Adjective Clauses

Here is a brief review of adjective clauses and relative pronouns.

An adjective clause is used to describe a noun:
The car, which was red, belonged to Young-Hee.
A relative pronoun is usually used to introduce an adjective clause:
Young-Hee, who is a Korean student, lives in Victoria.
The main relative pronouns are:

Pronoun Use Example

Hans, who is an architect,

Who used for humans in the subject position
lives in Berlin.

Marike, whom Hans knows

Whom used for humans in the object position
well, is an interior decorator.

Marike has a
used for things and animals in
Which dog which follows her
the subject or object position
everywhere.

used for humans, animals and things, in Marike is decorating a

That
the subject or object position (but see below) house that Hans designed.

used for humans, animals and things in Marike, whose dog follows her
Whose the subject orobject position to show everywhere, is an animal
possession lover.

There are two main kinds of adjective clause:

1. Non-defining clauses

Non-defining clauses give extra information about the noun, but they are not essential:

The desk in the corner, which is covered in books, is mine.

Explanation: We don't need this information in order to understand the sentence. The desk in the
corner is mine is a good sentence on its own we still know which desk is referred to. Note that
non-defining clauses are usually separated by commas, and that is not usually used in this kind of
context.

2. Defining clauses

Defining clauses give essential information about the noun:

The package that arrived this morning is on the desk.

Explanation: We need this information in order to understand the sentence. Without the relative
clause, we don't know which package is being referred to. Note that that is often used in defining
relative clauses, and they are not separated by commas.

When you are sure that you understand the lesson, you can continue with the exercises.

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Adjective Clauses
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called
a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses,
and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun Clauses.
A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.

The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)

Its a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. Its a clause because it has
a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); its an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns
they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of
combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to
make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which
refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:
The book is on the table. + I like the book.
The man is here. + The man wants the book.
2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make
dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
The book is on the table. + I like which
The man is here. + who wants the book
3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is
now an adjective clause.
The book is on the table. + which I like
The man is here. + who wants the book
4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):
The book which I like is on the table.
The man who wants the book is here.

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.

1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of
prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic
writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a
verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and
pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or
preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a
verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom,
which, and whoseare the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.

Adjective Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.

A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.

A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called
a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses,
and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun Clauses.
A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.

The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)

Its a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. Its a clause because it has
a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); its an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns
they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of
combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to
make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which
refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:

The book is on the table. + I like the book.

The man is here. + The man wants the book.

2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make
dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.

The book is on the table. + I like which

The man is here. + who wants the book

3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is
now an adjective clause.

The book is on the table. + which I like

The man is here. + who wants the book

4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):

The book which I like is on the table.

The man who wants the book is here.
C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of
prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic
writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a
verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and
pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or
preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a
verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom,
which, and whoseare the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols
Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb
or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are
examples with whose:

The man is happy. + I found the mans wallet. =

The man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.

WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted.
Here is an example with when:

I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=

I will never forget the day when I graduated.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

I will never forget the day on which I graduated.

I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.
WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be
omitted but apreposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:
The building is new. + He works in the building. =
The building where he works is new.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The building in which he works is new.
The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.
The building he works in is new.

D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it
modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main
clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or
commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are
restrictive. Here is another example:
People who cant swim should not jump into the ocean.

Adjective Clauses

See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.

A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.

A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called
a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses,
and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun Clauses.

A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.

The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)

Its a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. Its a clause because it has
a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); its an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns
they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of
combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to
make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which
refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:

The book is on the table. + I like the book.

The man is here. + The man wants the book.

2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make
dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.

The book is on the table. + I like which

The man is here. + who wants the book

3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is
now an adjective clause.

The book is on the table. + which I like

The man is here. + who wants the book

4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):

The book which I like is on the table.

The man who wants the book is here.

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.

1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of
prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic
writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a
verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and
pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or
preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a
verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom,
which, and whoseare the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols
Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb
or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are
examples with whose:

The man is happy. + I found the mans wallet. =

The man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.

WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted.
Here is an example with when:

I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=

I will never forget the day when I graduated.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

I will never forget the day on which I graduated.

I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.

WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be
omitted but apreposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:

The building is new. + He works in the building. =

The building where he works is new.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

The building in which he works is new.

The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.
The building he works in is new.

D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it
modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main
clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or
commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are
restrictive. Here is another example:

People who cant swim should not jump into the ocean.

2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but is not
necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the
meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the
main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive
adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an
example:

Billy, who couldnt swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.

E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be
the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two
different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0

People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)
Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)

2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing

People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)

People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)
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The Sentence

Sentences are used in all languages. Sentences are used in both speech and writing. You are learning
about writing in English. When we talk about the sentence in this class, we are talking about the
written English sentence. We are not talking about sentences in other languages. We are not talking
about spoken sentences.

A. What is a sentence?
A written English sentence is a group of words with four characteristics:
1. All sentences begin with a capital letter: A, B, C,.
(The other kind of letters are called lower case: a, b, c,. )
2. All sentences end with a period or an exclamation point or a question mark: . ! ?
3. A sentence contains at least one clause.
That is, a sentence contains at least one subject and at least one predicate.
4. All sentences follow a standard word order. These are correct sentences:

The dog bit the man.

The man bit the dog.
But this is not a sentence because the words (the same used in the two sentences above) are not
arranged in a standard English word order:

*The bit man dog the.

B. What is a clause?
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.
1. A clause tells us that someone or something (subject) is or was or does or did something
(predicate).
A subject is usually a noun or pronoun.
A predicate always contains a verb. A predicate may also contain other things (adverb, object,
complement,), but a predicate always contains a verb.
2. A clause may be a sentence: Mary sings.
3. A clause may be a part of a sentence: Mary sings and Bill plays the guitar.
4. Some examples of clauses:

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Someone/Something is/was/does/did something.

George is a boy.

He loves to eat.

What he loves to eat is pizza.

George and his friends might have pizza for lunch.

Pizza is not served at George's house.

C. What is a predicate verb?

A predicate verb has the following three characteristics:
1. A predicate verb has a subject. A subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, but a clause can be a
subject.
2. A predicate verb has voice (active or passive; see Passive Sentences).
3. A predicate verb has tense (past or present; see Tenses) or a modal (see Modal Auxiliaries).
These are the predicate verbs in the clauses above:

is (present tense, active voice)

loves (present tense, active voice)
is (present tense, active voice)
might have (modal, active voice)
is not served (present tense, passive voice)

D. What is a dependent clause?

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate. A dependent clause
usually begins with a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns (see Adjective
Clauses), subordinating conjunctions (see Adverb Clauses), and noun clause markers (see Noun
Clauses). Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.
1. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence by itself. A dependent clause that is not part of a
sentence is a fragment. That is, a dependent clause which begins with a capital letter and ends with a
period is a fragment.Dont write fragments.
2. A dependent clause can only be part of a sentence. Every sentence must have at least
one independentclause.
3. There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun
clauses. Some dependent clauses look like this:

SUBORDINATOR + SUBJECT + PREDICATE

that his bike is beautiful
which he got for Christmas
because his bike had a flat tire

Other dependent clauses look like this :

SUBORDINATOR + PREDICATE
who loves his bike
whatever is on his plate
which is painted red and blue

The subordinator is also the subject in these clauses.

4. Subordinators can sometimes be omitted, so dependent clauses sometimes look like independent
clauses (Subject + Predicate).
Object relative pronouns (see Adjective Clauses) can usually be omitted.

The bike which he got for Christmas is beautiful.

The bike he got for Christmas is beautiful.

The noun clause marker (see Noun Clauses) that can be omitted if it is not the first word in a
sentence.

He knows that his bike is beautiful.

He knows his bike is beautiful.

5. Below are some examples of sentences with one independent clause and one dependent clause.
The dependent clauses are underlined.

George is a boy who loves his bike.

Georges bike, which is painted red and blue, is new.
Because his bike had a flat tire, George walked to school.
George eats whatever is on his plate.
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Adverb Clauses

See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.

A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.

A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called
a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses,
and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adverb clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Noun Clauses.
A. Adverb clauses show relationships such as time, cause and effect, contrast, and
condition. (SeeConditional Sentences for more information on this type of adverb clause.)

B. A sentence which contains one adverb clause and one independent clause is the result of
combining two clauses which have one of the relationships above. You can combine two independent
clauses to make one sentence which contains an adverb clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which have one of the relationships in A above:

Billy couldnt swim.

He jumped off the pier. (contrast)

2. Add a subordinating conjunction to the beginning of the clause you want to make dependent:

Although Billy couldnt swim

He jumped off the pier.

3. Place the two clauses next to each other. Usually, the order of the clauses is not important. When
the adverb clause precedes the independent clause, the two clauses are usually separated by a
comma:

Although Billy couldnt swim, he jumped off the pier.

When the independent clause precedes the adverb clause, there is usually no comma:

Billy jumped off the pier although he couldnt swim.

C. The subordinators in adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. They cannot be
omitted. They cannot be subjects. Here are some of the subordinating conjunctions:

Time: after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as, as long as, inasmuch as, so (that), in order that
Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the
event (that). See Conditional Sentences.
D. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one
independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well.
George could swim well after he took lessons.

Because he couldnt swim, Billy drowned.

Billy drowned because he couldnt swim.

Although he isnt interested in food, Fred works as a cook.

Fred works as a cook although he isnt interested in food.

If you want to write well, you must practice.

You must practice if you want to write well.
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