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THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
ANIMAL PREDATORS
The mission of Storey Publishing is to serve our customers by
publishing practical information that encourages
personal independence in harmony with the environment.
COVER PHOTOGRAPHY BY Don Johnston_MA/Alamy Stock Photo, back (top middle); Donald M. Jones/
Minden Pictures/Getty Images, front (top left); Fred LaBounty/Alamy Stock Photo, back (top right); John
Foxx/Getty Images, front (top right); Juniors Bildarchiv/GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo, back (bottom right);
Mike Lentz Photography/www.mikelentzphotography.com, back (top left & bottom left); Robert McGouey/
Wildlife/Alamy Stock Photo, front (bottom)
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CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 11
Bears: Ursidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Domestic and Feral Animals . . . . . . . . . . 171
American Black Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Swine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
North American Grizzly or Brown Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Other Bears Kodiak Brown Bear, Polar Bear, Domestic Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Hybrid Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
CHAPTER 12 PA R T I I I 237
Birds of Prey: Accipitrimorphae . . . . 185
Eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Prevention and
Hawks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Protection
Vultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER 13 Nonlethal Prevention Methods
True Owls: Strigidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Great Horned Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Barred Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 CONCLUSION
Other Owls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Moving Forward Together . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
C H A P T E R 14 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Crows: Corvidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Predator Control Guides for Home, Recreation,
American Crow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Farm, and Ranch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Common Raven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Organizations Providing Additional Resources
Black-Billed Magpie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 for Predator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
CHAPTER 15 Online Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Snapping Turtles: Chelydridae . . . . . . 217 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Common Snapping Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Alligator Snapping Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
CHAPTER 16
Gators and Crocs: Crocodilia . . . . . . . . . 222
American Alligator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
American Crocodile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
C H A P T E R 17
Snakes: Colubridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
One of the fundamental relationships in nature is that of
predator and prey. To feed her fledglings, an eagle swoops with
speed and grace to snatch a rabbit on the run. A wolf pack
cooperatively chases down an elk, and with that success the
whole pack eats. We humans are the ultimate predators, killing
both to eat and to survive when threatened by an animal.
In the modern world, many of us are somewhat Between the two points of view protecting
removed from the predatory act, other than observ- our domestic animals and valuing nature and all of
ing a cat catching a mouse. Others of us, however, its inhabitants lies coexistence. Coexistence is
might walk out in our fields on a beautiful morning possible, and it begins with knowledge. Knowledge
to find a gruesomely slaughtered lamb or a pile of of our predators behaviors and habits is essential.
decapitated chickens. Even in that moment of great Knowledge arms us when we encounter a predator
anger and grief, the reality of predator and prey is on a walk in the backcountry. With knowledge, we
inescapable and basic. We cant live in a world with- learn how to design and implement predator-friendly
out predators; therefore, we must learn to coexist systems that protect both our stock and ourselves.
with the wild hunters around us while protecting Some of the methods of predator protection
what we raise. are old, as ancient as the shepherd who watched
his sheep with his guardian dogs. Others are new, as
Coexistence wildlife biologists help us understand the predators
For a long time, humans believed we could extermi- around us rather than succumb to old myths or prej-
nate all large predators and shape the earth as we udices. These methods may require as much or more
saw fit. We have since found that predators, both effort than simply eliminating all the predators, but
large and small, are essential to the healthy func- when we value a balanced and sustainable world,
tioning of the earths ecosystem. We have learned to they are worth the effort.
appreciate the beauty of wild animals and their lives. Consumers of meat, milk, or eggs can come to
Many people now work to save animals threatened value predators and coexistence as well, just as they
with extinction, not only because our world is health- learn more about the reality of the lives of the farm-
ier when it is biologically diverse but also because our ers and ranchers who provide them with food.
lives would be less rich without these animals.
Is not the sky a father and the earth a mother, and are not all living things with
feet or wings or roots their children?
Black Elk (Oglala Sioux)
2 | P R E DATO RS I N T HE MO DER N WO R L D
CHAP TER 2
Whos Out
There?
When a livestock or poultry owner discovers the carcass of an
animal, it can be emotionally and financially devastating. Owners
ask themselves what they could have done differently to protect
their animals. Protection begins with an understanding of what
threats exist in the place where you and your animals live.
Three factors help to determine your potential poultry, or pets. Learning about predator ranges,
threats: the region where you live; your homes livestock death statistics, and the migration
location, from city to suburb to semirural exurb of predators into suburban and urban environ-
to truly rural area; and finally, the animals you ments informs farmers and homeowners alike.
keep, whether large stock or small animals,
12
Poultry Damage ID Guide Common Predators
After identifying potential culprits below, check individual profiles in Part II for additional details,
observations, tracks, and scat.
Note: Predators can occasionally be active during nonnormal times or behave in atypical ways.
Mountain Lion
Opposum
Marten
Magpie
Bobcat
Human
Badger
Coyote
Fisher
Hawk
Eagle
Crow
Mink
Lynx
Dog
Owl
Cat
Fox
Day
Dusk
Time
Night
Dawn
Eggs eaten
Eggs
Eggs missing
One bird missing
Missing
Birds
Abdomen eaten
Breast and legs eaten
Talon punctures on head
Teeth or Talon
or body
Marks
Bites on neck
Bite on head or neck
Many bites on head, neck, body,
or legs
By observing the signs of visiting animals, you can learn a great deal
about what lives in your area, even before you acquire livestock. Record
notes and take photographs for future reference and comparison.
Trotting: RedFox
Trotting: Red Fox
PREDATORS UP C LOSE | 27
MOUNTAIN LION
MOUNTAIN LION
M
(Puma concolor cougar)
78 | P R E DATO RS U P CLOSE
MOUNTAIN LION
With this widespread presence, the big cat came to down the eastern coast. Panther and painter are
have more names than any other animal on earth still used in the southeastern states, although the
including cougar, puma, catamount, mountain lion, mountain lion is definitely not a panther. In ,
and panther. From Mexico southward it is still called the famed naturalist Comte de Buffon first recorded
by its Spanish names leopardo and el leon; indeed, the name cougar, probably evolved from Portuguese
Vespucci, Columbus, and Cabeza de Vaca all men- based on native Guarani, and puma itself was not
tioned the lions they discovered in the New World. used until . Biologists finally settled on the
For some time, European fur traders believed name Puma concolor, or one color.
they were seeing only female lion pelts and that the
larger males were hiding somewhere deep in the Used as early as 1777, puma is a Spanish word and
forests or mountains. Later it was widely believed originated with a native Quechua word mean-
ing powerful. The Cherokee klandagi meant
that mountain lions were a light-colored African or
lord of the forest, and the Chickasaw keo-ishto
Asian leopard or panther. In the Carolinas, Georgia,
described the cat of the gods.
and Florida, it was often called tyger. Catamount or
cat of the mountains was used from New England
CATS | 79
D A M A G E I D: American Black Bear
METHOD OF KILL
Hair, tracks, scat usually found in area of damage; veg- In open area, kill sometimes dragged into cover and
etation smashed down around kill; distinctive musky covered with debris, bear returning at dusk to feed
odor of bear even as carcass decomposes
Carcasses showing deep teeth marks 12 inch in diame- Where stock is confined or unable to escape, 2 or
ter on skull or neck and shoulders behind the ears; neck 3 sheep killed
or spine broken; at times, nose or face deeply bitten
Eggs or nestlings stolen
Large claw marks of 12 inch on neck, shoulders, and
Beehives and frames broken and scattered, bear
sides of larger animals, either from striking or straddling
returning until all eaten
Body opened, internal organs or udders on lactating
Corn or oat crops with large areas of smashed stalks
females removed and eaten first, then hindquarters
and entire cob of corn eaten
and other flesh fed on
In orchards, bark clawed off to mark tree and to eat
Skin of large prey torn off and inside out; skeleton
inner bark; branches torn off; bushes smashed
often left intact and attached to skin; remains not
scattered, unlike with wolves and coyotes.
TRACK GAIT
Front 3348 inches long, 3146 inches wide; Walking stride 1728
rear 538878 inches long, 3126 inches wide. inches, may be direct-
Rear foot resembles human footprint, slightly register or overstep; lope
Front pigeon-toed. All 5 toes, claw marks, and front or gallop can be longer at
heel pad may or may not be visible; hair may 2460 inches.
obscure track details. Can be distinguished
from grizzly bear by smaller size, shorter claw
marks, and greater curve in arc of toes.
S C AT 7"
109
DOGS
When Good Dogs Go Bad
Roaming domestic dogs chase and injure stock If you catch the dog or dogs in the attack,
for fun, not for food. Owners are often shocked take the following steps immediately:
that their beloved and friendly pet killed farm ani-
1. If the dogs are friendly, restrain them and call
mals or poultry. In addition to establishing good
the animal authorities rather than their own-
fencing and using livestock guardian dogs (LGDs),
ers. Take photos of the dogs before releasing
owners can protect their animals by practicing
them to the authorities. Record all identifying
good prevention strategies:
information from tags.
Do not allow unsupervised contact between your
own pet dog and your stock, especially if the dog 2. If the dogs run away, try to follow them
is from a breed with a high prey or chase drive. calmly. They are less likely to run if you dont
chase them. Take photos. Most dogs will
Do not let your dog play with neighbor or roam-
return home. Do not confront the owners
ing dogs, which may lead to dangerous play
who may deny their dogs involvement,
behavior with your stock.
remove evidence through bathing, or create
Be very cautious of visiting dogs, and strongly an alibi before the authorities arrive. Call the
discourage neighbor dogs from entering your authorities.
property.
3. If you cant restrain or follow the dogs, write
If you use an LGD, discourage anything more down an accurate description of their sizes,
than cursory familiarity between your LGD and ears, tails, coat color and length, markings,
your pet dogs. Definitely do not allow neighbor and so on. Again, take photos if possible.
dogs to visit your property and interact with
your LGD. You want to maintain your LGDs 4. Take more photos to document the full
defensive aggression against a roaming dog extent of the attack.
that might easily threaten your stock.
Call the authorities even if you come upon the
attack after the dogs have gone. Even if they cannot
What to Do When a Domestic Dog
establish ownership, you have a record of the attack
Attacks Your Animals
and may be eligible for monetary compensation
Dog attacks are often very emotionally disturb- from local government sources or insurance.
ing because of the violence and widespread In some areas, owners of stock have the
destruction or mutilation of your animals. It is right to shoot a dog that is attacking their ani-
helpful to plan ahead and know which authori- mals; however, the laws differ in various states,
ties to contact in your area, as well as what fur- provinces, and municipalities. If you shoot some-
ther actions to take. ones pet, you may find yourself involved in a legal
action or lawsuit.
Livestock Husbandry
Bald eagles can be attracted in large numbers to
large-scale pastured poultry operations. Newborns
are very vulnerable during birthing seasons. Eagles
will also prey on - to -week-old lambs and kids as
they begin to wander or play farther from mothers,
but not generally after weeks of age.
19 0 | P R E DATO RS U P CLOSE
AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
W
(Alligator mississippiensis)
Advantages Considerations
Generally aggressive and effective against small Cannot protect against more than one roaming
canines, such as foxes, coyotes, or dogs. dog or coyote.
Able to guard sheep, goats, cattle with calves, Vulnerable to multiple dogs or coyotes and
deer, alpacas, or poultry. bears, mountain lions, or wolves.
Easy to feed and fence with stock. Does not provide protection against most small
predators, feral animals, or raptors.
Best suited to flocks of less than animals in
fenced pastures without dense vegetation and May injure or attempt to breed stock, especially
close to the farmstead. intact males.
Naturally social to pasture mates and bond If not socialized and trained, can be dangerous
readily to stock. to humans and difficult to handle.
Creates little disturbance or threat to neighbors. Often do not work well in pairs, since a single
llama will bond better to stock.
26 2 | P R EV E N T I O N A ND PROTECTIO N
Beehives
In addition to the threats of disease, mites, and other Raccoons. Place a heavy rock, brick, or cement
pests, beehives are highly attractive to some animal block on top of the hive to prevent raccoons from
predators. Bears are the major threat, capable of removing top boards.
causing serious destruction and significant economic Skunks. Raise hives higher than a skunk can
loss. A clean, well-tended bee yard will discourage reach, up to feet. Place plywood with a nail pin-
predators and reduce temptations; however, good cushion in front of the hives. Predator-proof fenc-
fencing can exclude raccoons, skunks, and bears. ing, chicken wire, and netting will keep skunks away
Strapping the hive together and weighing down the from hives. Bury wire netting, mesh, or hardware
top will also make it harder for a predator to take it cloth inches down and extending out inches.
apart or gain access. Bears. Place electric netting or fencing around
Mice. Install mouse guards to prevent mice the hives, and use sturdy livestock panels for the best
from entering the hive, especially before winter. combination of deterrents.
Wooden reducers can be enlarged by chewing mice.
Backyard beekeepers can prevent predation by grouping their hives together, surrounding them with closely spaced
electric fencing, and weighing down the hive top.
26 6 | P R EV E N T I O N A ND PROTECTIO N