AE 315 Lab 1

1.1 Objectives
During this experiment, you will

1. Observe the flow field over an airfoil in a few different configurations

2. Learn how pitot-static pressure probes work

1.2 Background
The flow over a wing of an airplane is a very complicated flow field. To get a grasp on this flow field it
is necessary to make some simplifying assumptions. Once sufficient assumptions are made it is easier
to get a good grasp on the basic operation of a wing. Then methodically the underlying simplifying
assumptions are relaxed and the flow field is studied with increasing complexity. This is the normal
tried and tested manner in which wing theory has been historically taught and addressed. However
due to the assumptions involved in most theoretical analysis incorporated into wing theory wing
tunnel testing remains a key tool in analyzing wing performance. The following will go through
some of the basics of airfoil theory. As a note, some of this background is from my (drG) own
advisors notes for his lab [2].

1.2.1 Airfoils
Airfoils are two-dimensional wings, which are essentially cross-sections of a wing. Suppose a really
long wing (Aspect ratio >>1) is tested in a wind tunnel a large portion of the flow over the wing
will be two-dimensional. When we say the flow is two-dimensional it means that the mean flow
properties do not vary along the span of the wing. Any cross-section of the wing in that two-
dimensional region represents an airfoil. Shown in figure 1 is a typical airfoil schematic showing its
various salient features.

Figure 1: Airfoil nomenclature [3]

1.2.2 Airfoil in potential flows
The most restrictive assumptions we can apply to the flow over an airfoil is assume that the flow
field is a potential flow field. Often times this assumption is stated in the following manner - the
flow field is perfect or ideal. Clearly ideal or perfect implicitly implies that there is a less ideal or
perfect state. In fact every flow field in the real world is imperfect or non-ideal. However in some
cases, as we will see in a bit, it is very mathematically advantageous to treat the flow field as a
potential flow field, without great loss in relevant physics as long as we take care of a few things.
This statement will become more self-revealing as we go along.
A perfect flow field is one that is inviscid, incompressible and irrotational. Inviscid merely implies
that the effect of viscous forces are insignificant in comparison to the effect of more dominant forces
in the flow (typically inertial forces). This usually occurs when the Reynolds number (ratio of
inertial to viscous forces) tends to infinity. The flow is considered incompressible when the Mach
number tends to zero or information is transmitted so fast throughout the flow field that it can
be assumed to be instantaneous. Irrotational merely means that the curl of the velocity field is
zero everywhere in the flow field. In an incompressible and inviscid flow field when the curl of the
velocity field is zero i.e
V~ = 0, (1)
we can define a velocity potential (hence the name potential flow), which when used in the
Navier-Stokes equations along with the assumption of steady flow and insignificant body forces
leads to
2 = 0. (2)
This is the Laplace equation in . The Laplace equation is a linear equation which means we can
use the principle of super position to add solutions. For example we can add a free stream solution
plus that of a dipole solution to get flow over a cylinder as shown in figure 2. This is one of the
reasons for using potential flow theory. As a recap the assumptions that have been made thus far
are

1. inviscid (potential flow assumption)

2. incompressible (potential flow assumption)

3. irrotational (potential flow assumption)

4. steady flow (can have unsteady potential flows)

5. body forces (can have potential flows with body forces)

In addition when we consider flow over an airfoil we implicitly assume that the flow is two-
dimensional.
So the question remains when can we assume the flow over an airfoil is potential?

1. Inviscid - At high Reynolds numbers the boundary layer is limited to a very thin region close
to the airfoil as shown in figure 3. Within this boundary layer the viscous forces are significant.
Outside it though, as shown, the flow can be assumed to be potential.

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 Figure 2: Flow over a non-lifting cylinder [1]

2. Incompressible - At Mach numbers less than 0.3 its fair to make the assumption that the
flow is incompressible. This will mathematically br shown in your compressible aerodynamics
class. However, its important to note that this is a rule of thumb and nothing magical happens
between Mach 0.29 and Mach 0.31.

3. Irrotational - Outside the boundary layer the flow is always irrotational as rotationality is
primarily a viscous effect.

Hence outside the thin boundary layer within which the viscous effects are confined, when the
Mach number is less than 0.3 the flow field is assumed to be ideal. If the flow field is steady with
insignificant body forces (which they are for flow over airfoils) the flow field neglecting the boundary
layer is assumed to be potential and governed by equation 2. These are the regions marked by 1 in
figure 3.

1.2.3 Lifting flow over cylinders

As described in your Fluid Mechanics course when you superpose a dipole and a uniform potential
flow field you get non-lifting flow over a cylinder. This is shown in figure 2 and figure 4(a). However
if we add (superpose) a potential vortex (shown in figure 4(b) to this flow field we get lift generated
on the cylinder. This is called lifting flow over a cylinder shown in fig 5 and figure 6. So the idea is
that if we add some sort of circulation (which only a potential vortex has) we can mathematically
create lift over a cylinder. This is shown in figure 7 where varying levels of circulation is added to
generate varying amounts of lift on a cylinder. This has also been reproduced in the laboratory
by studying the flow field over a spinning cylinder as shown in figure 8. The similarity of the flow
visualization in figure 8 and the streamlines shown in figure 7 is clearly seen.
This concept can be extended to flow over an airfoil. Consider potential flow (remember no

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Figure 3: Flow over an airfoil showing the extent of the boundary layer (region marked 2 - viscous
effects are significant) and the outer potential flow region (region marked 1)

Figure 4: (a) Flow over a non-lifting cylinder (b) A potential vortex [4]

boundary layer) over an airfoil with circulation () applied at the airfoil quarter chord. If
strength is adjusted such that the flow leaves the trailing edge of the airfoil smoothly (called the
Kutta condition) then the lift over the airfoil is given by

L0 = V (3)
where, L0 is the lift per unit span, is the free-stream density and V is the free stream
velocity. This law is called the Kutta-Joukowski law. The potential flow field streamlines over an
airfoil where various level of circulation (magnitude of ) has been added is shown in figure 9 and
figure 10. The correct amount of circulation to be added by the Kutta condition is when the flow
leaves the trailing edge smoothly.
How does this compare with real life? Shown in figure 11 is the lift calculated from thin airfoil
theory (assumes potential flow) compared with wind tunnel data. As you can see the agreement is
pretty good except at stall. What we really did mathematically was this: we neglected the boundary

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 Figure 5: Flow over a lifting cylinder [1]

layer and calculated the flow field with this artificial circulation added to the flow field. It appears
that this gives an answer close to the right answer.

1.2.4 Lifting flow over airfoils

So what does this magical circulation do? It acts like a boundary layer with respect to the mathe-
matics creating lift. So its important to note that lift cannot be produced without a boundary layer.
The boundary layer, where viscous forces are significant, produces vorticity which when integrated
around the airfoil produces circulation. This is the basis of what is known as the circulation theory
of lift. As a note of caution remember its called circulation THEORY of lift.

1.2.5 Pressure
Pressure is one of the most important and common measurements made in aerodynamic mea-
surements. Pressure measurements are essential to performing or interpreting many aerodynamics
experiments on aircraft, components, and fundamental fluid physics. For example, it is common to
measure pressures on wings, cylinders, supersonic nozzles, and wind tunnels. Other times one will
measure the integrated effects of pressure, such as the lift force on an entire wing.
What is pressure? The word pressure is used commonly in everyday conversations. We speak
of air pressure in a car or bicycle tire, atmospheric pressure in weather reports, water pressure,
the pressure of the exam that is coming up, peer pressure, blitzing in football to pressure the
quarterback, and so on. But what precisely is the physical definition of pressure we use in science and
engineering? A useful macroscopic technical definition of pressure is, a distributed force applied
perpendicular to a surface and measured as force per unit area. In other words, pressure is the
point wise normal force per area acting on a surface. Pressure is perpendicular force per area, or
symbolically, p = F/A where p is pressure, F is normal force, and A is area.
Pressures occur in solids, liquids, and gases. Molecules rebounding or recoiling from collisions

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 Figure 6: Flow over a lifting cylinder [4]

with other molecules cause pressure. Except at absolute zero temperature, all molecules are vibrat-
ing. The molecules travel in straight lines but collide with other molecules. Each time a molecular
collision occurs, a force accompanies the direction change of the molecules (force vector = change
in momentum vector as in billiard balls colliding). When collisions occur between a gas molecule
and the wall of the container, the force of the collision is part of the pressure of the contained gas or
liquid. The collisions happen billions of times per second per unit area in materials under ordinary
conditions, but perhaps much less in a partial vacuum. The sum total of all the very small forces
of the collisions is the pressure.
Clearly the units of pressure must agree with the definition of pressure, force per area. In the
metric system, pressures are usually given as Newtons per square meter (N/m2 ), which are known
as Pascals (P a). In the English system, pressures are usually given as pounds force per square inch
(lb/in2 or psi). Note too that a force per area is also energy per volume, so it is often useful to
think of pressure as a spring-like energy per unit volume.
Energy is the ability to do work, so a pressurized container of air is able to do work. It is for
this reason that gas cylinders, which are the tanks of pressured air, nitrogen, or other gases, are
kept chained to the wall. If one tank were to fall over and snap the valve off the top, much of
the energy of the pressurized gas could be transformed into kinetic energy of the valve, hurling
it dangerously through the room. But note that in hydraulic systems, such as power brakes on
your car, you do not wish to store energy in the fluid but use it to transmit force. Thus, highly
incompressible liquids are chosen for these applications so that very little energy is stored in them.
That is, recall from thermodynamics that differential work done is pressure times differential volume
change, dW = pdV . A hydraulic fluid has very small dW even for sizeable pressures, so there is
not much work done on the fluid. On the other hand, gases will change volume rather easily
with pressure and thus will store significant energy, such as in a rocket balloon. Indeed the total
energy stored in a gas cylinder for example is indicated by the pressure of gas in the cylinder. This
pressure is called the total pressure or the stagnation pressure (pressure of a fluid at rest). The total
or stagnation pressure is thus a measure of the energy available to extract out of a fuel system.

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 Figure 7: Flow over a lifting cylinder with various degrees of circulation (magnitudes of ) [1]

1.2.6 Bernoullis equation

Bernoullis equation relates the static pressure of a system with the total and dynamic pressure of
the system. The dynamic pressure at a point in the fluid is the kinetic energy per mass of the fluid
in motion. The static pressure is the pressure that is static. Bernoullis equation relates all three
quantities as
1
p + V 2 = constant = p0 (4)
2
Here, p0 is the total pressure at a point in a fluid in motion, p the static pressure and 1/2V 2
the dynamic pressure. So if the total pressure (stagnation pressure) is the amount of pressure that
is available to extract when the fluid is at rest then when it starts moving some of it is converted to
dynamic pressure and the remaining is the static pressure. Now in a potential flow since the flow
is inviscid there are no losses so p0 is constant throughout the flow field and thus
1
p + V 2 = constant
2
everywhere in the flow field and that constant is the total pressure or stagnation pressure p0 .

1.2.7 Wall static pressure

The static pressure port is a small hole drilled on the side of wind tunnel walls or wind tunnel models
to measure the static pressure at the wall as shown in the schematic in figure 12. Its important to
note that a well designed static pressure port on wall where the boundary layer is laminar measures
essentially the static pressure at the point on the edge of the boundary layer which is normal to the
pressure port. This is because in a laminar boundary layer

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 p
=0 (5)
n
within a laminar boundary layer. Here n is the wall normal direction. Thus within a laminar
boundary layer only the dynamic (and thus total pressure)is changing. The total pressure changes
from that of the static pressure at the wall to the total pressure of the potential flow outside of it.
However in a turbulent boundary layer the static pressure also varies within the boundary layer.
But this change is very small and the pressure is assumed to be constant.

1.2.8 Pitot-static pressure

The total pressure p0 can be measured using a pitot probe a schematic of which is shown in figure 13.
The total pressure or the stagnation pressure is measured by what is essentially a tube placed along
the flow direction. This measures the stagnation or total pressure. Usually the static pressure port
is combined with a pitot tube to make a pitot-static probe as shown in figure 14. The difference
between the total pressure and the static pressure is then measured using a differential pressure
gauge to measure the velocity using equation 2 as shown in figure 14.
Also attached is a summary of the pitot-static probe functioning from your AE 301 text book
(Fundamental of Aerodynamics, John D. Anderson Jr, 5th edition) for additional reading.

1.2.9 Equipment
1. Smoke tunnel

2. Smoke/fog generator

3. Pressure transducer

4. Thermocouple

5. Airfoil model

1.3 Info for this lab and ones to follow

1. The TA who is in the lab with you is your Lab monitor.

2. All correspondence to be sent to the head TA Artham Sravan.

3. Lab reports are due according to the schedule posted on the website.

4. Go to the website and read the guidelines for writing lab reports for more information on
completing your lab report.

5. Every lab the TA will split you up into two or three groups. You will write your lab report
(for that particular lab) with this group. You cannot switch groups under any circumstance.

6. Your cellphone camera is your best friend for carrying out experiments. Have a designated
camera person (for each group) and take plenty of pictures to add to your report.

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1.4 Procedure
Given below is the procedure you will follow while carrying out this lab. Questions to address in
your report (bulleted items) as you carry out the experiment are also specified. Discuss in detail
all the bullet points in your lab report.
1. Check in with your TA - sign the attendance sheet

2. You are going to use the two-dimensional smoke tunnel at ERAU. The velocity in this tunnel is
measured used a pitot-static tube. You should have learned about this in your fluid mechanics
course. Review the given material on the pitot-static tubes. Including in flight airspeed, this
is a very common means of measuring air velocity. With your TAs help -

Locate the static pressure port and total (pitot) pressure port. Notice the orientation of
the orifices of both ports. The static pressure is p and the total pressure is p0 .
With your TAs help turn the tunnel on by setting the dial at 30. Note the temperature
of the air inside the tunnel. This is measured using the thermocouple. Observe how the
thermocouple is placed in the flow.
Note also the barometric pressure. Pay attention to the units. Calculate the density of
the air .
Calculate the difference between the pitot pressure and the static pressure (p = p0 p)
that will correspond to a velocity of 3 and 6 ms1 . Calculate the pressure in both Pa
and in of H2 O.

3. You will measure this pressure difference using a pressure transducer. Observe how the pres-
sure ports are plugged into the pressure transducer. This transducer will give the difference
between two pressure. In your case you will be measuring the aforementioned p.

4. With the TAs help, set the airfoil in the zero angle of attack ( = 0 degrees) position.

5. With the TAs help, adjust the tunnel speed to be 3 ms1 using the dial.

6. Assist the TA in getting the smoke going. Observe the streamlines. Take pictures.

Is it a symmetrical or cambered airfoil. Use your picture of the streamlines to explain.

What is the extent of the boundary layer?
What is the extent of the wake?
Which part of the flow field is potential and which is not. Why?

7. With the TAs help, set the airfoil at a positive angle of attack ( = 20 degrees) position.

8. Assist the TA in getting the smoke going. Observe the streamlines. Take pictures.

What can you say about the flow over the airfoil now?
What is the extent of the boundary layer?
What is the extent of the wake?

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 Which part of the flow field is potential and which is not. Why?

9. With the TAs help, set the tunnel speed to 6 ms1 .

10. Assist the TA in getting the smoke going.

11. The TA will turn on the vacuum pump. Observe what happens to the streamlines as the
pump suction strength is increased. Take pictures at the two extreme pump strengths (zeros
and max strength).

What can you say about the flow over the airfoil at the two extreme pump strengths?
What is the extent of the boundary layer at the two extreme pump strengths?
What is the extent of the wake at the two extreme pump strengths?
Which part of the flow field is potential and which is not at the two extreme pump
strengths? Why?
What is the change in the shape of the streamlines between the two extreme pump
strengths?
What happens to the stagnation point close to the leading edge of the airfoil as the pump
strength is increased?

12. With the TAs help, set the airfoil at a positive angle of attack( = 40 degrees) position.

13. With the TAs help, set the tunnel speed to 3 ms1 .

What can you say about the flow over the airfoil now?
What is the extent of the boundary layer?
What is the extent of the wake?
Which part of the flow field is potential and which is not. Why?
What can you say about the stagnation point now?

14. Use the transparency sheet provided and trace out the airfoil profile. Can you determine
which NACA airfoil you are testing?

15. Turn everything off.

1.5 Further things to address in your report

These are the minimum things that need to be addressed in your lab report. More initiative will
always be rewarded.

With the help of the pictures you took, explain the regions of potential flow in the flow field
at all airfoil positions. Make sure you discuss your rationale.

Explain circulation theory of lift based on what you observed (pictures) with pump on and
off.

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 What does turning the pump on at max strength add to the flow field?

Based on your observation of the pressure ports and the measurements you made give a brief
summary of how a pitot-static probe is used to measure the air velocity in the tunnel you
used.

References
[1] John David Anderson. Fundamentals of aerodynamics. McGraw-Hill New York, 2001.

[2] Sullivan J. AAE33L Lab Manual - Purdue University.

[3] Arnold Martin Kuethe and Chuen-Yen Chow. Foundations of aerodynamics: bases of aerody-
namic design. Wiley, 1976.

[4] Richard Shepherd Shevell. Fundamentals of flight. 1989.

1.6 Questions for in class quiz

List one of the objectives of the lab.

Along a wing when is the flow two dimensional?

List any two assumptions of the potential flow theory.

Is there any lift on a body when there is no circulation? Yes - No

What are the units of the pressure in metric system?

Bernoullis equation is given by: p + 21 V 2 = p0 . Which terms represent the total pressure ?

Bernoullis equation is given by: p + 12 V 2 = p0 . Which terms represent the static pressure ?

Bernoullis equation is given by: p+ 12 V 2 = p0 . Which terms represent the dynamic pressure?

What pressure does the Pitot tube measures?

What pressure does the pressure probe on the wall measures?

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Figure 8: Flow visualization of the flow over a spinning cylinder [1]

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Figure 9: Potential flow streamline over an airfoil at two levels of circulation [1]

Figure 10: Potential flow streamline over an airfoil at four levels of circulation [4]

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Figure 11: Comparison of results obtained from thin airfoil theory (potential flow theory) with that
obtained from wind tunnel experiments [1]

Figure 12: Schematic of static wall pressure port on a tunnel/model wall. The arrow show the flow
direction [? ]

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 Figure 13: Schematic of pitot pressure port. Shown also are the streamlines from the flow.[? ]

Figure 14: Schematic of pitot-static probe https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/pitot.html

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