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Analysis from the East-West Center SUMMARY For decades, international lenders, agencies, and foundations
No. 47
December 2000 as well as national and local governments have spent millions of dollars trying
The U.S. Congress established
the East-West Center in 1960 to to “modernize” the traditional practices of farmers in many mountainous
foster mutual understanding and
cooperation among the govern- areas of Southeast Asia—an agenda driven by the belief that their age-old
ments and peoples of the Asia
Pacific region, including the United shifting cultivation practices (known pejoratively as “slash and burn”) are
States. Funding for the Center
comes from the U.S. government deforesting Asia. But a new look at how forests fare under shifting cultivation
with additional support provided
by private agencies, individuals, (as opposed to under permanent agriculture) clearly demonstrates that efforts
corporations, and Asian and Pacific
governments. to eliminate the ancient practice have actually contributed to deforestation,
The AsiaPacific Issues series
contributes to the Center’s role as
loss of biodiversity, and reduction in carbon storage.1 In fact, shifting cultiva-
a neutral forum for discussion of
issues of regional concern. The
tion, rather than being the hobgoblin of tropical forest conservation, may be
views expressed are those of the
author and not necessarily those
ecologically appropriate, culturally suitable, and under certain circumstances
of the Center.
the best means for preserving biodiversity in the region. The real threat to
1 Because plants absorb and store carbon as they grow, forests help
keep carbon out of the atmosphere, where it is a major contributor
to greenhouse gases. When a plant sprouts and as it matures, it
absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, breaks it down chem-
ically, and uses carbon as construction material for roots, stems,
branches, flowers, and leaves. When the plant dies, some of the car-
bon goes back into the atmosphere, but some is also released into the
soil as the dead plant decays.
3
Analysis from the East-West Center
secondary forests may have been significantly under- vegetation often find species diversity comparable to
estimated by scientists who have focused almost ex- more mature forests (although the diversity of large
clusively on timber inventories and ignored carbon mammals and bird species may not recover). Similar-
in secondary forest regrowth, soils, and wetlands.v ly, surveys suggest that the negative impacts of swid-
By failing to consider forest regrowth in fallow swid- dening on water- and soil-holding properties have
dens across Southeast Asia, we may well be missing been exaggerated, especially as compared to those of
another important carbon sink, one that will be se- commercial agriculture, plantation forestry, or roads.vi
verely compromised by a boundless expansion of Carbon sequestration, so important in mitigat-
commercial agriculture. ing global warming, may be similar under intensive
tree-cropping systems and swiddening (though tree-
The high price of permanent agriculture. The cropping systems’ effects on biodiversity and hydrol-
By ignoring forest small amount of land-use change that has occurred ogy are often negative). But carbon accumulation is
regrowth, we may in this region has been caused by a move away from negligible in agricultural plots planted with annuals.
shifting cultivation to the growth of cash crops, in-
be endangering a
cluding paddy rice and plantation tree crops. In some
major carbon ‘sink’ cases annual rates of change have been significant—
Forces Driving Land-Use Change
so important to as high as 35 percent per year in Yunnan-Baka. Shifting cultivation has remained the dominant land-
mitigating climate It is the spread of permanent and commercial use system throughout the past 35 to 50 years de-
change agriculture that ultimately will bring about true de- spite attempts to eliminate it by every country in the
forestation. The result will be a landscape dominat- region. Policies have included outright banning of
ed by tree crops (e.g., rubber, palm oil, and coffee), shifting cultivation, declaring an area a forest reserve
or composed of annuals (e.g., maize, cassava, and and excluding people, resettling people into the low-
ginger). In either case, biodiversity, as measured by lands, and promoting and subsidizing permanent
the number of plant and animal species on the land- and commercial agriculture either in place of exist-
scape, will decline. By contrast, surveys of secondary ing shifting cultivation systems or in new locations.
The Life of a Swidden Fallow canopy layers including older trees from the previous
fallow forest, younger trees that have sprouted from
Contrary to the popular belief that swidden fallows are trees cut earlier, and trees that have developed from
impoverished environments, fallows have a richness of seeds. The swiddening environment as a whole is
plant and animal species, many of which are not found complex, dynamic, of uneven age, and structurally
elsewhere, and are not dominated by any single diverse: a compound of successional stages that
species. Secondary forests consist of up to three replace each other at a rapid pace.
5
Analysis from the East-West Center
into settled, permanent agriculture; wild plants that National legislation needs to be developed that rec-
have found a market, such as bamboo, are encour- ognizes customary claims to swidden fallows and
aged to spread and become in effect a commercial grants farmers and farming communities legal access
crop, suspending the fallow period that normally to the land they have traditionally used.
permits forest regeneration. Other disadvantages also In this way, the international, national, and local
affect the farmer: monocrops are more susceptible to forces that have worked to eradicate shifting culti-
pests and make the farmer vulnerable to price fluc- vation can work toward preserving the ecological
tuations; as self-sufficiency decreases, vulnerability diversity and stability of the enormous, and im-
increases; and like all people living on the margin, mensely important, mountain region of mainland
the farmers of Southeast Asia’s mountain areas are Southeast Asia.
safer when they diversify.
The recognition that shifting cultivation may be the The calculation and comparison of deforestation
rates, so necessary to evaluating the relative
most ecologically appropriate and culturally suitable
impacts of shifting cultivation and agriculture, is
There must be fun- means available for promoting sustainable economic notoriously difficult and complicated. Especially
damental changes growth in many mountain areas requires some fun- problematic is that there are no standardized defini-
damental changes in how development is envisioned tions of “forest,” and other traditional land-cover
in how develop- classifications such as “agriculture” and “plantation”
and funded and in the ways governments manage
ment is envisioned do not capture the crucial variations in shifting culti-
land. Two responses are particularly important. vation and its associated stages of secondary vege-
and funded and in tation. For example, between 26 percent and 49 per-
how governments Protect and improve the traditional systems. The cent of all mainland Southeast Asian land has been
classified as “other” where other is defined as shrub,
manage land integrity of shifting cultivation systems, which are
brush, pasture, waste, and other land-use cate-
under pressure from shortened fallow periods, lack gories, many of which are actually some stage of
of legal recognition, and commercial pressures, must secondary forest or vegetation.viii
be improved. It is essential to learn how to main- In this project, aerial photographs and satellite
images were interpreted and grouped into five class-
tain the biodiversity of fallows while also increasing
es: secondary forest, cultivated swidden plots,
their productivity and soil-sustaining properties. Re- paddy, cash crops and plantations, and miscella-
search aimed at accelerating the regeneration of fal- neous. We believe the study sites contained no sig-
lows could address the effects of different methods of nificant “primary” forest. Secondary vegetation was
further subdivided into three classes: closed-canopy
land clearing, crop cultivation, fertilizer use, propa- forest, open-canopy forest, and grass, bamboo, and
gation of wild crops found in swidden fallows, and shrub. The more refined classification scheme per-
a number of other issues. Education efforts aimed at mitted better study of the complexity of secondary
the farmers must disseminate this information in a vegetation, its diverse vegetation types, and its
species compositions and structures that change
way that is meaningful and useful to them. rapidly in the course of successional stages of
growth.
Recognize the land claims of shifting cultivators. Socioeconomic databases were compiled
through interviews with local residents and govern-
Land tenure policies that disenfranchise shifting
ment officials. Researchers documented changes in
cultivators in favor of settled farmers must end. New national and regional policies influencing land use
policies must be designed and implemented in or- (e.g., land tenure, taxation, credit, import and export
der to empower local people to manage and utilize regulations) and changes in infrastructure (roads and
markets). The purpose was to identify the socioeco-
their own land and forest resources, a development
nomic and institutional factors influencing land use
that would help control the spread of large planta- and management decisions affecting land use.
tions and their negative effects on the environment.
7
Analysis from the East-West Center
mantan: Spatial and temporal dynamics. Landscape Ecology region of Southeast Asia. Pages 460–518 in Kasperson, J.X.,
13:135–148. R.E. Kasperson, and B.L. Turner II (eds.). Regions at Risk: Com-
Tomich, T., M. Noordwijk, S. Budidarsono, A. Gillison, parisons of Threatened Environments. Tokyo: United Nations
T. Kusumanto, D. Murdiyarso, F. Stolle, and A. Fagi (eds.). University Press.
1998. Alternatives to Slash-and-Burn in Indonesia: Summary Kummer, D., and B.L. Turner II. 1994. The human causes of
Report and Synthesis of Phase II. ASB-Indonesia Report deforestation in Southeast Asia. BioScience 44(5): 323–328.
Number 8. Bogor: ICRAF.
The AsiaPacific Issues series reports on No. 46 “The Future of E-Commerce in Jefferson M. Fox is a senior fellow in the
topics of regional concern. China” by Dieter Ernst and He Jiacheng. East-West Center Research Program. His
October 2000. interests include land-use and land-cover
Series Editor: Elisa W. Johnston
No. 45 “Multilateralism and Regional change and community-based resource
The contents of this paper may be repro-
Security: Can the ASEAN Regional Forum management. His most recent publication is
duced for personal use. Single copies may
Really Make a Difference?” by G. V. C. “Shifting Cultivation: A New Old Paradigm
be downloaded from the Center’s website.
Naidu. August 2000. for Managing Tropical Forests,” by Fox et al.
Copies are also available for $2.50 plus
in Bioscience 50:6, 521–528. He can be
shipping. For information or to order copies, No. 44 “Natural Gas: The Fuel of the Future
reached at:
please contact the Publications Office, in Asia” by Fereidun Fesharaki, Kang Wu,
East-West Center
East-West Center, 1601 East-West Road, and Sara Banaszak. June 2000.
Telephone: (808) 944-7248
Burns Hall Rm. 1079, Honolulu, Hawaii No. 43 “Domestic Politics Fuels Northeast
Email: FoxJ@EastWestCenter.org
96848-1601. Asian Maritime Disputes” by Mark J.
Selected Previous AsiaPacific Issues No. 24 “Sweeping Changes Shape a New No. 9 “Pacific Summit in Seattle: Testing
No. 39 “Strapped for Cash, Asians Plunder Pacific Asia” by Richard W. Baker. Clinton's Asia-Pacific Policy” by Richard W.
their Forests and Endanger their Future” by September 1995. Baker. November 1993.
Deanna G. Donovan. April 1999. No. 23 “The Rise of Global Intellectual No. 8 “America's Trade: Markets Count
No. 38 “International Response to Nuclear Property Rights and Their Impact on Asia” More Than Deficits” by Bernard K. Gordon.
Tests in South Asia: The Need for a New by Sumner J. La Croix. August 1995. October 1993.
Policy Framework” by Muthiah Alagappa. No. 22 “Indonesia in the 1990s: More than No. 7 “The High Costs of Environmental
June 1998. Meets the Eye” by Adam Schwarz. July Loans” by Frances F. Korten. September
No. 37 “Russia’s Media Revolution: From 1995. 1993.
Party Control to Money Control” by Gennadi No. 21 “Memory Wars: The Politics of No. 6 “Dear President Clinton: Voices from
Gerasimov. June 1998. Remembering the Asia-Pacific War” by Asia and the Pacific” edited by Richard
No. 36 “Indonesia in Crisis” by Richard W. Geoffrey M. White. July 1995. Halloran and John Schidlovsky. June 1993.
Baker. May 1998. No. 20 “Pacific Transitions: Population and No. 5 “The Challenges of Vietnam's
No. 35 “Global Lessons of the Asian Change in Island Societies” by Peter Pirie. Reconstruction” by A. Terry Rambo,
Economic Crisis” by Manuel F. Montes. July 1995. Nguyen Manh Hung, and Neil L. Jamieson.
March 1998. No. 19 “Energy Outlook to 2010: Asia- April 1993.
No. 34 “Toxic Waste: Hazardous to Asia's Pacific Demand, Supply, and Climate
Health” by David Nelson. November 1997. Change Implications” by Fereidun New East-West Center Special Report
No. 33 “Will Population Change Sustain the Fesharaki, Allen L. Clark, and Duangjai “The Two Koreas: Prospects for Economic
'Asian Economic Miracle'?” by Andrew Intarapravich. April 1995. Cooperation and Integration,” by Marcus
Mason. October 1997. No. 18 “China's Ethnic Reawakening” by Noland, East-West Center Special Report
No. 32 “A New Era for Japan and the Dru C. Gladney. January 1995. No. 7, December 2000. $7.00 plus shipping.
Pacific Islands: The Tokyo Summit” by No. 17 “A New Agenda for APEC: Setting The two Koreas have embarked on a
Gerard A. Finin and Terence Wesley-Smith. up the 'Building Blocks' of Free Trade” by process of national reconciliation, but the
September 1997. Seiji Finch Naya and Pearl Imada Iboshi. starting points are not auspicious. South
No. 31 “China and Central Asia's Volatile October 1994. Korea is still grappling with the aftershocks
Mix: Energy, Trade, and Ethnic Relations” No. 16 “AIDS in Asia: The Gathering of the 1997–98 financial crisis, while North
by James P. Dorian, Brett H. Wigdortz and Storm” by Tim Brown and Peter Xenos. Korea’s economy has experienced a dec-
Dru C. Gladney. May 1997. August 1994. ade of decline. Both governments are offi-
cially aiming for a “one nation, two systems”
No. 30 “The Fallacy of Global Sustainable No. 15 “Do Population Programs Violate
outcome, but the North could collapse be-
Development” by A. Terry Rambo. March Women's Human Rights?” by Karen
fore this is completed (or one side or the
1997. Oppenheim Mason. August 1994.
other could attempt a forcible unification).
No. 29 “Migrants on the Move in Asia” by No. 14 “Resource-rich Central Asia Opens
Central to the prospects for peaceful coex-
Philip Martin. December 1996. to the World” by James P. Dorian, Ian
istence are three questions: Is North Korea
No. 28 “The U.S. and Japan in APEC: Sheffield Rosi, and Changzoo Song. July
willing to change, is it capable of success-
Arena for Leadership in Asia and the 1994.
fully managing change, and to what pur-
Pacific” by Dennis J. Ortblad. August No. 13 “Marketing the Rainforest: 'Green pose would it apply the fruits of change?
1996. Panacea' or Red Herring?” by Michael R.
Nationalism and Conflict with the West” by No. 12 “U.S.-Japan Trade: Get Smart, Not
Yu Bin. May 1996. Just Tough” by Paula Stern. April 1994.
No. 26 “Nuclear Energy Thrives in Asia” by No. 11 “UN Peacekeeping Missions: The
Ronald E. Hagen. November 1995. Lessons from Cambodia” by Judy L.
and Reality” by Nancy E. Riley. September No. 10 “Looking for Pollution Where the
1995. People Are” by Kirk R. Smith. January
1994.