor felt supported. Multiple regressions were

used to analyze each predictor variable to see whether they contributed any new

information in predicting the criterion variables (Total Wellness and Total Score on

Actual Scale).

Validity Threats

Although correlational research can produce useful insights in the study of

relationships between variables, there were several threats to internal and external

validity that needed to be addressed. As the number of predictors increase, the more

problems occur, therefore statistical adjustments (i.e. Bonferroni adjustment) would have

to be considered (Cohen, 2008). Too small of a sample size would increase the likelihood

of a Type II error (Cohen, 2008). Several other threats include making predictions for a

total population based on a small sample size (generalization) and measurement error (i.e.

data entry, omitted variable bias, too ambiguous questions). Since this study used an on-

line survey method, external variables cannot be controlled (i.e., characteristics, history)

and responses may be made based on social desirability (Cone & Foster, 2006). These

threats were controlled for by ensuring the instruments accounted for these threats (i.e.,

multiple questions measuring same variable), obtaining an adequate sample size, and

using SurveyMonkeyTM, a computerized data collection system, and SPSS, a

computerized analysis system to analyze the data.

79
 Summary

This chapter provided a description of the methodology used in the research

study. This was followed by a description of the sample selection, instrumentation, and

data collection procedures. A description of the studys research design and data analysis

procedures were provided. Analyses of the data were determined by the wording of each

hypothesis. Participants were selected by convenience sampling, and data was collected

via an on-line survey format. The data then undergone statistical tests utilizing SPSS

statistical software in an effort to understand the relationships that existed among the use

of a specific model of school counseling (e.g., the ASCA National Model) to define the

role and function of school counselors and its relationship to overall wellness. In

addition, based on school counselor literature, several organizational factors were studied

to determine what additional information they would contribute in predicting overall

wellness of school counselors.

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 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of the ASCA National Model

to define the role and function of the school counselor and its relationship to school

counselor wellness. The relationship among overall wellness, performance of actual job

duties, and organizational variables (i.e., working in a Recognized ASCA Model Program

[RAMP], supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported) was

explored. With wellness being the foundation from which school counselors operate

from, it is imperative to identify the factors that lead to the wellness of school counselors,

thereby promoting their optimum health, performance, and attrition. If the lack of

wellness leads to the impairment, one can conclude that professional school counselors

who take care of themselves and focus on their personal growth and well-being have a

positive effect on the students they serve (Lawson et al., 2007). The results provide

information about what factors are most influential in leading to increased levels of

wellness among school counselors.

Descriptive Analysis

Out of the 124 respondents, 16 respondents did not complete enough of the survey

and therefore were eliminated from the statistical analysis. A total of 108 respondents

completed the survey and were included in the final sample. The final sample included

103 (95.37%) females and five (4.63%) males with 1.9% (n = 2) between the ages of 18

to 24, 29.6% (n = 32) between the ages of 25 to 34, 28.7% (n = 31) between 35 to 44,

22.2% between 45 to 54 (n = 24), and 2.8% (n = 3) between 65-74. The majority

(88.89%) of the participants were Caucasian (n = 96). There was a small representation of

81
minorities with 7.41% (n = 8 ) African American and 2.78% (n = 3) Hispanic. Only one

person preferred not to provide information about their race.

Out of the 108 respondents, 37.96% (n = 41) reported they worked in elementary

schools, 22.22% (n = 24) worked in middle schools, and 39.81% (n = 43) worked in the

high school setting. At the time of the survey 90.74% of the respondents (n = 98) were

working full time. Years of experience was distributed as follows, 34.26% (n = 37)

participants having more than 10 years experience, 34.26% (n = 37) having between 5

and 10 years experience, and 34% (n = 31.48) having less than five years experience as a

professional school counselor. Table 4 presents the results of these frequencies.

Table 4

Frequencies and Percentages of Responses to Demographic Survey

Demographic Variable Sample Percent Frequency

Gender
Male 95.3% 5
Female 4.63% 103
Age Range
18-24 1.9% 2
25-34 29.6% 32
35-44 28.7% 31
45-54 22.2% 24
55-64 14.8% 16
65-74 2.8% 3
Race
Native American 0% 0
Asian or Pacific Islander 0% 0
African American 7.41% 8
Caucasian 88.89% 96
Hispanic/Latino/Latina 2.78% 3
Prefer not to answer .93% 1

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Table 4 Continued

Demographic Variable Sample Percent Frequency

Primary Grade Level Working With

Elementary 37.96% 41
Middle 22.22% 24
High School 39.81% 43
Employment Status
Employed full time 90.7% 98
Employed part time 4.6% 5
Retired, not working 1.9% 2
Retired, working part time 0.9% 1
Not working 0.9% 1
Prefer not to answer 0.9% 1
Years of Experience

Less than 1 year 9.3% 10

Between 1 and 4 years 22.2% 24
Between 5 and 10 years 34.3% 37
More than 10 years 34.3% 37

The independent variables used in the study included working in a Recognized

ASCA Model Program (RAMP), supervision, and the degree to which the counselor felt

supported. A total of 85.19% (n = 92) of the respondents reported that they were familiar

with the ASCA National Model, 12.96% (n = 14) were somewhat familiar, and only

1.85% (n = 2) were not familiar with the Model. This is congruent with reported training.

Of the respondents, 48.15% (n = 52) reported being trained in the model, 25% (n = 27)

reported being somewhat trained, and 26.85% (n = 29) were not trained. Based on the

results of the demographic survey, 34.3% (n = 37) of school counselors reported having

more than 10 years experience. Since the ASCA National Model was not implemented in

training programs until after 2003 this may account for this variance.

83
 Only 4.63% (n = 5) respondents reported working in a RAMP school. Although

the majority of the respondents did not work in a RAMP school, 19.44% (n = 21)

reported working at a school that implemented the ASCA National Model, and 58.33% (n

= 63) reported that their school somewhat implemented the model. Only 22.22% (n = 24)

of the respondents reported working at a school that did not implement the ASCA

National Model. When asked about supervision, 47.22% (n = 51) reported not receiving

supervision, 38.89% (n = 42) received supervision from their Principal, 4.63% (n = 5)

from another school counselor, 1.85% (n = 2) from a College or University faculty

member, and 7.41% (n = 8) answered other. If receiving supervision, 92.63% (n = 88) of

the respondents reported not having supervision based on the ASCA National Model, and

only 7.37% (n = 7) were receiving ASCA National Model based supervision. Having

school support was also an important variable collected in this study. Only 25% (n = 27)

respondents felt that they were supported in their school to implement the ASCA

National Model, 55.56% (n = 60) felt somewhat supported, and 19.44% (n = 2) felt that

they had no support. Table 5 presents the results of the frequencies and percentages for

these organizational variables.

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Table 5

Frequencies and Percentages of Organizational Variables

Organizational Variable Sample Percent Frequency

Working in RAMP school

Yes 4.63% 5
No 95.37% 103
Implement ASCA Model
Yes 19.44% 21
Somewhat 58.33% 63
No 22.22% 24
Training in ASCA Model
Yes 48.15% 52
Somewhat 25% 27
No 26.85% 29
Familiar with ASCA Model
Yes 85.19% 92
Somewhat 12.96% 14
No 1.85% 2
School Support for ASCA Model
Yes 25% 27
Somewhat 55.56% 60
No 19.44% 21
Supervision
No 47.22% 51
Licensed School Counselor 4.63% 5
School Principal 38.89% 42
Teacher 0% 0
A faculty member 1.85% 2
Other 7.41% 8
Supervision based on Model
Yes 7.37% 7
No 92.63% 88

85
 In addition to the descriptive and organizational variables collected in this

research study, information was collected on what specific ASCA National Model

activities school counselors felt the least support for in their jobs. Of the respondents,

71.3% (n = 77) felt the least supported in Delegating clerical or non-counseling duties,

58.3% (n = 63) felt the least supported in Appropriate use of counselor time, and 38%

(n = 41) felt least supported in the Ability to carry out classroom guidance curriculum.

Table 6 provides a summary of the data.

Table 6

Non-supported Activities

Organizational Variables Sample Percent Frequency

Appropriate use of counselor time. 58.3% 63
Ability to carry out classroom
guidance curriculum. 38.0% 41

Ability to provide individual student

planning. 18.5% 20

Responsive services/intervention. 14.8% 16

Preventative role in school discipline. 30.6% 33

Delegating clerical or non-counseling 71.3% 77

duties (i.e. student schedules, testing
coordination, etc.).

Collecting and analyzing data. 31.5% 34

System support duties (i.e. attending 28.7% 31
meetings, review boards).

An important variable that provided additional information about the sample of

school counselors was the total wellness scores for the sample. An overall wellness

score was measured and calculated by scoring the Creative Self, Coping Self, Essential

86
Self, Physical Self, and Social Self subscales of the Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-

Wel; Myers & Sweeney, 2005). The sample scores for total wellness (M = 79.13, SD =

6.5) were elevated compared to the general norm group for the instrument (M = 71.63,

SD = 15.87; Myers & Sweeney, 2005a). Table 7 shows the Total Wellness score for the

sample.

Table 7

Mean and Standard Deviation for Total Wellness

Scale 5F-Wel
Sample M Sample SD 5F-Wel M
SD
Total Wellness 79.13 6.5 71.63 15.87
Note: 5F-Wel (N = 3,343)

A frequency analysis was ran in SPSS to further understand the scores from the

School Counselor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS). The SCARS was designed to collect

frequency ratings on counselors job duties. Higher frequencies in these categories would

be consistent with the use of the ASCA National Model. The mean and standard

deviation of the five subscales utilized in the analyses, counseling (M = 29.29, SD =

6.612), consulting (M = 24.30, SD = 5.286), curriculum (M = 24.45, SD = 10.078),

coordination (M = 37.97, SD = 10.078), and other (M = 30.34, SD = 6.958) are

presented in Table 8.

Table 8

Mean and Standard Deviation for SCARS Subscales

Counseling Consulting Curriculum Coordination NCD

N 108 108 108 108 108
Mean 29.29 24.30 24.45 37.97 30.34
Std. Deviation 6.612 5.286 9.113 10.078 6.958

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 Results

Results of the analyses are presented in order by each hypothesis. The following

research questions were used to guide the area of inquiry for each hypothesis used in the

research study.

1. What is the relationship between performance of actual counseling duties (i.e.,

counseling, consultation, curriculum, coordination) and overall wellness

functioning?

2. What is the relationship between performance of non-counseling duties (clerical,

fair-share, administrative) and overall wellness functioning?

3. Does performance of actual counseling duties, (i.e., counseling, consultation,

curriculum, coordination) significantly predict overall wellness functioning?

4. Do organizational demographic factors (i.e., practicing at a RAMP school,

supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported) significantly

predict overall wellness and performance of actual counseling duties?

Research Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 1: There is a significant relationship between the performance of

actual counseling duties (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum, coordination) and

overall global wellness functioning.

Hypothesis 1a: There is a significant positive relationship between counseling

duties and overall wellness functioning.

Hypothesis 1b: There is a significant positive relationship between

consultation duties and overall wellness functioning.

Hypothesis 1c: There is a significant positive relationship between curriculum

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 duties and overall wellness functioning.

Hypothesis 1d: There is a significant positive relationship between

coordination duties and overall wellness functioning.

In order to answer the first hypothesis, Pearson correlations were ran for each

subscale of the SCARS against the total wellness score for each participant. Running a

Pearson correlation measured the strength and direction that existed between the

variables. Based on the analysis, counseling r(106) = .234, p < .05 had a mild positive

relationship with wellness. Furthermore, there was a weak positive relationship between

consultation and wellness, r(106) = .216, p < .05. A more moderate positive relationship

was discovered between coordination and wellness, r(106) = .354, p < .01. No significant

relationship was found between curriculum and wellness, r(106) = 0.013, p < .05. Table

9 shows a summary of the results from the correlation.

Table 9

Correlation Summary

Counseling Consultation Curriculum Coordination

Wellness Pearson .234* .216* 0.013 .354**
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .015 .025 .897 .000
N 108 108 108 108
Note. ** p < .01 level, (2-tailed); * p < .05 level, (2-tailed).

Research Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis 2: There is a significant negative relationship between performing

non-counseling duties (i.e., clerical, fair-share, administrative) and overall wellness

functioning.

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 To answer hypothesis 2, a Pearson correlation was calculated between wellness

and non-counseling duties. There was not a significant relationship found between the

two variables r(106) = .019, p = .848. The Pearson r is between +.01 to +.19, which

indicated no relationship found. Table 10 shows the results of this correlation.

Table 10

Wellness and Non-counseling Duties

Non-Counseling Duties
Wellness Pearson Correlation .019
Sig. (2-tailed) .848
N 108

Research Hypothesis 3

Hypothesis 3: The performance of actual counseling duties (i.e., counseling,

consultation, curriculum, coordination) significantly predicts overall wellness

functioning.

To answer hypothesis 3, a regression analysis was conducted to determine if any

of the four subscales from the SCARS could be used to predict level of wellness. A

multiple regression tested how well the number of predictor (independent) variables

related to the outcome (dependent) variable. A backwards stepwise regression was used

with an exclusion level of 0.05 for each step within the analysis. The backward stepwise

regression model started with all variables in the model. At each step, the variable that

was the least significant was removed. This process continued until no non-significant

variables remained. There were a total of four models created as each step removed a

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non-significant variable. Table 11 shows the Descriptive Statistics for the multiple

regression. Table 12 shows the Model Summary.

Table 11

Descriptive Statistics for Multiple Regression

Mean Std. Deviation N

Wellness 79.134259 6.5452439 108
Counseling Total 29.29 6.612 108
Consultation Total 24.30 5.286 108
Curriculum Total 24.45 9.113 108
Coordination Total 37.97 10.078 108

Table 12

Model Summary

Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Model R R Square
Square Estimate
1 .399 .159 .127 6.1129941
2 .399 .159 .135 6.0839642
3 .389 .151 .135 6.0835377
4 .354 .126 .117 6.1494297

Even though the fourth model had the lowest coefficient of determination (0.117),

it was the model that was used for prediction, as the removal of one variable from model

3 to 4 only reduced the amount of variation explained by only 2%. As such, it was

determined that the additional variable would not contribute enough variation to the final

model to be included. The following table lists the steps and what variable was removed

(Table 13).

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Table 13

Variables Removed

Model Variables Removed Method

1 None Enter
2 Consultation Backward (p>.05)
3 Counseling Backward (p>.05)
4 Curriculum Backward (p>.05)

Table 14 lists the predictability of the final variable which the stepwise model

produced. An unstandardized solution was used to present the results. Unstandardized

relationships report that for a one-raw-unit increment on a predictor, the outcome variable

increases (or if B is negative, decreases) by a number of its raw units corresponding to

what the B coefficient is. Coordination was the main contributor in predicting wellness.

The coefficient shows that for every unit increase in the coordination score, wellness will

increase by a rate of 0.230. As stated, this is the only variable from the SCARS that was

shown to be significant, B = 0.230, t(107) = 30.38, p < .001.

Table 14

Unstandarized Coefficients

Model B Std. Error t Sig.

(Constant) 70.397 2.317 30.388 .000

Coordination .230 .059 3.901 .000

Research Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis 4: Organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at a RAMP school,

supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported) significantly predicts

frequency of performing actual counseling duties.

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 To test hypotheses 4, a multiple linear regression was used to determine if any

organizational demographics could be used to predict any of the subscales (i.e.,

counseling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination) from the SCARS. A backwards

stepwise regression was used with an exclusion level of 0.05 used at each step within the

analysis. Table 15 lists the variables that were removed in the stepwise model. Table 16

summarizes the coefficients of the predictive variables as well as the overall coefficient

of determination for the regression model.

Table 15

Stepwise Regression Model for SCARS

Support RAMP Supervision

Counseling Included Included Removed
Consulting Included Removed Removed
Curriculum Included Removed Removed
Coordination Included Included Removed
Wellness Removed Removed Removed

Table 16

Coefficient Summary

Constant Support RAMP Supervision r2

Counseling 23.53 1.08 5.81 -- 0.11

Consultation 20.57 0.74 -- -- 0.05
Curriculum 14.95 1.87 -- -- 0.12
Coordination 24.43 11.22 2.56 -- 0.25
Wellness -- -- -- -- --

Support was the only variable that was significant for all subscales of the SCARS.

Support was shown to be a significant predictor for Counseling, B = 1.08, t(107) = 3.06, p

=.003. Support was tested and concluded to be significant in predicting Consulting, B =

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0.74, t(107) = 2.53, p = .013. Support was shown to be a significant predictor for

Curriculum, B = 1.87, t(107) = 3.878, p < .001. Support also had a significant score in

predicting Coordination, B = 11.22, t(107) = 5.203, p < .00. RAMP was also shown to be

a significant predictor for Coordination, B=2.56, t(107) = 2.796, p = .006. RAMP was

also deemed to be a significant predictor for Counseling, B = 5.81, t(107) = 2.02, p =

.046. Supervision did not show any predictability on the SCARS subscales.

Research Hypothesis 5

Hypothesis 5: Organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at a RAMP

school, supervision, and the degree to which the counselor feels supported) significantly

predicts overall wellness functioning.

To test hypotheses 5, a multiple linear regression was used to determine if any

organizational demographics could be used to predict total wellness. A backwards

stepwise regression was used with an exclusion level of 0.05 used at each step within the

analysis.

Table 15 lists the variables that were removed in the stepwise model. None of the

organizational demographics were significant in predicting overall wellness functioning.

Summary

Statistical information related to the demographic characteristics of the

participants as well as correlations between performing school counseling duties and

school counselor wellness was presented in this chapter. In addition, the results of a

stepwise multiple regression that examined the predictive quality of performing of

counseling, consulting, curriculum, and coordination duties and school counselor

wellness was described. A linear stepwise regression reported the predictive quality of

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working in a RAMP school, supervision, and support on frequency of performing actual

counseling duties and wellness.

In summary, after running a Pearson Correlation, the analysis provided evidence

for a moderate positive relationship between performing coordination duties and school

counselor wellness. There was a mild positive relationship between counseling and

wellness and a weak positive relationship between consultation and wellness. There was

no relationship found between the performance of curriculum duties and wellness. No

relationship was found between performing non-counseling duties (e.g., other) and

wellness.

A stepwise multiple regression was conducted to assess the performance of school

counseling duties (i.e., counseling, consulting, curriculum, and coordination) on school

counselor wellness. Coordination was found to be the main contributor in predicting

wellness. A linear multiple regression was conducted to assess the predictive quality of

working in a RAMP school, support, and supervision on the performance of school

counseling duties and school counselor wellness. The results revealed several

conclusions. Support was the only organizational variable that was significant for all

subscales of the SCARS. Working in a RAMP school was shown to be a significant

predictor for the performance of coordination and counseling duties. None of the

organizational demographics were significant in predicting overall wellness functioning.

A discussion of the results is provided in Chapter 5.

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 CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to investigate what factors were most influential in

leading to increased levels of wellness among school counselors. In a review of the

literature it was found that school counselors typically scored low in wellness scores. For

example, in a national study of the wellness of counselors, Lawson (2007) found that

school counselors tend to score higher for burnout and compassion fatigue/vicarious

trauma than their counterparts in practice settings. Although past studies found that

school counselors tend to score lower in wellness scales than their counterparts in mental

health and community counseling settings (Lawson & Myers, 2011), the wellness scores

from this study proved that the participants scored slightly above average for wellness. In

addition, it was also found that the performance of coordination duties predicted

wellness, and the majority of the participants performed these duties more frequently than

others.

With the dearth of research on school counselor wellness, it was important to

investigate what factors led to the promotion and maintenance of school counselor

wellness. The Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel; Myers & Sweeney, 2005)

measured participant overall wellness. The School Counselor Activity Rating Scale

(SCARS; Scarborough, 2005) measured participants actual job duties. The SCARS

subscales, consisting of counseling, curriculum, consultation, coordination, and other

duties, were based on the recommendations made by the ASCA National Model (2012).

The ASCA National Model provided an outline as to how school counselors should

operate within a comprehensive school counseling program. The relationship among

overall wellness, performance of actual job duties, and organizational variables were also

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explored. The organizational variables examined in this study included working in a

Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP), supervision, and the degree to which

counselors felt supported. A discussion of the findings as they relate to past research is

presented next.

ASCA National Model Duties

There were several significant positive relationships found between performing

ASCA National Model duties and wellness. There was a mild positive relationship

between counseling duties and wellness. Counseling duties include those in which

counselors performed individual and small group counseling services to students on

personal, family, and academic issues. There was a weak positive relationship between

consultation duties and wellness. Consultation duties include those duties aligned with

consulting with school staff, community agencies, and administrators concerning student

behavior, development, and additional services. They also include assisting in identifying

exceptional children and participating in team meetings. Although these relationships

were found to be small, Cohen (2008) suggested that small results may need further

investigation. In a review of the literature it was found that there was a scarcity of

research in the area of school counselor wellness. There was, however, past studies found

on performing ASCA National Model duties and well-being. For instance, Scarborough

and Culbreth (2008) found a positive relationship between performing ASCA National

Model duties and healthy internal development (i.e. self-efficacy, mattering, job

satisfaction) of school counselors. Pyne (2011) found a positive correlation between

school counselor job satisfaction and working in a school system grounded in the ASCA

National Model. Although the results were small, the current study supported past

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literature in that positive correlations were found between performing duties aligned with

the ASCA National Model and positive well-being. These results add to the literature as

it is the first study on school counselor wellness as it relates to performing the ASCA

National Model duties. Although there were some positive correlations found between

work duties and wellness, only coordination duties were predictive of wellness.

Performing coordination duties revealed a moderate positive relationship with

wellness. In fact, the performance of coordination duties was the only variable from the

SCARS shown to be a significant predictor for increased wellness. The duties outlined

within the coordination subscale on the SCARS falls under the Management system from

the ASCA National Model. To ensure that comprehensive school programs are reflective

of the overall school philosophy, management systems are in place that include

agreements, advisory councils, data collection, action plans, effective use of time, and

calendars (ASCA, 2012). These results indicate that actual coordination of interventions

with students, parents, teachers, and other significant stakeholders lead to greater

wellness than the performance of counseling, curriculum, consulting, and other duties.

Several conclusions can be inferred based on the results. Previous research

indicated that a lack of control in ones job may jeopardize ones wellness (Culbreth et

al., 2005; Venart et al., 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007). Coordination duties are more

self-driven, collaborative, action oriented, and results can be seen immediately, making it

more likely for counselors to see the impact of their work. ASCA recommends that

school counselors spend 80% of their time performing direct and indirect services that are

supported and adjusted based on the needs identified in school data (ASCA, 2012;

Gysbers & Henderson, 2012). The results of this study imply that the majority of school

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counselors are performing duties in which they can see the results, engage in

collaboration with others, and have more control. Only the curriculum subscale on the

SCARS was found to not have any relationship with wellness.

There was no relationship found between the performance of curriculum duties

and wellness. Curriculum duties include those duties pertaining to conducting classroom

guidance activities and lessons on personal growth, personal safety, career development,

and conflict resolution (Scarborough, 2005). One possible explanation could be that

school counselors (38%) reported a lack of support in the ability to carry out classroom

guidance curriculum. A review of the literature revealed that not all school personnel (i.e.

teachers, school principal) perceived the school counselors role the same way, thus

creating unsupportive environments in which the school counselor must navigate (Clark

& Amatea, 2004). In addition, Culbreth et al., (2005) found that school counselors who

lacked training as teachers and conducting classroom lessons experienced higher levels of

role conflict, and those with teaching experience had lower levels of role ambiguity.

Although knowledge and training of teaching skills were not measured in this study, this

may very well be another explanation to why there was no relationship between the

performance of curriculum duties and wellness.

Non-Counseling Duties

The relationship between performing non-counseling duties (i.e., clerical, fair-

share, administrative) and overall wellness functioning was also explored. It was

hypothesized that there would be a negative relationship between these two variables.

The results were not significant, indicating that there was no positive or negative

relationship between performing non-counseling duties and overall wellness. Although

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research indicated that school counselors would prefer to engage in activities that aligned

with the ASCA National Model (Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008), other studies found job

satisfaction related to ones perceived ability to perform their duties, regardless of the

duty being appropriate or not (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006). In addition, Scarborough

(2002) inferred that experienced counselors were more comfortable with their practice

regardless of what function they were performing. In the current study, 68.6% (n = 74) of

the respondents had more than 5 years experience as a school counselor, and only 31.5%

(n = 34) had less than 4 years experience. These results may explain the lack of a

negative relationship between the performance of non-counseling duties and wellness

experienced counselors are comfortable in their role regardless of the duties they are

performing. In reviewing the mean scores from the SCARS instrument, non-counseling

duties were the second most frequently performed duties behind coordination duties.

Even though the performance of inappropriate duties were higher than some appropriate

duties (i.e., counseling, consulting, and curriculum) it did not adversely affect the

wellness of the respondents in this study. Furthermore, the development of ones

professional identity with a sense of purpose, self-efficacy, and meaning plays an

important role in ones work (Kosine, Steger, & Duncan, 2008). These results may

indicate that school counselors may feel confident in the performance of their duties,

giving them a sense of purpose, self-efficacy, and meaning, thus contributing to their

overall job role.

Organizational Variables

The predictive quality of organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at a

RAMP school, supervision, and the degree to which the counselor felt supported) on the

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frequency of performing actual counseling duties and overall wellness was explored.

None of the organizational variables were significant in predicting overall wellness.

Although the organizational variables did not predict wellness, there were several

predictive findings for the performance of ASCA National Model duties. Of the

organizational variables, support was a significant predictor for all of the SCARS

subscales; however, supervision did not predict performance on any of the SCARS

subscales. Working in a RAMP school was predictive of two subscales: performing

coordination and counseling duties.

RAMP

Working in a RAMP designated school did not predict school counselor wellness.

Since only 4.63% (n = 5) of the respondents worked in a RAMP school, these results

were somewhat expected. It would appear that the performance of results driven and

action oriented duties (e.g., coordination duties) in their work was more predictive of

wellness than working in a RAMP school, supervision, or support. Although working in a

RAMP school was not predictive of wellness, the findings of the multiple regression

found it to be a significant predictor for performing counseling and coordination duties.

These results refute what Dodson (2009) found in his research of principal perceptions of

school counselors working in non-RAMP and RAMP designated schools. He found that

principals perceived school counselors in RAMP designated schools to be more likely to

deliver curriculum and consultation duties.

The results of this study indicated working in a RAMP school was predictive of

increased performance of coordination duties. As discussed previously, the performance

of coordination duties was found to predict wellness in school counselors. It could be

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inferred that working in a RAMP designated school increased the likelihood of

performing duties in which were found to be predictive of increased wellness. These

results are promising as they add to the body of research on school counselor outcomes as

a result of working in a RAMP school. Research in this area had primarily focused on

student outcomes as a result of RAMP designation (Wilkerson et al., 2013). This is not

surprising as accountability has been the cornerstone of the school counselors role

throughout history (Isaacs, 2003). Accountability demonstrates the effectiveness of a

program in measurable terms and allows school counselors to identify areas for

improvement (Isaacs, 2003; Myrick, 2003; Young & Kaffenberger, 2011). Knowing what

works and learning how to make a difference in the life of a student makes school

counselors an integral part in transforming the school counseling profession (Gysbers,

2004).

Working in a RAMP designated school was also predictive of the increased

performance of counseling duties (i.e., individual and small group interventions). These

counseling duties should be informed by data to meet the needs of students within the

school program (ASCA, 2012). This result supports previous research on the

performance of counseling duties within RAMP schools. For example, Young and

Kaffenberger (2011) found that school counselors working within RAMP schools

understand the importance of using data to provide services to students and drive

program evaluation and improvement (p. 67). They found that counselors are more often

using data to validate their counseling interventions, share the results with stakeholders,

and help to bridge the achievement gap. The results of this study adds to the literature as

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it further supports that school counselors working in RAMP schools were more often

engaged in interventions that were data and student outcome driven.

Support

Support was the only variable that proved to be a significant predictor for the

increased performance of counseling, consulting, curriculum, and coordination duties.

Among survey respondents, 80.56% (n = 87) felt supported in their schools to implement

the job duties outlined within the ASCA National Model. Additionally, 77.77% (n = 84)

implemented or somewhat implemented the Model within their work. The results of this

research were consistent with literature on counselor support and performance of ASCA

National Model duties. For example, Scarborough and Culbreth (2008) found that school

counselors who attempted to incorporate the National Standards (Campbell & Dahir,

1997) in their practice, engaged in outcome producing tasks, and were supported by

others, were more likely to perform ASCA National Model duties. In another study, Pyne

(2011) found positive correlations among having system wide support for the

performance of duties aligned with the ASCA National Model, job satisfaction, and

positive experiences at work. These findings sustain the concept of the organizational

factor of support as a variable in influencing the performance of ASCA National Model

job duties among school counselors.

Support school counselors receive from teachers, parents and guardians, and

community stakeholders influence the role of the professional school counselor (Culbreth

et al., 2005; Prusse et al., 2004). Historically, school counselors have struggled with

adequately meeting the expectations of others as their role has been defined differently

among teachers, administrators, students, and parents (Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008).

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Previous research suggested that teachers and administrators lack understanding of the

role of the professional school counselor (DeVoss & Andrews, 2006). Role conflict may

occur when there are different sets of expectations and job duties (Biddle, 1979). In his

research, Rayle (2006) reported that the lack of a supportive environment and the ability

to manage job related stress had a significant impact on school counselors job

satisfaction. The results of the current study are promising as it revealed that school

counselors are receiving increased support to perform their school counseling related

duties. This may be due to the maturation of the ASCA National Model. Past studies

were conducted on the heels of implementation, whereas the current study revealed

results based on 10 years of implementation.

Supervision

Findings from the demographic questionnaire indicated that 47.22% (n = 51) of

the respondents received no supervision and 38.89% (n = 42) received supervision from

their school principal. In total, 92.63% (n = 88) of respondents were not receiving

supervision based on the ASCA National Model. This finding implied that school

counselors received little or no supervision from a trained school counselor after their

Masters training. In the current study, supervision did not predict increased frequency in

performing the duties outlined within the SCARS instrument (i.e., counseling, consulting,

curriculum, coordination). Supervision was also not a predictor for wellness. These

results refute previous findings.

Cummins (2007) found that working in a supportive environment (i.e.,

supervision) promoted wellness in counselors. Past researchers found that the lack of

supervision (Page, Pietrzak, & Sutton, 2001) in conjunction with difficult and stressful

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case loads (Lawson, 2007; Granello & Granello, 2007) increased the demands put on

school counselors. Further, the consequences of these demands may lead to impairment,

affecting ones overall wellness (Lawson, 2007; Lambie & Young, 2007). Although the

current study did not measure for case loads, the lack of supervision was found to be

alarming, especially the lack of supervision within the ASCA National Model. The

findings in this study inferred that the support school counselors received may come from

peers and people in a non-supervisory role. The lack of supervision may explain the

results from this study in that supervision did not predict wellness.

According to Bernard and Goodyear (2009), supervision is essential to the

personal and professional development of being a school counselor. Having supervision

meets not only the school counselors professional needs, but also personal needs such as

stress levels, feelings of accomplishment, and overall confidence and well-being (Lambie

& Williamson, 2004). This study revealed that school counselors who actually received

supervision received it from their school principal (n = 42). The results of the current

study and findings from past research may reveal incongruence in the supervision school

counselors receive.

The power differential (Armstrong et al., 2010; Lieberman, 2004) and perceptions

of appropriate and inappropriate duties (Prusse et al., 2004) between principals and

school counselors may influence the supervision school counselors receive. Leuwerke et

al., (2009) reported that over half of the principals they surveyed reported not being

aware of the ASCA National Model. In addition, Studor and Oberman (2006) found that

principals were unclear of the duties school counselors should be performing in a

comprehensive school counseling program. In their survey of 26 administrators, Amatea

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and Clark (2005) found that principals differed in their definition of appropriate and

inappropriate school counselor job duties. They concluded that since principals are

ultimately in control of finding the most effective use and role for the school counselor,

school counselors must be strong advocates and leaders for their role within their school.

It would appear that school counselors have increased their leadership and

advocacy role within the school system since these early studies. The findings of the

current study revealed that school counselors felt supported within their schools. On the

other hand, the frequency score for other duties on the SCARS indicated that school

counselors are still performing inappropriate duties, albeit not increasing or decreasing

wellness. One may conclude that school counselors have increased their advocacy and

collaborative efforts with school principals in that they are receiving support. Questions

would still remain as to what type of supervision school counselors are receiving from

their principals and the level of knowledge school principals have on the ASCA National

Model 10 years after its implementation. There were some limitations that need to be

considered when interpreting the results from the current study.

Limitations

There were some limitations in interpreting and generalizing the results from this

study. One limitation was the use of a self-report survey. Self-report instruments do not

control for environmental factors, participant understanding, honesty, or response bias.

Some of the participants may have been biased when answering questions related to their

actual job duties or levels of wellness. Another limitation was the on-line administration

of the surveys. Online surveys do not control for who is taking the survey. In addition,

the surveys measured participants attitudes. Attitudes are subjective in nature and can

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only produce information specific to the participants being surveyed, thus the results may

not be generalizable to the whole profession. Further, information gathered during the

survey only gave a snapshot of the participants and may misrepresent the overall

population in the profession. Although a non-response bias was considered due to the

nature of the delivery of the surveys (e.g., on-line), there were enough respondents (N =

108) that completed the surveys to be used for this study. The participants were drawn

from the ASCA national and state organizations. This sample may only represent a small

portion of professionals working in the schools because not every school counselor

belongs to these organizations. The ASCA National Model may not have been taught in

graduate programs before the year 2003; therefore, some participants may not have been

adequately trained to incorporate it in their work. Another limitation is that this study did

not account for the effects of school counselor performance and wellness on student

outcomes. In addition, since its implementation, the ASCA National Model has

undergone minor modifications. The SCARS survey was based on the original model and

may not account for these changes. Finally, less than 500 schools throughout the United

States are RAMP. This would account for the small sample size (n = 5). Even with the

limitations, there are several implications and areas for future research that school

counselors and Counselor Educators should consider.

Implications and Future Research

The findings of this study supported the relationship between wellness and the

performance of some of the ASCA National Model duties. Another finding in this study

was that school counselor wellness levels were higher than the average based on the 5F-

Wel (Myers & Sweeney, 2005). One implication is that school counselors could take

107
leadership roles within the schools to enhance the wellness in the school environment to

assist students, administration, and teachers. Future research could add to the knowledge

base of school counselor wellness by reproducing this study with a larger population of

school counselors who are and are not implementing the ASCA National Model.

Qualitative studies on school counselor wellness would aid in expanding on the

meaning and practice of wellness enhancing activities. A study of school counselor self-

care activities may help provide insight into the internal variables that lead to increased

wellness. Studies on the wellness challenges among different work settings (e.g.,

elementary, middle, and high school) could provide information regarding unique

environmental stressors and influences. This information could help school counselors

develop wellness enhancing changes and interventions within each setting. This would

also inform counseling training programs on the unique training needs for each of these

settings.

In regards to counselor training programs, increased training of wellness

enhancing skills can be implemented, specifically as they relate to more action oriented

and results driven activities (e.g., coordination duties). School counselors in training can

demonstrate and practice these skills through their practicum and internships sites. In

addition, a study of the frequency school counselors are able to perform these duties

would also aid in the promotion of performing wellness enhancing activities. This study

found no relationship between performing curriculum duties and wellness. Future

research in this area may be warranted, especially in regards to level of comfort in the

development and implementation of classroom guidance lessons. In addition, future

studies could assess counselors in training, recent graduates, and seasoned counselors

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level of comfort in each area of the SCARS (e.g., counseling, collaboration, consultation,

coordination, other) to determine any gaps in training or practice.

Since support was found to predict increased performance in ASCA National

Model duties, school counselor training programs could train the skills needed to be able

to identify support systems, evaluate support levels, and create supportive environments.

Investigating the variables of support (i.e., type, frequency, from whom) that school

counselors receive would provide additional insight into the results found in this study. A

review of the literature revealed that students trained in programs based on the ASCA

National Model were better prepared to implement their skills and competencies within

the school system (Prusse & Goodnough, 2001). The results of the current study are

promising in that more than half of the school counselors surveyed are practicing within

the scope of their training in the ASCA National Model. It has been over ten years since

the implementation of the ASCA National Model. Another area of research would be to

explore what activities school counselors engage in during a typical week then compare

it with the areas of the SCARS to determine if these are actual duties of school counselors

and if they still align with the ASCA National Model.

Since supervision did not yield any results for performance or wellness, another

area of future study would be to investigate the factors that help counselors contribute to

the maintenance of their training. Many of the school counselors in this study reported

not receiving supervision, and of those school counselors who received supervision, the

majority were not receiving supervision based on the ASCA National Model. School

counselor training programs could provide additional training to school counselors on

peer supervision and how to support peers in the school setting (since this might be the

109
primary way to gain support). In addition, school counselors may need to receive access

to appropriate supervision future studies may assess whether or not school counselors

believe supervision from a professional school counselor would be beneficial to their

professional development. Since principals were the primary supervisors for the school

counselors in this study, another area of future study would be to survey principals on

their comfort level of supervising school counselors.

Longitudinal studies across RAMP and non-RAMP programs could provide

insight into what unique wellness dimensions are most affected by this designation.

Further, longitudinal studies of the effects of school counselor performance and wellness

on student outcomes would be important to investigate. This would aid the field in

understanding what activities school counselors engage in that increased their wellness,

as well as the enhancement of student achievement. Continuing to explore the potential

relationship among organizational factors, performance of ASCA National Model duties,

and wellness is vital in order to advocate for sustaining school counselor training and

performance of wellness enhancing activities.

Conclusion

The wellness of school counselors is an emerging field of study. Studies on

counselor wellness have been sparse even though decreased wellness has been found to

reduce the quality of services that counselors provide (Lawson et al., 2007; Young &

Lambie, 2007). Overall, the results of the current study revealed a relationship between

wellness and the some of the job duties school counselors perform. The performance of

coordination duties was the only variable that was predictive of wellness. When school

counselors engaged in more self-driven, collaborative, action oriented, and results driven

110
activities, they were more likely to have higher wellness scores. Of the organizational

variables, only support was a significant predictor for all of the SCARS subscales. When

school counselors worked in a supportive environment, they were more likely to perform

ASCA National Model duties. Working in a RAMP school was predictive of increased

performance in coordination and counseling duties. Supervision was the only variable

that was not predictive of performance of any of the SCARS subscales. This finding was

opposite to the findings in past literature, whereas supervision was found to increase

ones performance. Working in a supportive environment was more predictive of

increased job performance than receiving supervision.

School counselors encourage the wellness of their students through

developmental approaches and preventative interventions that promote optimal

functioning (Lawson, 2007). Although this can be seen as an important function of the

school counseling profession, the wellness of those who promote wellness in their

students has been overlooked (Lawson, 2007). With wellness being the foundation from

which school counselors operate from, it was imperative to identify the factors that lead

to their wellness, thereby promoting optimum health, performance, and attrition. This

study was significant because it investigated the link between the performance of best

practices as outlined in the ASCA National Model and school counselor wellness. With

the dearth of research on school counselor wellness, this study was conducted to fill a gap

in the literature.

111
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preparation: Promoting individual well-being. Journal of Individual Psychology,

68(2), 164-181.

128
Yager, G. G., & Tovar-Blank, Z. G. (2007). Wellness and counselor education. The

Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 46(2), 142-153.

Young, A., & Kaffenberger, C. (2011). The beliefs and practices of school counselors

who use data to implement comprehensive school counseling programs.

Professional School Counseling, 15(2), 67-76.

Young, M. E., & Lambie, G. W. (2007). Wellness in school and mental health systems:

Organizational influences. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and

Development, 46(1), 98-113.

Zytowski, D. G. (2001). Frank Parsons and the progressive movement. The Career

Development Quarterly, 50, 57-65

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 Appendix A: Demographic Survey

What is the primary grade level you a. Elementary

provide school counseling services to? b. Middle
c. High School

Are you familiar with the ASCA National a. Yes

Model for School Counseling Programs? b. Somewhat
c. No

Did you receive training in your a. Yes

coursework on the ASCA National Model? b. Somewhat
c. No

Does your school counseling program a. Yes

implement the ASCA National Model? b. Somewhat
c. No

Is the school in which you work a a. Yes

Recognized ASCA Model Program b. No
(RAMP)?

Does your school in which you work a. Yes

support the implementation of the ASCA b. Somewhat
National Model in your school counseling c. No
program?

In what areas do you feel you have less
than full support in implementing the
activities as outlined by the ASCA
National Model at your school? (check all
that apply)
a. Appropriate use of counselor time.
b. Ability to carry out classroom
guidance curriculum.
c. Ability to provide individual student
planning.
d. Responsive services/intervention.
e. Preventative role in school
discipline.
f. Delegating clerical or non-
counseling duties (i.e. student
schedules, testing coordination, etc.).
g. Collecting and analyzing data.
h. System support duties (i.e. attending
meetings, review boards).

Do you receive supervision? a. Yes

b. No

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What type of supervision do you receive? a. Clinical
b. Non-clinical
c. Both

Who is responsible for your supervision? d. Another licensed school counselor

e. School Principal
f. Teacher
g. Faculty from degree program

How often do you receive supervision? a. Weekly

b. Monthly
c. Quarterly
d. Never

Is your supervision based on the ASCA a. Yes

National Model? b. No

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 Appendix B: The School Counselor Activity Rating Scale

Below is a list of functions that may be performed by school counselors.

In Column 1, please write the number that indicates the frequency with which you
believe you ACTUALLY perform each function.

Rating:
1 = I never do this
2 = I rarely do this;
3 = I occasionally do this
4 = I frequently do this
5 = I routinely do this

1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = occasionally

4 = frequently 5 = routinely

Counseling Activities

Counsel with students regarding personal/family concerns. 1 2 3 4 5

Counsel with students regarding school behavior. 1 2 3 4 5
Counsel students concerning crisis/emergency situations. 1 2 3 4 5
Counsel with students regarding relationships (e.g., family, 1 2 3 4 5
friends, romantic).

Provide small group counseling addressing relationship/social 1 2 3 4 5

skills.

Provide small group counseling for academic issues. 1 2 3 4 5

Conduct small groups regarding family/personal issues (e.g., 1 2 3 4 5
divorce, death).

Conduct small group counseling for students regarding 1 2 3 4 5

substance abuse issues (own use or family/friend use).

Follow-up on individual and group counseling participants. 1 2 3 4 5

Counsel students regarding academic issues. 1 2 3 4 5

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 1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = occasionally
4 = frequently 5 = routinely

Consultation Activities

Consult with school staff concerning student behavior. 1 2 3 4 5

Consult with community and school agencies concerning 1 2 3 4 5
individual students.

Consult with parents regarding child/adolescent developmental 1 2 3 4 5

issues.

Coordinate referrals for students and/or families to community 1 2 3 4 5

or education professionals (e.g., mental health, speech
pathology, medical assessment).

Assist in identifying exceptional children (special education). 1 2 3 4 5

Provide consultation for administrators (regarding school 1 2 3 4 5
policy, programs, staff and/or students).

1 2 3 4 5
Participate in team/grade level/subject team meetings.

1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = occasionally

4 = frequently 5 = routinely

Curriculum Activities

Conduct classroom activities to introduce yourself and explain 1 2 3 4 5

the counseling program to all students.
Conduct classroom lessons addressing career development and 1 2 3 4 5
the world of work.
Conduct classroom lessons on various personal and/or social 1 2 3 4 5
traits (e.g., responsibility, respect, etc.)
Conduct classroom lessons on personal growth and 1 2 3 4 5
development issues.
Conduct classroom lessons relating to others (family, friends). 1 2 3 4 5
Conduct classroom lessons on conflict resolution. 1 2 3 4 5
Conduct classroom lessons regarding substance abuse. 1 2 3 4 5
Conduct classroom lessons on personal safety issues. 1 2 3 4 5

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 1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = occasionally
4 = frequently 5 = routinely

Coordination Activities

Coordinate special events and programs for school around 1 2 3 4 5

academic, career, or personal/social issues (e.g., career day,
drug awareness week, test prep).
Coordinate and maintain a comprehensive school counseling 1 2 3 4 5
program.
Inform parents about the role, training, program, and 1 2 3 4 5
interventions of a school counselor within the context of your
school.
Conduct or coordinate parent education classes or workshops. 1 2 3 4 5

Inform teachers/administrators about the role, training, 1 2 3 4 5

program, and interventions of a school counselor within the
context of your school.
Coordinate school-wide response for crisis management and 1 2 3 4 5
intervention
Conduct or coordinate teacher in-service programs. 1 2 3 4 5
Keep track of how time is being spent on the functions that you 1 2 3 4 5
perform.
Attend professional development activities (e.g., state 1 2 3 4 5
conferences, local in-services).
Coordinate with an advisory team to analyze and respond to 1 2 3 4 5
school counseling program needs.
Formally evaluate student progress as a result of 1 2 3 4 5
participation in individual/group counseling from student,
teacher and/or parent perspectives.
Conduct needs assessments and counseling program 1 2 3 4 5
evaluations from parents, faculty, and/or students.
Coordinate orientation process/activities for students. 1 2 3 4 5

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 1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = occasionally
4 = frequently 5 = routinely

Other Activities

Participate on committees within the school. 1 2 3 4 5

Coordinate the standardized testing program. 1 2 3 4 5
Organize outreach to low income families (i.e., Thanksgiving 1 2 3 4 5
dinners, Holiday families).
Respond to health issues (e.g., check for lice, eye screening, 1 2 3 4 5
504 coordination).
Perform hall, bus, cafeteria duty 1 2 3 4 5

Schedule students for classes. 1 2 3 4 5

Enroll students in and/or withdraw students from school. 1 2 3 4 5
Maintain/Complete educational records/reports (cumulative 1 2 3 4 5
files, test scores, attendance reports, drop-out reports).

Handle discipline of students. 1 2 3 4 5

Substitute teach and/or cover classes for teachers at your 1 2 3 4 5
school.

Scarborough, J.L. (2005). The School Counselor Activity rating Scale: An instrument for
gathering process data. Professional School Counseling, 8, 274-283.

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 Appendix C: Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel) Permission

Permission for Nicole Randick to reproduce/administer up to 150 copies within one year of
November 18, 2013 with the intent to enter the responses via Mind Gardens Transform System (for
scoring).

www.mindgarden.com

To whom it may concern,

This letter is to grant permission for the above named person to use the following copyright
material;

Instrument: Five Factor Wellness Inventory Form A

Authors: Jane E. Myers & Thomas J. Sweeney

Copyright: 2005 by J. E. Myers & T. J. Sweeney

for his/her thesis research.

Five sample items from this instrument may be reproduced for inclusion in a proposal, thesis,
or dissertation.

The entire instrument may not be included or reproduced at any time in any other published
material.

Sincerely,

Robert Most
Mind Garden, Inc.
www.mindgarden.com

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 Appendix D: List of Actual Counselor Duties (1931)
1. Discussing with groups of pupils
questions pertaining to subject choices,
curriculum choices, and vocational
choices.
2. Teaching classes in occupational
information
3. Teaching classes in other school
subjects
4. Conducting individual interviews with
pupils concerning their educational and
vocational plans.
5. Conducting special interviews with
individual pupils who are mal-adjusted,
as shown by their scholarship records.
6. Studying record cards before individual
interviews.
7. Enrolling and placing new pupils in
classes.
8. Making program adjustments for those
pupils who fail, those whose physical
condition makes it unwise for them to
carry a full program, those who are
promoted during the semester, and
those gifted pupils who need to carry
more than the regular load of school
work.
9. Handling discipline cases referred to
the counselor by teachers because of
poor adjustment to classroom
conditions.
10. Handling absence and tardiness cases.
11. Approving requests for transfer to other
schools and checking the pupil out of
the organization.
12. Assisting pupils to make personal and
social adjustments in such matters as
dress, personal habits, relations with
fellow-pupils, and the like.
13. Granting permission to leave school at
irregular times or to come late on
account of illness, to go to the
placement office, the dental clinic,
other clinics, etc.
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14. Assisting in construction of the
schools program of classes each
semester.
15. Furnishing the principal with
information as to probable size of
classes, number in each course, and
definite personnel for each group.
16. Having charge of all school
assembly programs.
17. Granting lunch permits.
18. Having charge of school clubs and
the school social program. Including
dances.
19. Conferring with parents who come
to the school.
20. Obtaining information from their
homes concerning pupils who are
doing unsatisfactory work.
21. Providing free books, supplies, and
other special aid to needy pupils.
22. Keeping a list of available positions
for pupils.
23. Dealing directly with outside
agencies regarding placement of
pupils leaving school.
24. Referring pupils to central
placement office.
25. Explaining work certificate
requirements.
26. Helping pupils obtain part-time and
after-school employment as a means
of keeping them in school.
27. Keeping records of interviews.
28. Presiding over study halls.
29. Lending money from school loan
fund and receiving unpaid loans.
30. Giving intelligence and educational
achievement tests.
 List of Actual Counselor Duties (1931): Continued

31. Assigning backward pupils to and

releasing them from remedial work in
school subjects, such as reading or
mathematics.
32. Conferring with principal, assistant
principal, department heads, teachers,
school psychologist, school nurse,
school physician, attendance officers,
representatives of social agencies, and
others.
33. Gathering and preparing vocational
information material.
34. Supervising school publications.
35. Performing corridor duty.
36. Assisting the librarian to make as
large a contribution as possible to
pupil guidance.
37. Assisting the teachers in procuring
and imparting occupational
information.

Myers, G. E. (1931). What should be the duties of the counselor? The Vocational

Guidance Magazine, 9(8), 343-347.

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 Appendix E: Appropriate and Inappropriate Activities

Appropriate Activities for School Inappropriate Activities for School

Counselors Counselors

individual student academic program Coordinating paperwork and data

planning entry of all new students

interpreting cognitive, aptitude, and coordinating cognitive, aptitude and

achievement test achievement testing programs

Providing counseling to students who signing excuses for students who are
are tardy or absent tardy of absent

Providing counseling to students who performing disciplinary actions or

have disciplinary problems assigning discipline consequences

Providing counseling to students to sending students home who are not

appropriate school dress
collaborating with teachers to present
school counseling core curriculum
lessons
analyzing grade-point averages in
relationship to achievement
interpreting student records
appropriately dressed
teaching classes when teachers are
absent
computing grade point averages
maintaining student records

providing teachers with suggestions supervising classrooms or common

for effective classroom management
ensuring that student records are
maintained as per state and federal
regulations
Helping the school principal identify
and resolve student issues, needs and
problems
Providing individual and small-group
counseling services to students
advocating for students at individual
education plan meetings, student study
teams and school attendance review
boards
Analyzing disaggregated data
areas
keeping clerical records
assisting with duties in the principals
office
Providing therapy or long-term
counseling in schools to address
psychological disorders
Coordinating schoolwide individual
education plans, student study teams
and school attendance review boards
Serving as a data entry clerk

Adapted from Campbell, C. A. & Dahir, C. A. (1997). Sharing the vision: The ASCA
national standards for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School
Counselor Retrieved from: http://www.schoolcounselor.org/files/appropriate.pdf
139
 Appendix F: ASCA National Model

There are four interrelated quadrants (or Domains) in The ASCA National Model:

Foundation, Management System, Delivery System, and Accountability (ASCA, 2012).

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 Appendix G: IRB Approval Letter

Office of the Provost

Memo

To: Dr. Shannon Dermer and Nicole Randick

From: Drs. David Rhea and Dale Schuit IRB Co-
Chairs
CC: David Deeds
Date: December 9, 2013
Re: Relationship Between Job Duties/Wellness of

School Counselors

Project Number: #13-12-09

Governors State University grants exempt approval for your project.

Please be advised that if you make any substantive changes in your research protocols,

you must inform the IRB and have the new protocols approved. Please refer to your

GSU project number when communicating with us about this research.

141
 Appendix H: Request to Participate

Calling All School Counselors:

Greetings, my name is Nicole Randick and I am a doctoral candidate at Governors State

University in the Counselor Education and Supervision program. Im researching the
relationship between job duties (as defined by the ASCA National Model) and school
counselor wellness. The title of my study is The Relationship Between Actual Job
Duties and Wellness of School Counselors. This study is an attempt to achieve a greater
understanding of what factors contribute to the wellness of school counselors, specifically
when it comes to school counselors roles and function within the school setting.

There are several potential benefits to participation:

You help contribute to the understanding of what factors contribute to the overall
wellness of school counselors.

You have the opportunity to be self-reflective about what job duties, as defined by the
ASCA National Model, may influence ones overall wellness.

You may gain knowledge of different areas of wellness in ones life.

The survey will take approximately 20 minutes to complete. All information is collected
anonymously. The survey includes a demographic questionnaire, the School Counselor
Activity Rating Scale (SCARS) by Janna Scarborough, and the Five Factor Wellness
Inventory (5F-Wel) by Myers & Sweeney.

If you are interested in completing the study, it can be accessed

at: https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/Q2KQ2Y7

If you start the survey please complete it. Incomplete survey's will not count in this
research.

Please feel free to forward this email to other school counselors who may be interested in
completing the study.

Questions regarding the study can be directed to this researcher

at npeterson@govst.edu or my chair, Dr. Shannon Dermer at sdermer@govst.edu.

Sincerely,

Nicole M. Randick, MA, ATR-BC, LPC

Doctoral Candidate
Governors State University

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 Appendix I: Informed Consent

INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT

Governors State University

The Relationship Between Actual Job Duties and Wellness of School Counselors

Purpose of the study:

The purpose of this research study is to investigate the relationship between job duties (as
defined by the ASCA National Model) and school counselor wellness.

If you decide to participate in this research study, you will be administered three surveys
to evaluate your actual work functions of a school counselor and your perceived level of
holistic wellness. In addition, a demographic survey will be administered to collect
organizational factors that influences your level of wellness and performance of job
duties as a school counselor. If you say YES, then your participation in the study will be
approximately 20 40 minutes to complete the surveys. Approximately 100 school
counselors will be anticipated to participate.

Researchers:
The responsible project investigator is Nicole M. Randick, a doctoral candidate of
Counseling Education and Supervision in the Department of Psychology and Counseling
at Governors State University. Committee members on this research project include Dr.
Shannon Dermer, Dr. Jon Carlson, Dr. Rebecca Michel, and Dr. John Cook from the
same University.

Risks and benefits:

There are no foreseeable risks to you for participating in this study. There are no direct
benefits to you for participating in this study. One possible benefit to you for
participating in this study is gaining knowledge of different areas of wellness in your life.

Costs and payments

The researchers want your decision about participating in this study to be absolutely
voluntary. The researchers are unable to give you any payment for participating in this
study.

New information
If the researchers find new information during this study that would reasonably change
your decision about participating, then they will give it to you.

Confidentiality
Your responses will be kept completely confidential. We will NOT know your IP address
when you respond to the Internet survey. The researchers will take foreseeable steps to
keep private information confidential. Any identifying information will be removed from
the data.

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How the findings will be used:
The results of the study will be used for scholarly purposes only. The results of this study
may be used in reports, presentations, and publications; but the researcher will not
identify you. Of course, your records may be subpoenaed by court order or inspected by
government bodies with oversight authority.

Withdrawal privilege:
Your participation is voluntary; you are free to withdraw your participation from this
study at any time. It is OK for you to say NO. If you do not click on the "submit" button
at the end of the survey, your answers and participation will not be recorded. Even if you
say YES now, you are free to say NO later, and walk away or withdraw from the study --
at any time.

Voluntary Consent:
By participating in this project, you are saying several things. You are saying that you
have read this form or have had it read to you, that you are satisfied that you understand
this form, the research study, and its risks and benefits. If you have any questions later
on, please contact Nicole M. Randick at npeterson@govst.edu.

If you have questions about your rights as a participant in human subjects research, you
may also contact the GSU Institutional Review Board Co-Chairs: David Rhea, Ph.D. at
708-534-4392 or Dale Schuit, Ph.D. at 708-235-2148, or email at irb@govst.edu .

By beginning the survey, you acknowledge that you have read this information and agree
to participate in this research, with the knowledge that you are free to withdraw your
participation at any time without penalty.

144