Basics of Injection Molding Design

Designing plastic parts is a complex task involving many factors that address a list of
requirements of the application. How is the part to be used? How does it fit to other parts in
the assembly? What loads will it experience in use? In addition to functional and structural
issues, processing issues play a large role in the design of an injection molded plastic part. How
the molten plastic enters, fills, and cools within the cavity to form the part largely drives what
form the features in that part must take. Adhering to some basic rules of injection molded part
design will result in a part that, in addition to being easier to manufacture and assemble, will
typically be much stronger in service. Dividing a part into basic groups will help you to build
your part in a logical manner while minimizing molding problems. As a part is developed,
always keep in mind how the part is molded and what you can do to minimize stress.
Table of Contents

(a) Applications
(b) Polymers Best Suited for Injection Molding
(c) Injection Molding Equipment
(d) Injection Molding Process
(e) Injection Molding Cycle
(f) Different Types of Injection Molding Processes
(g) Stress
(h) Gates
(i) Common Gates
(j) Gate Location
(k) Wall Thickness
(l) Draft
(m) Sink Marks
(n) Textures
(o) Parting Lines
(p) Common Molding Defects
Applications (^ Back to Top)
Plastic injection molding is the preferred process for manufacturing plastic parts. Injection
molding is used to create many things such as electronic housings, containers, bottle caps,
automotive interiors, combs, and most other plastic products available today. It is ideal for
producing high volumes of plastic parts due to the fact that several parts can be produced in each
cycle by using multi-cavity injection molds. Some advantages of injection molding are high
tolerance precision, repeatability, large material selection, low labor cost, minimal scrap losses,
and little need to finish parts after molding. Some disadvantages of this process are expensive
upfront tooling investment and process limitations.
Polymers Best Suited for Injection Molding
Most polymers may be used, including all thermoplastics and some elastomers. There are tens of
thousands of different materials available for injection molding. The available materials mixed
with alloys or blends of previously developed materials means that product designers can choose
from a vast selection of materials to find the one that has exactly the right properties. Materials
are chosen based on the strength and function required for the final part; but also each material
has different parameters for molding that must be considered. Common polymers like nylon,
polyethylene, and polystyrene are thermoplastic.
Injection Molding Equipment

Injection Molding Machine:

Injection molding machines, also known as presses, consist of a material hopper, an injection
ram or screw-type plunger, and a heating unit. Molds are clamped to the platen of the molding
machine, where plastic is injected into the mold through the sprue orifice. Presses are rated by
tonnage, which is the calculation of the amount of clamping force that the machine can exert.
This force keeps the mold closed during the injection molding process. Tonnage can vary from
less than 5 tons to 6,000 tons, although the higher tonnage presses are rarely used. The total
clamp force needed is determined by the projected area of the custom part being molded. This
projected area is multiplied by a clamp force of from 2 to 8 tons for each square inch of the
projected areas. As a rule of thumb, 4 or 5 tons/in can be used for most products. If the plastic
material is very stiff, it will require more injection pressure to fill the mold, thus more clamp
tonnage is needed to hold the mold closed. The required force can also be determined by the
material used and the size of the part with larger plastic parts requiring higher clamping force.
Mold:
The mold or die refers to the tooling used to produce plastic parts in molding. Traditionally
injection molds have been expensive to manufacture and were only used in high-volume
production applications where thousands of parts were produced. Molds are typically constructed
from hardened steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminum, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of
material to build a mold from is primarily one of economics. Steel molds generally cost more to
construct but offer a longer lifespan that will offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of
parts made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel molds are less wear resistant and are
primarilly used for lower volume requirements or larger components. The hardness of the pre-
hardened steel measures typically 38-45 on the Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel molds are heat
treated after machining, making them superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan. Typical
hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC).
Aluminum molds cost substantially less than steel molds, and when higher grade aluminum such
as QC-7 and QC-10 aircraft aluminum is used and machined with modern computerized
equipment, they can be economical for molding hundreds of thousands of parts. Aluminum
molds also offer quick turnaround and faster cycles because of better heat dissipation. They can
also be coated for wear resistance to fiberglass reinforced materials. Beryllium copper is used in
areas of the mold which require fast heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated.
Injection Molding Process
With injection molding, granular plastic is fed by gravity from a hopper into a heated barrel. As
the granules are slowly pushed forward by a screw-type plunger, the plastic is forced into a
heated chamber called the barrel where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted plastic
is forced through a nozzle that seats against the mold sprue bushing, allowing it to enter the mold
cavity through a gate and runner system. The mold remains at a set temperature so the plastic can
solidify almost as soon as the mold is filled.
Injection Molding Cycle
The sequence of events during the injection molding of a plastic part is called the injection
molding cycle. The cycle begins when the mold closes, followed by the injection of the polymer
into the mold cavity. Once the cavity is filled, a holding pressure is maintained to compensate for
material shrinkage. In the next step, the screw turns, feeding the next shot to the front screw. This
causes the screw to retract as the next shot is prepared. Once the part is sufficiently cool, the
mold opens and the part is ejected.
Different Types of Injection Molding Processes
Although most injection molding processes are covered by the conventional process description
above, there are several important molding variations including:
Co-injection(sandwich)molding

Fusible(lost, soluble)core injection molding

Gas-assisted injection molding

In-mold decoration and in mold lamination

Injection-compression molding

Injection molding of liquid silicone rubber

Insert and outsert molding

Lamellar (microlayer) injection molding

Low-pressure injection molding

Microinjection molding

Microcellular molding

Multicomponent injection molding(overmolding)

Multiple live-feed injection molding

Powder injection molding

Push-Pull injection molding

Reaction injection molding

Resin transfer molding

 Rheomolding

Structural foam injection molding

Structural reaction injection molding

Thin-wall molding

Vibration gas injection molding

Water assisted injection molding

Rubber injection

Stress
The main enemy of any injection molded plastic part is stress. When a plastic resin (which
contains long strains of molecules) is melted in preparation for molding, the molecular bonds are
temporarily broken due to the heat and shear force of the extruder, allowing the molecules to
flow into the mold. Using pressure, the resin is forced into the mold filling in every feature, crack
and crevice of the mold. As the molecules are pushed through each feature, they are forced to
bend, turn and distort to form the shape of the part. Turning hard or sharp corners exerts more
stress on the molecule than taking gentle turns with generous radii. Abrupt transitions from one
feature to another are also difficult for the molecules to fill and form to.
As the material cools and the molecular bonds re-link the resin into its rigid form, these stresses
are in effect locked into the part. Part stresses can cause warpage, sink marks, cracking,
premature failure and other problems.
While some stresses in an injection molded part are to be expected, you should design your parts
with as much consideration for stress reduction as possible. Some ways to do this are by adding
smooth transitions between features and using rounds and fillets in possible high stress areas.

Gates
 Each injection mold design must have a gate, or an opening that allows the molten plastic to be
injected into the cavity of the mold. Gate type, design and location can have effects on the part
such as part packing, gate removal or vestige, cosmetic appearance of the part, and part
dimensions & warping.
Gate Types
There are two types of gates available for injection molding; manually trimmed and
automatically trimmed gates.
Manually Trimmed Gates:
These type of gates require an operator to separate the aprts from the runners manually after each
cycle. Manually trimmed gates are chosen for several reasons:
The gate is too bulky to be automatically sheared by the machine

Shear-sensitive materials such as PVC cannot be exposed to high shear rates

Flow distribution for certain designs that require simultaneous flow distribution across a
wide front
Automatically Trimmed Gates
These type of gates incorporate features in the tool to break or shear the gates when the tool
opens to eject the part. Automatically trimmed gates are used for several reasons:
Avoiding gate removal as a secondary operation, reducing cost

Maintaining consistent cycle times for all parts

Minimizing gate scars on parts

Common Gate Designs

The largest factor to consider when choosing the proper gate type for your application is the gate
design. There are many different gate designs available based on the size and shape of your part.
Below are four of the most popular gate designs used by Quickparts customers:
The Edge Gate is the most common gate design. As the name indicates, this gate is located on
the edge of the part and is best suited for flat parts. Edge gates are ideal for medium and thick
sections and can be used on multicavity two plate tools. This gate will leave a scar at the parting
line.
The Sub Gate is the only automatically trimmed gate on the list. Ejector pins will be necessary
for automatic trimming of this gate. Sub gates are quite common and have several variations
such as banana gate, tunnel gate and smiley gate to name a few. The sub gate allows you to gate
away from the parting line, giving more flexibility to place the gate at an optimum location on
the part. This gate leaves a pin sized scar on the part.
The Hot Tip Gate is the most common of all hot runner gates. Hot tip gates are typically located
at the top of the part rather than on the parting line and are ideal for round or conical shapes
where uniform flow is necessary. This gate leaves a small raised nub on the surface of the part.
Hot tip gates are only used with hot runner molding systems. This means that, unlike cold runner
systems, the plastic is ejected into the mold through a heated nozzle and then cooled to the
proper thickness and shape in the mold.
The Direct or Sprue Gate is a manually trimmed gate that is used for single cavity molds of
large cylindrical parts that require symmetrical filling. Direct gates are the easiest to design and
have low cost and maintenance requirements. Direct gated parts are typically lower stressed and
provide high strength. This gate leaves a large scar on the part at the point of contact.
Gate Location (^ Back to Top)
To avoid problems from your gate location, below are some guidelines for choosing the proper
gate location(s):
Place gates at the heaviest cross section to allow for part packing and minimize voids &
sink.
Minimize obstructions in the flow path by placing gates away from cores & pins.

Be sure that stress from the gate is in an area that will not affect part function or
aesthetics.
o If you are using a plastic with a high shrink grade, the part may shrink near the
gate causing gate pucker if there is high molded-in stress at the gate
Be sure to allow for easy manual or automatic degating.

Gate should minimize flow path length to avoid cosmetic flow marks.

In some cases, it may be necessary to add a second gate to properly fill the parts.

If filling problems occur with thin walled parts, add flow channels or make wall thickness
adjustments to correct the flow.
Gates vary in size and shape depending upon the type of plastic being molded and the size of the
part. Large parts will require larger gates to provide a bigger flow of resin to shorten the mold
time. Small gates have a better appearance but take longer time to mold or may need to have
higher pressure to fill correctly.
Wall Thickness (^ Back to Top)
Prior to ejection from the mold, injection molded parts are cooled down from manufacturing
temperatures so that they hold their shape when ejected. During the part cooling step of the
molding process, changes in pressure, velocity and plastic viscosity should be minimized to
avoid defects. Few aspects are more crucial during this period than wall thickness. This feature
can have major effects on the cost, production speed and quality of the final parts.
Proper Wall Thickness:
Choosing the proper wall thickness for your part can have drastic effects on the cost and
production speed of manufacturing. While there are no wall thickness restrictions, the goal is
usually to choose the thinnest wall possible. Thinner walls use less material which reduces cost
and take less time to cool, reducing cycle time.
The minimum wall thickness that can be used depends on the size and geometry of the part,
structural requirements, and flow behavior of the resin. The wall thicknesses of an injection
molded part generally range from 2mm 4mm (0.080 0.160). Thin wall injection molding
can produce walls as thin as 0.5mm (0.020). The chart below shows recommended wall
thicknesses for common injection molding resins.

Uniform Wall Thickness:

Thick sections take longer to cool than thin ones. During the cooling process, if walls are an
inconsistent thickness, the thinner walls will cool first while the thick walls are still solidifying.
As the thick section cools, it shrinks around the already solid thinner section. This causes
warping, twisting or cracking to occur where the two sections meet. To avoid this problem, try to
design with completely uniform walls throughout the part. When uniform walls are not possible,
then the change in thickness should be as gradual as possible. Wall thickness variations should
not exceed 10% in high mold shrinkage plastics. Thickness transitions should be made gradually,
on the order of 3 to 1. This gradual transition avoids stress concentrations and abrupt cooling
differences.
Alternatives:
If your part is so complex that you need variations on your wall thickness, look for an
alternative. You may want to use design features such as coring or using ribs. At the very least,
try not to make the transitions between thicker and thinner sections too abrupt. Try using a
gradual transition or chamfered corners to minimize the dramatic change in pressures inside the
mold.
Draft (^ Back to Top)
Most injection molded plastic parts include features such as outside walls and internal ribs that
are formed by opposing surfaces of tool metal inside a closed mold. To properly release the part
when the mold opens, the side walls of the mold are tapered in the direction that the mold opens.
This tapering is referred to as draft in the line of draw. This draft allows the part to break free
of the mold as soon as the mold opens. The amount of draft required can depend on the surface
finish of the mold. A smooth, polished tool surface will allow the part to eject with less draft than
a standard tool surface.
Consider the fabrication of the hollow plastic box seen to the right. Once the plastic has hardened
around the mold, the mold must be removed. As the plastic hardens, it will contract slightly. By
tapering the sides of the mold by an appropriate "draft angle", the mold will be easier to remove.
The amount of draft required (in degrees) will vary with geometry and surface texture
requirements of the part. Below are several rules for using draft properly:
Be sure to add draft to your 3D CAD model before creating radii

Use at least 1 degree of draft on all "vertical" faces

1 degrees of draft is required for light texture

2 degrees of draft works very well in most situations

3 degrees of draft is a minimum for a shutoff (metal sliding on metal)

3 degrees of draft is required for medium texture

Sink Marks (^ Back to Top)

When the hot melt flows into the injection mold, the thick sections dont cool as fast as the rest
of the part because the thicker material becomes insulated by the outside surface of faster cooling
plastic. As the inner core cools, it shrinks at a different rate than the already cooled outer skin.
This difference on cooling rates causes the thick section to draw inward and create a sink mark
on the outside surface of the part, or worse, completely warp the part. In addition to being
unattractive, the mark also represents added stress that is built into the part. Other less
conspicuous areas where sink occurs include ribs, bosses and corners. These are often
overlooked because neither the feature nor the part itself is too thick; however, the intersection of
the two can be a problem.
One way to avoid sink marks is to core out the solid sections of the part to reduce thick areas. If
the strength of a solid part is required, try using cross hatched rib patterns inside the cored out
area to increase strength and avoid sink. As a rule-of-thumb, make sure that all bosses and
locating/support ribs are no more than 60% of the thickness of the nominal wall. Also, textures
can be used to hide minor sink marks.
Textures (^ Back to Top)
Texturing is a process used to apply patterns to a mold surface. This process allows flexibility in
creating the final appearance of your parts. Texturing is an integral piece in overall product
development and should be considered during the design process to achieve the desired results.
Texture can be a functional component of design as well. Imperfect parts can be camouflaged by
the right texture. Is the part designed for frequent handling? Texture can be used to hide finger
prints and improve the grip for the end user. Texture can also be used to reduce part wear from
friction.
A wide variety of textures are available for injection molded parts such as:
Natural/Exotic

Matte Finishes

Multi-Gloss Patterns

Fusions

Graphics

Leather Grains/Hides

Woodgrain, Slate & Cobblestone

Geometric & Linens

Layered Textures to Create New Looks

 Images or Logos Incorporated into the Pattern

When applying a texture to a part, the CAD drawing must be adjusted to accommodate for this
surface variance. If the texture is on a surface that is perpendicular or angled away from the mold
opening then no draft changes are necessary. If the texture is on a parallel surface with the mold
opening, however, increased draft is necessary to prevent scraping and drag marks that could
occur during part ejection. Different textures have different impacts on the molded part. The rule-
of-thumb when designing for texture is to have 1.5 degrees of draft for each 0.001 of texture
finish depth.
Parting Lines (^ Back to Top)
A parting line is the line of separation on the part where the two halves of the mold meet. The
line actually indicates the parting plane that passes through the part. While on simple parts this
plane can be a simple, flat surface, it is often a complex form that traces the perimeter of the part
around the various features that make up the parts outer silhouette. Part lines can also occur
where any two pieces of a mold meet. This can include side action pins, tool inserts and shutoffs.
Parting lines cannot be avoided; every part has them. Keep in mind when designing your part,
that the melt will always flow towards the parting line because it is the easiest place for the
displaced air to escape or vent.
Common Molding Defects (^ Back to Top)
Injection molding is a complex technology with possible production problems. They can either
be caused by defects in the molds or more often by part processing (molding)
Molding Alternative
Descriptions Causes
Defects Name
Raised or layered zone Tool or material is too hot, often caused by
Blister Blistering
on surface of the a lack of cooling around the tool or a
Plastic part faulty heater
Black or brown burnt
Air Burn/Gas areas on the plastic Tool lacks venting, injection speed is too
Burn marks
Burn part located at furthest high
points from gate
Plastic material and colorant isn't mixing
Color streaks Localized change of
properly, or the material has run out and
(US) color
it's starting to come through as natural only
Contamination of the material e.g. PP
mixed with ABS, very dangerous if the
Thin mica like layers part is being used for a safety critical
Delamination
formed in part wall application as the material has very little
strength when delaminated as the materials
cannot bond
Tool damage, too much injection
Excess material in thin
speed/material injected, clamping force too
Flash Burrs layer exceeding
low. Can also be caused by dirt and
normal part geometry
contaminants around tooling surfaces.
 Particles on the tool surface, contaminated
Foreign particle (burnt
Embedded Embedded material or foreign debris in the barrel, or
material or other)
contaminates particulates too much shear heat burning the material
embedded in the part
prior to injection
Injection speeds too slow (the plastic has
Directionally "off
cooled down too much during injection,
Flow marks Flow lines tone" wavy lines or
injection speeds must be set as fast as you
patterns
can get away with at all times)
Deformed part by
Poor tool design, gate position or runner.
Jetting turbulent flow of
Injection speed set too high.
material
Polymer polymer breakdown Excess water in the granules, excessive
degradation from oxidation, etc. temperatures in barrel
Holding time/pressure too low, cooling
Localized depression time too short, with sprueless hot runners
Sink marks
(In thicker zones) this can also be caused by the gate
temperature being set too high
Non-
Lack of material, injection speed or
Short shot Fill/Short Partial part
pressure too low
Mold
Splash Circular pattern
Moisture in the material, usually when
Splay marks Mark/Silver around gate caused by
resins are dried improperly
Streaks hot gas
String like remain
Nozzle temperature too high. Gate hasn't
Stringiness Stringing from previous shot
frozen off
transfer in new shot
Lack of holding pressure (holding pressure
is used to pack out the part during the
Empty space within
holding time). Also mold may be out of
Voids part
registration (when the two halves don't
(Air pocket)
center properly and part walls are not the
same thickness).
Knit Mold/material temperatures set too low
Discolored line where
Weld line Line/Meld (the material is cold when they meet, so
two flow fronts meet
Line they don't bond)
Cooling is too short, material is too hot,
lack of cooling around the tool, incorrect
Warping Twisting Part Distorted part
water temperatures (the parts bow inwards
towards the hot side of the tool)

Keep these factors in mind when designing your injection molded part, and remember that it is
easier to avoid problems in the beginning than change your design down the line.
CAD Tips
 Injection Molding Basics

Injection Molding Glossary

DFM Analysis

Shore Scale

Tolerance Calculator

What Is An STL File

Machining Options

Mold & Die Knowlege

Mold
Mold or die are the common terms used to describe the tooling used to produce plastic parts in
molding.
Traditionally, molds have been expensive to manufacture. They were usually only used in mass
production where thousands of parts were being produced. Molds are typically constructed from
hardened steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminium, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of
material to build a mold from is primarily one of economics, steel molds generally cost more to
construct, but their longer lifespan will offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of parts
made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel molds are less wear resistant and are used for lower
volume requirements or larger components. The steel hardness is typically 38-45 on the
Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel molds are heat treated after machining. These are by far the
superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan. Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60
Rockwell-C (HRC). Aluminium molds can cost substantially less, and when designed and
machined with modern computerized equipment, can be economical for molding tens or even
hundreds of thousands of parts. Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mold which require fast
heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated. The molds can be manufactured by
either CNC machining or by using Electrical Discharge Machining processes
Injection molding die with side pulls

"A" side of die for 25% Close up of "B" side of die with Insert removed
glass-filled acetal with 2 removable insert in
side pulls. "A" side. side pull actuators. from die.

Mold Design
Molds separate into two sides at a parting line, the A side, and the B side, to permit the part to be
extracted. Plastic resin enters the mold through a sprue in the A plate, branches out between the
two sides through channels called runners, and enters each part cavity through one or more
specialized gates. Inside each cavity, the resin flows around protrusions (called cores) and
conforms to the cavity geometry to form the desired part. This is similar to someone squeezing
clay between their hands so that when it is removed, it matches the shape of the hollow of their
cupped hands.
The amount of resin required to fill the sprue, runner and cavities of a mold is a shot. When a
core shuts off against an opposing mold cavity or core, a hole results in the part. Air in the
cavities when the mold closes escapes through very slight gaps between the plates and pins, into
shallow plenums called vents. To permit removal of the part, its features must not overhang one
another in the direction that the mold opens, unless parts of the mold are designed to move from
between such overhangs when the mold opens (utilizing components called Lifters).
Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw (the direction in which the core
and cavity separate from each other) are typically angled slightly with (draft) to ease release of
the part from the mold, and examination of most plastic household objects will reveal this. Parts
with bucket-like features tend to shrink onto the cores that form them while cooling, and cling to
those cores when the cavity is pulled away. The mold is usually designed so that the molded part
reliably remains on the ejector (B) side of the mold when it opens, and draws the runner and the
sprue out of the (A) side along with the parts. The part then falls freely when ejected from the
(B) side. Tunnel gates tunnel sharply below the parting surface of the B side at the tip of each
runner so that the gate is sheared off of the part when both are ejected.
Ejector pins are the most popular method for removing the part from the B side core(s), but air
ejection, and stripper plates can also be used depending on the application. Most ejection plates
are found on the moving half of the tool, but they can be placed on the fixed half if spring
loaded. For thermoplastics, coolant, usually water with corrosion inhibitors, circulates through
passageways bored through the main plates on both sides of the mold to enable temperature
control and rapid part solidification.
To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are divided into pieces, called inserts, and
sub-assemblies, also called inserts, blocks, or chase blocks. By substituting interchangeable
inserts, one mold may make several variations of the same part.
More complex parts are formed using more complex molds. These may have sections called
slides, that move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form overhanging part
features. Slides are then withdrawn to allow the part to be released when the mold opens. Slides
are typically guided and retained between rails called gibs, and are moved when the mold opens
and closes by angled rods called horn pins and locked in place by locking blocks, both of which
move cross the mold from the opposite side.
Some molds allow previously molded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer to form
around the first part. This is often referred to as overmolding. This system can allow for
production of one-piece tires and wheels.
2-shot or multi-shot molds are designed to "overmold" within a single molding cycle and must
be processed on specialized injection molding machines with two or more injection units. This
can be achieved by having pairs of identical cores and pairs of different cavities within the mold.
After injection of the first material, the component is rotated on the core from the one cavity to
another. The second cavity differs from the first in that the detail for the second material is
included. The second material is then injected into the additional cavity detail before the
completed part is ejected from the mold. Common applications include "soft-grip" toothbrushes
and freelander grab handles.
The core and cavity, along with injection and cooling hoses form the mold tool. While large tools
are very heavy weighing hundreds and sometimes thousands of pounds, with the aid of a forklift
or overhead crane, they can be hoisted into molding machines for production and removed when
molding is complete or the tool needs repairing.
A mold can produce several copies of the same parts in a single "shot". The number of
"impressions" in the mold of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with
one impression will often be called a single cavity (impression) tool. A mold with 2 or more
cavities of the same parts will likely be referred to as multiple cavity tooling. Some extremely
high production volume molds (like those for bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.
In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mold a series of different parts in the same tool. Some
toolmakers call these molds family molds as all the parts.
Effects on the material properties
The mechanical properties of a part are usually little effected. Some parts can have internal
stresses in them. This is one of the reasons why it's good to have uniform wall thickness when
molding. One of the physical property changes is shrinkage. A permanent chemical property
change is the material thermoset, which can't be remelted to be injected again.
The effects on work material properties is best illustrated by the table below from Manufacturing
Processes Reference Guide:
Work Material
Effects of Injection Molding
Properties

Plastic components may develop

Mechanical
internal stress

Permanent shrinkage at elevated

Physical
temperatures

Thermoset materials cannot be

Chemical
remelted
Tool Materials
Tool steel or beryllium-copper are often used. Mild steel, aluminum, nickel or epoxy are only
suitable for prototype or very short production runs.
Geometrical Possibilities
The most commonly used plastic molding process, injection molding, is used to create a large
variety of products with different shapes and sizes. Most importantly, they can create products
with complex geometry that many other processes cannot. There are a few precautions when
designing something that will be made using this process to reduce the risk of weak spots. First,
streamline your product or keep the thickness relatively uniform. Second, try and keep your
product between 2 to 20 inches.
The size of a part will depend on a number of factors (material, wall thickness, shape,process
ect). The initial raw material required may be measured in the form of granules, pellets or
powders. Here are some ranges of the sizes.
Maximum Minimum
Method Raw Materials
Size Size

Injection Molding (thermo- Granules, Pellets, Less than 1

700 oz.
plastic) Powders oz.

Injection Molding (thermo- Granules, Pellets, Less Than 1

200 oz.
setting) Powders oz.

Machining
Molds are built through two main methods: standard machining and EDM. Standard Machining,
in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection molds. With
technological development, CNC machining became the predominant means of making more
complex molds with more accurate mold details in less time than traditional methods.
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) or spark erosion process has become widely used in
mold making. As well as allowing the formation of shapes which are difficult to machine, the
process allows pre-hardened molds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is required. Changes to
a hardened mold by conventional drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften the
steel, followed by heat treatment to harden it again. EDM is a simple process in which a shaped
electrode, usually made of copper or graphite, is very slowly lowered onto the mold surface
(over a period of many hours), which is immersed in paraffin oil. A voltage applied between tool
and mold causes spark erosion of the mold surface in the inverse shape of the electrode.
Cost
The cost of manufacturing molds depends on a very large set of factors ranging from number of
cavities, size of the parts (and therefore the mold), complexity of the pieces, expected tool
longevity, surface finishes and many others. The initial cost is great, however the piece part cost
is low, so with greater quantities the overall price decreases.
Injection process

Small injection molder showing hopper, nozzle and die area

For detailed explanation refer below to "Injection Molding Cycle".
With Injection Molding, granular plastic is fed by gravity from a hopper into a heated barrel. As
the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw-type plunger, the plastic is forced into a
heated chamber, where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted plastic is forced through
a nozzle that rests against the mold, allowing it to enter the mold cavity through a gate and
runner system. The mold remains cold so the plastic solidifies almost as soon as the mold is
filled.
Injection molding cycle
For the injection molding cycle to begin, four criteria must be met: mold open, ejector pins
retracted, shot built, and carriage forward. When these criteria are met, the cycle begins with the
mold closing. This is typically done as fast as possible with a slow down near the end of travel.
Mold safety is low speed and low pressure mold closing. It usually begins just before the leader
pins of the mold and must be set properly to prevent accidental mold damage. When the mold
halves touch clamp tonnage is built. Next, molten plastic material is injected into the mold. The
material travels into the mold via the sprue bushing, then the runner system delivers the material
to the gate. The gate directs the material into the mold cavity to form the desired part. This
injection usually occurs under velocity control.
When the part is nearly full, injection control is switched from velocity control to pressure
control. This is referred to as the pack/hold phase of the cycle. Pressure must be maintained on
the material until the gate solidifies to prevent material from flowing back out of the cavity.
Cooling time is dependent primarily on the wall thickness of the part but also depends on the
material being molded. Production molding usually requires faster cooling. Water is often
channeled throughout the dies to produce faster cooling times. During the cooling portion of the
cycle after the gate has solidified, plastication takes place.
Plastication is the process of melting material and preparing the next shot. The material begins in
the hopper and enters the barrel through the feed throat. The feed throat must be cooled to
prevent plastic pellets from fusing together from the barrel heat. The barrel contains a screw that
primarily uses shear to melt the pellets and consists of three sections. The first section is the feed
section which conveys the pellets forward and allows barrel heat to soften the pellets. The flight
depth is uniform and deepest in this section. The next section is the transition section and is
responsible for melting the material through shear. The flight depth continuously decreases in
this section, compressing the material. The final section is the metering section which features a
shallow flight depth, improves the melt quality and color dispersion. At the front of the screw is
the non-return valve which allows the screw to act as both an extruder and a plunger. When the
screw is moving backwards to build a shot, the non-return assembly allows material to flow in
front of the screw creating a melt pool or shot. During injection, the non-return assembly
prevents the shot from flowing back into the screw sections.
Once the shot has been built and the cooling time has timed out, the mold opens. Mold opening
must occur slow-fast-slow. The mold must be opened slowly to release the vacuum that is caused
by the injection molding process and prevent the part from staying on the stationary mold half.
This is undesirable because the ejection system is on the moving mold half. Then the mold is
opened as far as needed, if robots are not being used, the mold only has to open far enough for
the part to be removed. A slowdown near the end of travel must be utilized to compensate for the
momentum of the mold. Without slowing down the machine cannot maintain accurate positions
and may slam to a stop damaging the machine. Once the mold is open, the ejector pins are
moved forward, ejecting the part. When the ejector pins retract, all criteria for a molding cycle
have been met and the next cycle can begin.
The basic injection cycle is as follows: Mold close injection carriage forward inject plastic
metering carriage retract mold open eject part(s) Some machines are run by electric motors
instead of hydraulics or a combination of both. The water-cooling channels that assist in cooling
the mold and the heated plastic solidifies into the part. Improper cooling can result in distorted
molding. The cycle is completed when the mold opens and the part is ejected with the assistance
of ejector pins within the mold.
The resin, or raw material for injection molding, is most commonly supplied in pellet or granule
form. Resin pellets are poured into the feed hopper, a large open bottomed container, which is
attached to the back end of a cylindrical, horizontal barrel. A screw within this barrel is rotated
by a motor, feeding pellets up the screw's grooves. The depth of the screw flights decreases
toward the end of the screw nearest the mold, compressing the heated plastic. As the screw
rotates, the pellets are moved forward in the screw and they undergo extreme pressure and
friction which generates most of the heat needed to melt the pellets. Electric heater bands
attached to the outside of the barrel assist in the heating and temperature control during the
melting process.
The channels through which the plastic flows toward the chamber will also solidify, forming an
attached frame. This frame is composed of the sprue, which is the main channel from the
reservoir of molten resin, parallel with the direction of draw, and runners, which are
perpendicular to the direction of draw, and are used to convey molten resin to the gate(s), or
point(s) of injection. The sprue and runner system can be cut or twisted off and recycled,
sometimes being granulated next to the mold machine. Some molds are designed so that the part
is automatically stripped through action of the mold.
Time Function
The time it takes to make a product using injection molding can be
calculated by adding:
Twice the Mold Open/Close Time (2M)
+
Injection Time (T)
+
Cooling Time (C)
+
Ejection Time (E)

Where T is found by dividing:

Mold Size (S) / Flow Rate (F)

Total time = 2M + T + C + E
T = V/R

V = Mold cavity size (in3)

R = Material flow rate (in3/min)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Time_Calculation.jpg
Molding trial
When filling a new or unfamiliar mold for the first time, where shot size for that mold is
unknown, a technician/tool setter usually starts with a small shot weight and fills gradually until
the mold is 95 to 99% full. Once this is achieved a small amount of holding pressure will be
applied and holding time increased until gate freeze off has occurred, then holding pressure is
increased until the parts are free of sinks and part weight has been achieved. Once the parts are
good enough and have passed any specific criteria, a setting sheet is produced for people to
follow in the future.
Process optimization is done using the following methods. Injection speeds are usually
determined by performing viscosity curves. Process windows are performed varying the melt
temperatures and holding pressures. Pressure drop studies are done to check if the machine has
enough pressure to move the screw at the set rate. Gate seal or gate freeze studies are done to
optimize the holding time. A cooling time study is done to optimize the cooling time.
Molding defects
Injection molding is a complex technology with possible production problems. They can either
be caused by defects in the molds or more often by part processing (molding)
Molding Alternativ
Descriptions Causes
Defects e name

Raised or layered Tool or material is too hot, often caused

Blister Blistering zone on surface of by a lack of cooling around the tool or a
the part faulty heater

Burn marks Air Burn/ Black or brown Tool lacks venting, injection speed is
Gas Burn burnt areas on the too high
part located at
furthest points
 from gate

Masterbatch isn't mixing properly, or

Colour
Color Localized change the material has run out and it's
streaks
streaks (US) of color/colour starting to come through as natural
(UK)
only

Contamination of the material e.g. PP

mixed with ABS, very dangerous if the
Thin mica like
Delaminatio part is being used for a safety critical
layers formed in
n application as the material has very
part wall
little strength when delaminated as the
materials cannot bond

Excess material in Tool damage, too much injection

thin layer speed/material injected, clamping force
Flash Burrs
exceeding normal too low. Can also be caused by dirt and
part geometry contaminants around tooling surfaces.

Foreign particle Particles on the tool surface,

Embedded
Embedded (burnt material or contaminated material or foreign debris
contaminate
particulates other) embedded in the barrel, or too much shear heat
s
in the part burning the material prior to injection

Injection speeds too slow (the plastic

Directionally "off has cooled down too much during
Flow marks Flow lines tone" wavy lines injection, injection speeds must be set
or patterns as fast as you can get away with at all
times)

Deformed part by
Poor tool design, gate position or
Jetting turbulent flow of
runner. Injection speed set too high.
material

polymer
Polymer breakdown from Excess water in the granules, excessive
degradation hydrolysis, temperatures in barrel
oxidation etc

Holding time/pressure too low, cooling

Localized
time too short, with sprueless hot
Sink marks depression (In
runners this can also be caused by the
thicker zones)
gate temperature being set too high

Non-fill / Lack of material, injection speed or

Short shot Partial part
Short mold pressure too low
 Splash
Circular pattern
mark / Moisture in the material, usually when
Splay marks around gate
Silver hygroscopic resins are dried improperly
caused by hot gas
streaks

String like remain

from previous shot Nozzle temperature too high. Gate
Stringiness Stringing
transfer in new hasn't frozen off
shot

Lack of holding pressure (holding

pressure is used to pack out the part
Empty space
during the holding time). Also mold
Voids within part (Air
may be out of registration (when the
pocket)
two halves don't center properly and
part walls are not the same thickness)

Discolored line Mold/material temperatures set too low

Knit line /
Weld line where two flow (the material is cold when they meet,
Meld line
fronts meet so they don't bond)

Cooling is too short, material is too hot,

lack of cooling around the tool,
Warping Twisting Distorted part incorrect water temperatures (the parts
bow inwards towards the hot side of
the tool)

Tolerances and Surfaces

Injection molding typically is capable of tolerances equivalent to an IT Grade of about 914. The
possible tolerance of a thermoplastic or a thermoset is +/-0.008 to +/-0.002 inches. Surface
finishes of two to four microinches or better are can be obtained. Rough or pebbled surfaces are
also possible
Molding Typic Possi
Type al ble

Thermoplas 0.0 0.00

tic 08 2

0.0 0.00
Thermoset
08 2