6/1/17

We are studying Black Oil reservoirs. They are the most widely distributed reservoirs on
earth. Black and volatile oils are conventional reservoirs.
Black oils are those that have a high C7+ concentration. Lighter components are there, as
gas does liberate from black oil.
Dissolved GOR Curve:
Initially below pb, gas was
dissolved in oil and was not
liberated. Hence we find a
straight horizontal line
indicating constant Rso. As we
reach pressures below pb, gas
evolves from oil, and the
amount of gas dissolved in oil
reduces. So GOR trend drops.

Remember that even for

black oil reservoirs, a large
quantity of gas (lighter
components) will be
produced along with the oil at
surface. In PVT cell you can
easily view the phase changes
as we change/reduce the
pressure. You can notice that
Vt , the hydrocarbon volume,
is changing.
But in a reservoir,
hydrocarbon volume is
constant, it never changes.
That is why in MBE it is
assumed that reservoir
volume is constant. Even
despite rock/formation
compressibility, reservoir
pore volume (where
hydrocarbons lie) is a
constant.
So V=0. Small changes of compressibility are negligible. Unless the changes are large,
some reservoirs compress up to 40ft. The phase changes in above diagram are due to pressure
reduction due to oil depletion. The surface gas here is the dissolved gas. At every point where
p<pb is less, gas liberates, in well or anywhere. When the gas cap is formed, it initially doesnt
flow but later, due to darcy forces, gas being less viscous and more mobile encroaches the well
perforation and free gas from the gas cap produces on the surface.
Now we recall from last class;
Producing gas oil ratio=
Volume of gas at surface (regardless of origin ; free gasdissolved liberated gas)
Volume of oil at surface

Unit is SCF/STB; as volumes are of surface stock tank. And since we collected the produced
volumes and recombined them, it is called produced GOR.

Consider above GORp/Rso vs pressure trend. If we are dealing with an undersaturated reservoir,
then the gas produced at stock tank is the one that was initially dissolved. There was no free gas
cap. So Rp=Rso (notice the horizontal line). Now lets consider that p<pb in the reservoir to an
extent that a gas cap was formed. This gas cap is not flowing, i.e it hasnt encroached/coned the
well (see above) so trend drops due to less dissolved gas in oil but still gas coming at surface is
the one that was initially dissolved. So the dropped trend proceeds again as Rso=Rp, both trends
overlap.
But once the gas cap has encroached the well, then there are two sources of gas producing at
surface; the free gas from gas cap and the dissolved gas (the lighter components still dissolved in
the oil that liberated somewhere in the well). In this case the surface gas is in larger volume then
before, and the trend of producing GOR, Rp, increases with pressure reduction. The amount of
gas dissolved has dropped due to liberation of lighter components from oil, so Rso trend drops
with pressure reduction.
Gas Breakthrough: When the gas cap has reached sufficient extent, it quickly rises and
accumulates (gas critical saturation is just 4%), becomes mobile and being less viscous, it
infiltrates oil flow in the perforation and encroaches in the well through the perforations. The
moment when free gas from gas cap enters the well, we call it the gas breakthrough and the
time is called Gas breakthrough time. Gas coning has entered the well bore.
Despite the fact that since Rso is dropping and gas content in oil is reducing, still Rp increases
because the free gas is also coming at surface and total content of gas at surface is higher.
If you performed your perforations while aware of gas coning issues, then your producing gas
might drop in volume and then the Rp and Rso trend may never deviate at all, they will remain
overlapped, decreasing with pressure reduction.

Consider above Rp vs P/time trend. You are producing gas cap and at one time when you have
produced free gas such that gas cap has nearly exhausted then Rp trend drops, turning towards the
Rso trend.
Note that the length of the first drop of Rp (when gas cap hasnt started coning) depends on
distance of gas cap from perforation and vertical permeability (as you can also compare with
time and see that the distance factor, kv factor etc. cause more time). The gas cap is first
achieving its volume above oil, its first accumulating above oil, building thickness and taking
time. This trend length varies with reservoir to reservoir. Also oil flow rate is a factor, if you are
producing with low oil flow rate then gas cap formation will take time.

In a case when your perforation is not selective; when the gas cap immediately encroaches after
little accumulation (very less time), and the gas cap-perforation interval is very less, then you get
a curve like above. It directly increases. If you have a 50 ft. thick reservoir and you have
perforated the whole 50 ft. then the gas, upon immediate rise
above and gas cap formation, will encroach the well.
The composition of dissolved gas and free gas is same; youre
not getting three products: oil, free and dissolved liberated gas,
instead you are still getting oil and gas. Both gases are same.
Cause free gas was itself initially dissolved.
Rso is the measure of amount of gas that will liberate per unit
stock tank oil. Rp is the measure of total surface gas producing
per unit of stock tank oil.
Rp=2000 scf/stb, Rso=1500 scf/stb;
Gas breakthrough=2000-1500=500 scf/stb
Gas breakthrough is the amount of free gas coming at surface from the encroachment of gas
cap (from gas coning). Factors like Gas cap-perforation interval, kv, oil flow rate etc. affect
its value.
For black oil reservoirs, the initial solution gas oil ratio is less than 2000 scf/stb. For
volatile oil reservoirs, its value lies between 2000-3000 stb/scf. Initial means Rp=Rso.
Reservoir fluid composition is our concern. The classification is done based on
composition (C7+ about 20%, means black oil). It is done in the reservoir, not laboratory.
Because it can be that surface oil be 100% C7+, or that surface gas is purely C1-4. So our
classification, this 5 fluids, is done in reservoir. How much individual components are
there (these will give you product, fuels idea, oil rate). So you have to predict the
composition in the early life of reservoir. This will further help you to predict quantity of
liberated gas, the composition of oil after pb etc. We must know composition of oil and
gas at every pressure. Aromatics,paraffins etc.
Ordinary black oil: A typical
pressure-temperature phase
diagram for ordinary black oil is
shown in Figure 1-2. It should be
noted that quality lines, which are
approximately equally spaced,
characterize this black oil phase
diagram. When produced,
ordinary black oils usually yield
gas-oil ratios between 200 and
700 scf/STB and oil gravities of
15 to 40 API. The stock tank oil
is usually brown to dark green in
color. Envelope is larger. Two-
phase can exist at a wide T&p
conditions. Bo=btw 1-2 bbl/stb.
Also called low-shrinkage oil.

Volatile crude oil: The phase diagram for a volatile (high-shrinkage) crude oil is given in Figure
1-6. Note that the quality lines are close together near the bubble-point and are more widely
spaced at lower pressures. The other characteristic properties of this oil include:
 Oil formation volume factor less
than 2 bbl/STB
Gas-oil ratios between 2,000 and
3,200 scf/STB
Oil gravities between 45 and
55API
Also called High -shrinkage oil.
Envelope is smaller.

Let us compare black oils and volatile oils on composition. Consider the above curve. Initial
GOR of volatile is higher than black oil, because of more amount of lighter components in
volatile oil. Now lets move to p<pb situation (though pb of black and volatile oil will be different,
let us assume a single pb here). The amount of gas dissolved in both oils will liberate after pb, this
means that this amount will drop after pb. But the drop trends will be different for both oils.
In Black oil, because it has less amount of dissolved lighter components, dissolved gas will not
evolve abruptly. The gas cap will form gradually and the amount of gas in oil didnt rapidly
evolve out. Due to this, it will have a smooth trend of Rso drop. Smooth changes are represented
by a straight and hence for a black oil the Rso trend is a straight line after pb.
Changes in volatile oils are more abrupt. Since there is more amount of lighter components, the
dissolved gas will abruptly evolve out after pb, and the gas cap will quickly form, due to which
amount of gas in oil rapidly decreases. Abrupt changes are marked by a curve, hence the Rso drop
is a curve for volatile oil.
Notice that the black oil curve is lower than volatile oil due to GOR of black oil being lower than
volatile oil. Less gas initially dissolved, less gas liberates out of it.