Compressors

1. Introduction

Compressors have played a major role in setting our standard of

living and they have contributed significantly to the industrial
revolution. Early compressors like the bellows (used to stoke a fire or
the water organ use to make music) marked the beginning of a series
of compression tools. Without compression techniques we could not
have efficiently stabilized crude oil (by removing its trapped gasses) or
separated the various components of gas mixtures or transported
large quantities of gas cross country via gas pipelines. Today,
compressors are a part of our everyday existence. Compressors exist
in almost every business and household as vacuum cleaners and
heating, refrigeration & air conditioning blowers.

Air or gas compressors may define as: "Compressors are

machines designed for compressing air or gas from an initial
intake pressure to a higher discharge pressure (by reducing
gas volume)."

1.1 History

The history of compressors is as varied as are the different types of

compressors. Somewhere in ancient times the bellows was developed
to increase flow into a furnace in order to stoke or increase furnace
heat. This was necessary to smelt ores of copper, tin, lead and iron.
This led the way to numerous other inventions of tools and weapons.

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One of the earliest recorded uses of compressed gas (air) days back to 3rd century B.C. This
early use of compressed air was the water organ. The invention of the water organ is
commonly credited to Ctesibius of Alexandria1. The concept was further improved by Hero of
Alexandria (also noted for describing the principles of expanding steam to convert steam power
to shaft power).

Ctesibius also developed the positive displacement cylinder and

piston to move water.
In the 1850sPhilander and Francis Roots devised what has come
to be known as the Roots blower.

In 1808 John Dumball envisioned a multi-stage axial

compressor. Unfortunately his idea consisted only of moving
blades without stationary airfoils to turn the flow into each succeeding
stage. Not until 1872 did Dr. Franz Stolze combine the ideas of John
Barber and John Dumball to develop the first axial compressor driven
by an axial turbine.

1.2 Function of a Compressor

A compressor increases the pressure of a gas. This means that

reduces the volume of the gas and increases its density without
turning that gas into a liquid. Compressors can do this in a number of
ways. However, the commonality between all compressors is the fact
that they all use some sort of fuel, such as gasoline or electricity, to
power whatever compression method they use. Also, because the
compressor increases the pressure on the gas, it increases the
temperature of the gas. Many other types of compressors are used for
various chemicals and fuels that require compression.
An air compressor is a versatile device used for supplying
compressed air and/or power into a specific space. It makes a vital
mechanical device for the homeowners (refrigerators and air
conditioners), jet engines, commercial businesses, refining industries,
manufacturing industries, and automotive industries. In fact, air
compressor has been used in the industries for more than 100 years.

1.3 Working Of compressor

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 In an air compressor, there are two major parts - a compressing system and a power
source. The compressing mechanism can be a piston, rotating impeller, or vane depending upon
which type of compressor you are referring to. As for the power, it is supplied by an electric
motor or other energy sources. The compressing mechanism, as the name suggests, helps in
compressing atmospheric air by using energy from the power source.

The basic working principle of an air compressor is to

compress atmospheric air, which is then used as per the
requirements. In the process, atmospheric air is drawn in through an
intake valve; more and more air is pulled inside a limited space
mechanically by means of piston, impeller, or vane. Since the amount
of pulled atmospheric air is increased in the receiver or storage tank,
volume is reduced and pressure is raised automatically. In simpler
terms, free or atmospheric air is compressed after reducing its volume
and at the same time, increasing its pressure.

There is a pressure setting knob that can be manipulated as per

the demands of the operator. When pressure in the receiver or tank
increases to the maximum level, the pressure switch is shut off and
intake of air in the compressor is stopped. Contrary to this, when the
compressed air is used, the pressure inside the compressor falls. As a
consequence, the pressure drops to a low setting, and the pressure
switch is turned on, thus allowing atmospheric air to enter the unit.
This way, the cycle of taking air inside the unit and removing
compressed air continues in an air compressor.

1.4 Compressors Vs Pumps

Compressors are similar to pumps, both increase the pressure on a

fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are
compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids
are relatively incompressible - a liquid, the volume of a liquid does not
change with pressure and temperature. While some can be compressed, the
main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. If a gas
is used in a pump or liquid in compressor as a fluid, it is very dangerous to
their parts i.e. impellers etc.

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 Another difference between a compressor and a pump is their parts i.e.
volute in pumps is analogous to diffuser in compressor.

1.5 Compression theory

Compressors are mechanical devices used to increase the pressure of

air, gas or vapor and in the process move it from one location to another.
The inlet or suction pressure can range from low sub-atmospheric pressure
levels to any pressure level compatible with piping and vessel strength
limits. The ratio of absolute discharge pressure to absolute suction pressure
is the compressor pressure. Stage compression is limited to the mechanical
capabilities of the compressor and, generally approaches a CR of 4. To
achieve high pressures multiple stages must be employed.

Compression theory is primarily defined by the Ideal Gas Laws

and the First & Second Laws of Thermodynamics. As originally conceived the
Ideal Gas Law is based on the behavior of pure substances and takes the
following form:

PV = RT (1.1)
Where,
P = Absolute Pressure
V = Specific Volume
R = Gas Constant
T = Absolute Temperature

This equation is based on the laws of Charles, Boyle, Gay-Lussac and

Avogadro (see Appendix B2 Glossary of Terms). Note all properties should be
defined in the same measuring system.

The ideal gas law can be manipulated to obtain several useful relationships,
like
PQ = WRT (1.2)
Where,
Q = Volumetric Flow Rate
W = Mass Flow Rate

By using compressibility factor, the ideal gas equation becomes

PV = ZRT (1-3)
and
PQ = ZWRT (1-4)

Compressor performance is generally shown as pressure ratio plotted

against flow.

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 A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and constant
chemical composition throughout all phases (solid, liquid and gas). For most
compressor applications a mixture of gases may be considered a pure
substance as long as there is no change of phase. The significance of
introducing this concept is that the state of a simple compressible pure
substance is defined by two independent properties.
Partial pressure

The total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... (1-5)

This relationship is defined by Daltons Law (see Appendix B2). If the

total pressure of the mixture is known than the partial pressure can be
calculated from the mole fraction.
horse power calculations

The brake horse power (BHP) require to drive the compressor can
be determined by calculating the gas horsepower (GHP) and then correcting
for mechanical losses.
Hd Wg
GHP = (1-6)
60 33,000 Ep
Where
BHP = Brake horse power
Hd = Head (adiabatic) ft-lb/lb
Wg = Weight flow of the gas lbs/hr
Ep = Adiabatic efficiency
and
SCFD MW
Wg = (1-7)
24 379.5
If capacity is available GHP can be calculated directly.
The brake horsepower is
BHP = GHP x (1 + % Mechanical Losses) (1-8)

1.7 Efficiency of a compressor

A compressor system may consist of a compressor, a motor, a

controller and other devices such as a water pump for the purpose of water
injection. Therefore, a system efficiency of a compressor system, sys, can
be defined as a series product of compressor overall efficiency, overall, motor
efficiency, motor, controller efficiency, controller, and her efficiency of an
auxiliary device, auxiliary, as:

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 1.9
Where,

(1.10)
And generally described as,

(1.11)

1.8 capacity and Speed of a compressor

The capacity of an air compressor is determined by the amount of free

air (at sea level) that it can compress to a specified pressure, usually 100 psi
per minute, under the conditions of 68F and a relative humidity of 38
percent. This capacity is expressed in cubic feet per minute (CFM) and is
usually included in the nomenclature of the compressor.

The number of pneumatic tools that can be operated at one time from
an air compressor depends on the air requirements of each tool; for
example, a 55-pound class rock drill requires 95 CFM of air at 80 psi. A 210-
cfm compressor can supply air to operate two of the drills, because their
combined requirements are 190 CFM.

However, if a third such drill is added to the compressor, the

combined demand is 285 CFM, and this condition overloads the compressor
and the tools and results in serious wear.

1.10 compressor Lubrication

The lubricant has four key responsibilities in every lubricated

component application, including reducing friction and wear, removing
heat, removing contaminants, and preventing corrosion.

In some types, Positive displacement compressors require some

lubricants for their performance, classified as oil based or non oil based.

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 Dynamic compressors do not require a lubricant within the
compression chamber and can consequently deliver oil-free air or gas, which
is desirable for many refining and process gas applications requiring large
volumes of hot gas to supply production needs. Dynamic compressors
employ both element and hydrodynamic journal and thrust bearings in their
designs. The choice is heavily influenced by compressor size and
application.

The lubricant selection for centrifugal and axial flow

compressors is relatively simple. The components, high speed gears and
plain bearings, element bearings and seals operate at speeds that create
hydrodynamic and electro-hydro dynamic conditions, as long as the oil
supply is maintained. Accordingly, oil fortification is predominantly for
corrosion, heat and oxidation resistance and only to a slight degree for
physical surface protection. Small compressors may be equipped with
grease-lubricated element bearings.

1.11 Compressor drivers

There are many types of equipment, often referred to as prime

movers, which can be used to drive a compressor:
Steam turbines and gas turbines
Natural gas engines, gasoline engines and diesel engines
Electric motors
Hydraulic power systems

1.12 APPLICATIONS OF COMPRESSORS

Gas compressors are used in various applications where either higher gas
pressures or lower volumes of gas are needed:

In pipeline transport of purified natural gas to move the gas from the
production site to the consumer.
In petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical
and chemical plants, and similar large industrial plants for compressing
intermediate and end product gases.
In refrigeration and air conditioning systems

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 In gas turbine systems to compress the intake combustion air
In storing purified or manufactured gases in small volume, high
pressure cylinders for medical, welding and other uses.
In many various industrial, manufacturing and building processes to
power all types of pneumatic tools.
In pressurized aircraft to provide a breathable atmosphere of higher
than ambient pressure.
In some types of jet engines (such as turbojets and turbofans) to
provide the air required for combustion of the engine fuel. The power to
drive the combustion air compressor comes from the jet's own turbines.
In SCUBA diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and other life support
devices to store breathing gas in a small volume such as in diving
cylinders.
In submarines, to store air for later use in displacing water from
buoyancy chambers, for adjustment of depth.
In turbochargers and superchargers to increase the performance of
internal combustion engines by increasing mass flow.
In rail and heavy road transport to provide compressed air for operation
of rail vehicle brakes or road vehicle brakes.

TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
2. Types of Compressors

Operating conditions have a significant impact on compressor

selection and compressor performance. The influences of pressure,
temperature, molecular weight, specific heat ratio, compression ratio,
speed, vane position, volume bottles, loaders and un-loaders, etc. are
the conditions that impact compressor capacity and therefore the
compressor selection. They also impact the compressor efficiency.

There are many different designs that enable this work to be done. Each
design has strengths and weaknesses that make it suitable for its respective
application. Compressors may be classified according to the following output
or discharge pressures:
High pressuregreater than 2,000 kPa, gauge/290 PSIG
Intermediate pressure equal to 8002,000 kPa, gauge/116290 PSIG
Low pressureequal to 100-800 kPa, gauge/14.5116 PSI

The two basic classifications of compressors are

I) Positive displacement II) dynamic compressors

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 Positive displacement compressors are constant volume, variable
energy (head) machines that are not affected by gas characteristics.

Dynamic compressors are variable volume, constant energy (head)

machines that are significantly affected by gas characteristics. Dynamic
compressors, such as turbines and axial flow compressors, produce large
volumes of relatively low pressure gas. The graph (2.1) is between pressure
ratio and flow rate (CFM).

Graph (2.1) Pressure ratio vs flow rate

The type of compressor that will be used for a specific application therefore
depends on the flow rate and pressure required and the characteristic of the
gas to be compressed.

Chart 2-1 Types of Compressors

These types are further specified by:

the number of compression stages
cooling method (air, water, oil)

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 drive method (motor, engine, steam, other)
lubrication (oil, Oil-Free where Oil Free means no lubricating oil contacts the
compressed air)
packaged or custom-built

In general, dynamic compressors are the first choice since their

maintenance requirements are the lowest. The next choice are rotary type
positive displacement compressors since they do not contain valves and are
gas pulsation free. The last choices are reciprocating compressors since
they are the highest maintenance compressor type and produce gas
pulsations. However, the final selection depends upon the application
requirements as discussed below.

2.1 Positive displacement compressors

Positive displacement compressors are used for low flow and/or low
molecular weight (hydrogen mixture) applications. The various types are
presented below.

2.1-1 Rotary Blowers Lobe

A rotary lobe compressor consists of identically synchronized rotors.
The rotors are synchronized through use of an external, oil-lubricated,
timing gear, which positively prevents rotor contact and which minimizes
meshing rotor clearance to optimize efficiency. This feature also allows the
compressor to be oil free in the gas path. The rotors of the two-lobe
compressor each have two lobes. When the rotor rotates, gas is trapped
between the rotor lobes and the compressor casing.

A typical two-lobe blower operating sequence is shown in Figure

(2.1). Note that the upper rotor or lobe is turning clockwise while the lower
lobe is turning counterclockwise.
Position #1: gas enters the lower lobe cavity from the left as
compressed gas is being discharged from this cavity to the right and
simultaneously gas is being compressed in the upper lobe cavity.
Position #2: the upper lobe cavity is about to discharge its
compressed gas into the discharge line.

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 Position #3: gas enters the upper lobe cavity from the left as
compressed gas is being discharged from this cavity to the right and
simultaneously gas is being compressed in the lower lobe cavity.
Position #4: the lower lobe cavity is about to discharge its
compressed gas into the discharge line.

Figure (2.1) a typical two-lobe blower operating sequence

The rotating rotor forces the gas from the gas inlet port, along the
casing, to the gas discharge port. Discharge begins as the edge of the
leading lobe passes the edge of the discharge port. The trailing lobe pushes
the entrapped gas into the discharge port, which compresses the gas
against the backpressure of the system. Rotary lobe compressors are
usually supplied with noise enclosures or silencers to reduce their
characteristic high noise level. A schematic of a two-lobe rotary compressor
is shown in Figure (2.2).

Figure (2.2) Two Lobe Rotary Compressor

Applications

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 Rotary Blower Lobes type compressors are used in Conveying for (powder,
polyethylene).

Precautions
Most problems can be avoided by first checking that the:

Driver operates properly before connecting it to the blower;

Blower turns freely before connecting it to the driver and process piping
Oil type is correct and
Oil reservoir is filled to the proper level

2.1-2 ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR

A sliding-vane rotary compressor uses a series of vanes that slide
freely in longitudinal slots that are cut into the rotor. Centrifugal force
causes the vanes to move outward against the casing wall. The chamber
that is formed between the rotor, between any two vanes, and the casing is
referred to as a cell. As the rotor turns, an individual vane passes the inlet
port to form a cell between itself and the vane that precedes it. As an
individual vane rotates toward the end of the inlet port, the volume of the
cell increases. The increase in the cell volume draws a partial vacuum in the
cell.

Figure (2.3) sliding vane rotary compressor

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 The vacuum draws the gas in through the inlet port. When a vane
passes the inlet port, the cell is closed, and the gas is trapped between the
two vanes, the rotor and the casing. As rotation continue toward the
discharge port, the volume of the cell decreases. The vanes ride against the
casing and slide back into the rotor. The decrease in volume increases the
gas pressure. The high pressure gas is discharged out of the compressor
through the gas discharge port. Sliding-vane rotary compressors are
characterized by a high noise level that results from the vane motion. A
schematic of a sliding vane rotary compressor is shown in Figure (2.3) &
(2.4).

Application
Rotary vane air compressors are used in Air blowers (low volume).
Also use as gas turbine starters.

Efficiency
Rotary vane compressors can have mechanical efficiencies of about
90%.

2.1-3 Rotary screw Compressor

A rotary screw compressor is a type of gas compressor which uses

a rotary type positive displacement mechanism. They are commonly used to
replace piston compressors where large volumes of high pressure air are
needed, either for large industrial applications or to operate high-power air
tools such as jack-hammers.

The gas compression process of a rotary screw is a continuous sweeping

motion, so there is very little pulsation or surging of flow, as occurs with
piston compressors.

Working

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 The single-stage design consists of a pair of rotors that mesh in a one-
piece, dual-bore cylinder. The male rotor usually consists of four helical
threads that are spaced 90 degrees apart. The female rotor usually
consists of six helical grooves that are spaced 60 degrees apart.
The rotor speed ratio is inversely proportional to the thread-groove
ratio. In the four-thread, six-groove, screw compressor, when the male rotor
rotates at 1800 rpm, the female rotor rotates at 1200 rpm. The male rotor is
usually the driven rotor, and the female rotor is usually driven by the male
rotor.
A film of foil is normally injected between the rotors to provide a seal
between the rotors and to prevent metal-to-metal contact. An oil-mist
eliminator, installed immediately downstream of the compressor, is required
for plant and instrument air service. However, designs are available that do
not require lubrication.

dry screw-type compressors

Screw compressors that do not require lubrication are commonly
referred to as "dry screw-type compressors".
The inlet port is located at the drive-shaft end of the cylinder. The discharge port is
located at the opposite end of the cylinder. Compression begins as the rotors enmesh at the inlet
port. Gas is drawn into the cavity between the male rotor threads and female rotor grooves. As

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rotation continues, the rotor threads pass the edges of the inlet ports and trap the gas in a cell
that is formed by the rotor cavities and the cylinder wall.

Further rotation causes the male rotor thread to roll into the female rotor groove and to decrease
the volume of the cell. The decrease in the volume increases the cell pressure. Oil is normally
injected after the cell is closed to the inlet port.
The oil seals the clearances between the threads and the grooves,
and it absorbs the heat of compression. Compression continues until the
rotor threads pass the edge of the discharge port and release the
compressed gas and oil mixture. A typical single stage screw compressor is
shown in Figure (2.6).

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 Figure (2.6) single stage screw compressor

Applications
Rotary screw compressor is used to plant and instrument air, low flow
process (off gas, recycle, Sulfur blowers).

2.1-4 scroll compressor

A scroll compressor (also known as a scroll vacuum pump) uses two

interleaved spiral-like vanes to compress gases. The vane geometry may be

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involute, Archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. The scroll compressor
concept was first developed in the early 1900s.
A scroll is an involute spiral which, when matched with a mating spiral
scroll form as shown in Figure (2.7), generates a series of crescent-shaped
gas pockets between the two scroll elements.
Scroll compressors work by moving one spiral element inside another
stationary spiral to create a series of gas pockets that become smaller and
increase the pressure of the gas. The largest openings are at the outside of
the scroll where the gas enters. As these gas pockets are closed off by the
moving spiral, the pockets move towards the center of the spirals and
become smaller and smaller. This increases the pressure of the gas until it
reaches the center of the spiral and is discharged through a port near the
center of the scroll. The entire process is continuous.

The moving scroll orbits in an eccentric path within the stationary

(fixed) scroll as it creates the series of gas pockets. During compression,
several pockets are being compressed simultaneously, resulting in a very
smooth process. Maintaining an even number of gas pockets on opposite
sides reduces any vibration inside the compressor. The two scrolls (one
colored blue and the other colored pink) can be seen in the right center of
the photo in Figure (2.7).

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 Scroll compressors are very widely used, for example, in air
conditioning systems. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably
than other types of compressors in the lower volume range.

2.1-5 Rotary liquid ring

Liquid ring rotary compressors consist of a round, multi-blade rotor

that revolves in an elliptical casing. The elliptical casing is partially filled
with a liquid, which is usually water. As the rotor turns, the blades form a
series of buckets. As the rotor turns, the buckets carry the liquid around with
the rotor. Because the liquid follows the contour of the casing, the liquid
alternately leaves and returns to the space between the blades.

Figure (2.9) a liquid ring rotary compressor

The space between the blades serves as a rotor chamber. The gas
inlet and discharge ports are located at the inner diameter of the rotor
chamber. As the liquid leaves the rotor chamber, gas is drawn into the rotor
chamber through the inlet ports. As the rotor continues to rotate, the liquid

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returns to the rotor chamber and decreases the volume in the chamber. As
the volume decreases, the gas pressure increases. As the rotor chamber
passes the discharge port, the compressed gas is discharged into a
gas/liquid separator and then to the process. A typical liquid ring rotary
compressor is shown in Figure [2.9].

Applications
Crude unit vacuum, various saturated gas applications.

2.1-6 Reciprocating Compressors

A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-

displacement compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver
gases at high pressure.

The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it
gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then
discharged. Applications include oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas

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processing plants and refrigeration plants. One specialty application is the blowing of plastic
bottles made of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET).

The basic components of a reciprocating compressor are a

crankshaft, crossheads, piston rod packing, cylinders, pistons, suction
valves, and discharge valves. Figure (2.11) is an illustration of a three-stage
reciprocating compressor. Note that the third stage piston and cylinder are
mounted on top of the second stage piston and cylinder. A prime mover (not
shown) rotates the crankshaft. The crankshaft converts the rotary motion of
the prime mover into reciprocating motion of the pistons.

The compression cycle of a reciprocating compressor consists of two

strokes of the piston. Figure (2.10) show the working of these cycles: The
suction stroke and the compression stroke.

suction stroke
The suction stroke begins when the piston moves away from the inlet
port of the cylinder. The gas in the space between the piston and the inlet
port expands rapidly until the pressure decreases below the pressure on the
opposite side of the suction valve. The pressure difference across the
suction valve causes the suction valve to open and admit gas into the
cylinder. The gas flows into the cylinder until the piston reaches the end of
its stroke.

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 Figure (2.10) Suction Strokes and Compression strokes

COMPRESSION STROKE
The compression stroke starts when the piston starts its return
movement. When the pressure in the cylinder increases above the pressure
on the opposite side of the suction valve, the suction valve closes to trap
the gas inside the cylinder. As the piston continues to move toward the end
of the cylinder, the volume of the cylinder decreases and the pressure of the
gas increased.
When the pressure inside the cylinder reaches the design pressure of
the stage, the discharge valve opens and discharges the contents of the
cylinder to the suction of the second stage. The second stage takes suction
on the discharge of the first stage, further compresses the gas and
discharges to the third stage. The third stage takes suction on the discharge
of the second stage and compresses the gas to the final discharge pressure.

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Figure (2.11) Reciprocating Compressors

Application
Plant and instrument air off gas (low flow) recycle (low flow) H2 make-
up, gas reinjection (low flow)

2.1-7 Diaphragm compressors

A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor)

is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression
of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake
element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod
and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box
come in touch with the gas being compressed.

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 Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed
natural gas (CNG) as well as in a number of other applications.

2.2 Dynamic compressors

Two types of dynamic compressors are in use today: they are the axial
compressor and the centrifugal compressor. The axial compressor is used
primarily for medium and high horsepower applications, while the
centrifugal compressor is utilized in low horsepower applications.
Both the axial and centrifugal compressors are limited in their
range of operation by what is commonly called stall (or surge) and stone
wall. The stall / surge phenomena occurs at certain conditions of flow,
pressure ratio, and speed (rpm), which result in the individual compressor
airfoils going into stall similar to that experienced by an airplane wing at a
high angle of attack. The stall margin is the area between the steady state
operating line and the compressor stall line. Stone wall occurs at high
flows and low pressure, while it is difficult to detect. Stone wall is manifested
by increasing gas temperature.
There are two common design directions of dynamic compressor
production. Centrifugal compressors are most common for industrial and
process applications.
Dynamic compressors are used wherever possible result of their low
maintenance requirements. The single stage integral gear centrifugal
compressor allows the use of a dynamic compressor in many applications
where positive displacement compressors have previously been used. The
two types of dynamic compressors are:

I) Centrifugal Compressors
II) Axial Compressors

2.2-1 Centrifugal compressors

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 Centrifugal compressors, sometimes termed radial compressors, are a
sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbo-machinery.
Centrifugal compressors are a common design found in industrial process
and manufacturing applications. These machines provide oil-free air in large
quantities and relatively low pressures. This design uses an impeller to
accelerate the gas as it enters the compressor chamber. Some centrifugal
compressors incorporate a drive gear coupled to smaller diameter-driven
gears coupled to the fan shafts. The drive gear accelerates the rotational
speeds of the shaft mounted fan, which increases the energy potential of
the gas.
Some centrifugal compressors have fans mounted on a common shaft
direct coupled to a drive motor. In this instance, the gas energy potential is
increased as the gas passes across each of the side-by-side mounted fans.

Working
In each type, the gas enters the compressor and is accelerated by the
impellor or fan blade, turning at very high rotational speed. The high-speed
gas is routed from one chamber or stage to the next in sequence where the
next impellor adds more energy to the gas stream. After the last
compression stage, the gas contacts a diffuser, a funnel-shaped channel at
the outlet side of the compressor. As the gas flow enters this pressure,
density and velocity are known.

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 Centrifugal compressors typically have three lobes or stages, but
designs may support between two and six stages. The impellers operate
volute, the gas flow-speed decreases, and the gas pressure increases as
streaming gas accumulates. The kinetic energy from the streaming air is
converted into pressure. The behavior of the gas is predictable if the fluid at
speeds ranging from a few thousand up to 60,000 rpm. The machines
process gas through multiple sequential stages to deliver flows approaching
18,000cfm. These machines are intended to operate continuously. The
common components for a centrifugal compressor that require a lubricant
include the driver (electric motor, process turbine), a coupling, the gear sets
and the bearings supporting the lobe shafts. Centrifugal compressors are
divided into:
Centrifugal single stage (low ratio)
These types are known as single stage overhung compressors since
the impeller is outboard of the radial bearings the cases are radially split.

Centrifugal single stage integral gear

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 This type of compressor is an in line type (similar to a pump) usually
driven by motor through an integrally mounted gear box (not shown). These
compressors are used for low flow high energy (head) applications. These
compressors operate at high speeds, 8,000 - 34,000 rpm and are limited to
approximately 400 horsepower.

Centrifugal multi-stage
horizontal split
The casing is divided into upper and lower halves along the horizontal
centerline of the compressor. The horizontal split casing allows access to the
internal components of the compressor without disturbing the rotor to
casing clearances or bearing alignment. If possible, piping nozzles should be
mounted on the lower half of the compressor casing to allow disassembly of
the compressor without removal of the process piping.

Centrifugal multi-stage with side loads

This type of compressor is used exclusively for refrigeration services.
The only difference from the centrifugal multi-stage horizontal split
compressor is that gas is induced or removed from the compressor via side
load nozzles. This type of compressor can be either horizontally or radially
split.

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Centrifugal multi-stage (barrel)

The compressor casing is constructed as a complete cylinder with one

end of the compressor removable to allow access to the internal
components. Multi-stage, radially-slit centrifugal compressors are commonly
called barrel compressors. Barrel compressors are used for the same
types of applications as the multi-stage, horizontally-split centrifugal
compressors.
Because of the barrel design, however, barrel compressors are
normally selected for higher pressure applications or certain low mol gas
compositions (hydrogen gas mixtures).

Centrifugal multi-stage integral gear

Integrally-geared, centrifugal compressors have a low speed (bull)
gear that drives two or more high-speed gears (pinions). Impellers are
mounted at one end or both ends of each pinion.

2.2-2 Axial flow compressors

A compressor in which the fluid enters and leaves in the axial

direction is called axial flow compressor.
Axial flow machines are common to aviation gas turbines and are used
selectively in specialized industrial and process applications. Axial flow
machines produce high gas flows.
Axial flow compressors have a design and operation that resembles
the jet engine but without the fuel combustion step. Axial flow
compressors are used to supply high air flows into gas turbines for aircraft
and for some industrial applications. Wind tunnel operators find axial flow
compressors to be most useful given their extraordinarily high air flow
requirements.

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Axial compressors are rotating, airfoil-based compressors in which the
working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation. This is in
contrast with other rotating compressors such as centrifugal, axi- centrifugal
and mixed-flow compressors where the air may enter axially but will have a
significant radial component on exit.
Construction
Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A
shaft drives a central drum, retained by bearings, which has a number of
annular airfoil rows attached. Axial flow designs are characterized by a rotor
with a set of curved fanlike blades and a stator. The stator may or may not
also have a set of curved blades. The gas enters the compressor body and is
spun from the center of the rotor in an outward direction with the rotor
blades turning at extremely high speeds. These rotate between a similar
numbers of stationary airfoil rows attached to a stationary tubular casing.
The rows alternate between the rotating airs foils (rotors) and stationary
airfoils (stators), with the rotors imparting energy into the fluid, and the
stators converting the increased rotational kinetic energy into static
pressure through diffusion. A pair of rotating and stationary airfoils is called
a stage. The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced
in the flow direction to maintain axial velocity as the fluid is compressed.
Machines capable of delivering 1,000,000 CFM or more have been built.

Working
The gas exits the surface of each fan blade in a radial and tangential
direction into the stator blades or housing and is fed into the next stage. The
gas is directed into the center of the rotor for the next stage and is pushed
along, and the sequence is repeated multiple times. Each set of rotor and
stator blades represents a compression stage (see Figure 3).

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 A compressor in which the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction
is called axial flow compressor. So, the centrifugal component in the energy
equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on
diffusing action of the passages. The main parts include a stationary (stator)
part and a moving (rotor) part. The diffusing action in stator converts
absolute kinetic head of the fluid into rise in pressure. The relative kinetic
head in the energy equation is a term that exists only because of the
rotation of the rotor.

Sedimentation

Introduction

The phenomenon of settling of particles in motionless water is of great importance, which can
be observed in naturally occurring process like sea, river, canals etc. and particularly in water
treatment for the purification of water.
Several processes are there for the removal of suspended solids from the water like Cyclones,
Centrifugal, Thickeners, and Sedimentation tanks. All these processes are important but the later
one is the most commonly used process in the industry due to multiple reasons i-e capital cost,
operational cost are relatively low as compare to other processes.
For this very reason, study of settling of particles in a fluid is an important practice regarding
purification and separation.

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Sedimentation

When water has little or no movement, suspended solids sink to the bottom under the force of
gravity and form sediment. This process is called sedimentation. We have discussed a similar
process, while separating solids from the water.
The theory of sedimentation would seem to be quite simple. Earlier we had a widening river
flowing more slowly, so if we make the settling tank large enough and the flow slow enough,
this will enhance the rate of fall of the sediment towards the bottom of the tank.
When a particle moves through fluid, three forces act upon it which elects the behavior particle
i-e whether it will sediment or not.

Principle of Sedimentation
Basic principle behind the settling of particles is given by Stokes law:

G = gravitational acceleration
Dp = particle diameter
= fluid viscosity

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Depending upon the concentration of the particles, when it is low the effects of mutual
interference of the particle is less and vice versa.

Zones in Sedimentation Tank

During the settling of particles, different compositions within the sedimentation tank could be
observed, having different concentration of particles are termed as zones. Different zones are
shown in the fig.

CLEAR LIQUID Zone free of particles is called clear zone.

SUSPENSION INTERFACE Point separating the constant composition zone and clear liquid.

CONSTANT COMPOSITION ZONE In constant composition zone, the suspension moves at the uniform
rate. Free settling occurs in this zone.

VARIABLE COMPOSITION ZONE Hindered Settling occurs in this zone. Concentration of the particles
does not remain same in different areas.

SLUDGE INTERFACE Point separating the sediment and liquid.

SEDIMENT Solid particles which are obtained at the end of sedimentation process.

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As the interface of the particles moves down, sludge builds up and the point where two levels
becomes equal is known as Critical Point.
If particles size is equivalent to the 6:1 setting happens with defined zones, discussed above,
according to the Stokes law. However, the range of particles is greater than 6:1 there would be
no sharp boundary among different zones. In this case, sediment is difficult to observe.

Sedimentation Processes

Basically, two processes are generally used to carry out sedimentation at industrial scale. Both
the processes are employed, depending upon the characteristics of the material to be sediment.
These two processes are:
Gravity settling processes
Centrifugal settling processes

Gravity Settling Processes

Particles heavies than the suspending fluid may be removed from a gas or a liquid in a large
settling tank, in which the fluid velocity is low and the particles have ample time to settle out.
Different kinds of gravity settlers used for separation are discussed below:
CLARIFIER: That virtually removes all the particles from a liquid.
CLASSIFIER: That separates the solid into two fractions.

Gravity Classifier
Separate particles on the basis of size, however, the density of the fine particles are the same as
that of the larger ones.

Gravity Clarifier
Clarifiers are used for gravity separation under hindered settling conditions to convert dilute
slurry of fine particles into a clarified liquid and a concentrated suspension.

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 Centrifugal Settling Processes

In order to increase the settling rate, the force of gravity acting on the particle is replaced by a
much stronger force called centrifugal force. Particles are removed more efficiently, in a short
period from fluids as compared to gravity process.

Centrifugal settlers used are mentioned below:

CYCLONES: Used for the separation of solids from gases.
HYDRO CYCLONES: Used for separating solids from liquids.

Cyclones

Cyclones operate to collect relatively large size particulate matter from a gaseous stream
through the use of centrifugal forces. Dust laden gas is made to rotate in a decreasing diameter
pathway forcing solids to the outer edge of the gas stream for deposition into the bottom of the
cyclone. Efficiencies are 90% in case of particle size of 10 microns or greater are possible.

Hydro cyclone

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A hydro-cyclone is a device to classify, separate, or sort particles in a liquid suspension based
on the densities of the particles. A hydro cyclone may be used to separate solids from liquids or
to separate liquids of different density.
A hydro cyclone will normally have a cylindrical section at the top where liquid is being fed
tangentially, and a conical base. The angle, and hence length of the conical section, plays a role
in determining operating characteristics.

Factors Affecting Rate of Sedimentation

Sedimentation is not an independent process. It is governed by several factors. More important

factor is to know the density and the size of the particles t o calculate their rate of fall and there
should be no turbulence in the tank as it will tend to reduce settlement. There must be an even flow
through the tank to prevent a narrow stream flowing through quickly from one end to the other .
Moreover, other effects like concentration, height, wall resistance etc. affecting. the rate of
settling are discussed below:

Effect of Concentration

Rate of sedimentation has an inverse relation with the concentration of particles. Greater the
concentration, smaller would be the rate and vice versa.

Particle Size

Greater the size of the particles, which is to be sediment, greater the gravitational force will act
upon it and vice versa. Force of gravity on the particle is given by the following mathematical
equation:
W = mg

Temperature

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Temperature has an inverse relation with the sedimentation rate. High temperature means low
sedimentation rate. In order to increase the sedimentation rate temperature should be minimized.

Height Effect
In general the height of the initial suspension does not affect the rate of sedimentation.
However, in case of larger height, greater amount of sediment has to build up before the critical
point.

Wall Effect
Provided the particle size to the tube diameter is not greater than 1:100, no wall effect s should
be apparent.

Density of The Particle

Density of the particles greatly affects the rate of the sedimentation. Greater the density, in
compare to medium through which sedimentation takes place, greater would be rate of
sedimentation and vice versa.

Sedimentation Tanks

Because of these factors we shall now look a t Sedimentation tanks. Generally, sedimentation tanks
are divided into following zones.

Inlet zone
The inlet or influent zone should provide a smooth transition from the flocculation zone and
should distribute the flow uniformly across the inlet to the tank. The normal design includes
baffles that gently spread the flow across the total inlet of the tank and prevent short circuiting
in the tank. The baffle could include a wall across the inlet, perforated with holes across the
width of the tank.

Settling Zone

The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin. This zone provides the calm
area necessary for the suspended particles to settle.

Sludge Zone
The sludge zone, located at the bottom of the tank, provides a storage area for the sludge before
it is removed for additional treatment or disposal.

Outlet Zone

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The basin outlet zone or launder should provide a smooth transition from the sedimentation
zone to the outlet from the tank. This area of the tank also controls the depth of water in the
basin. Weirs set at the end of the tank control the overflow rate and prevent the solids from
rising to the weirs and leaving the tank before they settle out. The tank needs enough weir
length to control the overflow rate, which should not exceed 20,000 gallons per day per foot of
weir.

Types Of Sedimentation Tanks

Various kinds of tank are used depending upon the particles which are to be sediment.
Commonly three types of tanks are used on industrial scale are discussed below:

Horizontal FlowRectangular Tank

Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes is
easier with this configuration.
A typical, long rectangular tank has length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width. The bottom is
slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper
continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is pumped out
periodically.

Radial FlowCircular Tank

Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin, but the
flow regime is different. When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially
towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is continuously decreasing as the
distance from the center increases.
Thus, the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the
long rectangular tank. Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and require less
maintenance.

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Upward FlowHopper Bottom Tank
Water enters through the centrally placed inlet pipe and deflected downward by the action of
deflector box. Water travels vertically downwards, sludge settles at the bottom of the tank.
Where it is removed by a sludge pipe connected to a sludge pump.

Sedimentation Apparatus
The apparatus we have deployed for the study of sedimentation is shown in fig.

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 STOPPER It is used to close the mouth of the sediment tube to avoid any accident in
case of mishandling.
CLAMPS Fixed with sediment apparatus are used to hold the glass tubes in a vertical
position.
MEASURING SCALES Graduated scale (cm) on each tube is used to observe the
correct position of the solid particles.
SAMPLE TUBE It is the main part of the apparatus in which whole practical is carried
out. Made up of transparent plastic for quick observation.
TUBE LIGHTS The only purpose of the tube lights is to make the clear view of the
small particles in the sample tube.
STOPWATCH It is of secondary importance, used for taking the readings with the
settling of particles.

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Experiment Performed
Objectives
1. Effect of initial concentration on the sedimentation characteristics
a. Plot initial mass settling rate against concentration
b. Plot the settling velocity against the limiting concentration
2. Construction of the rate of settling curve against concentration from a single batch test
3. Effect of initial height on sedimentation characteristics

Procedure
1. Select a suitable, well mixed powder such a chalk. Weigh out five separate quantities to
make up five equal volume of chalk in water called slurry of 21/2%, 5%, 71/2%, 10% and
121/2% concentration by weight,
2. Slurry should make up in a separate beaker and volume in each should be identical.
3. Stir slurry well in the preparation vessels and then fill each sedimentation tube in turn,
starting with the most concentrated.
4. The tubes should than remove from the retaining clips; cork should use to close off the open
ends. To tube should be well shaken to give consistent suspension.
5. The tubes should be replaced in the clips on the supporting frame, at the same interval of
time between mixing and testing. Reading of the interface should be noted.
6. In addition to noting the fall of the interface in each sedimentation tube at convenient time
intervals, the rise of the sludge interface at the bottom of the tube should be recorded.

Graphical Analysis
Results obtained from the above analysis are elaborated with the help of following graphs.
Height Against Time Graph
Following graph simply depicts the height variation of interface in the sedimentation tube. As
the time passes, height of the interface decreases. Solid particles, in quiescent water, settle under
the force of gravity.
More particles will settle sediment interface rise up. With the passage of time sediment layer
become thicker.
Different sedimentation curves display the behavior of solid particles of different concentration.

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Log of Height Graph
As the sedimentation proceeds, the rate becomes non-linear due to hindered settling effects. A
plot of time against log (H-Ho) Produces In general a straight line for the zone in which final
compaction occurs and a typical plot is shown in the following diagram.

Concentration Rate Graph

Industrial Applications

Sedimentation is one of the methods used in industry to separate liquid-liquid or solid-liquid

mixtures. By definition, sedimentation is the separation of a dilute slurry or suspension by
gravity settling into a clear fluid and slurry of higher solids content. The resulting liquid is
essentially particle free. In industry, either the particle free liquid or the particles itself is the
desired product.
Sedimentation is applied to accomplish the following process:

Separation

For the separation of liquid, solid mixtures, when the solid is in form of colloid or suspended.
For example separation of solid particles from inorganic compound likes oil, ester, carbon tetra
chloride etc.

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Purification

On industrial scale, most important application of sedimentation is the purification of water.

Removal of physical impurities like stones, straws, leafs etc. Separation of impurities is done on
the basis of density of the particle.

Definitions

Free Settling When the particle is at sufficient distance from the boundaries of the
container or from other particles so that, its fall is not affected by them.
Hindered Settling If the motion of the particles is impeded by other particles which will
happen when the particles are near each other, though they may not be
colliding, the process is called hindered settling.
Flocculants Flocculants, or flocculating agents, are chemicals that promote flocculation
by causing colloids and other suspended particles in liquids to aggregate,
forming a floc.
Short circuiting It is the term used for a situation in which part of the influent water exits the
tank too quickly, sometimes by flowing across the top or along the bottom
of the tank.

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