McGraw-Hill Series in Water Resources

and Environmental Engineering ENVIRONMENTAL

Rolf Eliassen, Paul H. King, and Ray K. Linsley
Consulting Editors
ENGINEERING
Bailey and Ollis: Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals
Bishop : Marine Pollution and Its Control
Biswas: Modelsfor Water Quality Managemeni
Bockrath : Environmental Law for Engineers. Scientisls, and Managers
Bouwer : Gro!{ndwater Hydrology
Canter: En vironmental Impact Assessment Howard S. Peavy
Chanlett: Environmental Protection
Professor of Civil Engineering
Gaudy and Gaudy: Micr obiologyfor Environmental Scientists and Engineers
Montana Scate University
Haimes: Hierarchical Analysis of Water Resources Systems: Modelling and
Optimization of L arge-Scale Systems
Hall and Dracup: Water Resources Systems Engineering
Donald R. Rowe
Linsley and Franzini: Water Resources Engineering Professor of Civil Engineering
Linsley, Kohler , and P aulhus : Hydrology for Engineers King Saud UniverSity
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc .: Wastewater Engineering.' Collec tion and Pumping of Wast ewater Saudi Arabia
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.: Wastewater Engineering. Trealment, Disposal. Reuse
Peavy, Rowe, and Tchobanoglous : Environmental Engineering George Tchobanoglous
Rich : Low-Maintenance, Mechanically-Simple Wastewater Treatment Systems Professor of Civil Engineering
Sawyer and McCarty : Chemistry for Environmental Engineering Univers ity of California, Davis
Steel and McGhee : Water Supply and Sewerage
Tchobanoglous, Theisen, and Eliassen: Solid Wastes, Engineering Principles and
Management Issues

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota H amburg
London Madrid Mexico Montreal New Dehli
Panama Pari s Siio Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo T oronto
 CONTENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGI~EERING
INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1985

Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hili Book Co., Singapore

for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exported
from the country to which it is consigned by McGraw- HilI.

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31
15 14 13 12 11
CTP BJE
Preface XI/ I

Copyright 1985 by McGraw-Hili, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication m ay be Intrnclu Cli on
reproduced or distributed in any form o r by any means ,
I- I T he Em'i ron lll c nt
or stored in a data base or a retrieval system, without
1-2 T he Im[lact 0 1' Il ulllam upo n th e Enviro nm e nt 2
th e prior written permissio n of the publisher.
1-3 Th e Im[lact o r th e En\ironm e nt upo n Hum an s 4
1-4 Impro \'c me nt of Envi ro nme nt al Qu a li ty 6
This book was set in Times Roman.
The editors were Kiran Ve rma and David A. Damstra. 1- 5 T he Ro lc of th e Environ ment a l Eng in ee r 7
The production supervi so r was Leroy A. Youn g. ReI-e rcnces ~

Part 1 Water
...Libra./},.()f.c;:()1"!9.ress .Ca~loging in Publication Data
2 Water Qu a lit y : Definiti ons, Charaderistics;
Peavy, Howard S. and Perspect ives II
Environmental engin ee ring .
2-1 T he Hyd raul ic Cycle a nd Water Qual ity 12
(MC Graw-Hili se ries in water resources and environ- PHY S IC A L W AT E R-QUA LITY PA RA M ETER S 14
mental engineering) 2-2 Suspend ed S,1 Iid , 15
Includes bibliographi ca l references and indexes.
2-3 T urbidit y 17
1. Environmental engineering . I. Rowe, Donald R.
2-4 Co lo r 18
II. Tchobanoglou s, George. III. Title. IV. Seri es.
2-5 Ta ste and Odo l 20
TD145.P43 1985 628 84-3854
2-6 Tempera ture 22
ISBN 0-07-0491 34-8
CHE M ICAL \\ATE R-QUA LI T Y PA RA M ETER S 23
When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07 -1 00231-6 2- 7 Chemi stn of S" luti o ns ' 23
2-8 T o ta l Dissoh cd So lid , 28
2-9 Alkali nit\ 31
2 10 Hard ness
:2-1 1Fl uo ri de 3(,
2 12 Me tal s 37
2-1 ] Orga nH.:" 38
2- 14 Nutllc nh -1 4
Printed in Singapore
 CONTENTS vii
vi CONTENTS

46 4-8 Filtration 165

BIOLOGICAL WATER-QU-\UTY PARAMETERS
' 4-9 Disinfecti o n ,. t
182
2-15 Pathogens 47
50 OTHER WATER-TREATMENT PROCESSES 190
2-16 Pathogen Indicators
54 ~ 4-10 Dissolved Solids Removal 190
WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
DiSCUSSIOn Topics and Problems ~ .
2-17 In-Stream Standards 54 '104 .
References
2-18 Potable Water Standards 55
2-19 Wastewater Effluent Standards 56 5 Engineered Systems for Wastewater Treatment
Discussion Topics and Problem s 57
and Disposal 207
References . 62
5-1 Wastewater Characteristics 208
3 Water Purification Processes in Natural Systems 63 211
5-2 Effluent Standards
64 5- 3 Terminology in Wastewater Treatment 212
PHYSICAL PROCESSES
3-1 Dilution 64 PRIMARY TREATMENT 2Pl
3-2 Sedimentation and Resuspension 65 5-4 Screening 217
3-3 Filtration 66 5-5 Comminuting 220
3-4 Gas Transfer 66 5-6 Grit Removal 221
3-5 Heat Transfer 71 5-7 Flow Measurement 224
73 5-8 Primary Sedimentation 224
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
73 SECONDARY TREATMENT 229
3-6 Chemical Conversions
BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES 74 5-9 Growth and Food Utilization 230
5-10 Suspended-Culture Systems 234
3-7 Metabolic Processes 75
511 Activated Sludge 234
3-8 Microorganisms in Natural Wat er Syst em s 79
5-12 Ponds and Lagoons 248
RESPONSE OF STREM...lS TO BIODEGRADABLE. 513 Attached-Culture Systems 255
ORGANIC WASTE 83 5-14 Secondary Clarification 268
. ~cl.~. P.i~iflf~c.t.iml.of Effiw:ots ...................................................... . 277
3-9 Dissolved-Oxygen Balance . . . . . . . .... ?;l. _ ...... . .. . . . ..... .
g5 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 278
3-10 Dissolved-Oxygen Model
3-.11 Organic Discharge and Stream Ecology 94 279
5-16 Sludge Characteristics
APPLICATION OF NATURAL .pROCESSES IN 5-17 Sludge Thickening 281
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS 5-18 Sludge Digestion 285
5-19 Sludge Disposal 292
3-12 Physical Processes
ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT 294
3- i3 Chemical Processes
3-14 Biological Processes 5-20 Nutrient Removal 295:'
Di scu ss ion T o pics and Problem s 5-21 Solids Removal 301
Refere.nces 302
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND REUSE
4 Engineered Systems for Water Purification 104 5-22 Wastewater Di sposal 303
5-23 Wastewater Reuse 306
4-1 Historical Overview of Water Treatment 105
Discussion Topics and Problems .314
4-2 Water-Treatment Processes 107
References
322
WA TER-TRFA 1M ENT PROCESSE S.
THEORY AND .APPLICATION 109 6 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics Design 324
110 324
4-3 Aeraiillil WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
11 3
4-4 So lid s Se paration \j) \ - \IJ) In 6- 1 Method s of Distributing Water 324
4-5 Settlin g Operatioll s 326
6-2 Di stribut io n Rese rvoirs
~ S'\ - \G1
4 -(, C llagulati o ll 1.1 1
~ 331
151 6-3 Di stribution Sys tem s
4-7 So ft enin g
 CONTENTS ix
v iii CONTENTS
455
333 7-9 Ox ides of N itrogen
6-4 Distribution System Components 461
335 7-10 Phot oc hemi cal Oxidant s
6-5 Capacity and Pressure Requirements 463
337 7-1 1 Ind oo r Air Po lluti o n
<6-6 Design of Distribution Systems 464
338 A IR- QUA LIT Y MA N AGEMENT C ONCEPTS
6~7 Hydraulic Analysis o f Di stribution Systems
346 Di sc uss io n T o pi cs a nd Pro blems 477
6-8 Cross-Connections in Di stribution System s 347 480
6-9 Constructi o n of W a ter Di stribution Systems Refe rences
348
6-10 Pumping R equired for Water Supply System s
348
WASTEWATER CO LLECTION Meteoro logy and Natural Purificati o n Processes 483
349 8
6-11 Types of Co llection Systems E L EME N T AL PR OPERT IES Of THE ATMOSP H ERE 483
-: 349
< 6-12 Types of Sewers 484
353 8- 1 Sca les of i\ lotill n
6-13 Collection System Appurten a nces 486
Basic Consideration s in the Design o f Sewers 354 go: Heat
6-14 491
360 i)-} Pressure
6-15 Design of Sanitary Sewers 493
Preparation of Contact Drawings and Specifica ti ons 369 8-4 Wlncl
6-16 495
371 8-5 MOisture
6-17 Construction of Sewe rs 495
37 1 8-6 Rcla tive H umidit y
6-18 Maintenan ce of Sewers
37 1
6-19 Design of Storm wa ter Sewers IN FLUE N CE OF i\ I LTEOROLOG IC AL PHENOMENA ON
372 495
WATER AND WASTEWATER PUMPIN G A IR QUALITY
372 496
6-20 Pumps 8-7 La pse Rat es and DI '> persio n
375 498
6-21 Pump Drive Unit s 8-8 Press ure Sys te ms and Di spe rsio n
378 498
6-22 Pump Application Terminology and Usage 8-9 Wind s and Di sper sio n
384 499
6-23 Pump Operating C haracte ristics and C urves 8-1 0 M OiS ture and Di spe rsio n
3')0 499
6-24 Analysis of Pump System s 8-11 Mod el ing
397
6-25 Pump Stations fo r Water and Wa stewater EFFECTS or A IR POLLUT IO N ON METEOROLOGICAL
507

- HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF WATER AN D

WASTEWATER TREATMENT
397
397
COND IT IO N S
8- 12 Change s o n the Mesoscale and Microscale
__ . __~ : 13__ ~~b 'Hlge.s _0.11_the_ M aC.fQseal e
508
509
6-26 Treatment Plant Desi gn ,--399, 510
~
6-27 Preparation of Hydraulic FFOfiks< <" <<" < <." " <" 0<" <--" , -- -. . -.. - - - - - - . . - Di sc uss io n T o pics a nd Proble ms
5 12
406 References
Discussion Topics and Problems
412
References
9 Engineered Sys tem s for Air Pollution Control 514
5 14
Part 2 . Air 9-1 Atm osphe ric Clea nsing Pr ocesses
9-2 Approa ches to C o ntaminant Cont ro l
516

-""""' '7 Air Quality : Definitions, Characteristics, and CON TR OL DEVICES rOR PARTICULATE CONTAM INA NTS 5 18
417
Perspectives 9-3 Gra vitati o nal Sel1! ing Ch a mbe rs 520
~
AIR POLLUTION -PAST , PRESENT , AND FUTURE 41 8 9-4 Ce ntrifu gal Co llec t () ,~S 523
9-5 528
418 Wc t Colkctnr,
7-1 Historical Overvie\>.' 53 3
420 '-)- (, Fa hr ic F ilt e r, ( Bag lHlllse Filt e rs)
'""""' 7-2 Global Impli ca ti o ns of A ir P o lluti on 536
424 9- 7 Elec tr os tat ic Prcc ipi Llt () fS (ESP) '
7-3 Units of Measurem ent
426 CONT IWL DEV ICES FOR GASEOUS CON T AM INANTS 540
~. 7-4 Sources of poJlutan ts
429 540
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTA N TS ') -8 Ad so rp ti(lll
545
431 9-9 ,\ OSor ptll)Jl
7-5 Particul a tes 557
44 2 ,-) 10 C o nli cns"tloll
7-6 H ydroca rbons 559
44 5 9- 11 ( 'omo u'>1lt)n
7-7 Carbon Monoxide 56J
449 l) _ I ~ , \utt.lllIl1 t l\r t:!l lh~H ) !l ( '~)flt r ol
7-8 Oxides o f Sulfur

-----..,
 r

x CONTENTS
CONTENTS xi
~
,
11-10 Det ermination of Vehic le and Labor Requirements
607 ~'
Discuss io n Topics and Pro blems 565 615
II-II Collection Routes ~
Refe re nces 567
TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT 618
620
r
Part 3 Solid Waste
11-12 Transfer Station s
11-13 Location of Tra nsfe r Stations
11-14 Transfe r Means and Method s
622
622 ...t
r
PROCESSING TECHNIQUES 626
10 Solid Waste: Definitions, Characteristics, and Mechan ical Volume Reducti o n 627

r
II-IS
Perspectives 573 627
11 -16 Thermal Volume Reducti o n
627
TYPES OF SOLID WASTES 573 11.-17 Manual Co mpo nent Separa ti o n

~
ULTIMATE DISPOSAL 628
10-1 Municipal Wastes 574
574 Landfi ll ing with Sol id Waste s 628
10-2 Indu strial Wastes 11-18
575 Design and Operation of La ndfill s 638
10-3 Hazard o us Wastes 11-19
Landfa rming 646
SOURCES OF SOLID WASTES 575 11-20
Deep-Well Injection 647
575 11-21
10-4 Sources o f Municipal Wa stes 648
Discuss ion Topics and Pro blems
10-5 Sources o f Hazardou s Was tes 576 652
References
PROPERTIES OF SOLID WASTES 576
10-6 Ph ys ical C omposition 576
10- 7 Chemical Co mpositi o n 582
10-8 Chan ges in Compositi o n 588 . 12 Engineered Systems for Resource and
SOLID-WASTE MANAGEMENT A N O VERVIEW 588 653
Energy Recovery
10-9 Materials Flow in Societ y 588 653
PRO C ESSING TECHNIQUES
10-10 Reduction in Raw Mat e ri a ls Usage 589
65.4
10-11 Reducti o n in Solid-Was te Qu a ntit ies 590 12- i Mechanical Size Alterati o n
Mechanical Component Separation
656
10-12 Reuse of So lid-Waste Mat e rial s 590 12-2 656-- ..
591 12-3 Ma gne tic and Electro mec ha nical Separa tio n
10-13 .. I'vlil.tel:iil.l.s..R.e~o.Y\TY .... 657
10-14 En e rgy Recovery 592 12-4 Drying and Dewatering
Day-to-Day Solid- Wa ste Managem ent 592 MA TERIALS-RECOVER Y SYSTEMS 657
10-15
Discuss io n Topics and Pro blems 592 657
12-5 Materials Specifications
Refere nce s 593 657
12-6 Processing and Recovery Sy"stems
659
)2-7 System Design a~d Layo ut
659
11 Engineered Systems for Solid-Waste Management 594 RECOVERY OF BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION PRODUCTS
660
II-I Functional Elements 594 12-8 Composting (Aerobic Conve rsion)
.663
17.-9 Ana erobic Digestion
SOLID WASTE GENERATION 594
RECOVERY OF THERMAL CONVERSION PRODUCTS 665
11-2 T ypi ca l G e neration Rates 595
665
11-3 Estimat io n o f Solid-Waste Qu a ntit ies 598 12-10 C o mbustion of Waste Mat erials
670
11-4 Fact o rs Tha t Affect G e nera ti o n Rat cs 598 12-11 Incin eration with Hea t Recove ry
671
12-12 Use of Refuse-Deri ved Fuel s (RDF)
ON-SITE HANDLING. STORAG E. t\ N D PROC ESS IN G 598 671
12- 13 Ga sification
11 -5 On -S it e Handlin g 599 672
12- 14 Pyro lys is
11 -6 On-S it e Sto rage 599 672
RE COVERY OF ENE R G Y FROM CON VERSION PRODUCTS
11 -7 On -S it e Pr ocess in g of So lid Was tes 601 673
601 12- I 5 En ergy -Reco ve ry Systems
COLLECTIO N OF SO LID \Vt\ ST ES 674
12- 16 Efficiency Fact or s 675
11 -8 Co ll ec ti o n Services 601
12- 17 Deterrninati on of t .ner g} Output and EtJi cicn cy
11 -9 T ypes o f Co llec ti o ll Sys tcm, 1i05
 xii CONTENTS

MATERIALS- AND ENERGY-RE CO VERY SYSTEMS 675 PREFACE

Discussion Topics and Problems 677
References 677

Appendixes
A Quantities and Units 679
B Conversion Factors 683
C Properties of Wat e r and Air 693
D Water Quality Standards 696

Indexes II
Name Index
---"'.
Subject Index '

Eng inee rs and scientists from a n umber of re la ted di sci plin es ha ve been in vo lved
in the d evelopmc nt of an academic ba sis for th e und e rs tanding and management
of the envi ronment. Th e ' management of water qu a lit y has been dealt with in
mi crob io logy and s<Jn ita ry engi nee rin g courses; a ir po lluti o n pro blem s have been
---. covered in c hemica l and / o r mechanical eng in ee ring co urses; an d the management
of so lid waste, lo ng neglected by acad e m ic ian s. ha s bee n chiefly th e purvey of tho se
di rec tl y rcsponsible for hllu lin g and disposlli o pe rati o ns.
During th e la s t 10 to 13 ye ar s, sc h oo ls of e ng ine e ring ha ve made considerable
progress towa rd b rin gi ng the principles drawn from m any re lated acad emic
disciplines to ge th e r a nd unifyin g th em und e r the titl e en vironmen tal eng in ee rilll).
Not s urpri si ngly. texts .in .tbis re lative ly. new. subject. ar.ea. have d ev<!lo ped a long
cla ss ical , se paratist lines. Thus, there have been a number of texts featuring In-
depth treatment of one spec ific a rea (ie .. wate r , air , so lid waste) and few text s
attempting, to trea t the s ubjec t 01' e n vironme n ta l engineering as a whol e ,
The purpose of Elll'ironmental Enyineerinq is to brin g together and integrate
in a s in g le text the morc gC ntT ti suhJect matt e r of th e three principal areas of
.envirolJmental engince rin g -- water . ai r. a nd so lid-was te management. And, as
---. .Char. 1 indicat es, thi s int egra ti on goes he yo nd binding three text s in a sin g le cover.
Enl'irolltll('/I/(II Enqill('erilllj introduces a uniqu e approach to the ove ra ll
concep t o f e n viro nm e ntal enginee rin g, an ap proac h that e mpha sizes th e re la ti o n-
ship belll/een the princlr les observed in natural purification processes a n d those
employeed in eng in ecred p rocesses. First. th e ph ys ical , c he mi ca l, m a th e matical.
and biological principles of defining. quan tify in g, ane! measuring enviro nme n ta l
~'. quality a rc desCribed. Next. the processrs by which n a ture assimilates waste
material are discusscd and tlicnatul'al p ur ifica ti on rrocesses that form th e ba~cs
of engi neered systems a re deta iled Finally, th e e ng ineer ing principles and p ra ctices
involved In the design and operatil)n of conven ti ona l envi ronmen tal engineering
wor ks arc C()\'ercd at len)!t ll.

xiii
 xiv PREFAn

The breadth and depth of th e matenal in thi s book precludes complete ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
coverage in a one-se m ster or o ne-qu a rte r course. H owever, the a rran gement of
the material lends itself to seve ral d iffe rent course format s.

I. For introdu c to r y e nginee ring courses at the sopho m ore or junior \i.:vel , C haps.
1.2,3 .7,8 . and 10 provide a n overv iew of the principles involved in e nviro n-
menta l en gi neerin g sys tem s. These chapters assume a basic knowledge of

c hem is try. biology, ph ys ics, and mathe matics . However , becau se m a n y
eng in eeri ng cu rri cu la co ntain few chemi st ry an d even fewer bi o logy or micro-
biology co urses . th e chapters review th ese subj ec ts in detail. The introd ucto r y
sec ti o ns of Chaps. 4. S. 9, II , and 12 may be utili zed to add relevance to th e
th eo ret ica l di sc uss ion s. A course following thi s format w ill satisfy ABET
requirements for e ngin ee ring scie nce.
2. If th e hrst a ppr oach is used fo r an introductory co urse. th e remainin g chapters
(4.5 ,6.9, II , and 12) ca n be used as a follow-up co urse in env ironmen tal
engineer in g design . Thi s co urse sho uld be res trict ed to e ng ineering s tud e nt s at
th e juni or or se ni o r leve l who ha ve co mpl eted ba s ic fluid m ec hani cs. Such a
co ur se would meet ABET' s e nginee rin g design criteria.
3. A m ore cla ss ical app roac h would be to use the first six c hapt ers as a text for
a o ne-se meste r or o ne -quart er co urse in water and wastewater engineering. A
second o ne-se mester/ qu a rt er course o n air-pollution control and so lid-was te
management would use Chaps. 7 thro ugh 12. D es igned fo r junio r- or se ni o r-
leve l e nginee rin g st ud e nt s that have co mpl e ted basic tluid mechanics, these
tw o ' co urses wi ll m ee t ABET criteria for e ngin eer in g design and scie nce, o r a n
approximate o ne to o ne ratio .
4. C hapte rs 1,2.3,7.8, and 10 can a lso bc lI sed for a companion course in en -
vironmental sc ience for nonen ginee rin g s tudent s , prov ided allowance is made
.. forthe iimited mar-hema ti ta lbackgrou n'd 6fthc' itlldenis: ' .

Whateve r the a pproac h used , th e text sho uld leave stud e nt s with a c lear
und erstanding o f th e prin c ipl es of all three o f th e maj o r areas o f envir omen tal
e n ginee rin g. U se r co mm e nt s a nd sugges ti ons conce rnin g the effec ti veness of this
approach would be g reatly appreciated .
The a uthors w is h to ac kn ow ledge til e fac t th at devel op ment and publication '.:
of Environmental El7,1jin eeriny wo uld not ha ve been possibl e wi th o ut th e he lp and
in spirati on o f o ur former pro fe sso rs, th e c ha lle nge and mot ivation o f our stud en ts ,
the assistance and e ncoura geme nt o f ou r co lleag ues, the patience a nd forebearance
of o ur edit o rs, and th e SUpP Grt and und e rstandin g of ou r familie s.

HOI1'ord S. Peon:
Donald R . R owe'
C eorql' T chohal/oglous
 C HAPT ER

ONE
INTRODUCTION

Environmental eng ineering ha s been defined as th e bran c h of eng ineering th a t is

co nce rn ed with protecting the en viron me nt fr o m th e p o tentiall y d e leterious
effec ts of human act ivit y, pro tecting human popu la tion s fr o m th e effects of a dverse
env iro nm ental factors, a nd improv in g e n viron m ent a l .q u a lit y for human health
a nd we ll -being. [1-2J
As th e above definiti o n im p lies, hum a ns interact w ith th ei r enviro nm e nt -
so metimes adve rsely imp acting the environmen t and some times bei ng adve rse ly
imp acted by p o llut ants in the env ironment. An unders tandin g o f the n a tu re o f
the enviro nm ent and of hum a n interaction w ith it is a neces ' ary prerequis ite to
unders tanding th e work o f the env iro nm enta l e ngi neer.

1-] THE ENV IRONM ENT

Simply stated, the e n vironmen t can be defined as one's surro undings. In terms of
the env iro nmental e ngineer's invo lvement , howeve r, a m ore sp ecific definition is
needed. To th e envi ronmental engineer. the word environment ma y ta k.e o n g loba l
ciimen s io ns. may refer to a very loca li zed area in which a sp ec ific problem must be
ad dr essed, o r may, in th e case of co nt ai ned en viron ments, refer to a sm a ll vo lume
o r liquid. gaseo ll s. or so lid materials w ithin a treatment plan t react o r.
The g loba l env ironment co nsist s of the atmosph ere, th e hydTosphere, and
the lithosph e re in w hi c h the life-s ustainin g resources of th e ea rth are co nt ained.
The atIJlOspi1l'rc.;t mixture of gases exte ndin g o utward fr om t~e s urface of th e ea rt h.
cvo lved from e lemeo ts o f th e ear th that were gas ified d urin g it s fo rmati o n a n d
metamorphos is . Th e hydrosphere consists o f th e oceans, th e lakes and strea ms.
a nd the s ha ll ow gro und wa ter bod ies that int erflo w wi th th e surface water. The
lithosphere is th e so il mant Ie th at wraps th e co re of th e ea rth .
The hiosphcre. a thin she ll that encaps ulates th e ea rth. is made lip o r the
;Itmosphc re a nd iltlwsphere adjacent to the surface o f the earth. toge th er \\it h th e
2 INTRODuCTION
INTROD UCTION 3

from a campfire. Eve n when use o f fire became common , the relatively small
hydrosphere. It is wi th in the b iosphere that the life form s of earth. includi ng
amoun ts o f sm oke genera ted we re easil y and rapidly dispersed and ass imilated
h umans. li ve. Li fe-sus taining ma teria ls In gaseo us, liquid , and so li d form s are
hy t he at m0sp here.
cycled t hr ough th e bi os p here, provid in g s us tenance to a ll living orga ni sms.
Early civi li za ti o ns o ft en drank from th e same rivers in which they bathed and
Li fe-s ustaining reso urces - air, food , and water - are withdrawn from the
dep osited th e ir wastes, yet the impact o f sLi c h u se was relatively s li g ht. as natural
biosphere. It is a lso into the biosphere that was te products in gaseous, liquid.
cleansing mec hanism s easily res tored water quality. These early humans used
and so li d form s are discharged. From the beginning of time, th e biosphere has
caves a nd other na tura l s helters or else fashioned their homes from wood, dirt,
received and assimilated the wastes generated by pla nt a nd animal life. Natural
o r a nim a l skin s. Often no madic, ea rl y popUlations left behind few items that were
sys tems have been ever active, dispersing s m oke from forest fires, dilutin g animal
not read il y bro ken down and absorbed b y the atmosphere, hydrosphere, or litho -
was tes washed int o st reams and rivers, and conve rtin g debris of pa st ge nerati o ns
sphere. And th ose items th a t were no t b ro ken down with time were so few in
of p lant and a nim al life int o soi l ric h enough to s upp or t future pop ul a tions.
number and so innocuo us as to present n o significant solid-waste problems.
F o r every na tur a l act of po ll ution, for eve ry und es irab le alteration in the
O nl y as ea rl y peoples bega n to ga ther toget her in larger, more o r less s table
ph ys ical. chem ica l, or bi o logica l charac ter is tics o f the enviro nm e nt , fo r everv
gro upin gs did their impact upon their loca l environments begin to be significant.
in ci dent that eroded the qua lit y of the immed ia te, or loca l, en viro nm ent , the r~
[n 6 1 A.D., cooki ng a nd heating fir es caused air- pollution problem s so severe th a t
were na tur a l acti o ns that res to red that qua lit y. Onl yi n rece nt years has it beco me
th e Ro man philosopher Seneca co mpl a ined o f " the stink o f the sm o k y chimneys."
apparent th a t th e sustaining and ass imil at ive capac it y of the bi os p here, th oug h
By the la te e igh teenth century, the waters o f the Rhin e and the Th a mes had
treme ndou s, is not, after a ll , infinite. Th o ug h the sys tem has o pe rat ed fo r millio ns
beco me too polluted to support game fi sh. Fro m the Middle. Ages the areas
of years, it has begu n to show sig ns o f stress, primar il y beca use o f the impact of
where food a nd human waste were dumped harbored rats, flies, and o th e r pes ts.
humans up o n th e environment.

Satisfying Acquired Needs

1-2 THE IMPACT OF HUMANS UPON THE ENVIRONMENT
But these ea rl y evid ences of pollution ove rl oad were merely the prelude to greater
ove rl oads to come. With the d aw n o f the industrial revolution, humans were
[n a natural sta te, earth's life fo rm s li ve in eq uilibrium wi th the ir e n vironme nt.
bet ter able th a n ever to sa t isfy th eir age-old needs o f a ir. wa ter, food , and shelter.
T he numbers and ac ti v iti es o f each species a re gover ned by the reso urces ava ilable
In creasi n gly th ey turned th e ir a ttenti o n to o th er needs beyond th ose ass oc iated
to them. Spec ies in te raction is commo n, with th e was te prod uct of one speci es o ft en
With survival. By the la te nin eteen th a nd early twentieth ce nttlrje ~>.~.l!t 9.mobiles ........... .
fo rm in g the fo od s upply o f a n o th er. H umans alone ha ve the ab ilit y to ga t her
<lp pli a nces, a nd processed foods and beverages had become so p o pular as to seem .
. r.es.oy rce.s.fr()l11.tJI.':Y9.n<;i'(heir. im mediate surro undin gs and p rocess th ose reso urces
necess ities, and meeting these acquired need s had become a maj or thruslof m o dern
in to diffe rent. m o re versa til e forms . These a bilities have made it poss ible for hum a n
indus tri a l societ y.
po pulati o n to thr ive and fl ourish beyo nd na t ura l co nst raints. But the natura l and
. U nlik e th e na tura l need; di sc ussed earlier, a cquired need s are usually met
m an ufac tured wastes ge nera ted a nd re leased into th e bi osphe re by these increased
by Items that must be processed 'or m a nuf<ic t'ure'd or refined, a nd the production,
numbers o f human be ings have up se t the natural equilibrium.
di s tributi o n, and use o f such items usually resu lts in more co mplex residuals,
Anthropogenic, or human-induced , po llut an ts ha ve ove rl oaded th e sys te m.
ma ny o f which are no t compatible wi th or readily assim ilat ed by the en viro nm ent.
The over loading ca m e rel a tive ly la te in the course o f hum a n int e ract io n wi th the
Take, for examp le, a familiar modern a ppliance-- the toas ter. The shell and
environment , perhaps because ea rly socie t ies we re primarily co nce rned wi th
the hea ting eleme nt s are lik e ly to be made of steel, the handle of th e lift le ve r of
m ee tin g natural needs , needs hu m ans sha re in C0m ll1 0n w it h mos t o f the hi g he r
plasti c. Copper w ires and synthetic insulation may be used in th e connectin g cord,
m a mm a ls. These peoples had no t ye t beg un to be concerned wi th meeting the
a nd rubber may be used o n the plug. In assess in g th e pollutants generated by the
acquired needs assoc iated w ith m ore advanced Civilizations.
manufacture and sa le of this simple app li ance, it would be necessary to include all
th e resources expe nd ed in th e milli ng o f th e met a ls, the ext racting and refining of
Satisfying Natural Needs th e pe tro leum, the sh ipping of th e vario us materials, then th e' m anufac turing,
shipping, a nd selling of the fini shed product. .The potential impac t o f a ll o f th ese
Earl y hum,!ns used nat ura l resoui-ces to sa tisfy th e ir need s for air, wa ter. fo o d, anc!
ac ti vities upon a ir an d wa ter quality is significan t. Furthermore, if the pollution
s he lt er. These natural. unpr ocessed reso urces we re readi lv a vai lab le in th e
poteilli a l in vo lving the manufacture and use of the heav y equipment needed for
bi osphe re, and th e re s iclues genera ted by t he use of such reso l;rces were genera ll y
t he ex trac ti o n and processing of th e raw materials used in the va ri o us to as ter
compa tible wit h, o r readil y ass imilat ed by, th e eIlI lron ment. Prllnitl ve humans
componen ts is considered , the list co uld go o n ad nauseum. And the so lid- waste
a te plant and a ni mal food s wi th o ut eve n di; tllrbing the atmosphere with the s moke

4 INTRODUCTION
disposal problems that arise when it is ti me to get rid of th e toaster become a
further factor.
As a rule, meeting the acqu ired needs of modern societ ies genera tes more
residuals thar: meeting natural need s, and these residuals a re lik elY to be less
compatible with the environment and less li kely to be readil y assimila ted into the
biosphere. As societies ascend th e socioeconomic ladder, th e li st of acquired
needs, or lu xuries, increases, as do the complex ity of th e production chain and the
ma~s and complexity of the pollutants generated. Consequently, the impac t of
modern human popula tions upon the environment is of major concern to the
enviro nmental engineer:
1-3 THE IMPACT OF THE ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMANS
Tho ug h rivers become stagnant, skies smoke-shro uded , a nd dumping gro unds
od o riferous and unsightl y, populations generally manage to igno re their impact
o n the environ men t unt il they begin to become awa re of the ill efrect s that a po llut ed
environment can have upo n thei r own hea lt h a nd we ll-being. Th o ugh stag nant
rivers , smoggy skies . a nd un sightl y dumps were aes th eticall y di spleasin g to the
citizens of ove rcrowded cit ies of earlier centuries, no att empt was made to re\erse
the nega tive impact humans had o n thei r environm ent unlil it becamc ev iden t
th a t heavi ly polluted water, a ir, a nd so il cou ld exert a n eq ually negat ive impact
on the health, the aes thet ic a nd cu ltu ra l pleasures, and th e econom ic op po rtunities
of humans.
Health Concerns
Elemen ts of the air, the wa ter. and the land may host ha rmful biolog ical and
chem ica l agents that impac t the hea lth of hum ans. A wide range of comm un icab le
diseases can be spread th ro ugh elemen ts of the environment by hum a.n and
an imal waste product s. T his is most clea rl y evidenced. by th e plagues of th e M idclle
Ages when disease spread t hroug h rats tha t fed on co ntamin ated so lid and human
waste and disease carried by wa terbo rne para5ites a nd ba cteria ran rampa nt
thro ugh the populatio n of Europe.
It has only been in th e las t century that the co rrelati on be tween wate rborne
b iological age nts and huma n diseases has been proved and effec tive preve nti ve
measures have been taken. Thro ugh immuniza ti on a nd env ironm ental contro l
programs, the majo r diseases transm itt ed via the environment ha\'e all but bee n
eliminated in deve lo ped count ries. No country, however, is totall y immun e fr om
o utbreaks of env ironmen tall y tra nsmitted disease. The tran smiss io n uf viru ses
and proiozoa has proved particu la rl y difficu lt to co ntrol, .and lapses in go()d
sanitary practice have res ulted in min o r epidemics of o ther wa terborne diseases.
P o ll ution of th e atm osphere has also posed severe health pro blems Ih at are
of great concern to environment al engi neers. Peop le in crowded citics have
II"TRODl ' CTI ON 5
lik ely suffered from the il l effect s of air po lluti o n fo r centuries, but it is o nl y in this
century that II1 creas ing ly heavy po ll ution has ca used hea lt h prob lems so dramat ic
as to be easil y a ttribut ed to air pollution . Several key incidents helped ca ll a tten ti o n
to the poten tia lly dead ly effec t of air po ll ution. Severa l kille r smogs settled ove r
London in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. but the tru e ex tent o f the
air-po lluti on problem in th a t cit y did no t become apparen t until 4000 deaths and
countless illnesses were a ttributed to the Lond o n smog of 1952.
Th o ugh the 20 dea ths ca used by a smog ove r Dono ra, Penn sy lva nia. in 1948
.raised so me alarm . It was not until th e New York i~ ve rs i o n of 1963 clcJlmed seve ra l
hundred li ves that thi s co untr y began to take the fi ght aga inst a ir polluti on ser io u sl\".
M onit o rin g o f th e sulfur diox ide, lead , and carbon mon ox ide leve ls in area s s u ~ h
as the smog-s hro ud ed Los An ge les bas in has revea led th at the hi gh leve ls of t hese
and other co nt aminan ts pose direc t and indirec t threa ts to human hea lth . Th ese
findings ha ve made air-po llut ion con tro l a top pri o rit y of the En viro nme nt a l
Protecti on Agenc y and a majo r conce rn of enviro nment al en gineers, who are
now ca lled upon to devi se man age men t programs designed to alter th e patt ern o f
air po lluti on begun ce nturies ago a nd co ntinued until the prese nt tim e.
O ther envi ronme nt all y relat ed hea lth pro blems also co nce rn th e en vIro n-
menta l engi neer. Th e wid espread use of chemica ls in ag riculture an d in dus t ry
has introduced many new co mpo und s into th e environment. Some of these
co mpo und s ha ve been diffu sed in sma ll quantiti es th rougho ut the enviro nment.
whi le others ha ve been conce nt ra ted at disposa l sites. Such che mi ca ls ma y be
spread through air. watc r, and so il , as we ll as thro ugh th e food chain. and thu s
pose a potential threa t to a ll human s.
The pesticide DDT was used extensively d uring the mid-centu ry decades and
has been instr umenta I. i.n the. eli.rpioalion .0J malari a in many p arts ofrhe i.\l ai rd. .. .
In addi ti on, thi s pesticide was used ex tens ive ly to control in sect pests on food and
fiber pla nt s. Its benefi cial use to humans was widely acclaimed , and its promoter.
Pa ul Mu ller. was awa rded a Nobel prize in 1958 for his contribu ti o n to publi c
hea lth. Subsequ ent resea rc h. howeve r. has shown th a t DDT is a cumul a ti ve tox in
. tha t has adverse ly ;tfrccted many non target species. Traces of DDT can be found in
alm os t all li vin g o rg;lni sms thro ugho ut th e world - including human s. Alth o ug h
th e use of DDT is no\\' b:ln necl in the Un it ed States and seve ral other co untri es. the
chemical is st dl being manufa ctured. primari ly for use in seve ral develop in g
co untries. par ticular ly in tro pi cal zo nes where its benefit s a re still cons id ered to
o ut weigh It s lia bilities.
A mo re rece nt example of chem ical tox ins th a t threaten health is the chemica l
d ioxi n The format illil of this chemical. the scientific name o f wh ich is 2,3.7,R-
tetrach loro-dibenzo paradioxin. is an unint entional by- product of a manufac turlll g
process used with so me herhi cides anc! wood-preserving co mpounds. It is also
fo rmed in t he prod uct io n of some d isinfectan ts ancl ind ustri a I clean in g co m pou nd s.
Di ox in is an ex treme ly toxi c substance. and it s presence in excess of I ppb (part
per billi o n) in the en\' ilo nmen t;d ele ment s becomes cause fo r concern . (On e pa rt
per bill io n co rrespo nds to o ne drop of wa ter in a sw imming poolme:l slIring IS i"t
wiele, .\ 0 ft lo ng. and 11 ft dee p.)
6 INTRODUCTION
C hem icals contai ni ng diox in residua ls have been used on a widespread basis
during the las t few decades. and the level of th is chemica l in th e general environ-
ment is no t currently known. The discovery o f di o xin res idu a ls in waste-dis posa l
s ites a nd in so il<; that were con tam ina ted t h roug h app lication of the paren t materia l
has ca used g reat co ncern and ha s resu lt ed in ex pensive c lea n in g effor ts. Th e
c rea tion of a "s uperfund" in the Environme n ta l Pro tection Agency. ini ti a ll y
fund .e d at seve ra l bil lio n d o llars. is bu t a s ta rt in the effo rt s to mi t iga te th e ha za rd s
of c hem ica ls in the enviro nm en t.
Oth e r C onc ern s
C lean ai r and wa terare an aesthe ti c de li g ht , yet ci ty dw e llers ha ve a ll bu t forgo tt e n
the s mell o f clea n a ir. a nd clear. sparkling lakes. rivers. :lI1d st reams are becoming
increasing ly rare. Litt ered streets and highw ays ' o tTe nd . rather than deli g ht. and
unfe nced junk ya rds and u nco n tro lled d umps give fu rt her evidence o f th e aest het ic-
al ly d ispleasing e ffec t o f improper so lid-waste di s posa l techniques.
O u r c ult ura l as we ll a s our aes th etic heritage is a lso being los t to poJlut io n.
The Parthen o n in Athens. t he Sta tue of L rberty in N ew Yo rk ha rbor. the s ta tues
a nd fr escoes in Ve nice have withstood the o ns laug ht of the cleme nt s for centuries,
ye t are in increas ing danger of being dest royed by t he constituen ts o f a p o llu ted
atmosphere.
And poll ution poses econom ic threats to hu man popu lations Lake E fl e o nce
su p po rt ed a thrivi ng fis h ing ind ustry a nd a ll th e a tt endant process ing a nd s hi pping
fac il ities assoc iat ed with th a t indu str y. ye t th e eco no mic po tenti a l o f the lak e was
nearl y lost befo re se ri o us cle anup effo rts were begun . Th e s ilting in o f r ive rs.
harbors. and rese rv oirs du e to unco ntro lled eros io n. often exacerbated by hum a n
ac til'ities, threaten s to strengt he n so m e ind ustries'a nlle' expeiisebfolhe"r"s.
Erll'ironmenta l e ng ineers are com mitt ed to pro tec tin g huma ns fr om th e t hrea ts
a po lluted environment pose to human health. aesthetic :lnd cultural e njoy m ent,
;Ind eco no mi c we ll-bei ng.
1-4 IMPROV EM ENT OF ENVIRONM EN T AL Q UA LITY
Vitall y co ncern ed with the improve ment o f environmental qua lit y, the el1\'iro n-
m e nt:." engineer p la ys a n impo rta nt" ro le in environmen tal mana ge m ent progra ms.
Such programs might be sa id to inl'olve tllO distinct aspec ts -en vi ronme ntal
s trat eg ies and e Jlvir o nm enta l ta c ti cs. [I-IJ LlIlim lllll e/1(o/ sr rl/r cqics are co mp l'e-
hensil'e pl ans tha t usua ll y address a va ri ety o f prob le ms that co nfront a sing le a rea .
T y pica l'elll'iro nm e nl a l strate g ies might be a prugram to IInpn l\e the qualit y of
Lak e Erie. to im p rove the ai r quality of the Los Ang e les basin. or to collect a nd
p ro pe rly iJispose of tlie so li d W;lste fr o m th e c it y of Philad elphia,
Enl'ironmental strategies are lI sua lly worked O UI in public and political
~ l r e n" s, Cl) nsid era ti o ll s mu s t inc lu d e economic. s(lcia l. and demograph ic fa c to rs.
II ist<,ric;I1h. elll'ironJllental CIli!lnee rs ha\'e Iwt l'I:lycd ;1 highh visible ru le In
IN TRODUCTIqN 7
devising environmental st ra teg ies. Neve rthe less, the en viro n me nt a l eng inee r
sho ul d be an imp o rtan t member of a ma nageme nt team th a t incl ud es perso n s
drawn from a wide va riety of disc iplines. The input o f the en viro nment a l eng ineer,
especia ll y in assessing the li ke ly respo nse of the en viro nment to vari o us levels o f
co nt amin a nt load ing a nd in we ig hin g th e va ri o us tec hnica l soluti o ns that m a y be
proposed, is a necessa r y co mpo nent o f a ny en viro nmenia l stra tegy.
En viro n me nt a l engineers are usua lly m o re d irectl y associa ted w ith the imple.- .
menta ti o n of the ellvironmenra/caclics tha t a re th e m ea ns fo r ach ievin g the g o a ls
se t forth in a s pecific portion o f a given en vi ro n ment a l stra tegy. T he engineer 's
par t in thi s imp leme nt a ti o n co ns is ts pr ima rily o f th e d esign, co ns tru cti o n , and
o pe ra ti o n o f treat m e n t fac ilit ies fo r water, a ir, a nd so lid was te. F o r example, the
env iro nme nt a l en g ineer wo ul d be involved d irec tly in the a d d itio n o f te r ti a r y
processes to remove p hosp horus fro m t he effl uent o f a was tew a te r-trea tment
facility emptying into Lake E t ie. th e insta ll a tion o f a hydroca rbo n rem oval system
at a gaso line refine ry ~ys t em in Los Ange les. o r th e d esign o f a so lid -w aste pro-
cess ing pla nt In Phi lade lp h ia .
1-5 THE ROL E OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER
;\S po lluta nts en ter a ir, wa te r, o r so il, na tural p rocesses such as diluti o n, biolo gica l
co n vers io ns, a nd c hemica l reac tio ns convert was te m a teri a l to m o re acceptable
fo rms a nd d isperse t he m thro ugh a large r vo lume. Yet th ose na tura l processes
ca n no 1'.1 nger perfo rm the c leanup alo ne. T he trea tme nt fac ilities d es ig ned by the
e n viro nmenta l engineer are ba sed o n the princip les of se lf-cleansing obser ved in
. nattl re.'.~ lIt. t he enKi.n(:e.re.d pr 9<;:.e$$e~ a tnplify a nd op tim ize the o per a ti o ns o bser ved
in na ture to hand le large r vo lu mes o f po lluta nts a nd to trea t th em m o re ra pidly.
Engineers adapt the prin c ip les o f na tural mecha nis ms to eng in ee red sys tems fo r
po ll u ti o n co nt ro l w hen th ey constru ct ta ll stack s to di sperse a nd di lute air
po llutan ts, des ign biologica l treatmen t fac il ities for th e remova l of o rgani cs
from was tewa te r. use che mica ls to ox id ize a nd precipita te ou t the iro n a nd
manga nese in drinki ng-wa te r s u pplies, or bur y so lid wastes in co ntr o lled la ndfill
o pera tions.
Occasio na ll y, th e e n viro n men ta l enginee r m ust d esig n to reve rse o r co untera ct
na tura l processes. For examp le, the containers used fo r d isposa l o f haza rdo us
was tes such as to xic chemica ls and radioac ti ve m ate ri a ls mus t iso la te th ose
m a terials from the en vi ro n men t in o rder to p reven t th e onse t of the n a tura l, b ut
hi g hly u ndesirab le. processes of d ilut io n a nd d ispers io n.
As will be de m o nstr a ted thr o ugho ut this' tex t, a n und e rs ta nd ing o f na tural
an q engineered. purifica ti o n processes. requ ires an understand ing of th e bio logical
and chemica l react io ns invo lved in these processes. T hus, in addi tion to bem g
know ledgeab le in the ma th em a tica l, physica l, a nd en gi nee rin g sCiences, . the
envi ro nmenta l e nginee r mus t a lso be we ll grounded in th e subject areas o f c hemist r y
a nd microbio logy. s ubject a reas no t usua ll y emp hasized in eng inee rl1l g c urncul a .
Indeed . an und erstanding of bio logica l and c hem ica l pri nciples is as esse ntt a l to
 8 INTRODUCTION

the environmental engineer as the understanding of statics and strength of materials PART
is to the structural engineer.
The environmental engineer's unique role is to build a bridge between biology
and technology by applying all the techniques made available by modern engineer-
ing technology to the job of cleaning up the debris left in the wake of an indis-
criminate use of that technoiogy. The delicare balance of our biosphere has
ONE
been disturbed. and the state in which we now find ourselves is a direct consequence
of our having ignored the limits of the earth's ability to overcome heavy pollution
loads, and of our having been ignorant of the. constraints imposed by the limits of WATER
the self-cleansing mechanisms of our biosphere.
A keen awareness of these natural constraints plays an important role in the
work of environmental engineers. For example, the laws of conservation of mass
and energy prevent the destruction of pollutants. and the engineer is bound by
these limits. The principles of waste treatment must therefore be to convert
the objectionable material to other, less objectionable forms: to disperse the pol-
lutants so that their concentrations are minimal: or to concentrate them for
isolation from the environment.
In all instances, the end products of the treatment of polluted water or air
or of the disposal of solid wastes must be compatible with the existing ~ nviron
ment.al resources and must not overtax the assimilative powers of hydrosphere.
atmosphere, or lithosphere. In structural engineering. the engineer can simply
specify a larger or stronger beam to carry a heavier load. The environmental
engineer, on the other hand, must accept the carrying capacity of a stream, an
airshed, or a landmass because these can seldom be changed.
It is the purpose of this text to demonstrate how the environmental engineer,
working within these constraints, uses all available technological tools to design
.-... efficient control and treatment devices that are molleled after the natural processes
...... '(hili hit'ye' so 'fbrig' p'r'eservec! olii b{cisphe~e. 'Fo;'o~iy' 'by' b'r'i~gi~it'~~il~~l~gy';~t~ ' .'.
harmony with the natural environment can the engineer hope to achieve t he goals
of the profession-the; protection of the environment from the potentially del-
eterious effects of human activity, the protection of human populations from the
.-.\
elTects of adverse environmental factors. and the improvement of environmental
quality for human health and well-being.

REFERENCES

11 Bella , D. A., and W. S. OvenoJl' "Environmental Planning and Ecological Possibilities," pre
sented at the annual national environmental engineering meetlf1g of ASCE, St. Louis. M o .
October 18- 22. 1971.
1-2 "Guidelines for Environmental Engineering Visitors on ECPD Accreditation Tean'!s," Engineers
Council for Proli::ssional.oevelopment. United Enginee ring Cellt er, 34-5 East 47111 St.'-New York .
October 1977.
 CHAPTER

TWO
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS,
CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES

The availability" of a water supply adequate in terms of both quantity and quality
is essential to human existence. Early people recognized the importance of water
from a q uanti ty viewpoint. Civ il ization developed around water bodies that could
support agriculture and transportation as well as provide drinking water. Recog-
nition of the importance of water qua lity developed more slowly. Early humans
cou ld judge water qua lity only through the physical senses of sight, taste, and smell.
Not until the biological, chemical, and medical sciences developed were methods
available to measure water quality and to determine its effects on human health
and well-being. . ~
It was not until the mid-nineteentrrcentUTy-rhatthe relationship between'hmmrn ..... . .... ~ .
waste, drinking water. and disease was documented. Several more years intervened
before the facts concerning this relationship became widely accepted and remedial
action was taken. In .1854,* Dr. John Snow, a public-health worker in 'London,
noted a high correlation between cholera cases and consumption of water from a
well on Broad Street. Noi only was cholera running rampant.in the nelgh~orhood
around the well, but outbreaks of the disease in other parts of the city could be
traced to indiv idua ls who had had occasion to drink from the Broad Street well.::
Although the proof was conclusive by modern epidemiology standards, the evidence
was not accepted by Snow's contemporaries. It is alleged that he physically
removed the pump handle to prevent LIse of the contaminated water. thus abating
the epidemic. [2'-2IJ
Advances in the germ theory of disease were made by Pasteur and others in
the lafe nineteenth century, and by 190.0 the concept of waterborne disease was
well accepted. The development of the science of water chemistry roughly paralleled
that of ivater microhiology Many of the chemic~1s used in industrial processes

*- Th i~. da le i... li sted as 18"",9 ill $u m~ publi c ati o ll ~

II
 WATE R QUA LI TY : IJEF IN ITIONS . C HARA CTER ISTICS, AND PERSP ECT IVES 13
11 WATER
Atm os ph e re
and agriculture ha ve been identified in wat e r. H owever, th e effor t to id entify
.(her chemical' compounds which may already be fo und in trace qu a ntities in
many wa ter supplies and (6 delermirietheir effect b ti huma n hea lth was onl y
~ cently begun . It is likely tha t new analytica l techniques will b e de ve lo p ed th a t
~ill identify compounds not yet known to exist in water, and it is co ncei va ble th a t Condensation

-lese materials will also be linked to human health . Thus, the science o f wa ter '
quality will rem a in a ch a llenge for engineers a nd scientists fo r yea rs to co me.
Lik e all sciences, the science o f wa ter qu a lit y h as develo p ed it s ow n t ermin o logy
and the means of quantifying these terms. The purpose of this cha pt er is to intro -
d.uce the read er to the modern co n cepts o f water qu a lity. The mea ns b y w hi c h th e
. ature and extent of contaminants in wate r a re me as ured a nd ex pressed a re'
Qresented alon g with th e so urces of vari o us co nt a min a nt s that find th e ir way int o
Earth 's
.: aler. An understanding of the m a terial in thi s cha pter will b e essenti a l in su b- surface
~equent chapters dealing with water-quality cha nges in b o th n a tur a l and eng inee red
.}s tems.

_-1 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND WATER QUALITY

-Water is o ne o f the m ost a bund a nt co mp o und s fo un d in na ture, cove rin g a pprox i-

-- ;
u

;;=l
,n a tely three-fourths o f the surface o f the ea rth . In spite o f thi s a pparent ab un d an ce, Aquifer< o
...s;evera l fac tors serve t o limit th e a m o unt of wa ter a va ila ble fo r human use. As
~ J1own in T a ble 2-1 , over 97 pe rcent o f the to ta l wa te r suppl y is co nt a ined in th e ~
100/, 011
..Qcea ns and other saline b o di es of wa ter a nd is n o t readil y usa ble fo r m os t purp oses.
)f the rem a ining 3 p e. cent, a little o ver 2 percent is ti ed up in ice ca ps a nd g lac ie rs Fi gll rl' 2- 1 H ;.dro log1 c cycle
~nd , alon g with atrp o spheric and soil moisture, is inaccess ible. [ 2- 17J Thu s. fo r
:, e ir ge neral li velih ood a nd the suppo rt o f th e ir va ried technical a nd ag ri c ultur a l
activities, hum an s must depend up o n the rema ining 0.62 percent fo und in fr es h- Wate r is ina COllst an t sta te of mot io n. as depic ted in t he h yd ro logic cyc le s h ow n
-"ater lak es, ri ve rs, and g ro undwa ter supplies. in Fig. 2- 1. Atmosph e ric \Ia ter condenses and fall s to th e ea rt h a s ra in. snow. o r
so me othe r form of rrec ipita tio n. On ce o n t he ear th 's surface. wate r flOW S into
-:-T able 2-1 World wate r distribution strea ms, lakes. and eV'e ntu a lI y th e oceans. or rer co lates th ro u gh t he so il and into
VoJume. 10 ' 2 m '
aLJu ifer s t ha t eventua ll y disc harge int o s u rface wa te rs. T h ro ug h evaporat ion
Locati o n
fr o m surfa ce waters or by evapotran sriration from p lants. wate r mo lecu les return
La nd areas to the a t mosrh e re tll repea l the cyc le . Although th e move me nt t hr o ug h so me p a rts
Fresh wa ter ta kes 125 0.009 of the cyc le may be re la ti ve ly rar id . comr lete recyc ling o f g rou ndwa ter mu st o fte n
Sa line lakes a nd i nland seas '104 0.008
be measu red in gco logic ti me.
Ri vers (ave rage insta nt aneo us vo lume) 125 0.000 1
67 0.005 Wat e r in n ature is most nedriy pure in its ev aporation stat e. Beca use the ve r y
act of co nd e nsa tion usua ll y requires a surface. o r nucle i. wate r ma y aCLJuir~
So il moist ure
G roundwater (above dept h o r 4000 m ) 8,350 0.6 t
Ice ca ps a nd glac iers 29,200 2. 14 imp uri ti es ~I t the VC I'Y mo ment of co nde nsa li o n. Ad dit io n a l im pu rit ies are'added
37,800 2.8 as th e liqu id w; lt e r t ravels t hrou g h Ihe rema ind e r of t he hvdrolof!.ic cvcle and comes
int o co n tac t w it h m ate ri a ls 'in the ~ti r a nd on o r henea til th e s~lrra~e of the ea rr 'h
Total land a rea (rounded)
~!\ tm os ph ere (wa ter VO pM) 13 0.00 1
H uman ac ti vi til:s contr ib ute furthcr Impurittes In the fo rm of indu st rial a nd d o-
Ocea ns 1. 320,000 97.3
mes ti c w; lstes. ag l'icu ltu ra l chemica ls. a nd <l t her. less obv ious co n ta mi nan ts.
-To ta l all iL'ca tlon s trc'unded) 1.360.000 100 Ultimately. these ImJlure wa ters will Co tllr lete the hyd ro logic cycle and re t ur n to
the ,lltll os phc rc ;,s re lalll'ely rure water 1l1()i<:cu ies. H owever. it IS w,ltcr q ual itv
So urce : Ad a rt ed fr,)]l1 T lxld . 12- t 7J

14 WATER
Di sso lved Collo ida l Suspend ed or non fiil e r"ble
Size of particl e. 11m
10 - 2 10 - 1 10 100
I I ! I
iO - 8 10 - 1
Size of p"rtici e, mm
Figure 2-2 Size cl.ssification of solids in wa ler. (Fr oln ;V/e !calj & Eddy , In c. [l-R].)
in th e int ermed iate s tage which is of grea test co ncern becau se it is tIle qu a lit y at
this stage th at will affec t human use of the water.
The impurities acc umulated by wa ter throughout the hydro log ic cycle and as a
result of human ac ti vities may be in both suspended and disso lved fe rm. Suspend ed
mat erial co nsists of particles larger than molecular size th at are suppor ted by
bu oya nl and visco us fo rces within the water. Disso lved material consists of
mo lecu les o r io ns (see Sec. 2-7) that are he ld by the molecular stru cture of wa ter.
Co ll oid s are vei- y sma ll particles that tec hnica ll y are suspend ed but oft en ex hibit
man y of the cha rac ter isti cs of disso lved substa nces. Size ran ges of di sso lved,
co llo idaL a nd suspended substances are shown in Fig. 2-2.
Wal eI' pulluriol1 ma y be defined as the presence in wa ter of impurities in
such quantity and of such nature as to impair the use of the wa ter for a stat ed
purpose. Thu s the definition of water qua lit y is predicted on the int ended use of
the water , and a gross det erminati o n o r the qu antit y of suspended and d isso lved
impuriti es. whi le useful III some cases, is no t sufficient to co mpletely define water
qua lit v. Man v pa rameters have evo lved that qualitativelv reflect the impact
tha t v~ri6usi;n pti i-i ii'es .have onseIectec! ',y',iter .Ll ses.- An ~I I Y tic,i i -p~oc~(i ~;~~~' h~ ;~" -
. " .. .... ". objecii() nable by-products. Bio logically active (live) sllspended solids may include
been deve loped th at quantitatively measure these para meters. Standard ;'v1 elhods
/01' Ih e Examinaliol1 of WaleI' and Wa sl ew(J( er. [2- I SJ has been the auth orita ti ve
stand ard for test procedures fo r many yea rs. For detailed cove rage of the subject
. the interested reader is referred to thi s' publica tion and to an Enviro nmental
. Protectio n Age ncy publica ti on that offers sim ila r informatio n. [2-9J
A kn owledge of the pa rameters most commo nl y associated wi th wa ter- and
wast ewa ter-treatment processes is esse nti a l to th e en vironmental engineer.
The remai nd er of this chapter will be devoted to a disc ll ss ion of param eters used
to assess th e ph ys ical. chemica l. and bio log ica l charac teristics of wa ter. T estin g
procedures described for each parameter are based on those desc ribed in Stal/dard
,V /di wris [2- 15J
- of about 180C is necessa ry to evaporate the occl uded wa ter.
Physical Water-Quality Parameters
Ph ys ica I para meterS define t hDse cha racterist ics of \\'ater t ha t respond to t he senses
of sig ht. t(luc ll. ta ste. or sme ll. Suspend ed so lids. lurbiclity. co lol-. taste an d odor.
;Ind temperatu re fall int o thi s ca tego ry.
WA TER QUA LIT Y: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTI CS, AND PERSPECTIVES 15
2-2 SUSPENDED SOLIDS
As noted ea rli er, so lid s can be dispersed in water in both suspended and dissolved ..
forms. Althou gh some dissolved so lids may be perceived by the physical senses,
they fall more appropriately under the ca tegory of chemica l parameters and will
be di scussed more fully in a later section.
Sources
So lid s suspended in water may consist of inorganic o r organic particles or of
im misc ible liquids. In organic so lids such as clay, silt, and o ther soil constituents are
co mm on in surface water. Organic material such as plant fibers and biological
so lid s (a lga l ce lls, bac teria, etc.) are also common constituents of surface waters.
These materials are often nat ural contaminants resulting from the erosive action
of wa ter fl ow in g over surfaces. Because offne filtering capacity of the soil, suspended
material is seld o m a co nstituent of groundwater.
Other suspe nd ed material ma y result from hum an lise of the water. Domes tic
wastewa ter usua lly contai ns large quantities of suspended so lids th at are mostly
organic in nature. Industrial use of water may result in a wide variety of suspended
impurities of either orga nic or inorganic nature. Imm'iscible liquids such as oils
and greases are often constituents of wastewater.
Impa cts
Suspended materi al may be objectionab le in water fo r severa l reasons. It is
aesthet ica ll y di spleasing and provides adsorpt ion sites for chemical and biological
agent s. Suspended organic so li ds ma y be degraded biologica lly, resulting in
di sease-ca usin g orga ni sms as well as orga ni sms such as tox,in-producing strain s of
a lgae.
iVI easurement
Th ere are seve ral tests avai lable for measuring so lid s. Most are gravimetric 'tests
in vo lving the ma ss of resid ues. The total solids t esc quantifies all the solids in the
water. suspend ed and disso lved, orga nic and inorgan ic. Thi s parameter is measured
by eva porating a samp le to dryness and weighing the residue. The 'total quantity
of residue is exp ressed as milligrams per liter (mgj L) o n a dry-mass-of-solid s
basis. A drying temperature sligh tl y above boiling (I04 c C) is sufficient to drive off
t he liquid and the water ad so rbed to the sllrface of the particles, wh ile a temperature
. Mos t suspended so lids can be remo ved from water by filtration . Thus, the
suspended fraction of the so lid s in a water samp le can be app rox im ated by filt er-
ill [! th e wa ler, drying the residue and filler to a constant wei ght at 104C ( l C).
~ llId Lieterminillg the ma ss of th e residue retained on the filter. The result s of this
O/l SIJ,,"i/ei/ soliris II:'SC are also expressed as dry mass per vo lume (mil ligramsper
 16 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 17

liter). The amount of dissolved solids passing through the filters, also expressed as Use
milligrams per liter, is the difference between the total-solids and suspended-
Suspended solids, where such material is likely to be organic and/or biological
solids content of a water sample.
in nature, are an important parameter of wastewater. The suspended-solids
It should be emphasized that filtration of a water sample does not exactly
parameter is used to measure the quality of the wastewater influent, to monitor
divide the solids into suspended and dissolved fractions according to the definitions
several treatment processes, and to measure the quality of the effluent. EPA has
p~esented ~arlier. Some colloids may pass through the filter and be measured along
set a maximum suspended-solids standard of 30 mg/L for most treated waste-
With the dIssolved fraction while some of the dissolved solids adsorb to the filter
water discharges.
material. The extent to which this occurs depends on the size and nature of the
solids and on the pore size and surface characteristics of the filter material. For
this reason, the termsfilterable residiles and Iloll{ilrerable residues are often used.
2-3 TURBIDITY
Filterable residues pass through the filter along with the water and relate more
closely to dissolved solids, while nonfilterable residues are retained on the filter
A direct measurement of suspended solids is not usually performed on samples
and relate more closely to suspended solids. "Filterable residues ,. and" non-
from natural bodies of water or on potable (drinkable) water supplies. The nature
filterable residues" are terms more frequently used in laboratory analysis while
of the solids in these waters and the secondary effects they produce are more
the" dissolved solids" and "suspended solids" are terms more frequently used in
important than the actual quantity. For such waters a test for turbidity is com-
water-quality-management practice. For most practical applications, the distinc-
monly used.
tion between the two is not necessary.
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered
Once samples have been dried and measured, the organic content of bot h total
by suspended material in water. Because absorption and scattering are influenced
and suspended solids can be determined by firing the residues at 600C for J h.
by both size and surface characteristics of the suspended material, turbidity is
The organic fraction of the residues will be converted to carbon dioxide, water
not a direct quantitative measurement of suspended solids. For example, one
vapor, and other gases and will escape. The remaining material will represent the
small pebble in a glass of water would produce virtually no turbidity. If this
JJ1orgamc, or fixed. residue. When organic suspended solids are being measured ,
pebble were crushed into thousands of particles of colloidal size, a measurable
a filter made of glass fiber or some other material that will not decompose at the
turbidity would result, even thoughthe mass of solids had not changed.
elevated temperature must be used. The following example illustrates the calcula-
tions involved in suspended solids analysis.
Sources
.. ~ .... " ..... ~?,.a~p!~ .2: I .:. pt;t.er!l)!I,l!ng. ~~~. ~.Qn~.enlmtiQ/1 . .o( sllSpended . solids :. A filter.able resid ue
Most turbioity in surface waters results from the erosion of colloidal material
analysis is run on a sample or water as rollows. Prior to filtering, the crucible and filter
such as clay, silt, rock fragments. and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable fibers
pad are kept overnight in Ihe drying oven. cooled. and the dry mass (tare mass) or the
pair determ1l1ed to be 54.352 g. Two hundred and fifty milliliters or the sample is drawII and microorganisms may also contribute to turbidity. Household and industrial
through a hlter pad contained in the porous-bottom crucible. The crucible and filter pad wastewaters ma y contain a wide variet y of turbidity-producing material. Soaps,
are then placed 111 a drY1l1g oven at 104(, and dried untit a conSlant mass of 54.389 g is cietergents. and emulsifying agents produce stable colloids that result in turbidity.
reached. Determ1l1e the suspended solids concentration of Ihe sample. Although turbidity llle<ISttrCme nts are not .commonly run on wastewater. diS-
SOLUTION charges of wastewaters may. ilicrease the turbidity of natural bodies of water. .
I. Determine the mass of solids removed.
Tare mass + solids = 5-1.3S9 g Impacts
- Tare mass = 54.352 g
When turbid water in a small. transparent container, such as a drinking glass.
Mass of solids = 0.037 g is helel up to the light. an aestheticallydispleasing opaqueness or "milky" colora-
.= 37 mg tion is J.pp:lrent. The col1oiLialm<lterial a ssocia ted with turbidit y provides adsorp-
2. Determine the concentration of the solids. tion sites for chemicals that Illay be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odors
ano for biological organisms that mav be harmfuL Disinfection of turbid wa ters
is diffi c ult because o f the adsorptive cll~iracterislics of some colloids and because
mg solids x 1000 mL!L
-~--.---- .-.- = conc in mg L
I11L of sample . th e solids Illay partiall y shield organisms fr o m the disinfectant.
37 x 1000 In natural water bodies. turbidity may impart a brown or other color to wetter.
...- - - - . - = 148 l11 o :L
e
250 depending o n the light-absurhing prope rti es of the so lids. and may interfere with
18 WATER
li g ht pe netra ti o n and photosy nthetic reacti o ns in strea ms a nd la kes. Accumula-
tion o f turbidity-cau sing particles in po ro us streambeds res ult s in sediment de-
pos its th at ca n ad ve rsel y affect the fl o ra and faun a of the s tream.
Measurement
Turbidit y is measured pho to metrica ll y by determining th e percentage of light of a
given intens it y that is either absorbed o r scattered . The o rig inal meas urin g
a ppara tus, ca lled a J ackson ltIrbidim eler. was based on light abso rpti on and
employed a long tube and standardi zed candle. The candle was placed beneath
the g lass tube that was th en housed in a b lack metal s hea th so that th e light fr o m
the candle cou ld only be see n from above the apparatus. The wa ter sa mple was
th en p ou red s low ly into the tube until the lig ht ed candl e was no longe r vis ible,
i.e., complete absorp ti on had occurred. Theg la ss tube was calibrated with readings
fo r turbidity produced by s uspen s ions o f silica dioxid e (Si O l ), with o ne Jackson
turbidity unit (JTU) being eq ual to th e turbidit y produ ced by I mg Si0 2 in I L o r
dis tilled water.
In recent years this awkward ap pa ratus has been re placed by a turbidit y
meter in which a standardized electric bulb produces a light that is th en direc ted
through a sma ll sample via l. In the absorption m ode, a photometer meas ures th e
li gh t intens it y o n the s ide of the vial opposite from the lig ht so urce, w hile in the
sca tterin g mode, a photometer measures th e li g ht inten s it y a t a 90 c an g le fro m th e
lig ht source. Alth o ugh most turbidity me te rs in use today wo rk o n th e sca tt e rin g
principl e, turbidit y cau sed by dark s ubsta nces th ilt absorb ra th e r than rerlect
li gh t s ho uld be meas ured by the absorption technique, h)rmazin. a c hemical
compound , provides m o re re produc ible' sta nd ards th a n S iO 2 a nd has rep laced it
as a refe rence. Turbidity meter readin gs a re now expressed as /ormm ill lIIrhidit y
lIliits. or FTU s. Th e te rm nephelometry IUrbiditr Llllits (NTU) is o ft e n used to
indicate th a t the test was ru 'n accordi ng to Ih e sc alte rin g pr inci ple ,
Usc
Turbidit y meas ur ement s are norma ll y mad e' o n "c lea n " waters as op posed to
wastewaters. Na tur a l wa ters ma y ha ve tUI'bid ili es ran ging fro m a few FT Us to
seve ral hundred . EPA drinking-waleI' s tand a rd s specify " m~p;i!llulll o f I FTU .
while th e American W a ter W o rk s Assoc iati o n has SCi 0.1 FT L! as it s goal for
drink ing water. [ 2- 1]
2-4 COLOR
Pure wa te r is co lo rl ess. but water in nature is often eoki red by foreig n s ubsta nces.
Water w hose co lo r is part ly du e to s uspe nd ed maltcr is sa id 10 have lI{J{'(/rcnt color
Co lo r co ntributed by disso lved so lid s th ai rema lll aha 1"C lllll\';li o f suspended
mailer is kn ow n as lrue color.
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 19
Sources
After contact with orga ni c debris such as leaves, conifer needles, we~ds, or wood,
water pick s up tannins. humic acid, and humatesand takes on yellowish-brown
hues. Iron oxides cause reddish water, and manganese oxides cause brown or
blackish water. Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, pulp and
paper production, food processing, chemical production, and mining, refining,
and slaughterho use operations may add su bstantial coloration to water in re-
ceiving streams.
Impacts
Colo red water is not aes thetica lly acceptable to the general public. In fact, given a
c hoice consumers tend to choose clear. nonco lo red water of otherwise poorer
qu a lit; -o~et trea ted potable water supp'lies with an objectionable color. Highly
co lored water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, papermaking, beverage
manufacturi ng, dairy prodlJcti o n and other food processing, and textile and
plas li e pro duction. Thus, the color of water affects its marketability fo r both do-
mesti c and indu strial use.
While true co lor is not usually considered unsanitary or unsafe, the organic
co mpounds cau sing true color may exert a chlorine demand and thereby seriously
red uce the e ffe c tiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant. Perhaps more important are
the produc ts fo rmed by the combination of chlorine with so me color-producing
o rganics. Pheno lic compounds, common constituents of vegetative decay products, .
prod uce ve ry o bjecliql)<ible. taste and.od.of, ~.ornP'ou.nds. \vit~. chlor.i l1 e: .A.~~)t\~)["!<;i,IJy." .. . , .. .. . ... .
so me compo;ind's of naturally occurring organic acids and chlorine are either
kn ow n to be. o r a re suspected of being. carcinogens (cancer-causing agents).
. Measurement
Although severa l method s of COIOf measurement are available, methods involvin~
co mparison with standardi zed co lored materials are most o ften used. Color:
comparison lubes containing a se ries of sta ndards may be used for direct com-
pariso n or water samples that have been filtered to remove appa rent color. Results
are expressed in true color units (TCUs) where one unit is equivalent to the color
produced by I mgj L of platinum in the form of chlorplatinate ions. For colors
o ther Ihan ye ll ow is h-brow n hues. especially for colored waters originating from
indu strial was te effi uents, special spec trophotom~ trjc tech niques are usually
. emp loyed.
In fieldwork . instruments employing colorcd glass disks that are calibrated
to t he color slandards are o ften used . Because biological and physical changes
uccllrri ng during storage may affec t color. samp les s hould be tested within 72 h
of co ll ec t ion.
 20 WATER \VATER QUALITY : DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTI CS, AND PERSPECTIVES 21

Use ' Measurement

-,
Color is not a parameter usually included in wastewater analysis. In potable Direct measurement of materials that produce tastes and odors can be made if the
water analysis; the common practice is to measure only the true color produced cau sative agents are known. Several types of analysis are available for measuring
by organic acid resulting from decaying vegetation in the water. The resulting taste-producing inorganics. Measurement of taste- and odor-causing organics
value can be taken as an indirect measurement of humic substances in the water. can be made using gas or liquid chromatography. Because chromatographic
analysis is time-consuming and requires expensive equipment, it is not routinely
perfo rmed on wat er samples. but sho uld be done if problem organics are suspected.
H o we ver. becau se o f the synergism noted earlier, quantifying the sources does not
2-5 TASTE AND ODOR
necessarily quantify the nature o r Intensity of taste and odor.
Quantitative tests that employ the human senses of taste and smell can be
The terms taste and odor are themselves ,definitive of this parameter. Because the used for this purpose. An example is the test for the threshold odor number (TON).
sensations of taste and smell are closely related and often confused, a wide variety Varying amounts of odorous water are poured into containers and diluted with
of tastes and odors may be attributed to water by consumers. Substances that enough odor-free distilled water to make a 200-mL mixture. An assembled panel
produce an odor in water will almost invariably imparLa..taste as well. The con- of fi ve to ten " noses" is used to determine the mixture in which the odor is just
verse is not true, as there are many mineral substances that produce taste but no barely detectable to t he sense of smell. The TON of that sample is then calculated,
odor. using the formula
A + B
Sources TON (2-1 )
A
Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human wh ere A is the volume of odorou s water (mL) and B is the volume of odor-free
use may impart perceptible taste and odor. These include minerals, metals, and water required to produce a 200-m L mixture. Threshold odor numbers correspond-
salts from the soil, end products from biological reactions, and constituents of in g to variolls sample volumes are shown in Table 2-2. A similar test can be used to
wastewater. Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes unaccompanied quantify taste, or the panel can simply rate the water qualitatively on an "accept-
by odor. Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water. while metallic salts abilit y " scale .
may give a salty or bitter taste.
Organic material, on the other hand, is likely to produce both taste.and.odor,. .... .. .. ..... ..... .
A multitude of organic ch-emicals may cause taste and odor problems in water, Table 2-2 Threshold odor
with .petroleum-based products being prime offenders. Biological decomposition numbers corresponding 10
of organics may also result in taste- and odor-producing liquids and gases in water. sample "olume dilul~d to
Principal among these are the reduced products of sulfLlr that impart a " ro tten .200 mL
egg" taste and odor. Also. certain species ~f algae secr~te 'an oily substance that
Sa mpfe vo lume (A),
may result in both taste and odor. The comb,ination.of two or more substances, mL TON
neither of which would produce taste or odor by itself, may sometimes result in
taste and odor problems. This synergistic effect was noted earlier in t he case of 200 1.0
organics and chlorine. 175 I I
150 U
125 1.6
100 2. 0
Impacts 75 2.7
67 3.0
Consumers find taste and odor aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons,
50 4 .D
Because water is tliought of as tasteless and odorless, the consumer associates ,, 0 5.0
taste and odor with cont"amination and may prefer to' use a tasteless. odorless 25 8.0
water that might actually pose more of a health threat. And odors produced by 10 20.0
organic substances may pose more than a problem of simple aesthetics. since some 2 100
of those substances may be carcinogenic. 200
---+--- - ---_..
 22 WATER
Use
Alth o ugh odo rs can be a problem with wastewater. the taste and odor parameter
is on ly associated with potable water. EPA does not have a maximum standard
for TON . A m ax imum TON of 3 has been recommend ed by the Public H ea lth
Service a nd se rvesas a gu id e lin e rather th an a lega l standa rd. [2- lgJ
2-6 TEMPERATURE
Te mpe rature is not used to e va lu a te direc tl y either potable wa te r or was tewa te r.
It is_ however, o ne of the mos t importa nt p arame te rs in na tura l surface-wa ter
systems. The temperature o f surface wate rs governs to a large extent the biological
s pecies present a nd their ra tes of activ it y. T empe rature has a n effec t on most
chemical reactions th a t occur in natural wa ter systems. Temperature a lso has a
pronounced effect on the so lubilities of gases in wa ter.
Sources
The temperature o f natural wa ter sys tems responds to many fac to rs. th e ambie nt
temperature (temperature o f the surro unding atmosphere) being th e m os t un i-
ve rsa l. Generally, shallow bodies of wa ter are more affected by ambie nt temp era-
tures than a re deeper bodies. The use of water fo r di ssipa ti on of was te heat in
indu stry and the subsequ e nt discharge of th e heated water may result in dramatic.
th oug h perhaps loca lized. temperature change~ m receiving streams. Removal of
forest ca no pi es and irri gat io n return flows can also res ult in increased stream
.. . .. . ..... .. ... te mp'enitllte: ......... . - ..... .... . . . . .
I rnpacts
Coo ler wate rs lisu,tll y have a wide r d i\'ersity ofh io lllglc; iI s pecies. At lower tempera-
tures. th e rate of biological ac ti vity. i.e .. utiliza t io n of fo od s upp li es. growth.
reproduction. etc.. is s lower. If the temperature is inneased. biolog ica l act ivit y
increases. An increase of loce is usuallv s ufficient to doub le the biological acti v it y,
ifesse ntial nutrients are present. At elcv:lted tempcratllres anti increa sed metabolic
rates. urga nisms that are more eflicicnt at rood IItilizatl n n and reproduction
rlouflsh. while llthe r species decli'ne and ,Ire pC,rhaps e limin ,lteci a lt ogether.
Accelera ted growth of a lgae often occurs in \\arm \\a;tcr ;llld can becoille a problem
when ce l" cluster into algae Illat s. Natural secretl(lIl o f pils by ,i1 gJe 111 the mat s
and the decay pr oducts o f dcad a lgae ce ll s Cdll n:sllit ill la sle and odor pl'oblem s,
Higher-order species: s uch as fi sh. arc ,dkclCd dram;llica ll y by Icmper,i ture a nd
by dissolved oxygen le ve ls. which a rc ;( , rll l~ ctl(ln o r tcmperatmc. Game fi s h
ge nera ll y requ ire co o ler temperatures ;Incl 11I1,!hcr dl sso l\e Ll -\lxygell le vels.
T e mpera ture c hanges a lTec t the rc,lctioll rates ami so lubilit y le ve ls of chemicals.
a s ubj eci more fu ll y exp lored ill later s e c tlnn ~ (l r I hi ~, L'ilaptel. Mus t c hemical
WATER QUA LITY : DEFINITIONS, C HARA CTER ISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 23
reacti o ns in vo lving dissolution of so lids are accelerated by increased temperatures.
The so lubilit y of gases. o n the other hand , decreases at elevated temperatures.
Because bio log ica l ox idatio n o f o rganics in streams and impoundments ' is de~ "
pendent o n an adequate supply of dissolved oxygen, decrease in oxygen solubility
'-
is und esi rable. T he relationship between temperature a nd dissolved oxygen
levels is s hown in Table C-3 of the appendix.
Temperature also affect s other physical properties of water. The viscosity of
water increases with decreasing temperature. The maximum density of water
occ urs at 4C, and den sity decreases on either side of that temperature, a unique
phenomenon among liquids. Both temperature and density have a subtle effect
on plankto nic microorga nisms in natural water systems. The relationship of
temperature a nd density to st ratification of impoundments is discussed in Chap. 3.
Chemical Water-Quality Parameters
Water has been called the universal so lvent , and chemical parameters are related
to the so lvent capabilities of water. Total dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness,
fluorides, metals, organics. and nutrients are chemical p a rameters of concern in
water-quality management. The following review of some basic chemistry related
to solutions s ho uld be helpful in understanding subsequent discussions of chemical
par ameters.
2-7 CHEMISTRY OF SOLUTIONS
An atom is the sm a llest un it of each of the elements. Atoms are building blocks
from w hi ch molecules of elements and compounds are constructed. For instance,
tw o hydr oge n atoms combine to form a molecule of hydrogen gas:
H+ H --> H2
Adding one a tom of oxyge n to the hydroge n molecule results in one molecule
of the compound wa ter:
1-1 2 + 0 --> H 20
A relative mass has been assigned to a single atom of eac h element based on a
mass of 12 for carbo n. The s um o f the atomic m ass of all th e atoms in a molecule
IS the lIlu /cclila/' mass of that m o lec ule. The atomic mass of hydrogen is I arid the
. atomic mass of oxyge n is 16. Thus, the molecula r mass o f the hydrogen molecule is
2 a nd the mo lec u lar mass o f water is 18. A mole of an e lement or compound is its
molecular mass expressed in common mass units. usually grams. A mole of
hydrogen is 2 g, while a mole of wa ter is 1g g. One mole o f a substance dissolved
in suffi cien t wa ter to m a ke o ne liter of soluti o n is called a one molar solution .
Bonding of element s int o compounds is so metimes acco mplished by electrical
forces resultin g from tran sferred electrons. When these compounds dissociate
 24 WATER
WATE R Q UA LI TY: DEFINITIONS. CH ARA("TERI STI CS , A N D PERSPECT I VES 25

In water, th ey prod uce species with oppos ite c harges. An exa mple is sodium Eq ui va lents a re very impo rt a nt in wa ter c hemistr y. In additi on to being useful
chloride : in calc ul a tin g c he mi ca l qu a ntities for des ired reac ti o ns in wate r and was tewater
treatment, equ iva lents a lso prov id e a means o f express in g var iou s co ns titu ents o f
NaCI
di sso lved so li d s in a co mm o n term. An eq ui va lent o f o ne substance is c hemi ca ll y
The charged species a re ca lJed ions. Positively charged io ns a re ca lled cal ions, equa l to a n equi va lent of a ny o th e r substance. Therefore, th e co nce ntra ti o n o f
and negatively charged ions a re called anions. The number o f p osi tive charges sub sta nce A ca n be expressed a s a n equiva lent co nce nt ra ti o n o f s ubstra te B by th e
must equal the number of negative c harges to prese rve electrica l neutra lit y in a fo llow ing meth od .
chemical compound. The number o f charges o n an io n is referred to as the va lence
of th a t ion. Thus, the va lence o f sodium (Na +) is 1, w hile the va lence of calcium (g, L)A
- - - -- x (g/eq ui v) B = (gj L)A ex pressed as B (2-2)
(Ca 2 +) is 2. So me compounds, ca lled radicals , als o p ossesscha rges. An exa mple o f (gjeq ui v)A
a cationic radica l is a mm o nium (NH 4 +), wh ile carbo na te (CO) 2 - ) is a n a nioni c
Hi sto ric a ll y, co nstitu e nts o f d issol ved so lid s have been reported in te rms o f
radic a l.
equ iva leJll ca lc ium carbo na te co nce ntrations. The fo llowi ng exam ple illustrates
Wh en io ns or radic a ls react w ith eac h o th er to fo rm new compo und s, t he
thi s tec hniqu e.
reactions m ay not a lways proceed o n a o ne-t o -one bas is as was th e case fo r sodiu m
ch loride . The y do, however, proceed o n a n equi va lence basi s that can be 'related
Exa mpl e 2-3: Determinin g e'luiv a lenl co ncen lr a li ons What is the equi va le nl ca lcium
to electroneutrality. Technically, th e equivalence o f an element o r radi ca l is defi ned
car bo nale con ce ntratio n 0 1'( 0) I 17 mg/ L o fN aC I a nd (b) 2 x 10 - 3 m o l o fNa CJ ?
as th e number o f h ydrogen atoms th at e lem ent or radic a l ca n hold in combinati o n
or can replace in a reacti o n. In most cases, th e equivalen ce o f a n io n is the sa me as SOLUT ION
the abso lute va lue o f it s va lence. An eqllivalenl of a n e le ment o r rad ica l is it s g ram
(iI ) I , One equiva le nt o r ca lCi um ca rbona te is
molecula r mass di vided by it s equiva lence. A m illieq ui valent is th e mo lec ular
mass expressed in m illigrams d ivid ed b y the equ iva le nce a nd is o ften m o re 40 1- 12 + 3( I 0) "
useful in water c hemistry beca u se co nce ntr a ti o ns o f disso lved su bsta nces are mo re -- '---
2- ' = 50 g/eq uiv = 50.000 mg/ equl v = 50 mg/ mequlv
o ften in the milligrams per lit er range. Comp o und s are fo rmed by th e co mbin a ti on
of e lemen ts o r ra dic a ls o n a o ne-t o-o ne eq ui va lent basis. The ca lcul a ti o n o f equi va- 2. On e .equivalen t o f S(l(\ IlIl11 chloride is
lents is illustrated in Exa mple 2-2. 23 + 35.5
= 58,5 g/equlv = 5 .5 mg/ mequi v
Example 2-2 : Calculating equivalents H ow many grams o f calci um will be required to
. . . . . .... ... c o mbi'lie' w,ih'90'g'of carb<Jriiite'io fo rm'cid c ium' ca rbo na le?
3, By Eq , (2-2)
SOLUTI ON
11 7 mg!L .
l. Ca rbo na te (CO / - ) is a radica l composed o f carbon and oxygen. In thi s particula r - _- - - ' -,- x 50 mg/ mcqui v = 100 mg/ L o f NaCi as.CaCO ,
58,) mg/ mequlv
com bin a li o n. carbon has an a lomic m ass of 12 and a va lence of + 4. wh il e oxygen ha s
a n atomic m ass of 16 a nd a va lence o f - 2. Therefo re. th e radica l has a to tal valen ce of (il) I , One mo le o f a su bsl:ln cc di\ided by ils ;'a lence is o ne equ ivalent.
- 2 a nd an equivalence o f 2. One eq uiva len l o f carbo na-I e is
2 x 10 - .1 mo l/ L
12 + 3( 16) ..____ ..- - - - = 2 x 10 3 equi v/ L
- - - - = 30 g/ eq ui v I m o l/ equiv
2
2. The calcium Io n ha s an a to mic mass of 40 a nd a va lence o f + 2 , Ihe refore. o ne equ iva len t 2, Th us, 2 x 10 - .1 equi\ L x 50.GOO mg iequi v = 100 mg.' L
o f calcium is
40. Man y so lid su bs ta nces. particular ly th ose with crysta ll ine stru ctu re, io niz e
- = 20 g/ equi v
2 re adi ly in wat er. Wa ter m ayor ma y no t be a chel1) ical reac ta n t in th e process.
3. The number of eq lli valent s o r ~a lcium mu st eq ual the number of eq ui va lent s o f ca rbo n- I n Eq, (2-3), wa ter is a reactant. w hil e in Eq. (2- 4) it is not.
ale. th'ercfllre .
Ca O + H20 (2-3)
90 g .
..- ----- = 3 equ lv or carbo n ate
30 g; equiv NaC I + 11 /') (2- 4)
Thererore. 3 equi v x 20 g/ equiv = 60 g o f calc ium. a nd th a t amoun l w ill be required to
reac t wio h 90 g o f c'lr nl> na te. Wh en wat er is no t a reac t:lnl. it is c ust0m ar y to o mi t it fr om th e eq uati o n ,
 WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS , CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 27
26 WATER

If x is the I1ll1nhe r of moles of Mg2 + resulting from the disi;ociation . then OH - is

The double arrows in Eq. (2-4) indicate a reversible conditi o n. That is, the
equal to 2x . Therefore.
solid form (NaCl) may be dissociating into its io nic co mponents (dissolution), or
the ionic component s may be recombinin g int o the so lid fo rm (precipitatioll). [X][2XJ2 = 9 x 10 - 12
When the solid material is first contacted with water, the net reaction will be toward 4x J = 9 X 10.- 12
the ionic form. If a sufficient mass of solid is present. a condition of dynami c X = 1.3 x 10- 4 Illol/ L = Mg
equilibrium will be reached in which the rate of disso luti o n and the rate of pre- 2x = 2.6 x 10 - m o ljL = OH
cipitation will be exactly equal. At thi s pOint, the water is saturated with the
1.3 x 10 - 4 m o l/ L
dissolved species. 3. - - ----- - .- x 50..0.0.0.. mg!equiv = 13.0. mg,'L of Mg as CaCO J
Conditions of equilibrium can be expressed by the /"1I(/SS action equation. For ' 0..5 mol/equiv
the ge neralized reactio n 2.6 x 10 - 4 mol/ L
4. - - -- - -.- - x 50..0.0.0. mg/ equiv = 13.0. mg /L ofOH as CaC0 3
I mol/equlv '
A,Bv .\:A + vB
So lid compound lonie component s In addition to solid substances, many gases also dissolve in water. Elements
fr o m some of these gases may combine with water or with substances in the water
the mass action equation is to produce compounds or radicals that can be recovered in a solid form, thus
becoming a part of the dissolved-solids load. An example is carbon dioxide.
[AYEB}' (2-5)
- - -- K CO 2 + HzO H ZC0 3 I-J ' + HC0 3 - (2-7)
[AxB\.]
a nd
Tlie brackets around' t he io nic and so lid species ind icate molar co ncentrat ions. Th e (2-8)
K value is an equilibrium constant for a given substance in pure water at a given
Both the bicarbonate (HC0 3 - ) and carbonate (CO/-) are recoverable in solid
temperature.
At equilibrium, the solid phase does not change concentrati o ns because fo rm.
dissolution and precipitation are equal. Thu s
Table 2-3 Solubility products of selected ion pairs
and [AY[B}' = KK , = Ksp (2-6)
K ,p al Significance in
. EqllilibTinm equatiun . . .. . . .. ... '25(" ...... . 'envrronmental errgineering' .... .. . ..... ........ .
The quantity K ,p is known as the solubility product for the io n pair. If the co ncentra-
tion of either or both o f the ions is increased, the prod uct o f th e ioni c concentration MgCO , ~ Mg' + + C O,' - 4 x 10 ' , Hardness remo va l, scaling.
will exceed the K sp and precipitation will occur to maJJ1t ain eq uilibrium co nditions. MgtOH), ~ Mg " + 20W 9 :x 10 - 12 Hardness rem oval. scaling
CaCO J ~ Ca" + CO J
.. , 5 x 10 - 9 Hardness remo va l, scaling
The solubility products for several substances common to natural water systems
C'utO H), ~ Ca" + 20H- 8 x 10 - b Hardness removal
are given in Table 2-3. Use of the solubilit y product to calculate ionic concentra-
CaSO., ~ Ca" + SO.
,. 2 x 10 - , Flue gas liesulfurization
tions is illustrated in the following example. Cu(O H), ~ Cu " + 20H 2 x 10 - 19 Heavy me tal removal
Zn(OH ), ~ Zn' " + 2 0H 3 x 10 - 17 Heavy metal removal
Example 2-4: Determining equilibrium concentrations The sol u bili lY prodllct for the NI(OH), ~ Ni ]+ + 20W 2 x 10 - I b H eavy metal removal
dissociation of Mg(OH), is shown in T a b.Ie 2-3 as 9 x I () - 12 De term ine Ih" co ncentra ("r(O I'/) , ;:"" C'r" I- lO H (, x 10 - 3J H eavy metal removal
AI( OI'l) J ~ AI' . + lO l r I x 10 - 32 Coagulation
t io n o f M g" a nd OH - a t eq uilibrium. ex pressed as milligra:ns pe r liler or (":1('0 3 ,
Fc(O H ), ~ Fe" + ,OW (, x 10 - j(, Coagulation, iron re m ova l. corrosion
Fc(O H) , ~ Fe" + 201-1 5 x 10 - " Coagulation, If all rem()\;!I, corrosion
SO l. UT IO N 1'v11l(O H ), ~ Mn" + ,OW I x 10 - Jb Manganese re mo val
MII(Ol-!) , ~ Mn " + 20W ~ X 10 " 1-> Mangane se removal
I. W rite the equa ti on for the reacti on C : , (PO.) , ~ 3Ca " + 2 P0 4
,- I x 10 " 27 Ph os phalc rem oval
CaHPO. ~ Ca" + HPO/ x 10 - 7 Phosphate rem ova l
Mg(OH) , == M g" + l O ll ' C a F , :.= Ca " I- 2 r -
.,. cr
.,x 10 - I I Flu o rid a li o n
I\ ~ ( 'I ~ Ag 3 x 10 - 10 Chloride anal ys is
2, The so lubil ity producl equa t ion becomes l~ aSU ., :.= Bal ' + SO.,' I x 10 - 10 Sulrale analysis

S o"r,l' : Adarleli from Sawyer and M cCa rt y. [212].

 28 WATER
2-8 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
The material remaining in the water after filtration for the suspended-so lid s
~~~I)'sisis considered to be dissolved. This material is left as a solid residue upon
evaporation of the water and constitutes a p a rt of total so lids discussed in Sec .
2-2.
Sources
Dissolved material results from the solvent action of wa ter on so lid s. liquid s, a nd
gases. Like suspended material. dissolved substances may be organic or inorganic
in nature. Inorganic substances which may be dissolved in water include minerals,
metals. and gases. Water may come in contact with these substances in the a tmo-
sphere, on surfaces, and within the soil. Materials from the decay product s of
vegetation. from organic chemicals, and from the organic gases are common
organic dissolved constituents of water. The solvent capabi lit y of water makes it
an ideal means by which waste products can be carried away from industrial
sites and homes.
Impacts
Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water. Di ssolved minerals, gases.
and organic constituents may produce aesthetically displ eas ing co lor, tastes. and
odors. Some chemicals may be toxic. and some of the dissolved organic con-
stituents have been shown to be carcinogenic. Quite often , two or more dissolved
substances-especially organic substances and members o f the halogen group -
will combine to form a conlpound whose characteristics a're' mO ore" obje<iioriaofe -.. , .. ' .. ,..
than those of either of the original materials.
Not all dissolved substances are undesirable in water. For example. essentiall y
pure. distilled water has a flat taste. Additionally, water has an equ ilibrium state
with respect to dissolved constituents. An undersaturated water will be" aggres-
sive" and will 'more readily dissolve materials with which it comes in contact.
Readily dissolvable material is sometimes added to a relativeJy pure water to
reduce its tendency to dissolve pipes and plumbing.
Measurement
A direct measurement of total dissolved solids can be m ade by evaporat ing to
dryness a sample of watet which has been filtered to remove the suspended solids.
The remaining residue is weighed and represent s th e IOwl dissolved solids (T DS)
in the \vater. The TDS is expressed as milligrams per liter o n a dry-ma ss basis.
~ ..... The organic and inorga;1ic fractions can be determined by firing the residue at
600 ~ C as discussed in Sec. 2-2.
An approximate analysis for TDSis often made by determining the electrical
conductivity of the water . The ability of a water to conduct electricity. kno\\'n ;I S th e
WATER QUAL rlY : DEFINITIONS. CHARACT ERISTICS, AND PER SPECTIVES 29
specific cOl/dl/cra l1ce, is a fun c ti o n o f its ionic str ength. Specific conductance is
meas ured by a co nductivit y me ter employing the Wheatstone bridge prjnciple.
The stand a rd procedure is to measure the conductivity in a cubic-centimeter
field at 25 C a nd express the res ul ts in millisiemens per meter (mS/ m).
U nfort un a tely, specific cond uc ta nce and concentration of TDS are not
re la led o n a o ne- Io-o ne bas is. Only io nized substances con tribute to spec ific
conductance. Organic mo lcc ules and co mpo unds that dissolve witho ut ioniz ing
are not measured. Additionally. t he magnitude of the specific conductance is
influenced by th e va lence of Ihe ions in so lution , their mobility, and relative
numbers. Th e te mperature a lso has an import a nt effect, with specific conductance
increasi ng as I he water temp era l ur e increases. Conversion of units to milligrams
per lit er o r milliequi valent s per lite r mus t be made by use of an appropriate
constant. A multiplier ranging fr o m 0.055 to 0.09 is used to convert millisiemens
to milligrams per liter. [ 2-1 5J T o use spec ific co nductance as a quantitati ve test,
s ufficie nt anal ys is for filte ra ble residue must be run to determine the convers ion
factor. For thi s reaso n. spec ific co ndu ctan ce is m os t often used in a qualitative
se nse to mo nitor changes in TDS occ urring in natural streams or treatment
processes.
Use
Beca use no distinct io n amung the co nstituents is made. the TDS parameter is
in clud ed in the a nal ysis o f wa te r and wastewater only as a gross measurement of
th e disso lved material. Whil e this is o ft en sufficient fo r was tewaters, it is frequently
des irable to know more about th e co mp os ition of the solids in water that is in-
tended for use in p otabl e suppli es. agric ultur e. and some industrial processes.
.. -' .. . When th is isthecase: tests forseverat 'Oflhc'j'onic CO"m;(rtuents of TDS are made.
Ion Balance
The ions us ually acc o unting fo r th e vas t maj o rity of TDS in natural waters arc
listed in Tab le 2-4. Those Ii.<;ted uncler maj o r constituents a re often sufficient to
Table 2-4 Common ions in natural waters
Major con stituen ts, Secondary co nstituents.
1.0- 1000 mg! L O.O t I O.n rng . L '
Sodium fron
Catcium StrollliUn1
M agnesium Potassiulll
Bien rbona Ie Car bonale
Sutfal c Nltrale
Chloride Flu or1(k
BL)r On
S, i1 Cl
30 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 31

characterize the dissolved-solids content of wa ter. These are called common ion s It is important to arrange the cations and anions in the order shown for convenience
and are often measured individually and summ ed on an eq ui valent basis to in determining types of hardness and the quantities of chemicals needed for
represent the approximate TDS. As a check , th e sum of th e anions should equal so ftenin g, a subject m o re fully developed in a later chapter of this text.
th e sum of the cations beca use electroneutralit y must be preserved. A significan t Several of the constituents of dissolved solids have properties that necessitate
imbalance suggests that additional cons tituents are present o r that a n erro r has specia l .attenti on. These constituents include alkalinity, hardness, fluoride, metals,
been made in th e ana lys is of o ne or more of th e iOIlS . The fo ll owin g exam ple organics, and nutrients.
illu stra tes the io n balance p roced ure.
Example 2-5: Testing for ion balance Tes ts for common ions are run o n a sam ple of
wa ter and the results are show n be low. If a 10 perce nt e rror in the bala nce is acce pt ab le, 2-9 ALKALINITY
should the analysis be co nside red complet e?
Constituent s Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize
Ca' > = 55 mg/ L HCO , - = 250 mgl L hyd rogen io ns. Alkalinity is thus a measure of the ability of water to neutralize
Mg2+ = 18 mg/ L SO.' - 60 mg/ L acid s.
Na + = n
mg/ L C I = 89 m gi L

SOLUTtON
Sources
l. Conve rt the co ncen tra ti o ns of cations a nd anions fr o m milli grams per lit er to milli-
equ iva lents per liter and slim them . Constituents of alkalinity in natural water systems include C0 32 - , HC0 3 - ,
- - - - . - - - - - - - - --- - - - - _. _ - - - - - - -- - - - - OH - , HSi0 3 - , H 2 B0 3 - , HPO/ -, H 2 P0 4 -, HS -, and NH30 [2-3] These
Ca ti ons Anion s compound s result from the dissolution of mineral substances in the soil and
a tm osphere_ Phosphates may also originate from detergents in wastewater
[on Cone , Equiv , Eq uiv co ne, Ion Cone , E4Uiv , Equiv cone, discharges and from fertilizers and insecticides from ag ricultural land. Hydrogen
mg/ L mg/ mequiv meq / L mgi L mg/ m ~ quiv m ~q ui v/ L sulfide and ammonia m ay be products of microbial decomposition of organic
Ca 2 , material.
55 40/ 2 2.75 HCO , - 250 6 1/1 4.10
M g2+ 18 243/ 2 1.48 SO.
2-
60 96/ 2 1.2 5
By far th e most co mmon constituents of alkalinity are bicarbonate (HC0 3 -),
Na+ 98 23/ I 4.26 cr 89 ... 355 / I . . .. . 2.5 1 ca rb onate (CO/ - ), and hydr oxide (OH - ). In addition to their mineral origin,
- these su bstances can originate from carbon dioxide, a constituent of the atmosphere
T o tal io ns 8.49 786
and a product of microbial decomposition of organic material. These reactions
a re as fo llows:
2. Calcu la te percent of er ror.
8.49 - 7.86 CO 2 + H2O H 2 C0 3 * (dissolved CO 2 and
- - - - 100 = 8~" (2-9)
7.86 carbonic acid)

H2C0 3 * H+ + HC0 3 - (bicarbonate) (2-10) .

Therefo re, accept ana lysis.

A co mm o n iOIl balance can be displayed conve ni en tl y in th e form of a bar

HC0 3 -: H+ + C0 3 2 - (carbonate) (2-11 )
diagram. A bar diagram for th e water in Example 2-5 ca n be drawn as shown be low. +
CO/ - + H 2O H C0 3 - OH - (hydroxide) (2-12)

rn c(juiv / L 0 2.75 4 . )':\ The reaction represented by Eq. (2-12) is a weak reaction chemically. Howev:er,
ut ilization o f th e bicarbonate ion as a carbon so urce by algae can drive the reaction
to th e ri ght and resu lt in su bstanti a l accum ulati o n of OH - .. W ater with heavy
a lga l g rowths often has pH va lues as high as 9 to 10.
!-l eo ) (T Because the reac ti ons represented by the above equations invo lve hydrogen or
hyd roxide ions, the rela ti ve qu a ntities of the alkalinity s pecies are pH dependent.
m e'll/iv, L 0 4.10 5.3:' ! .Xh These relatio nships a re show n graphically in Fig. 2-3.
 32 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTI VES 33

100
r-- ~ 14
90

80
1\\ 12

HC0:i 10
....l 70
eo
E
O~ 60 \ / r\ 1:
c.
8
olr +, CO/~
L

\
,l -
u
U .50 \ \/ \ 6
I
-------,--------
\
~

~ CO/~ HCO:;
c'"
,S 40 / 'L 4

2
I I +
I
-;;;
-'"
:;;:
30 \ / \ / oL----------------------------------------------------
\ C0 3 ! \/ Milliliters of titrant
20 Figure 2-4 Alkalinity titration curye

10 \ "- B 2 C0 3 '
V J\ If acid is added slowly to water and the pH is recorded for each add it ion, a
[7 OW V \
o
~ V titration curve similar to that shown in Fig, 2-4 is obtained, Of particular significance
are the inflection points in the curve that occur at approximately pH 8,3 and pH 4.S,
6,5 7 7.5 8 8.S 9 9.5 10 10.5 II
The conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate [Eq. (2~14)J is essentially complete
pH
at pH 8.3. However, because bicarbonate is also an alkalinity species, an equal
Figure 2-3 Alkalinityspecies vs. pH. Values are calculated for water at 25C containing a total alkalinity amount of acid must be added to complete the neutralization. Thus, the neut r aliza~
of 100 mg/L as CaC03. (From Sawyer and McCorry [2-12].) tion of carbonate is only one~half complete at pH 8.3. Because the conversion of
hydroxide to water is virtually complete at pH 8.3 (see Fig. 2~3)..all ()ft.h.e )ly~r9xide.
and one~half of t.he carbonate have been measured at. pH 8.3. At pH 4.S all of the
Impacts bicarbonate has been converted to carbonic acid [Eq. (2~ I S)], including t.he
In large quantit.ies, alkalinity imparls a bitter taste to water. The principal ob~ bicarbonat.e resulling from t.he reaction of t.he acid and carbonate [Eq. (2~14)].
jection to alkaline water, however, is the reactions that can occur between alkalinitv Thus, t.he amount of acid required to titrate a sample to pH 4.S is equivalent to the
and certain cations in the water. The resultant precipitate can foul pipes and othe-r total alkalinity of the water. This 'point is i1iustra'ted in t.he following example.
water-systems appurtenances.
Example 2-6: Determining total alk'alinity A 200~mL sample of water has an initial pH.
of 10. Thirty milliliters of 0,02 N H 2 S0 4 is required to titrate the sample to pH 4.5.
Measurement What is the total alkalinity of Ihe waler in milligrams per liter as CaCO,')

Alkalinity measurements are made by titrating the water with an acid and de- SOI.ti nON
termining the hydr9gen equivalent. Alkalinity is then expressed as milligrams per Because each rnilligr;llll of ().02 ;V H 2 SO'4 will neutralize I Illg of alkalinity. t h ere IS
Ii.ter ofCaCO J . If 0.02 N H 2 S04 i~ used in the titration, then 1 mL of the acid will 30 rng of alkalinity in the 200-nlL sample. Therefore. the concentration of alkalinity
neutralize 1 mg of alkalinity as CaC0 3 . Hydrogen ions from the acid react with expressed as milligrams per lite'r will he
the'alkalinity according to ihe following equations:
30 mg 1000 rn L
H+ + OH- x 150 mgj L
H 20 (2-13) 200 Illl L
C0 3 2 - + H+ HC0 3 - (2-14) If the volume of acid needed to reach the 8,3 endpoint is known. the spec ies of
HC0 3 - + H+ H1CO, (2-15) alkalinity can also be determined. Because all of the hydroxide and o n e~half
34 WATER WATER QUALITY: Q~FINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 35

of the carbonate have been neutralized at pH 8.3, the acid required to lower the
pH from 8.3 to 4.5 must measure the other one-half of the carbonate, plus all of the
original bicarbonate. If Pis the amount of acid requ ired to reach pH 8.3 and M
is the total qLiantity of acid required to reach 4.5, the following genera lizations
concerning the forms of alkalinity can be made:
if P = i'vI, all alkalinity is OH -
P = M / 2, all alkalinity is CO/-
P = 0 (i.e .. initial pH is below 8.3), all alkalinity is HC0 3 -
P < M ; 2, predominant species are CO/ - and HC0 3 -
P > M / 2, predominant species are OH - and CO/ -
In observing the pH dependency of the species in Fig. 2-3, it is noted that the
quantity of OH - becomes significant at pH less than about 9.0. Without intro-
ducing significant error, it can be assumed that the OH - of samp les with pH
less than 9.0 is insignificant. The CO/- would then be measured by 2P and the
HC0 3 - would be measured by the rema inder (M - 2P) One method of calculat-
ing the quantities of ea~h species is illustrated in the following example.
Use
Alkalinity measurements are often included in the analysis of natural waters to
determine their buffering capac ity. It is also used frequent ly as a process control
variahle in walt;r and wastewater treatment. Maximum levels of alkalinity have
not been set by EPA for drinking water or for wastewater discharges.
2-10 HARDNESS
Hardness is defined as the concentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution.
At supersaturated conditions. the hardness cations will react with anions in the
water to form a so lid prec ipitate. Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness and
l1oncarbonate hardness, depending upon the anion with which it associates. The
hardness that IS equivalent to the alka linity is termed carbonate hardness, with
any rema ining hardness being called noncarbonate hardness.
Carbonate hardness is sensitive to heat and precipitates readiiy at high
temperatures.

Example 2-7: Determining alkalinity species Determine the species , al~lI Ihe quantity of Ca(HCOJ)z ~ CaC0 3 + CO 2 + HzO (2-16)
each specie, of alkalinity in Example 2-6 if the 8.3 equivalence point is reached at II mL
of acid.
Mg(HCO J )2 ~ Mg(OH)z + 2CO z (2-17)

SOLUTION Sources
Becallse the initial pH is 10, the initial pOH of the water is4. A Jeterl1linatio ll of the OH . The multivalent metallic ions most abundant in natural waters are calcium and
concentration can be made as follows. magnes ium. O t hers may include iron and manganese in their reduced states
(Fez +, M n 2+), stront ium (Sr2+), and aluminum (AI3+). The latter are usually
10 - 4 mol OH- I equi\ 50,000 mg CaCO, . fo'uiioinriiuch .smaI1er' 'cjllaiiiiii'es' 'thaii' cafCiu'iri--ilno--mag'nesiurrCarld' ro"i--:ilJ ....
[OW] = --'---L -- x ;;;;1 OH- X -I cqulv-- -
practica l purposes. hardness may be represented by the sum of the calcium and
= 5 mg/ L as CaCO,
magnesium 19ns.
2. Five milli!Jters o f acid would be required to measure the OH - in a I-L sample. H ow-
ever. this sample is only 200 mL so the necessary volume of acid is:
Impacts .
200
5 --- = 1.0 mL . Soap consumption by hard waters represents an economic loss to the water usee
1000
Sodium soaps react with multivalent metallic cations to form a precipitate, thereby
3. If I mL of acid measures the OH -. then 10 mL of acill measures one-half of the carboll- losing t heir surfactant propert ies. A typical divalent cation reaction is:
ate and 10 more will be required to measure the remaining one-half of the CO /-,
leaving') mL to measure the HCO) - . (See Fig. 2-4.) Thus. the quantity of each species 2NaCO/_~ 1 7 H33 + cation 2+ ---> cationz+(COzCI,H33)z + 2Na+
is as follows. Soap Precipitate (2-.18)
OH - (calculated from pH) '= 5 mg i L Lathcring does not occur until all of the hardness ioils are ~recipitated, at which
20 mg 1000 mL
point the water has been" softened" by the soap. The precipitate formed \;ly har~
2-
CO , = x 11l(J mg , L ness and soap adheres to surfaces of tubs, sinks, and dishwashers and may stam
. 200-mL L
clothing, dishes, and other items. Residues of the hardness-soap precipitate may
I) mg 1000 IIlL remain in the pores. so that skin may feel rough and uncomfortable. In recent
HCO J - .. _. x .15 mg i L
200 mL L years these problems have been largely alleviated by the development of soaps
Total albllnity 150 Il1g ' L Glnd detergents that clo not I'cact with hardness.
36 WATER
Boiler scale, the res ult of the carbonate ha rdness precipitate ma y ca use
considerable economic loss throu gh fouling of water heaters and hot-wa ter pipes.
Changes in pH in the wa ter distribution systems ma y also result in deposits of
precipitates. Eicarbonates begin to convert to the less so lu ble carbonates at pH
val ues above 9.0.
Magnesium hardness, particularly assoc ia ted with the sulfa te ion. has a
laxative effect o n perso ns un acc ustomed to it. Magnesium concentrati ons of less
than 50 mgj L are desirable in pot a ble wa ters, alth o ugh ma ny public wa ter supplies
exceed thi s amount. Ca lcium hardness p rese nts no public health .prob lem. In
fac t: ha rd water is appa rentl y beneficial to the human ca rdiovascul ar system. [2-4J
Measurement
H ardness ca n be measured by using spect rop ho tome tric techniqu es or chemica l
titration to determine th e quantity of calcium a nd magnesium io ns in a give n
sample. Hard ness can be measu red directl y by titrati o n with eth ylenediam ine
tetraace t ic acid (EDT A) using eri oc hrome bl ack T (EBT) as a!' ; ~ .. . .. , .. _ LD J
reacts wi th th e divalent met a llic cat io ns. forming a comp lex th at is red in co lo r.
The EDT A replaces the EBT in the co mpl ex, and when the replacement is complete,
th e so luti on changes from red to blue. If O.O J M EDTA is used, 1.0 mL of the
titra nt measures J.O mg of ha rdness as CaC0 3 .
Use
Analysis for hardness is co mm o nly made on na tura l waters and o n wa ters in-
tended fo r potable suppl ies and fo r certain indu stri al uses. Hardness ma y range
.... small amounts.are.co.r.nmon ly.labeled .t ox ic : oth er meta ls fa ll int o th e no ntox ic
fro m practically zero to severa-j. hundred; 'or 'even ' several ' thou sand; 'IYaYts per '
million . Although accep ta bility leve ls vary acco rding to a co nsumer's acclim at io n
to hardness, a generally accepted class ifica ti on is as follows:
So I'l . < 50 mgi L as C"CO,
Mod e ral e ly hard . 50-- 150 mg i L as CaCO,
Hard. 150-300 mg/ L a s CaCO,
Very pard > 300 mg; L as CaCO,
The Public Health Service 'standards recommend a maximum of 500 mg/ L
of hardness in drinking water. [2-18J A ma xi mum limit is not set by the EPA
standa rd s.
2-11 FLUORIDE
Generally associated in na ture with a few types of sedim entary or igneou s rocks.
fln or ide is seldom found in appreciable qu a ntities in surface wa ters and a ppears in
gro undwate r in on ly a felY geograph ical regio ns. F lu or id e is toxic l\) humans and
\VA'I U( QUALITY' J)EFIN ITIONS, C HARACTER ISTICS, AND PERSPECT I VES 37
o ther anima ls in large quantities, wh ile small concentra tion s can be beneficial.
Concen trati o ns of approx imat ely 1.0 mg/ L in drinking wa ter help to prevent
dental cavi t ies in ch ildren. During fo rm ation of permanent teeth , flu o ride co mbines
chem ica lly with too th e namel. resulting in ha rd er. stro nger teeth that are more
res istant to decay. Flu o rid e is often added to drink ing water suppl ies if sufficient
quan titi es fo r good dental format ion are not natura lly present.
Ex cess ive JJ1tak es of flu o rid e ca n res ult in discolo ra ti o n of teeth. Noticeable
disco lora ti o n, ca ll ed mOl/lillY. is relat ive ly common when fluoride concentrations
in drinking wa ter exceed 2.0 mg/ L but is rare whe n co ncentrat io ns are less th a n
1.5 mgj L Adult t ~e th are no t affect ed by flu oride. a lth ough both the ben efit s and
li abili ties of fluorid e during too t h-for mati o n years ca rr yove r in to ad ulth ood .
Excess ive dosages of flu o rid e can a lso result in bone flu o ros is and other skeleta l
abno rma liti es. Co ncentration s of less than 5 mgj L in drinkin g wa te r are no t lik ely
to ca use bon e flu oros is o r related pro blems, and so me wa ter supplies-a re known
to ha ve so mew hat hi gher flu oride co ncentrat ion s with no disce rni ble pr051 em
other than severe mottl;n g of leelh . On the assum pti o n tha t peop le drink mo re
wate r in warmer clim a tes, EPA drinkin g-wale l' sta nd a rd s base upper li mi ts fo r
fl uor id e o n ambien t temperatures. Th ese standard s a re d isc ussed mo re fu ll y in
Sec. 2- 18.
2-J2 METALS
All meta ls are so lu ble to some exten t in wa ter. While excess ive a m o unts of a ny
meta l may present hea lth haza rds. o nl y th ose metal s tha t a re harmfu l in relati ve ly
grou p. So urces of meta ls in natura l waters inc lude disso luti o n from na tural
deposits a nd discharges of d omes tic. indu stria l. or ag r icultura l wastewaters.
Meas urement of me ta ls in wat er is usua lly mad e by atom ic abso rpti o n spectro-
ph otometry.
Nontoxic Metals
In add iti o n to the hard ness ions. calc iulll and magn esi um. o th er no ntox ic meta ls
co mm o nl y found in wa ter include sodium. iron. manga nese. a lu minum, copper.
and zinc. Sodium. by rar the mos t cOlllmon no nt ox ic Illetal fo und in natural waters,
IS ~Ib un e!ant in the ea rth 's crust ~I nd is highl y reac ti ve wi th oth er elements. Th e
sa lt s o f sodium are ve ry so lub le in water. Excessive co ncentrat io ns ca use a bi tt er
taste ."l wa ter a nd are" health halard to'cardJ< lc and kidne y pati ent s. Sodium is
also co rros ive to Ill etal surfaces and . III large co nce ntrati o ns. is tox ic to p lant s.
Ir on ;lJld ma nga nese quit e fr equentl y occur toge ther a ne! present no health
h ~l Z~ \r(i s a t co ncentratiollS normilily f'nli lld ill natur;l l wa ters. As no ted in Sec. 2-4.
iron an e! man ga nesc in vc ry small quantities Illay cau se co lo r pro blems. Iron
C (ln C<: l1tr ~ ltl()n S of 0.3 Ill g/ L. and ma nganese cnnce ntr atioJls as low as 0.0 5 mg/ L
 31) WAHR
can ca use co lor problem s. Additionall y, so me bacteria li se iron and man ga nese
co mpounds for a n energy sou rce, and the resulting sli me grow th may prod uce
taste a nd odo r problems.
Wh en significant quant ities of iron are enco untered in natura l wa ter sys tems.
it is usuall y assoc ia ted with chloride (FeCI2). bicarbo nate [Fe( HC0 3)2]' o r
s ulfate [Fe(S04)] anions a nd exists In a reduced state. In the presence of oxygen,
the ferrous (Fe 2 ' ) io n is ox idized to the ferric (Fe J +) io n a nd forms an insoluble
co mpound wi th hydroxide [ Fe(O Hhl Thu s. signifi can t quantiti es of iron wi ll
usua ll y be found o nl y in systems devoid of oxygen such as gro und wa ters or per-
haps th e bo tt om layers of stra tified lakes. Simi la rl y. manganese ions (MnH and
Mn..) ' ) associa ted wi th chlo ride, nitrates . a nd su lfat es are so luble, wh ile ox idized
compou nd s (M n J , and M n 5 +) a re virtually insolu ble. It is poss ible. however, for
o rganic acids de ri ved fr om decomposing vege tation to c he lat e iro n and ma nga nese
and prevent their ox idat ion a nd subseq ueht p rec ipit a ti on in natu ra l wa ters.
"The other no nt ox ic metal s are ge nerally found in ve ry sm all quantities in
natura l wate r sys tem s. and most wou ld ca use ta ste probl ems lo ng befo re toxi c
len.: ls were reached. Howeve r. copper a nd zin c are sy nergetic and when both a re
present. even in small quant iti es. may be tox ic to Illany bio logica l spec ies.
Toxic M etals
As noted earlier. toxic meta ls are harmful to huma ns and other urgan isms in
sm:t11 quant ities. TOX IC meta ls that may be disso lved in wa ter IIl clud e arsenic.
barium. ca dmluill. chro mium , lead, mercury. and sil ver. C umulative toxin s such as
arsenic. cadmluill. lead. a nd merc ur y a re particu la rly hazardous. Th ese metals are
concentrated by the food cha in . thereby posing th e g rea tes t dan ge l' to orga ni sms
. ' ric',ii" t he lOt>' (~ t' The' th,i j ii.
Fort una tely. toxic meta ls are present in o nl y minute quant it ies in most na tural
water sys tems. Alth o ug h natural sources of all th e tO XIC me ta ls exist, signifi ca nt
c()nu.:nt ration In "ate r can usuall y be traGed to mini ng. industrial. or agricultural
Sllurces.
2-13 ORGANICS
Many organic materia ls are so lu ble in water. Organics in na tur'al water systems
mCl)' come from natural sou rces or ma y resu lt fr om human activities. Mo st na tura l
o rganics consis t of th e decay products of organi c s.o lid s, wh ile synth etic o rga ni cs
are usual ly the resu lt of was tewa t.e r discharges or agricultura l practices Di sso lved
o rg,l nics in \va ter are usuall y divided int o two broad categor ies': biodegrada ble
and n()no io(/cg radable {refractory). '
Biodegradable Organics
HICldegr'adahlc ll1ateri~ t1 consists of o rganics t hat call he utilized for food by
l1~ltLII;lIh llcclirring mlul)() rganisms \\'ithin a reasonahle lengrh (If time. In
WA TER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS , CHARM'T ER ISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 39
dissolved form. these materials usually consist of starches, fa ts, proteins, alcohols,
acids. a lde hydes. a nd esters. They may be the end product of the initial microbial
decomposition of pla nt oranimaHissue, or they may result fr o m domestic or
industrial wastewater discharges. Although some of these materialS can cause
co lo r, tas te, a nd odor pro blems. the principal problem associated with bio-
degradable organics is a secondary effect resulting fr o m the acti on of micro-
o rganisms o n these substances.
Mi cro bial utilization of dissolved organics can be accompanied by ox'idation
(addition of oxygen to, or the deletion of hydro gen from, elements of the orga'nic
molecule) or by redu ct ion (addition of hydrogen to, or deletion of oxygen from,
elements of the o rganic molecule). Although it is possible for the two processes
to occur simultaneously, the ox id ation process is by far more efficient and is pre-
dominant when oxygen is available. In aerobic (oxygen-present) environments,
the end products of microbia l decompositio n of organics a re stable and acceptable
co mpou nds. Anaerobic (oxygen-absent) decomposition results in unstable and
objectionab le end products. Should oxygen later become ava ilable, anaero bic
end product s wi ll be ox idized to aerobic end products. The oxygen-demanding
nature of biodegradable orga nics is of utm ost importance in na tural water systems.
Wh en oxygen utilizat io n occurs more rapidly than oxygen can be replenished by
transfer from the a tm osp here, anaerobic conditions that seve rely affect the ecology
of the system will resull. This situation is cove red in more detail in the next chapter.
The a mo unt of oxygen co nsumed during microbial utilization of o rganics
is called the biochemica l oxygen demand (BOD). The BOD is measured by de-
termining the oxygen co'nsumed from a sample placed in an air-tight container
and kept in a con tro lled environment for a prese lected period of time. In the
sta ndard test: a 300-mL BOD bottle is used and the sample is incubated at 20C
for 5 days. Light must be excluded from the incuba to r to prevent a lga l growth that
may prod uce oxyge n in .the bo ttle. Because the saturati on concentration for
oxygen in water at 20C is approx imately 9 mg/ L. dilution of the sa mple with BOD-
free, o xygen-sa turated water is necessary to measure BOD va lues greater than just
a fe w milligrams per .liter. . '.. .
Th e BOD of ad iluted sam ple is calculated by
BOD = 001 - DO F (2-19)
P
where 001 a nd DO F are the initial and final di ssolved-ox ygen concentrations
(mg/ L) and P is the decimal fracti o n of the sa mple in the 300-mL bottle . .
Ran ges of BOD covered by various dilution s are shown in Table 2-5. These
val ues ass ume an initial dissolved-oxygen concentration of9 mg/ L in the mixture.
with a minimum of 2 and a max imum of 7 mg/ L of O 2 being consumed . Calcula-
ti o ns of BOD s from this testing procedure a re mustrated in the foll ow ing example.
Example 2-8: Determinin g BOD ) The BOD of a wastewa ter is suspected to range from
50 to 200 mgjL. Three dilutions are prepared to cover thIS range. The procedure is the
same in cach casc. First the sample is placed in the standa rd BOD bo ttle and is then
 40 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTER ISTICS , AND PERSPECTIVES 41

Table 2-5 Ranges of BOD values covered by utilized is propo rtional to the amo ttnt available. Mathematically, this can be
various dilutions expressed as follows:
""".
By direct pipetting into elL,
By using percent mixtures 300-mL bottles - kL, (2-20)
r/r
J~ mixture Range of BOD .mL Range of BOD
where L, isthe oxygen equivalent of the organics at time 1, and k is a reaction Con-
0.01 20,000-70,000 0.02 30,000-105,000 sta nt. The units of L, are milligrams per liter, and the units of k are d- 1.
0.02 10,000-35,000 0.05 12,000-42,000 Equation (2~20) can be rear ranged and integrated as follows:
0.05 4,000- 14,000 0.10 6.000-21,000
0.1 2,000-7 ,000 0.20 3,0007 10,500 elL,
0.2 1,000-3,500 0.50 1,200-4,200 - = - k ell
"' 0.5 400-1 ,400 1.0 600-2,100
L,
1.0 200-700 2.0 lOO-I,050
dL,
f
i.
2.0 100-350 5.0 120- 420
5.0 40- 140 10.0 60- 210 Lo L,
10.0 20-70 20.0 30- 105
20.0 10-35 50.0 12- 42 L,
4- 14 1000 6- 21 In - - = - kl
50.0 Lo
100.0 0-- 7 300.0 0- 7
L, = L OI.'.-k' (2-21 )
Source: From Sawyer and McCarty, [2-12J
"".
The term Lo in this equation represe nts the total oxygen equivalenl of the organics
at time 0, while L, represents th e amount remaining at time r, and decays ex-
diluted to 300 mL with organic-free, oxygen-saturated water. The initial dissolved ponentially with time, as shown in Fie. 2-5.
oxygen is determined and the bottles tightly stoppered and placed in the incubator at The oxygen equivalent remaining is not the parameter of primary importance.
20C for 5 days, after which the dissolved oxygen is again determined. .
However, the amount of oxygen llsed in the consumption of the organics, the BOD"
can be found from the L, value. If Lo is the oxyge n equivalent of the total mass of
... Wastewater , DOl , DO" O 2 used, BOD ,.
mL mg/ L mg/ L mg!L p mg/L

5 9.2 6.9 2.3 0.0167 138

10 9.1 4.4 4.7 0.033 142
20 8.9 1.5 7.4 0.067 110
=:::.:==-------
If the third value is disregarded (the final DO being less than 2.0 mg/ L), th e average
BOD of the wastewater is 140 mg! L.

Most natural water and municipal wastewaters will have a population of

microorganisms that will consume the organics. In sterile waters, microorganisms
must be added qnd the BOD of the material containing the organisms must be
\' determined and subtracted from the total BOD of the mixture, The presence of
toxic materials in the water will invalidate the BOD results.
~.
The BODs only represents the oxygen consumed in 5 days. The total BOD . .
or BOD for any other time period. can be determined provided additional informa-
Tim e days
tion is known or obtained. The rate at which organics are utilized by micro-
organisms is assumed to be a first-order reaction: that is. the rate at which organics Fi:!lIrr 2-~ non and oxygcn-t;: qul\a lc!l1 rdaliO n shir~ .
 42 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINIT IO NS , CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 43

orga nics. then the difference between th e va lue Lo a nd L, is iht: l)xygen equivalent Table 2-6 Typical values of k and Yu for various
cons um ed. o r th e BOD exe rted . Mathematicall y waters

)" ~ L o - L, k. d - I
Y.,
WJlc r Iype base t' mgL .
h,
)" Lo - L ot'
Tap water <0. 1 0- 1.
.\' , Lo(l - e - kl) (2 -22) Surface waters 0. 1- 0.23 1-30
Wea k municipal wastewater 0.35 150
wh ere )" represents th e BOD, of th e waler . Th e va lu e of v, approaches Lo
Strong municipal wil ~ te\Valer 0.40 250
asymptotica lly. indica ting that ' the total. or ultim ate, BOD (v..) is eqUid 10 th e Trea led efll lleni 0. 12.. 0.23 10-30
initial oxygen equ iva lent o f th e water Lo. Th ese relationships are shown in Fig.
2-5.
Equati o n (2-22) represen ts the BOD exe rted by the carbo n compo nent of The use of Eqs. (2- 22) and (2-23) is illustrated in the foll ow ing example.
th e o rgani c co mpo unds. Other co mpo nents of orga n ics, such as nitroge n and sulfu r,
ma y also be ox idi zed by microorganisms. resulting in a n oxygen demand . Equatio ns xamPJe 2-9: BOD conversions The BOD 5 of a wa stewa ter is determined to be J 50 mg/ L
sim ilar to Eq. (2-22) ca n be derived for these reactio ns. at 20C. The k va lue is k fl o wn tll be 0.23 per da y. What wou ld the BODs be if the test
The va lu e of J.:. de termin es the speed of the BOD reaction wi thout in flu encing were rUIl at I S" C'.'
th e m,lgnitude of th e uftim ate BOD. This iss howll grap hi ca ll y ill Fig. 2-6. Numerica l (
values ~f J.:. ran ge fr o m abo ut 0.1 to 0.5 d - '1 depending o n the nature'of the orga ni c OLl'T ION

mo lec ul es. Simple compounds such as sugars and starches are easi ly utilized by the
microorganisms a nd ha ve a high J.:. ra te, while co ~nplex mo lecu le's such as phenol s I. Determine the ultimate BOD.
a re difficult to ass im il a te an d have low k n du es. S(,lme typica l va lu es of k are show n r
.5
in Tab le 2-6. r =I --
U_ e-- 1a
The \'a lu e of k for any given o rgani c compound is temperature-depend ent.
Beca use microo rganisms a re mo re ac ti ve at highe r temperatures. th e va lu e of k 150
I__ -e--~s
increases wi th increasin g temperatures. The c han ge in k can he approxima ted by
the \ an't H o fl~Arrhe niu s model: .. =. 220 .mgj L. .. . ..... ... ....... ........ .

(2-23) 2. Correct the k va lue for 15C.

i\ va lu e of 1.047 for 0 is o ft en ~I se d a lth o ugh (I is known t'o \'ar: sll lllC\\l!at with
te mperature ra nges. [2-8J
k " = 0 23( 1.04r 5)
= 0. 18

J. Calcu la te)'8
"
,l ', = .1',.( I _ e- k ')

.1'" = 220 (I _ (' - 0 . 1 8 8 )

168 mg !L

Nonhi odegradabl c Organics

So me organ ic materials are resis tant to bio log ical degradation. Ta nnic and lignic
acid s. ce llulose. and phen ols are o ft en fo und in natural wa ter systems. These
co nstituen ts of woody plant s biodegrade so slow ly that they are usually con-
sid ered refractor y. Mo lecules with excep tio nall y stro ng bonds (some of the poly-
J-'i g ll l"(' 2-6 Ij O I) l"\L' / (1\'11 ;1 ') a lunction of reaction \..'11I1 S (;\nl /.: sacc harides) and ringed struc tu res (benzene) are essen ti a lly non bi odegradable.

44 WATER
An example is the d etergen t compound a lkyl benzene su lfo na te (ABS) w hich,
with its benzene ring, does no t biod eg rade. Being a surfactant, A BS ca uses frothin g
and foaming in wastewater tre a tment pla nts and increases turbidit y b y stab iliz ing
colloidal suspensions, Thi s problem was largely alleviated when detergent manu -
facturers switched to a linear a lk yl sulfonate (LAS) compound, whi ch is bio-
degradable. Many of the organics assoc iated with petro leum a nd with it s refining
a nd processing also contain benzene a nd are essentially non bi o d eg rada ble.
Some organics are n o nbi odegrad a ble because they are toxic to organisms.
These include the organic pesticides, so me industrial chemicals, and hydrocarbon
co mpounds that have co mbined with chlorine.
Pesticides, including insecticides a nd herbicides, have found wide-spread
use in modern society in both urba n a nd agricultural settin gs. P oo r application
prac tices and subsequent washoff by rainfall and run o ff m ay result in co ntamina-
ti o n.of-s.~rface streams. Orga nic insec ti cid es are usuall y chlorinated hydroca rb o ns
(i .e., a ldrin, dieldrin. endrin, a nd lindane), while herbicid es are usua ll y c hl oro-
phenoxys (e.g., 2A-dichlorophenoxyaceti c acid and 2.4,5-trichlorophenoxy-
propionic acid). Many of the pesticides are cumulative tox ins and cause severe
problems at the higher'end o f th e food c hain . An example is th e nea r-extinction o f
the brown pelican that fe ed s o n fi sh and o ther macr oaq uatic spec ies by the in-
sec tic ide DDT, the 'u se o f which is now banned in the United States.
Measurement of no nbi odeg rad able orga nics is usuall y by the chemical oxygen
d emand (COD) test. Non bi o deg rad ab le o rga nics m ay a lso be estimated fr o m a
to ta l organic carbo n (TOC) analys is. Both COD and TOC meas ure the bi o-
-. degradable fraction o f the o rga ni cs, so the BOD" must be subtracted fr o m the
COD or TOC to quantify the non biodegradable o rganics. Specific o rga ni c com-
po und s can be identified a nd quantified thr o ugh analysis by gas c hro matog ra ph y ..... . .... .... . .
. .. ... . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. .... .... ... .... .... .. ... ,.- . .................... ... .
2-14 NUTRIENTS
. Nutti!!nt s are eleme nts essential to the growtli aod repr od ucti on o f plaI}ts and
animals, and aquatic species depend o n th e surro undin g water to provide their
. nutrients. Although a wide va riet y of minerals and trace e leme nts can be classified
as nutrients, tho;e requ ired in ~ost abundance by a qu a tic species a re carbon.
nitrogen. and p'hosph o ru s. Carbon is readily available from man y so urces. Carbon
dioxide from the a tmosphere, a lk a linit y. a nd decay pro du c ts o f orga nic m a tt er all
suppl y carbon to the aquatic sys tem. In most cases, nitroge n an d phosphoru s
are the nutrients that are the limiting fac to rs in aquatic plant grow th . A discussion
of the consequences o f ove renri c hment with nitrogen a nd phosphorus is prese nted
in Chapter 3.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen gas (N 2 ) is the prim ary co mponent of the ea rth 's a tm osphere and is
extremely stabl e. It wi ll react w ith oxygen under high-energy cond itio ns (elec tri ca l
WATER QUALITY: DEFINI TI ONS. C H ARACTERIST ICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 45
discharges o r tlame inc in era ti o n) to fo rm nitrogen ox ides. A lth o ugh a few bio-
logical spec ies are a ble to ox idize nitrogen gas. nitr oge n in th e aql:atic environ-
ment is derived prim a rily from so urces o th er than atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen is a consti tLi en t of proteins, ch lorophy ll, and many o th er biologica l
co mp o und s. Upon the dea th of plants or anima ls, complex orga nic ma tter is
broken d ow n to simple fo rm s by bacteria l decomposition. Pro teins, for ins tan ce,
are conver ted to am in o ae id s and further red uced to ammo ni a (NH3)' If oxygen is
prese nt, the ammon ia is oxid ized to nitrite (N0 2 - ) a nd th en to nitrate (N0 3 - ).
Th e llItrate ca n then be reco ns titut ed in to li ving organic matter by photosynthetic
plants.
Other sources o f nitrogen in aquatic systems include anima l was tes, chem ical
(part icu lar ly c hemica l fer tili ze rs), and wastewater discharges. Nitrogen from
th ese sou rces may be disc ha rged di rect ly into strea m s or ~ay enter waterways
through surface run off o r groundwa ter discharge. N itrogen com pounds ca n be
oxid ized to nitrat e by so il bac te ri a a nd ma y be carried int o th e gro und wa te r by
perco latlllg wa ter. Once in th e aq ui fe r. nitrates move fr ee ly with th e g round wate r
Aow. Grou~dwater co nt a min at ion by nitroge n from animal, feed lo ts and sep ti c -
tank d rain field s ha s heen record ed in numer o us in sta nces. [ 2- 10,2- 11, 2- 13J
I n adchtlon to the overennchme nt p roblems a llu ded to earlier, nitrogen can
h3ve o the r se riou s consequences. Ammon ia is a gas at tempera tures a nd pressures
normally found In natural wa ter sys tems. The gas (N H )) exis ts in equilibriulTl
With the aqueous ion ic fo rm called ammo nium (N H .. +).
(2-24 )
The hydroxyl io n co nc entrati o n of the water. and thu s the pH. co ntro ls th e relati ve
.... ab unc.I<l nc.eo f e'1c~ s p ec ies Ox id a ti on of N H 3 and N H4 + to nit ra te an d o n to
nitrate by aquatic microbes res ult s in an additiona l bioc he mi ca l oxygen demand
as discussed in th e preceding sec tion.
Nitra te po iso nin g in infant an im a ls, Incluciing humans. can ca use se ri o us
rroblems a lld even de'lth. /\p pal"cil tl y. the lower acidity ill an II1fant 's in test in a l
tr3ct permit s growth o f nitrat e- red ucing bacteria th at convert the nitr a te to nitrite
which is th e n ahsorbed int o the bloodstream. Ni tr ite has a greater affinity fo;'
hell1oglobll1 th a n cioes oxyge n and thu s rep laces oxygen in t he blood comp lex .
The body IS d eni ed essen tia l oxygen and. in ext reme cases. the vic tim suffocates .
Beca use oxyge n star va ti o n results in a blu ish di sco lora ti on of the bodv, nitrat e
poisoning has been referred to as the " blue baby" sy ndrome. a lt houg h the corr~c t
term is Illel/l cllloq/oiJincl1Iia. Once the Aora of th e intestinnl tract has full v de-
\clopecl. usually ~i ft er th e age of 6 mon th s, nitrat e convers ion to nitrite and's u b-
'sequent m ethemog lohi nemia 'fro'm drinking water is seldom a problem. For-
tun :lle ly. the natmal ox idarion of nitrite to nitra te occ ur s quick ly so th at sign ificant
()llantilies nfnitritcs are no t found in natural \\atcr.
Tests for nitr oge n form s in water commonly include ana lys is for ammonia
(11ll"ludlng bo th ammonia and ammonium). nitrnte. and orga nic nitrogen Th e
results u fth e analyses are usua ll y expressecl as milligram s per ,iter of the p~rticular
s pec lcs as n itrogen. Tests fo r ammonium and org~ l nic nitrogen nre more comll1on
 46 WATER
o n was tewa ter and other polluted waters, wh ile the test fo r nitr:lte is th e most
common o n c lea n-wat er sa mpl es and tre a ted was tewa ters.
Phosphorus
Ph os ph or us appears ex clus ive ly a s phos phat e (P0 4 ) - ) in aquatic en vi ro nm ents.
There are seve ral form s of phosphate, however. inc ludin g o rth op hos phate,
conde nsed phosphates (pyro-, meta-, and po ly ph ospha tes). and orga nica ll y bou ll d
ph osp hates. Th ese ma y be in so luble or particulate fo rm or ma y be cons titu ents of
plant or a llJlnal ti ss ue. Like nitrogen. ph os phates pass through the cycles of
decompos iti() n and phot osy nthesis.
Ph os phate is a const itue nt o f soi ls and is used ex tens ive ly in fertili zer to rep lace
and /o r s uppl e ment natu ra l quantities o n ag ri c ultural la nd s. Ph ospha te is a lso a
constituent o f anima l was te and may beco me incor po rated into th e so il in grazing
and fe edin g areas. Run o tT from ag ri cu ltu ra l areas is a m ajor co ntribut o r to ph os-
phate in s urfa ce waters. The tenden cy for phosphate to :ld so rb to so il particles
limit s it s mO\'eme nt in so il mois tur e and gro und wa ter, but res ult s ill it s trans po rt
Int o surfa ce wa te rs by ero sion.
Muni cipa l wastewater is ano th er major so urce of phosphate in s urface water.
Condensed ph os phat es are used extens ive ly as builders in detergents , and o rga nic
ph osph at es ar e co ns tituent s o f body was te and food res idue. Other so urces inc lud e
indu st rial waste in which ph os phate compounds are used fo r suc h purposes as
boiler-wZi te r co ndit ioni ng.
While p hos phates are n o t toxi c and do no t re prese nt a direct hea lth threat
to human o r o ther o rgani sm s, the y d o rep rese nt a se riou s indirect threat to wa ter
qualit y. As no ted earlier. phos pha te is o ft e n th e limitin g nut rie nt in s urface wa ters.
-Wf1 e ilth e"iv~1ibb l e sLlppli ls ini.:re::i se d, rapid grow th o f aquatic plant s usually
results. w ith seve re co nsequences. Ph os phat e can a lso interfere with wa te r-
t reatl11ent processes. Co ncen tr a tion s as low as 0.2 mg/ L interfere with th e c he mical '
coag ulati u n o f turbidit v. [2-20J
Ph os phat es are mea s ured co lor imet ri call y. Orth o ph osphates can be meas ured
dir ect ly. whi le co nd e nseu form s mu st be converted to o rth ophosphate by ac id
h vdl"U lyza tiun and o rg anic phosphates must be con verted to orthophosphates by
<lcl d dig es ti o n . Resu lts l)f the analys is are reported a s milligr:lms per lit er o f phos-
ph a te ;IS phosphoru s. Care ful handlin g o f sa mples pri o r to a nal ys is is c ru c ial. F o r
eX;IIl1 pie. ac id-\\~I s h c d g lass bo ttles sho ul d be used for sa mpling, as bottles washed
in pl; us phate d etergen t ma y co ntaminat e sa mp les.
Biological Water-Quality Parameters
Water ilia: ser\'e as a m ed ium in \\ hich lit era ll y th ousa nd s o f biological sr ecies
spend pa rt. ir not ;dL ,)1' their lire cvc les. Aquatic organisl11s 1'<1nge in s ize <Ind
C(ll11 pl cxit:- from th e sma ll es t singl e-ce ll microorganisl11 to th e larges t fi s h. All
Il1 cl11hCl"S o r th e hil)lo~lca l cnm l11l1l1it y a rc, to so m c ex te nt. wa te r-qu ;d itv p~lram-
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CH ARACTER ISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 47
ete rs, because their presence or absence may indicate in general terms the character-
IstiCS of a given body o f water. As an example, the general quality of water in a
trout stream would be .ex.pected lo exceed that o f a stream in which the pre-
d o mmant species o f fish IS carp. SlInIia rl y, abundant algal populations a re associ-
ated With a water ri c h in nutrients. '.
Biologists often use a species-diversity index (re lated to th e number of species
and the relative abundance oforga.nisms in each species) as a qualitative parameter
fo r streams and lakes. A body of water hostin g large numbers of species with well-
balanced numbers of individuals is considered to be a health y system. Based on
their kn own tolerance fo r a given pollutant, certain organisms can be used as
mdl
. ca .tors
C of the prese nce o f pollutants. A more det a iled coverage of this t OplC
. IS
.
give n m hap. 3.
2-]5 PATHOGENS
Fro m the perspectIve of human use and consump ti on~ the most impor ta nt bio-
logical organis ms III water are pathogens, those organisms capable of infecting,
or o f transmlttmg dIseases to, humans. These orga nisms are not na tive to aquatic
sys tems and usually require an anim a l host for growth and reproduction. They can,
however, be tra nspo rted by natural water systems, thu s becoming a temporary
me mber of the aqua tI c community. Many species of pathogens are ab le to survive
III water and maintain their infectious capabilities fo r sign ifican t periods of time,
These. waterbo rne pathogens include species o f bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and
hetm1l1ths (parasitic worms). The characteristics o f the p~im ary waterborne
path oge ns are listed in Table 2-7.
Bacteria
The word bact eria co mes fr o m th e Greek word meaning " rod " or "staff," a
s hape characteristic o f mos t bacteria. Bacter"ia a re sin'gle-ceU microorganisms,
usually co lorless, and are the lowes t fo rm of life capable of synthesizing proto-
pla sm fr o m the surrounding environment. In addition io the rod s hape (bacilli)
mentioned above, bacteria may also be sphe rical (cocci) or spiral-shaped (spirilla).
Gas tr 0 1l1test1l1 al disorders a re common symptoms o f most diseases trqnsmitted
by wate rbo rne pat hogenic bacteria.
C holera, the di sease that ravaged Europe during the eighteenth and nine-
tee nth centuries, is tran smitted by Vibrio comma. Among the most violent of the
waterborne bacteri a l diseases, cholera causes vomiting and diarrhea that, without
treatme nt. resu lt in dehydration and death. Symptoms of typhoid. a disease
tran smitted by th e wa terbo rne pathoge n, Salmoll ella typhos{l, include gas tro-
IIltestllla l di so rders, high fever. ulceration o f the intestines, and possible nerve
damage. Although immuniza tion o f indi viduals a nd disinfection of water supplies
ha ve el l mlnated cholera and typhoid in m os t parts o f the world, a reas of deve lop-
Ing cu untrIes where overc rowding and poo r sa nit a ry cond iti on s preva il still
 48 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINlTIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, ANl) PERSPECTIVES 49

Table 2-7 Common waterborne pathogens Immunization of individuals has reduced the incidence of polio to a few
isolated cases each year in developed nations. Outbreaks of hepatitis are more
Organism Disease
common, with around 60,000 cases reported in the United States each year.
Bacteria Most of the hepatitis cases result from persons eating shellfish contaminated by
Francisella lUlarensis , Tularemia (deer fly fever) viruses from polluted waters, [2-2J although an occasional outbreak will occur at
Leptospirae Leptos pirosis campgrounds or other facilities where crowds gather and where water-supply
(Wei!'s disease, swineherd's disease, protection and sanitary facilities are poor.
hemorrhagic jaundice)
Salmoneila paratyphi (A,R,C) Para typhoid (enteric fever) Although standard disinfection practices are known to kill viruses, con-
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever, enteric fever firmationof effective viral disinfection is difficult, owing to the small size of the
Shigella (S.jfexneri, S. sonnei, S .. dysenteriae, Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) organism and the lack of quick and conclusive tests for viable virus organisms.
S. boydi!) The uI.1certainty of viral disinfection is a major obstacle to direct recycling of
Vibrio comma (Vibri~ cholerae) Cholera (Asiatic, Indian, El Tor)
wastewater and is a cause of concern regarding the increasing practice of land
Viruses application of wastewater.
Enteric cytopathogenic human orphan (ECHO) Aseptic meningitis, epidemic exanthem,
(ECHO) {nfantile diarrhea
Poliomyelitis (3 types) Acute anterior poliomyelitis, infantile Protozoa
paralysis
The lowest form of animal life, protozoa are unicellular organisms more complex
Unknown viruses Infectious hepatitis
in their functional activity than. bacteria or viruses. They are complete, self-contained
Protozoa
organisms that can be free-li ving or parasitic, pathogenic or nonpathogenic,
Entamoeba histolytira Amebiasis (amebic dysentery, amebic
enteritis, amebic colitis) microscopic or macroscopic. Highly adaptable, protozoa are widely distributed
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis (Giardia enteritis, lambliasis) in natural waters, although only a few aquatic protozoa are pathogenic.
Helminths (parasitic worms) Protozoal infections are usually characterized by gastrointestinal disorders
Dracunculus medinensis Dracontiasis (dracunculiasis ; dracunculosis, of a milder order than those associated with the bacterial infections discussed
medina; serpent, dragon , or guinea-worm earlier. Protozoal infections can be serious nonetheless, as illustrated by an epi-
. infection) demic in Chicago in 1933 in which over 1400 people were affected and 98 deaths
Echinococcus Echinococcosis (hydatidosis; granulosus; dog
resulted when drinking water was contaminated bY ,sewage containing Entamoeba
tapeworm)
Schistosoma (S. mansoni, S.japonicum, Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis or .. Bill Harris " histolytica. [2-14]. Many .cas.es .of .giardiasis,. D[backpaekers 'disease,' have' 'been .
S. haematobium) or .. blood fluke " disease) reported in recent years among persons that drank untreated water from surface
streams. This infection is caused by Giardia lamblia, a protozoan that may be
carried by wild animals living in o r near natural water systems.
Under' adverse environmental circumstance, aquatic protozoa form cysts
experience occasional outbreaks of these two diseases. Temporary lapses in good that are difficult to deactivate by disinfection. Usually complete treatment, in-
sanitary practices sometimes result in outbrea~s of gastroenteriti? caused by some cluding filtration , is necessary to remove protozoal cysts. .
of the other bacterial pathogens listed in Table ?-7.
Helminths
Viruses The life cycles of helmil1ths. or parasitic worms, often involve two or more animal
hosts, one of which can be human , ' and water contamination may result from
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all the genetic human or animal waste that contains helminths. Contamination may also be via
information necessary for their own reproduction. So small that they can only be aquatic species of other hosts, such as snails or insects. While aquatic systems can
"seen" with the aid of an electron microscope, viruses are obligate parasites that be the ve hi cle fo r transm itting helminthal pathogens, modern water-treatment
require a host in which to live. Symptoms associated with waterborne viral met hod s are very effective in destro ying these orga nisms. Th'us, helminths pose
infections usually involve disorders of the nervous system rather than of 'the ha za rds primarily to th ose persons who come into direct con tact with untreated
gastrointestinal tract. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause polio- water. Sewage plant opera tors. swimmers in recreational lakes polluted by sewage
myelitis and infectious hepatitis, and several other viruses are known to be, or o r stormwater runoff from ca ttl e feedlots. a nd farm laborers employed IJ1 agn-
suspected of being, waterborne. Cultural irriga ti on operat ions are at particular risk. [2-5J

b._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
 A. Presump tive tes t
50 WA T ER
r Inoc ula Ie laur yl tryp lose b ro lh ferme nta lion lubes and incubale 24 2 h a l 35 C O.SoC

2-1 6 PATHOGEN INDICATORS i

( I) (2)
Cas p roduced No gas, o r gas produ c tion doubt ful
Posit ive Incub a le additi ona l 24 h
An a lys is of wa ter fo r a ll the kn ow n pa th oge ns wo uld be a very time-consumin g
presumptive ( lo lal 4 8 3 h)
a nd ex pensive pro positio n. Tests for specific path ogens a re usua ll y made o nl y [esl
whe n there is a reaso n to suspect t ha t th ose particula r o rga ni sms a re prese nt . (a ) (b)
At other ti mes. th e pu rity of wa ter is checked using ind icato r o rganisms . Cas pro du ced . N o gas produced
. Positi ve Nega live test
An indicator organ ism is one whose presence p res umes that co ntami nat ion has tes t Colifor m group absent
occur red a nd sugges ts the natu re and exte nt of t he co ntam ina nt(s). T he idea l
B. Confirmed le st
path ogen indica to r wo uld ( J) be ap plica ble to a ll types of wa ter. (2) al ways be
present 'w il en pa t hogens are present . (3) a lways be a bsent when pa thogens a re l Inoculate la ury! tryplose broth fe rme ntation tu bes and incubat e 24 2.h at 35 C O.SoC

a bsent. (4) lend itse lf to ro utine qu a ntit a ti ve tes ting procedu res wit ho ut in te r-
ference fr om o r co nfu sio n of res ults beca use of ex tra neo us o rgan isms. a nd (5) for ( I) (2 )
Cas p roduced No gas, Or gas prod uc tion doubt fu l
the sa fety of la bora to ry perso nn el. no t be a pa thoge n it se lf. [2-6J Transfer to In cubate addi tional 24 h'
Most of the wat erbo rn e pathogens are lilt rod ucecJ t hroug h fecal con tamina tio n confirma tory brilliant ( to tal 4 8 3 h)
green lactose bi le bro th
of wa ter. Thu s. any o rga ni sm na ti ve to t he in tes tinal trac t o f hu malls and meet in g Incub"le 48 ! 3 It al
(a) (b)
the above criteri a wou ld be a good indica tor organism. The (lI"ganisms mos t 35 C ! O.SoC
Cas produced No .gas p rod uced
nea rl y mee ting these req ui re ments be lo ng to t he fecal co lifor m glo up. Composed o r d oub l ful Negative tes t
. of severa l st rain s o f'bacteri a, p ri ncip a l of whic h is Escherichia coli. these orga ni sms (a) ( b) Confir m as in B(l) Colifo rm gro up absent
Cas p roduced No gas produced
are fou nd exc lu sive ly in t he int est ina l tract of warm -blooded anllll~ " s a nd arc Coliform group Nega tive lest
exc reted in la rge n umbers wit h feces . Feca l co lifo rm o rgan isms arc nonpa t hogenic confirmed Colifo rm group absent
a nd a re belie ved to have a lo nger surv iva l time o utsid e th e a nim a l body tha n d l) C. Com pie led test
mos t path ogens. Beca use the d ie-o rT rate of feca l co liform , is loga rithm iC. the
number of sur viv ing organisms may be an ind icat io n of th e time la pse sin ce
l Inoc ulate la ury l tryp lose broth fe rmentation tubes and incuba te 24 2 h at 35 C O.SoC

conta min a tion . ( I) (2)

Th ere are o ther co liform gro ups whi ch fl o urish o utside the intestina l tract of Gas produce d. Transfer [Q confirmatory brill ia nt No gas, or gas p ro du c tion do u btful
gree n lac tose bile Incubale 48 3 h al In cubal e addit io nal 24 h (I ot al 4 8 3 h)
a nll11 al s. Th ese orga nisms a re nati ve to th e soi l anc! decayi ng vegeta tin n a nd are
.. .... 35.C..D.tC .. . .... . . .. .. .. . ... . . .
oft en fo un d in wa ter tha t was in rece rr t' co nt ac t' wi th' th ese m,lwr"i !d"s". Bc'c,i lI SC'
the life cycles of so me pa thogens (pa rti c ul arly helminth s) may inc lu de periods (a) (b) (a) (b)
T
Gas prod uced No gas pro duce d Gas produ ced o r No gas prod u ced
in the soil, this gro up of co lifo rm o rga ni sms a lso se rves as a n Indica to r of patho-
Transfer 10 End o o r EMB plales Negative test do ub t ful Negat ive te st
ge ns. Incub",e 24 2 h at oS C D.5C Coliform gro up absent Conti n ue as in C( I) Coli fo rm group
T
It is the usua l prac tice in .th e United Sta tes to use the to ta l co li form gro up (th ose abse nt
of bot h feca l a nd no nfeca l o ri gin ) as indica tors nf the sa nitar y q ua lity of d rinking ( I I) (1.2)
wa ter. whi le the indi ca to r of cho ice for wastewa ter emucn ts is the feca l co lifo rm Typical OR alypical coliform colonies Negati ve colonies
gro up. Rela ti ve ly simp le tests have been dev ised to deter mi ne the p resence of Transfe r to agar slant and laury l try ptose bro th fermentat ion tube Coli fo rm group
Incubale aga r slanl 181024 hand lauryl tryplose brolh abse nl
co lifo rm bacter ia In wa ter a nd to enumera te the qu a nt ity. T he tes ts 1'0 1' to ta l 24 2 h 1048 3 h at 35 C O.5C
co liform orga nisms employ sli ghtl y differen t cultu re medi a and lowe r Illcubat ion
te mperat ures t ha n th ose used to iden tify feca l co li form organisms. ( a) (b 'j
T he membra ne-fi lter tec hnique. a tec hniq ue po pu lar with cnVlrl.lllmenta l Gas produced No gas produced
engin ee rs. g ives a direc t co un t of co lifo rm bac teri a. In thi s tes t. a por tion of the Gram-st ain portion Nega tive tes t
of ::lgar sian I grow th Colfform group absen l

r
sa mple is fi ltered thro ugh a memb ra ne. the po res of whi ch d o lI ut exceed 0.45 li m .
Bacteria are re tamed on the hlter tha t is t hen placed on selecti ve rn ed ia to prul1lu te
(II I ) ( 1.1 2)
growth of co ii form bacteria wh ile in h ibiti ng growt h of o th er spec ies. The memb rane

Cram-nega tive rods present, 11 0 spores prese nt
and medi a are incuba ted a t the ap propfl ate tem perat ure' fDr 24 h. a ll owing co li - Completed tesl: coliform group presen t
Gram posit ive and negative rods hoth presen[
fo r m bacteria to grow intn vis ible co lonies th at are t hen cll un ted . The resul ts arc Repeat pro(cdu re beginning at 1.1
r
Spores or grampositive rods and sp ores presen t
Com ple led lest: coliform group abse n t

r
re pc)I"ted In n umbe l' o f o rga nisms per 100 m L of wat er
Fig ure 2-7 P roceuure J','r r u nnin g lotal coliform analysis by th e m uli iple.[ube fe r mentat ion met h od.
(From SlanJaul Melhods [2.15].)
 52 WATER W ATER Q UALI T Y : DEFI N IT IONS, C HARACT ERI ST ICS, AN D PERSPECTI VES S}

An a ltern a ti ve met hod often preferred by micr o bi o logists is th e mu lti p le- (M P N) o f colifo rm ba c te ri a in J 00 m L o f the wa ter sa mp le. Th is meth od is ill us-
tube ferment a tio n test. Colifo rm o rgan ism s are kno w n to ferment lac tose, w it h tra ted in th e fo ll ow ing exam ple.
o n e o f the end prod u cts bei n g a g as. A brot h containing lactose a nd othe r sub-
sta nces whic h inhi b it n o nco lifo rm org a n ism s is p laced in a series of test t u bes wh ich
Exam pl e 2- 10 : Determin ing th e most probable num ber of co lifo rms A stand a rd m u ltiple -
a re then inocul a ted wit h a d ecimal fract ion of I mL (100. 10,1.0, 0. 1. 0.0 1, etc.).
tube fe rm e nt a ti on test .is ru n o n a sa m p le o f wa te r fro m a surfa ce strea m. The resu lts of
These tubes are inc u bated a t the appropria te tempe ra ture a nd inspec ted for
the an a ly sis fo r t he c'o n fi rmed tes t a re shown be lo w .
d ev~l opment of gas. This fi rst stage of the procedure is ca lled the pres umpt ive l est.
a nd tu bes wi th gas deve lopmen t are pres umed to have colifo rm s present. A sim ilar
tes t. called th e confirmed leSI, is t he n set up to c o nfirm the prese nce o f co li fo rm
Size o f sa m ple. N o. posiJl ve No . nega li ve
o rgan ism s. A schema t ic o f"th is process is sho wn in Fi g. 2-7. A sta tistica l me thod is mL
used in co nju nc tio n wi th Table 2-8 to de termine th e m os t pro ba ble n u m ber -----
10 4
I
Table 2-8 MPN index and 95 % confidence limits for va ri ous combina ti ons of
0. 1 .4
positive results when fiv e tubes a re used per dilution (10 mL, 1.0 mL, 0.1 mL) 0. 01 I 4
95 ~-:; co nfid e nce 95\ co nfi d e nce O.DOI 0 5
l im its limit s
C ombin a tion MP N index C o mbi n a t io n MP N in dex
o f p osit ives /1 00 mL Lowe r U ppe r of p os it i\"c~ . 100 mL Lowe r Upper D ete rm ine th e m os t p roba bl e numbe r o f co lifo rm orga n ism s.

0-0-0 <0 4-2-0 22 67

S OL UT IO N
. 0-0-1 2 < 0 .5 4 -2- 1 26 9 78
0-1 -0 2 < 0 .5 4 -3 -0 27 9 80
4 < 0 .5 II 4 -3- 1 33 II 93 Se lec t a series whe re th ree tubes ea ch have pos iti ve res u lts (n o t necessary, b u t reco m -
0-2-0
4-4-0 34 12 93 me nd ed): use samp le size s 10. I . and O. I
o En te r T ahl e 2-8 w ilh th e number o f pos iti ve tubes Ollt o f fi ve (4. 2, I) : T he cor res pond-
1-0-0 2 < 0 .5 5-0-0 23 70
31 II 89 ing M P N is 26 wit h ;, ra n ge o f 9- 78 o rgani sm s pe r 100 m L p oss ible a l a 95 pe rce nt
1-0- 1 4 < 0 .5 II 5-0- 1
4 < 0 .5 II 5-0- 2 43 15 110 co nfid e nce le vel.
1- 1-0
1-1 - 1 6 < 0 .5 15 5- 1-0 . . .3~. II .. ...93 . .- .. ... ... ... . .
.. ' " T-2-0 .. .. .. ..... o.. . .. . '<'0)" " '1 5 " 5- 1- 1 46 16 120
5- 1 2 63 21 150 ALTER NA TE S OL UT IO N

2-0-0 < 0. 5 I, 5-2 -0 49 17 130

70 23 170 I Selec i samp le sizes 1.0 , O. f , an d U.O f.
2-0- I I 17 5- 2-1
2- 1-0 7 17 5-2 2 94 28 220 2. h o m Ta ble 2-X, Ihe co rre s po ndin g M PN is 9 a nd Ih e 9 5 pe rce nl co nfi d e nce range is
2- 1- 1 9 2 21 5-3 0 79 25 190 2 thr o ugh 2 1.
2-2-0 9 2 21 5-3- I 11 0 31 25 0 3. Bec <l use Ill e se ri es 01' sam pl es used is o ne- Ie nlh o f Ihe 10, I, an ci O. I samp le sizes used
2-3-0 12 3 28 5-3 -2 140 37 340 in l hc lab le. muil ipl y Ihe val ues by 10. T he re fo re . Ihe M PN o r l hc sam pl e is 90 o rga n-
3-0-0 8 19 5-3 -3 I KO 44 51)0 ism s pe r 100 m L a nd th e 9 5 pe rce nt co nfide nce ran ge is 20 to 2 10 .
3-0- I II 25 5 4-0 130 35 300
3-1-0 It 25 5- 4- 1 1711 43 490
~2 0 70n Samp lin g lec h n iqu es and s uh se qu ent ha nd li ng o f the sa mpl es a re extrem ely
3- 1- I
3-2-0
3-2-1
14
14
17
4
4 34
34
46
5- 4-2
5-4 -3
5-4-4
280
YiO
57
90
120
X"II
I. ()O()
'I m[1 o rt :lIlt beca use sa mp les ca n ea sil y be co nt a min a tecl . D e ta iled p rocedures fo r
samp li ng. sa'm p'le prepa rat io n, a nd ste rili za tio n o f labo ra to ry equ ipme nt fo r bo th
oK
--- 4-0-0
4-0 -t
13
17
31
46
5- 5-0
5-5 I
24()
350 12(1
7~ 1J
I .OOG
th e me mbr an e fili er tec hni q ue a nd t he muli ip le- tu be tec hniqu e are p rese nt ed in
SWI/r!ord At !'1hoi/.I. [2- 15J
4 - 1-0 17 46 5-5-2 <;40 180 1.400
It sh uu ld be em[1ha sized aga in th a t pa thoge ns arc no t Id en tifi ed by the co li-
4- 1-1 2I 63 I 5-5 -3 no }OO 3.200
fo rm l e~ t. Th e p re se nce of co lifo rm orga ni sm s in wa te r d oes. ho we ve r. indica te
L~-4
4- 1-2 26 ') 7K 1. 600 (41) 5,gOO
2' - ) - ) 2 2,40(1 tha i so m e por ti() n uf th e wa ler ha s recen tl y co n tac ted so il o r d eca ying veg eta ti o n
t) r h:t, hlT ll l ilro lig h the Int es tinal tra c t ora w:lrm -hl oocl ed an im a l. T he a ss umpt ion
SOl/ r cf: Fro m Sm ilh . r2 14] Illlh l tilt'n ht: 11 l: I(k tha t pa th oge ns Illa ), have acco m pa n ied th e co lifo rm bac teria.

l
 5;1 WATER
WATER QUALITY: DEFI NIT IONS, C HARA CTERISTICS, AND P ERSPECTIVES 55

Water-Quality Requirements 2-18 POTABLE-WATER STANDARDS

W ater-qua lit y requirements va ry acco rding to the pro posed use o f the water.
Detailed desc ripti o ns of the qualit y criteria for agricultural use, fish and wild life
propagat ion. s pecific indu stri a l a nd recrea ti o nal uses, and powe r ge nera ti o n are
prese nt ed elsew here, [2- 7, 2-6, 2- 17]. and s uch desc ription s are beyond th e sco pe
o f this text. Water unsuitable for o ne use m ay be quite sa tis fac to ry fo r another.
and wa ter may be deemed acceptable for a pa rti c ular use if water o f be tt er qu a lity
is no t ava ilable. . making drinkin g-w a ter requirements even m o re stringent.
W a ter-q uality req uire m e nt s s hould no t be co nfused w ith wa te r-qualit y
sta nd ard s. Set by the po tenti ,il use r. wa ter-qualit y req uirem ents re present a known
or ass um ed need and a re based o n th e pri o r ex perience o f the water use r. Waler-
qualil.'r' standards a re set b y a gove rnmental agency and represent a sta tut o ry
req uire ment. For exa mpl e. a farm e r ma y hlOW fr o m prior ex perie nce Ihat highly
sa lin e wale r will damage th e crops. bUI th ere a re n o o ffi c ial wa ter- qualit y s ta nd ard s
that sa y s uch wa te r ca nn o t be used fo r irri ga ti o n purp oses.
In th e U n ited Sta tes. s tand ard s have bee n pro mul ga ted fo r strea ms a nd lak es.
for public wate r s upplies. and for was tewa ter disc harges: Stand a rd s fOI surface
Sta nd a rd s for drinkin g wa ter have evo lved over the years as knowledge of the nature
and elfec ts o f various contaminants has grown. Current ly, it is considered desirable
tha t dr inking wat er be free o f suspended so lids and turbidity, that it be tasteless
a nd odorless. th a t di sso lved in organ ic so lids be in moderate quantities, and that
o rga nics. toxic substances, a nd pathogens be absent. As more is learned about the
co nstituents of water. additional requirements will probably be added to thi s list.
The World H eal th Organizat io n has established minimum criteria for drinking
wate r th a t a ll na ti o ns a re urged to meet. These standards are listed in T a ble 2-9.
Co untries with m o re advanced technol ogy generally have sta nd a rd s that exce~d
t hi s qua lit y.
Table 2-9 Drinking-water standards of the World Health Organization
Concentrations in milli g ram s per liter

wa ters. potabl e wa ter. a nd was tewa ters a re di sc ussed in th e fo llowi n g scc ti on: W H O Internali o nal (1958) WHO Euro pean (1961)

Per mi ssib le Excessive Maximum Reco mmended T o le ran ce

Chem ica l constit uen t iimit limit lim it limit limit
2-17 IN-STREAM STANDARDS ,\lI1monia (N H,) 0.5
A r st.:nic 0.2 0.2
Ca clnllulll . .. . . . . . . . . . . 0.05
F o r reaso ns o f aes t he t ics as we ll a s hea lth . it is ge ne rall y co ns id e red de s irable to
Calci um 75 200
--'m ;;;rii il;ii ' il:ili.ir~11 water sys te ms at as hi g h a quality leve l as poss ible . /\11 SO o f th e Ch lo ride ~OIJ 600 350
s t:l! es ha ve set minimum qual it y s tand ards for a ll s urfa ce wate rs lVilh in th eir C hr omi um (hexava lent) 0.0 5 0.05
boundar ies. These standard s o ft e n re Aec t th e be ne fi c ia l use lilad e o f til e stream. Cn prcr 1.0 1.5 3. 0'
That is. mo re stringent sta nda rd s are app li ed to a strea m used as a so urce o f water Cyanide 0.01 0.0 1
Fluo r id e 1.5
for muni ci pal rurr oses th a n to streams lI sed fo r o th er purp oses.
I ron 0 . .1 1.0 0. 1
Man y fa c to rs affec t stream qualit y. W as tewa ter di scharges and o th e r human Lea d 0.1 0. 1
ac ti vities o ft e n ha ve s ign ifi ca nt impac t o n in-stream wa ter qualil Y Th ese ac ti vities Magnesi um 50 150 125t
m ay lend th e mse lves to con tr o l by legis la ti o n and gove rnm en t reg ulati o ns. F o r Magnesium + sod iu m sulfate s 500 1000
examp le. co nsis tent with w ha t it be lieved to be publi c o rini o n. th e U nit ed States Manganese 0. 1 0.5 0. 1
Ni trat e (as NO,) 50
C o ngress passed the Water P o lluti o n Co ntr o l Ac t o f 1972 ( Publi c L~t w 92-500)
Oxygen. di sso lwd (milllmulll) 5.0
a nd , w ith min o r modi fi ca ti o ns. renewed it in 1977. A sta ted goa l o f thi s legis la ti on Ph e nolic c<) mpo und s (a s phen o ls) 0.001 . 0.002 0.001
is that a ll s urface wa ters in th e United Sta tes be maintained a t " fi sha ble, sw im- Se le nium 0.05 0.05
mab le " qualit y. Attaimnen t o f thi s goa l s ho uld re sult in a qualit y s uffi c ie nt fo r Sul fat e 200 400 250
m os t wa ter uses and simpl ify trea tm ent processes for wate rs int end ed fo r po tabl e T ot ,iI so lid s ' SOU 1'00
Zinc 5.U 15 5.0
and indu stria l use.
While leg is lati o n such as Public La w 92-500 ca n con tr o l so me as pects o f wa ter After 16 h co nta ct \\1 th "ell pipes. hilt "'ato r entering a disl r iblltion system s ho uld have less than
pol iutillil. th~ geo illgy o f a wmershcd. coupled with Ol her natura l ph cno m ena . is D.I)) mg/ L o f co pper.
o ft en th e co n trolling factor in wate r CJua lit y. Thi s fact mu st be co ns id ered if in - t If there is 250 rn g; L o f sulf:lIc prlsoIH. Illa)!"csillrn sho uld not exceed 30 mg! L.
s trea m water-qu al it y s tand a rd s ar~ 10 be reali sti c. S()/I/'n': Ad"p ted fr o nt Todd . [2- 17J
56 WATER
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-523) mandated the U,S,
Environmental Protection Agency to establish drinking-water standards for all
public water systems serving 25 or more people orhavingJ5 or more connections,
Pursuant to this mandate, EPA has established maximum contaminant levels for
drinking water delivered through public water supply distribution systems,
These standards were published in 1975 under Title 40, Subchapter D, Part 141
of the Code of Federal Regulations, [2-19J The maximum contaminant level (MCL)
of inorganics, organic chemicals, turbidity, and microbiological contaminants
are shown in Tables D-l through D-5 of the appendix, EPA has also issued
proposed ~egulations to serve as guidelines to the states with regard to the 50-
called secondary drinking-water standards, [2-16J These appear in Table D-6
of the appendix,
2-19 WASTEWATER EFFLUENT STANDARDS
The water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-500) mandated the
Environmental Protection Agency to establish standards for wastewater dis-
charges. Current standards require that as a minimum all municipal wastewater
be treated to "secondary" standards shown in Table D-7 of the appendix. More
stringent standards may be imposed where necessary, and in some cases less
stringent standards may ' be permitted for small flows. Industrial disc hargers are
required to treat their wastewater to the level obtainable by the "best available
technology" for wastewater treatment in that particular type of industry. If
industry discharges to a municipal wastewater collection system, the industrial
waste must be pretreated 'so as to be compatible with the untreated municipal
wastewater.
The EPA regulations define receiving streams as either "effluent-limited"
or "water-quality-limited." An eJjlue';I-limiled stream is a stream whi<;h will
meet its in-stream standards if all discharges to that stream meet the secondary-
treatment and best-available-technol ogy s tandards. Municipalities a.nd indusrries
discharging to effluent-limited streams are as~igned discha rge permits under the
National Pollution Discharg!,! Elimination System (NPDES) which reflects tlie
secondary-treatment and best-available-technology s ta nd a rds.
A wacer-qualit),-limiled-sream would 11 0 1 m~et its proposed in-stream stand-
ards even if all discharges met secondar y- treatment and best-available-technology
criteria. Discharges to these streams may be required to meet effluent co ndition s
more stringent than secondary-treatment and best-available-technology. These
discharge limits are established on a case-by-case ba sis. . .
Effluent standards. potable-water standards, al)d ill-stream standards are
obviously interrelated. Enforcement llf eftluent standards. along with the COnlroi
of nonpoint sources of p o llution, s ho uld result in the attainmcnt o r in-stream
standards. The improvement of in-st ream quality s hould res ult in a better raw
water for potable supplies. However. it is impractical to expect surb ce waters.
even if in-stream standards are mel. to meet all of the ma ximum contaminant
WATER QUALITY: DEFiNITIONS, CHARACTER ISTICS, AN D PERSPECTIVES 57
levels imposed by the potable-water standard s, Treatment of surface water for
potab le use will a lwa ys bc rcquired, the nature and level of treatmen t dependll1g
o n the in -st ream qu a lit y o r th e water so urce.
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS
2-1 Name th e phys ical wat er-qualit y parameters of concern to environmental engineers.
2-2 Discuss th e so urces a nd impacts of suspended so lid s.
2-3 How are suspended so lid s mea surerP
2-4 An analvsi s for suspe nded so lid s is run as follow s: ( I) A fibergla ss filter is dried to a
constan t ma;s of 0.137 g; (2) 100 mL o f a sa mple is drawn through the fi lt er ; a nd (3) the filt er
and res idue are placed. in a dr ying over at 104C until a co nstant ma ss of 0. 183 g IS reached.
Determine the suspended-so lid s concen tra ti on in milli grams per lit er.
2-5 One hundred milliliters of th e frltrate from a suspended-so lids ana lysis is placed in an
ev aporation di sh whose tare Illass has been determined to be 327.48 5 g. The co ntents of th e
di sh are evaporated to dryness. and th e lotal mass of the dish and so lid s is fou nd to he 327.5 17 g
Determine the quantit y of filterable residue (in milli grams per lit er).
2-0 Th e cr ucib le. tilter pad . ;lIld so lid s of Example 2- J arc rlaced in" muftle furnace at 600"C
for I h. Afte~ cooling. the mass is delermlned to be 54.367 g. Dete rmin e the coneent ration o f th e
vo latile (orga nic suspend ed so lids)
2-7 The evaroration di s h and resid ue from Prob. 2-5 is placed In a Illuflle furn ace at 600C
for I h. Aftercooling.lts ma s, IS found to be 317.498 g. Determ in e the blt era ble vo latile(orga nl c)
so lids of the sample in milli gra ms per Iil er.
2-S Discuss the so urces and imp ac ts of tastes and odors in \\ ater suppli es.
2-9 Ho\\' arc 1,1stes and odors mea sured 0 ____ ____ __
2-10 \Vil,;t',,'r'e't i;~~~;lr~~'s ,;f' ; ~ ;l~ pe~;I; ~lr~ 'i;l~;~;;S~~ il;'; ,Iter l)~'(i;~~:' WI;,;ta~~ t l;~ impacts
of eleva ted temperatures')
2-11 Namc th e chemical parameters of concc rn 111 water -qu,rlity man;rgcment.
2-12 The reaclion of so da ash (Na,CO J) ,~rth calc ium su lfat e in water is represented by the
follolVing chemical stat ement :
Assumi ng that this react io n is comp lete and that there. is 1:;3 rng,'L nf CaSO" init ial ly present~
what is tire ma ss of soJa ash that mu st be added \!) (II) I L of the lI'ater a nd (b) 10.000 m -
ol' the wat er to comp lete th e reac ti o ns.
2- n How man y grams of CaO arc reqUired to he t he chemical eq uivalent of 246 g of
Mg( HCO, );)
2-14 Express Ihe foll owin g co ncentrations of clem ents and compounds as milligrams per
lit er ofCaCO,.
X7 mg. L " 'II" IX9 mg :L Na HCO ,
58 WATER W ATE R QUA LIT Y: DE FI NITI ONS, C H ARACTERISTI CS, AND P ERSPECTiVES 59

2-15 Express the fo ll ow ing mo la r co nce ntra ti o ns o f e lements a nd co m pou nd s as mi lli g rams 2-20 Draw a milli equivalent-per- liter ba r dia gram fo r the wa ter with the following common
pe r li ter of ('aCO). ion concentrati o ns.

10 - 2
mol; L /\1 3 1.8 x 10 - -' mo l ' L CaSO. 70 mg/ L M g2 ' = 28 mg/ L N a + = 124 mg/L
I X '

3 165 mg/ L SO / - = 173 mg/ L C I- = 202 mg/ L

J.5x 10 - mol; L SO/ - 2. 1 x 10 -' moli L Mg(CI) ,

32 x 10 - .I lll ol i L cr 3.5 x 10 J mol i L NaO H De termine tlie erro r in th e io n bala nce.

2-2 1 An an a lysis of wat er fr o m a su rface strea m yields the fo llowing results.
2-16 Determ ine the conce nt ra ti o n of the fo ll owing ions in solution at eq u ilibrium witll the
so lid al ~5 ' C . . Ca 2 + = 60 mg/ L H C O ) - = 11 5 mg/L

('a(O H ), Mg2+ 10 m ~\/ L SO/ - 96 mg/ I...

MgC0 3 Na + 7 mg/ L NO ) - 10 mg/L

CaSO. K + = 20 mg/ L CI - II mg/L

2-17 A was tewater con tai nin g Fe( HCO}h is discharged to a sur face pond. Ass u min): wmplete If an e rro r o f 10 percent is acceptable, sho uld the an a lys is be considered co mplete ?
ox id at ion o r t he Fe" to Fe} ' a nd s uffic ie n t 0 H for t he fo ll owi ng react io n to OCCLI r
2-22 What are the so urces and impacts o f di sso lved so~id s in water supplies?
2-23 How are di ssolved s o lid s measured? How are TDS measurements expressed?

d eter mine the concentratio n (mg/ L as CaC'OJ) of the Fe) ' remain in g dissolved in the pond 2-24 A so lids a nal ys is is to be co ndu cted o n a sample o f wa stewater. The procedure is a s
wat er. fo ll ows :
2-18 A sa m ple or water from a s urfa ce s t rea m is a nal yzed fo r the co m mo n ions with the I . i\ G och crucible a nd fi lte r pad are dried to a constant mass of 25.439 g.
foll ow ing resu ls 2. Tw o hundred millilite rs o f a well-sha ken sample of the wastewater is p assed through the
filt er.
Ca' > 98 mg/ L 3. Th e crucible, filt e r. pad . and rem oved so lid s a re dried to a constant mass o f 25.645 g.
C1 - 89 mgi L 4. O ne hundred millilit ers o f the filtr a te [ wa ter pass ing through the filter in (2) above] is
p laced in an evapora t io n dish that had been prewe ighed a t 275.419 g.
I-I Co., - = 317 ru g,il .. S"Tlie 'sartip!e'i'Ii'(4) IS' eViiporared to dryness and the dish a nd residue are we ighed at 276.227 g.
22 mg/ L 6. Bo th the crucible fr o m (3) and the evap o ra tion dish from (5) are placed in a muffle furnace
at 600"C for a n ho ur. Aft er coolin g. the mass of the c ru cible is 25.501 g and the mass of the
Na " 7 1 mg ' L d is h is 275.944 g.
S.04' 125 mg: L
De te rmin e th e fo llowi ng:

(a) W hat is the percen t e rro r in the catio n- a ni on ba lance ') (a) Th e filt erab le so lid s (mg/ L)
(h) Draw a bar diag ram for th e wa te r. '1
(h) The nonfi lterabl e solid s (m g/ L)
2-19 ,.\ s~lInp l e of wate r was a na lyzed fo r com m o n io ns with the res ul t show l1 beIcHI. (e) The to ta l so lids (mg/ L)
(d) Th e o rga ni c fr ac ti o n of th e fi lt erab le so lid s (mg/ L)
I-I Co., -. 30n mgL (e) Th e o rga nic frac ti o n o f th e no nfilt erab le so lids (mg/ L)
Na ' = liS mgL
2-25 Wh at a re th e mos t co mmo n co nst itu e nt s of a lk a linit y, and what a re their sources and
SO"
,- -- ~4() mg i L imp acts')
2-26 H ow is a lka hnit y meas ured :)
Mg " = 36.6 mg, L
2-27 Determ ine the a lk a linit y o f the waters descri bed in Pro bs. 2-1 8 to 2-2 1.
CI' = 71.D Ill): L 2-28 A 100- mL sa mp le o f wa ter is ti trated w ith 0.02 N H ,S 04 ' The initia l p H is 9.5. a nd
Ca ' ' = 100 mg L 6.2 mL o f ac id is req u ired to reac h t he p H 8.3 endpo int. An additional 9.8 mL is required to
reac h th e 4.5 endpo int. De termine t he spec ies o f a lk a linit y present and the co ncentra ti o n of each
Co ns t ruct a bar diagram in Illi ll lcquil a le n ts per liter ror this Will er. species.
 60 WATER
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, C HAR ACTERISTI CS, AND PERSPECTIVES 61

2-29 A 200-mL sample of water with an initi a l pH o f 10.6 is titra ted with 0.02 N H 2 S0 4 , The 2-44 A BOD ana lysis is begu n o n Monday. Thirty (30) milliliters o f was te with a DO o f zero
sample reaches pH 8.3 after an addition o f 8.8 mL of th e acid . and an additional 5.5 mL is is Illlxed with 270 mL of dilution wa ter with a DO o f iO mg/ L. Th e samp le is th en put in the
required to bring the sample to pH 4.5. Identify th e spec ies o f a lkalinity present a nd det ermin e incubator. Sin ce t he fifth clay falls on Sa turd ay a nd lab personnel do not wo rk o n Saturday,
the concentrations (mg/ L) of each. the final DO does no t get measu red until Mo nd ay. the seventh day. The fin a l DO is mea sured
at 4.0 mg/ L. However. it is discove red that the incubator was set at 30C. Assume a k, of 0.2
2-30 The initial pH of a water sample is 7.5. A 200-m L samp le is titrated wi th 0.0 1 N H 2 S0 4 ,
The pH 4.5 endpoint is reached after the addition of 15 mL of th e acid. Determine the spec ies a t 20C and kT = k 20 1.05 T - 20. Determine the S-d ay. 20C BOD o f the sam ple.
..f.
:. 1
!
of alkalinity present and the concentration (mg/ L) of eac h. 2-45 Define nonbiodegradable orga nics. Give exa mples. discuss sources. and assess the impa ct
2-31 'Define "hardness" of water. note the two broad cla ssificatio ns o f hardness. and di scuss of nonbiodegradabJe o rga ni cs in water.
the sources and impacts of hardness . 2-46 Deline chemica l oxygen demand (COD) and tota l o rga nic ca rbon (TOC), a nd d iscuss
2-3'2 Would hard water be acceptab le in most drinking -wa ter supplies? Wh y or why not? how these a nd o ther tests a re used to quantify non biodegradable organics in water.
Would ha rd water be an acceptable coolant for an industrial plant') Wh y o r why not ') 2-47 Name the nutrient s required in great es t abundance by aquati c spec ies.
2-33 How is hardness measured? 2-48 Disc lj sS the so urces a nd impacts of nitrogen and phosphorus in water bodies.
2-34 Determine the carbonate hardness. n o ncarbo nate hardness. and to tal hardness o f the 2-49 . Ho w are nitruge n and ph os ph or us meas ured ')
water described in Probs. 2-19 through 2-21. 2-50 Define methemog lobinemia and discuss itas a water-rela ted illness.
2-35 Discuss the sources and impacts of flu o rides in drinking-water supplies. 2-51 Path oge ns arc not always bac teria. Name tw o pathogenic bacteria . two viruses. a nd o ne
2-36 Name the most common nonto xic meta ls fo und in wa ter supplies. iu entify their sources. p rotozoa n somet imes found in wa ter s upplies.
and discuss their impacts. 2~52 With which wa terbo rn e pat hoge ns are the fo llowing di seases associa ted?
2-37 Name toxic metals that may he dissolved in water. identify thei r principal so urces. a nu (a) Cholera (f) T yph o id fever
discuss their impacts. (n) Sw ine heru's ui sc Jse (y) Paratyphoid
2-38 Define biodegradable organics. Give exam ples. discuss so urces. and assess the impact of (c) Amebic dysentery (il) Infa ntil e paralysis
biodegradable organics in water. (d) Giardiasis (i) Infectio us hepatitis.
2-39 Define biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and outline the s teps in the standard 5-d ay (1') Bacillary dysentery
BOD test. 2-53 What is an indicator orga ni sm ? Discuss the charac teri s tics of t he id ea l pathogen ind icato r
2-40 The 5-day BOD of a wastewater is 190 mg/ L. Determine th e ultimate oxygen d erna llu . and ind icate which organisms mos t near ly exhibit these characteristics.
Assume k, = 0.25 r '. 2-54 D iscuss t he use o f tota l co liform and fecal co li form tests in th e measurement of pathogens.
2-4] In a BOD determination. 6 mL of wastewater co ntaining no disso lved oxygen is mixecl Disc uss the memb ran e tiller technique and exp lain'h ow test results are reported wh en thi s
~ .. . .. ......... w~h 2.94mL0f cilution water<!>lltaining 8. 6'n1 &II..; of disso lved oxygen: After'a-S--'d<ty in'cubati oll technique is used .
at 20e. the disso lved oxygen content of th e mixture is 5.4 mg/ L. C alcul a te the BOD o f the 2-55 Di sc uss the multiple-tube fermentation test. What is a presumpti ve test ') A co nfi r med
wastewater. test ') How are resu lt s expI'essec!?
2-42 The 5-d 20C BOD ofa wastewater is 2 10 mgi L. What will be the ultimate ROD ') What 2-56 A sample o f wastewater is a na lyzed fo r co li form o rga ni sms hy the multiple-tube fer-
will.be the IO-day BOD? Hthe sample had been incubated a t 30 c C what wo uld the 5-day BOD men tati o ll method. The results of th e confi rmed test are as fo llows:
have been (k} = 0.23 d - ')?
Number of Number of
2-43 An analysis for BODs is to be run on a sa mple of wastewater. The BOD is ex pect ed to
Sample s ize . POSili\'e results ncgolive resulls
range from 50 to 350. and the diluti ons are prepared acco rding ly. In each case. a standard
mL. out of 5 tuhes Oll' of 5 lubes
300-mL BOD bottle is used. The dat a a re reco rdeu below.

Bottle Wastewa ter ,

DOt o
000 1
no. rnL DO, DO ,
(1.0001
000001
I 20 8.9 1.5
000000 I ()
2 10 9.1 2.5
9.2 5.8
4 9.2 7.5 Determine the most prohable number anu range of coliform o rganisms per 100 mL at the 95
percent con fid ence le ve l.
(a) Determine the BOD s o f the wastewa ter. 2-57 Disc uss in-stream sta ndards. etn uent standa rds. and potable -wa ter standards. Who sets
(b) If yOU know that the oxygen utili z3 ti o n rate is 0.2 1 per day at 20"C, what will be the these standard s in the United Sta tes? Elsewhere')
BOD) if the test is run at 30C? 2-58 What is an eflluent-limitcd stream 'J

\
62 WATER

REFER ENCES CHAPTER

2- 1 A merlean Wat e r W or ks Associa tion: .. Quality Goals ror Publ ic Wat e r -- Statement or Policy."
THREE
JAW' W A. 60 : 13 17 ( 1968)
2-2 Berg. Gerald: Transmissioll oj Viru ses by llle WOl er ROlile. Wiley . New Yo r k. 1%5. WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES
2-3 Camp. T. R .: Waler alld lis Impurilies. R einhold, New Yor k , 1973 .
2-4 En vironm enlol Quality, the Eighth Annual Reporr of Ihe Coullcil of Ellvirollmel/lal QlIalily. u.s. IN NATURAL SYSTEMS
Gov. Pr inting Office , Was hing lOn, D.C. , December 19 77,
2-5 Ge ldreich. Edwin E.: .. Water Bor ne P athogens," in Ralph Mitchell (cd .), Warer Polllliioll Micro-
hiology, Wiley, New York, 19 72.
2-6 Hahn . R oy W .. Jr . : F,mdomen{(l/'A>pecls of Waler QualilY Malloy emenr, Tec hnomic , West port.
Conn .. 1972 . .
2-7 M c Kee. J . E .. and H . W . W o lr: WOl er QualilY Criteria, publ. no.3-A, S tate Water R esou rces
Control Board, Sacramento, Calif. , 1971 .
2-8 IV1etcalr & Eddy. Inc . : Woslewoler Ellgille<'rinq: Treatmenr, Disposal, Reuse, 2d cd., M cG raw-Hili ,
New Y ork . 1979 .
2-9 M elhods for Chenllcal Analysis of Waler and Waste, EPA 600/ 4-79-020. U.S. EPA, Cincinnati,
March 1979.
2- 10 Milkr, J. c.: Nilralt COlllaminalioll of lh e iVoler Table Aquifer of Delo "'are, Report or In vestiga-
tions no. 20. Delawa re Geologica l Survey. U ni versity or De laware , 1972. Natural form s o f pollutants have a lways been present in s urface waters. L o n g
2-11 - - -. P . S. H ackenberry. and F. A. D e lucca : Groulldwoler Pollulion Problems in Ihe SOlllh- befo re the 'd awn of civi li za ti on , many of the impurities discussed in the previ o us
eastern Uniled Slares. E PA 600{3-77 -012. U.S. E P A, 1977.
chapter we re washed fr om the ai r, eroded fr om land surfaces. o r leac hed from the
2- 12 Sawyer, C. N .. and P . L. M cCarty' Chemistryfor EIII'irol/lllelllal Ellgil/eers, 3d ed .. McGraw-HilI.
New Yo rk . 19 78 . soi l a nd ultim a tel y fo und th e ir way int o surface water. With few exceptions, natural
2- 13 Schmidt. K . D .. "Nitrate in Groundwat er o f the Fresn o-C lovis Me tro po litan Arca. Califo rnia. " purificati on processes we re able to remove o r ot herwise render these materials
Groundlo'{tier. 10 50 ( 1972). harmless. Indeed, wi thout these se lf-cleaning processes, the wate r-dependent life
2- 14 Smit h , Alicc' !'v!icrobiology and Palhologr. M osby, St. l Ollis. 1976. o n ea rth cou ld no t ha ve deve loped as it did.
2- 15 Srandard Melhods for Ihe Examin alion 0/ WOler and W aS!elo'{tler, 15th cd ., American Pu b li c As civiliza ti on evo lved, human ac ti vit y increased the amount a nd changed
Health Association. Wa s hington , D.C., 198 1
the nature of polluiants entering watercourses. As settlements grew into villages,
2- 16 Steele. E . W . a nd T . J. McGhee : Wal er Supply and Se ll'erage, 'St h ed., M cGraw- H ili. New' Yo rk .
1979 . villages into towns, a nd to wns into cities. th,e quantity' Qf :-Y,"W~.p.r.od,ucts increased ... _.
2- 17 T od d, D . K . Th e Waler Encyclopedia, Wate r In ro rmati on Cc nt er, POri W as hin g ton. New York . until the self-purificatio n cap~lcit'y ' o flo~~ l wa ter bodies was exceeded . Smaller
1970 streams were a ffected firs t. with la rge r s trea ms and lakes ultim a tely becoming
2- 18 U.S . Departmenl or H calth, Educati on. and Wel rare ' Drinking Waler Srnndards. P HS bulletin polluted. Only in recent decades have po llution contro l prog ram s been initiated
no. 956, Publi c H ea lth Service. 1962 . .
in a n attempt to reduce th e co ntam inants discharged to these :-vater bodies to the
2- 19 U.S. Environmental Protection I\gency: "Na tio nal Interim Pr imar y Drinking Wat er Regula-
tion s. " Federal Re91.Her , pt. I V. D ecemhcr 24. 1975 . le ve l that th e na tural pur ifi cation processes can o nce aga in assimila te them.
2-20 Walk er . R odge r . Waler SlIpply. TreGtmn/l , and Dislribul ion, Prentice- H all. EnglewoOd CliO-s . The self-purificatio n mechani sms of natural water sys te ms include physica l,
N . J , 19 78 . chemical, and' biologica l p rocesses. The speed a nd comp leteness w ith which these c
2-2 1 Vesil lnd, P. Ai.lrne Ennronmenta/ Pollution lJnd Control. Ann Arh or Science. AJln Arbor. Mich ..
processes occur depend o n man y variables that a re system-specific. Hydraulic
1975 .
charac teristics s uch as vo lu me_ rate, and turbul ence of flow , physical character-
istics of bott om a nd bank ma teria l. va riations in sunlight and temperature, as
we ll as th e chemica l na ture o f th e natural wa ter, a re a ll sys tem va ri a bles th a t have
an influence'o n the natur a l purification processes. In na tura l waters, these system
var iab les a re se t by nature and can se ld om be a lt ered .
T he same physica l. c hemica l. and bio log ical processes that serve to purify
natura l water sy~ tems a lso work in engineered sys tems. In water- and wastewa ter-
trea tm ent plant s_ the rate a nd ex tent o f th ese processes a re m an aged by controlling
the sys tem var iables. A th oro ugh kn ow ledge o f the na tura l purificati o n processes
is thus esse ntial to the understanding of both th e ass imilative capacity of surface

63

1
64 WATER WATER PURIFI CA TION PROCESSES IN NATU RAL SYSTEMS 6S

waters and the operation of engineered systems. The self-purification of natural
water systems is discussed in this chapter, while wa ter purifica ti on in engineered
systems is covereciinGhaps, 4 and 5..
Physical Processes
The major physical processes invo lved in self-purification of watercourses are
dilution, sedimentation and resuspension, filtration , gas transfer, and heat transfer.
These processes are not only importan t in and of theITiselves,. but ani also of signi-
ficance in their relation to certain chemica l and biochemical self-purification
Example 3-1: Measuring dilution in streams A Irea ted wastewate r enters a s tream as
shown in th e accom panyi ng fig ure. The con cen tra tion of sod ium in the s tream a t poin t A is
10 mg/ L. and Ihe flow ra te is 20 m 3 /s . The concentra ti on of sod ium in Ihe waste st ream is
250 m g/ L, and the flow rate is 1. 5 m) /s. D elermine the concentralion of sodium at
,-.o inl B <Jss uming Ihal comple te mixin g has occllrred.
Stream B
~

processes. d" S
~ ()j
1.) $
::; '-..J
3:
3-1 DILUTION

Through the first decades of the present centur y. wastewater disposa l practices
were based on the premise that "the solution to pollution is dilution. " Dilution
was considered the most economical means of wastewater di sposal and as such
was considered good engineering practice. [3-5, 3-25J Early workers in the fi eld Sm. L'TIO N

devised mixing-zone concepts based on the lateral, vertica l, and longitudin a l

1. Writ e a mass ba la nce between poin ts A and B
dispersion cha racteristics of the receivi ng wate rs. Formulas predict ing space and
time requirements for diluting cert ain pollutants to preselected concentrations Mass in = Ma ss Ollt
were developed. Highly polluted water in the immediate vicinity of the discharge C"u Q,.n = c,. " Q,.A + CwQw
was tolerated as.inevitable, and little th o ught was given to the low levels of material Sin ce Q,.H is the sum of the other two fl ows
transported downstream.
Although dilution is a powerful adj unct to self-cleaning mechanisms of surface
" , ..0 '

waters, its success depends upon discharging relatively small qu an tities of waste '
into large bodies of water. Growth in population and industrial activity, with 2. In sert numeri ca l val ues a nd so lve for C,. /I
attendant increases in water dema nd and wastewater quantities, precludes the
use of many streams for dilution of raw or poo rly' treated wastewaters. In the 10 x 20 + 250 x 1.5
C D = - -- -- - - _ . _ _ .
,. 20 + L5
United States, legal constraints further limit use of water bodies' for wastewater
dilutiqn. Urider present regulation s, maximu~1 allowable loads are set ' indepen- C,.u = 26.7 mg/ L
dently of ~ilution capacity. Only when the standard maximum' load s result in
violation of in-stream water-quality standards is the dilution capacity considered,
and then only to determine the increment of treatment necessary. 3-2 SEDIMENT AnON AND RESUSPENSION
The dilution capacity 'of a stream can be calculated using the principles of
mass balance. If the volumetric flow rate a nd the concentration of a given material Sou rces of suspended soli ds. one of th e most co mmon water pollutant s. include
are known in both the stream and waste discharge, the concentration after mixing domestic a nd ind ustria l wastewater and runoff from agric ultura l. urban . or sil vi-
can be calculated as follows. cultural activities. As discussed in Sec. 2-2, th ese so lids may be'inorga'llic or organic
materials and/ o r li ve orga ni sms. and they may vary in size from la rge organic
(3-1 )
prticies to tin y, almost in visibl e, co llo id s. In suspen sion, so li ds increase turbidi t y
where C represents the concentration (mass/ vol ume) of the selected material, Q is (see Sec. 2-3). a nd th e redu ced ligh t penetrati o n ma y restri ct th e ph otosynthet ic
the volumeric flow rate (volume/ time). and the subscripts s, IV, and m designate activity of plant s, inhib it the vision of aquatic anima ls. interfere with feeding o f
stream, waste, and mixture conditions . T he following example illustra tes the use aquatic anima ls that obta in food by filtratinn. and be abra sive to respira;o r y
of this formula. structures sll ch as gills of fi sh. [3-27J
 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 67

Sett lin g o ut. or sedimen tati o n. is nature's method of rem ov in g suspend ed

partic les from a wa tercourse. a nd most large so lid s will se ttle o ut readil y in quies-
cent wa ter. P a rticles in th e co llo id al s ize range C~ 1I1 sta y in suspen sio n fo r long
periods of time. though eventua ll y most of these wi ll a lso settle o ut. Gas
Thi s natu ra l sed im enta tion process is not wi th o ut it s dra wbacks. Anae robic c
.2 c::
co nditi o ns are likel y to develop in sed iment deposits. a nd a ny o rga ni cs trapped in 2
th em will dec o mpose, releasing so luble compo un ds into the stream above. Sed i-
0. V 8---
~ . ~
ment deposits can a lso alter the strea mbed by fillin g up the pore space and creating .D
-< 0'"
un suit a ble cond iti o ns fo r the rep roducti o n of man y aquatic o rga nisms. [ 3- IX]
Th e deve lopment o f bank s cl f sil r a nd mud along th e bott om o r strea ms ca n a lt e r
its co urse or haJl1rer nav iga ti o n activi ties. Sediment accumu lati o ns red uce reser- Lic;uid
vo ir storage capacities and silt in harbors. a nd increase flooding du e to channe l
fill-in .
Resuspension of so li ds is co rnm an in tim es or fl ooding or heavy runorf. In Figure 3-1 Gas-l iqu id contact with gas transfer
such cases. increa sed turbulence may res uspend so lid s fo rmerl y deposi ted along between the pha ses.
no rm a ll y quiescen t are;JS of a strea m and carry th em fo r cons iderab le di stances
dow nstrea m. Eve ntu a ll y they wi ll agai n se ttk: o ul. but not before th eir presence
has in creased the turbidit y of th e wa ters into wh ich th ey ha ve beeJl introduced. equilibrium is reached . At thi s po in t, the number of molecules leaving the liq uid
is equa l to the number of molecules entering it agai n, and the liquid is said to be
saru rat ed wi th the gas. Equilibrium in this case implies a dynamic steady sta te,
3-3 FILTRA TJO N not a static state in which a ll movement of gas molecules wou ld stop once satura-
t io n occ urred.
As la rge bil S of d ebriS w~ l s h al o ng a streambed. they uften lodge OJl Ieeds o r sto nes Two characteristics of the a bove process tha t are importa nt in wa ter are (J)
where th ey remain ca ught until high waters wash th cm in to th e main st rcam agai n. solubililY. o r th e ex tent to which the gas is so luble in the water (i.e., the concentra-
Sma ll bits of o rganic matt er o r Ill o rganic cla ys and oth er sediment s may be filt ered ti o n of gas in th e wa ter at equilibrium), a nd (2) lransfer rale , or the ra te a t which
o ut by pebb les o r rocks along th e sll'ea mbed. f\ S \\,lI er perco lates frum the surface disso luti on o r release occurs.
downward Into g roundwater aq ui fers. filtrati o n of (J mu c h more soph isticated type
. ...
" ~ . .. . .
. OCCO l'S: ;:intl.if the soil1:iye( s 'a re' ckcp .eli 6 i.igh ~i Ii'd' Tin'e' 'e'li ollgll: ienl o \;ill'of s li s_
pended material is essentiall y co mplete by th e tilll e wate r ente rs the aqu ifer. Solubility
Man y stream s Interc hange freel y w ith the alluvia l aquifers und ernea th them . so
th e filt ered wa ter may reent er the strea m at so me poi nt down stream . The so lubility o f a gas in equi librium with a liquid is quantified by Henry's law
and is expressed ma th ematically by

3-4 GAS TRANSFER p

X= - (3-2) .'
H
The transfer of gases int o and o ut of wa ter is a n impo rt a nt part of the natural
purifi ca tion process. The repleni shment of oxygen los t to bacteria l degradati o n
o r o rga nic was te IS Jcco mrli shed by th e transfer of oxygen from the ~1Ir Into th e
in wh ich x is the equilibrium mole fract ion of the dissolved gas at 1 aim or
.--
r
wa ter Converse ly. gases ero l\ed in the wa ter hy c hemica l and bi ologica l processes moles of gas (ng)
X= -__-
ma y be t ransferred fr o m the wa ter t (1 t he a t mos phere. A k now ledge o r the princi pi es. mo les of gas (n g) + moles of liquid (n l )
of gas transfer is esse ntial to understa nd ing these natural processes.
Cons id er the simple sys tem s hpw n in Fig . 3- 1 ill whic h it co nta lll er of li quid
is sea led wi th a gas a bove it. If th e liquid is initiall y pure Wi th n;spect to the gas.
II is tbe ' coeffic ient of absorpt io n (H enry's coefflciene , which is unique for each
gas-liquid system), and P is th e pressure of the gas above the liquid. Other factors r
mo lecules o f gas wi ll migrat e across Ih e gas-liquid int er face an d beco me disso lved
in the liquid . Alth ough some mo lecu les o f gas will beg in leaving th e liquid <tllli
re turnin g to gas ph ~ l sc . th e net rC,lc ti ull \Vii i be to\\al'd th e liquid ulltil a stat e of
that affeci x are temperat ure (the so lubility increases as temperature decreases)
and the concentra ti on of oth er disso lved gases and so lid s (the solubility decreases
as ot her di sso lved material in Ihe liquid in creases). r
.L ~
 WATER PUR IFI CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 69
L .. ; 68 WATER

If the space above the liqu id is occupied by a mi xture of gases, each gas wi ll 3. The saturatio n concent ration is
ha ve its own equilibrium mole fracti on. According to Dalto n's law, each gas in a C, = 1.287 X 10 - 3 gm o ljl x 28.9 glgmol x 10 3 mg/g
mixture exerts a parti al pressure In propor ti on to its percentage by vo lum e in :0 37.2 mg/ l
the mixture; th at is.

~[
The so lubility of a ir can also be found by usin g its components and Dalton's law. Th e
PV = (PI + P2 + P3 + ... + fln)V or P = LP; compo nents of air by vo lume are approxima tely as follows:
Substituting into Henry's law, we see that x for the ith gas in a mixture is
, ii p; N, ~ 79 %
Xi = - (3-3)
, !
H; 0 , ~2 i %
in which x;, H;. and p; are, respecti ve ly. th e equilibrium mole fraction; abso rptio n
coefficient , and partial pressure of"the ith gas.
4. Th e molecular mass of nitr oge n is 28 g/ mol a nd H from Table C-2 in the appendi x is
Absorption coefficients for seve ral gases co mmonl y fou nd in natural wa ters
5. 29 x 10"
are given in T a ble C- 2 of the appendix. The coefficients are seen to vary substan-
tially with temperature. Although th e tota l disso lv ed mater ial a lso affec ts the so lu- 0.79 _5
bility, the effect is insignificant in the range of dissolved material us uall y found in
XN = = 1.49 x 10
, 5.29 X 10'
fresh water. To be precisely acc urate, the partial pressure of water vapor mu st
lIN , - 1.49 x 10 - ' nN , = 1.49 x 10 - 5 x 55.6
be accounted for in Eq s. (3-2) and (3-3). Co nve rsion of the eq uilibrium mole
\_- - fraction x to an equilibrium concentration Cs is illustrated in the fo llowi ng ex- = 8.3 x 10 4 mo l/ L
ample. e. = 8.3 x 10 - gnlOl/l x 28 g mol x 10 3 mg/ g
4

= 23.25 mg/ l
Example 3-2: Calculating the solubility of air in water Calc ulat e the so lubilit y of air in
water at OC a nd I atm press ure. Assume o th er d isso lved ma teria l is neg li gi bl e. 5. The equi li brium concentrations for 0 , and CO , can be found similarly and are 16.65
and 0.02 mg/ L. respec tively.
SOLUTION

I. From Table C-2 in the appendix. Henry's cons tant for air at OC is The equ il ibr ium concentratio n of air is
23.25 + 16.65 + 0.02 = 39.92 mg/ l
........ . .. .... .. ' .. ... ....... .. f!. .7.. 'U2. x. 10."..alm/mE>1 fra.:! ion ,L
, Th e discrepancy is acco unted fbr by the rounding off of the percentage of N, . 0, _ and
at I atm pressure. The mo le fr ac ti on o f a ir in wa ter is found by Eq. (3-2).
,..~. CO, in air. .

1.0 atm Transfer Rate

= -. - _._--
-132 x I04 ~11;~;I~lOli~,;~'iio-n Th e rate of gas transfer is an important parameter in aera ti on. The rate of transfer
= 2.3 I x 10 " mo l fracti on is governed by severa l factors and is mathematically expressed as
2. One liter of water contains dC/dt = (C - C)k"
1000 gi l where dC/dl is the instantaneous.rate of change of the concentrati on of gas in t he
- - - = '''6 g llhl l. L
18 g/ mol "' - liquid. C and C are the saturation co nce ntrati on and the ac tu al con centrati o n,
and respectively. and k" is a constan t related to give n physical co nditi ons. lt should be
noted th at desorption of the gas occurs when C is greater th an C The magnit u de
2.3 1. x fo - .5 = __ .r~~. _ .. of k" is known to depend upon the 'temperature of the system. the interfacial ar ea
11 9 + 55.6
avai labl e for gas transfer. and resistance to movement from one ph ase to th e oth e r.
n. - (2.31 x 10 - ' n.) = 2.31 x to - ' x 55.6 While the effect of tempera ture ca n be predicted by the van't Hoff-Arrhen i us
II. = 1.287 x 10 - 3 g . Il1ol.' l ~. ru le. the other va riables are system-spec ific. Th e int erfacia l area a vai lab le for gas
t'
~

.~
,L
70 WATER WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 7]

transfer is measured by the total contact surface between the gas and liquid.
Larger interfacial a rea per given volume will result in greater opportunity for gas
transfer.
The resistance to movement between the phases is most often explained by the
two-film theory of mass transfer initially postulated by Lewis and Whitma n in
1924. According to this theory, the interface is composed of two distinct films ,
one on the gas side and one on the liquid side, that serve as a barrier between the
bulk phases. This system is shown graphically in Fig. 3-2(1. In order for a molecule
of gas so mewhere in the interior of the gas phase to be transferr:ed into the interior
of the liquid phase. it must move through the bulk gas to the interface, across
the gas film , across the liquid film, and, finally, away from the interface and into
the bulk liquid. In systems where the liquid is :supersaturated with respec t to the
gas, movement of the gas molecule will be in the reverse direction (Fig. 3-2b).
., Bulk
u
g as
The driving force causing mass transfer is the concentration gradient, C s - C.
Resistance to mass transfer must be overcome for the process to occur, and each
one o f the steps lis ted above is likely to exhibit a different level of resistance. The
step which offers the most resistance to the movement of gas molecules becomes
the rate- limiting step. In stagnant situations (i.e .. no internal movement of the
bulk phases). movement of gas molecules to and away from the interface depends
to tally upon diffusion , and the process is verysfow. However, if internal movement
of the bulk phases occurs, molecules of gas are transferred to and away from the
interface by turbulence and eddy diffusion. and the rate of mass transfer is most
likely to be governed by one or both of the films.
In most natural water. sufficient agitation of the bulk phases exists, and the
film s become the limiting factors. In general, gases that are highly soluble in water,
such as ammonia, encounter more resistance in passing through the gas film and
-
the process is sa id to be gas~jilm-conlrolled. Conversely, slightly soluble gases
suc h as oxygen and nitrogen encounter more resistance in the liquid film , and the
system is liquid-film-controlled with respect to these gases. Gases of intermediate
so lubi lity. such as hydrogen su lfide. encounter approximately equal resistance
through the two 'films and the system is said to be mixed-film-controlled.

~ tI - - - -
E
_
Gas film
-7~
~ O~ ______________~------------ 3-5 HEAT TRANSFER

~ ! / Li",," "'m Bodies of water lose and gain heat much more slowly than do land or air masses,
. and under most c ircumstances. water temperature is fairly constant and changes
Bulk grad ually with the seasons. Consequently. aquatic plants and animals have not
liquid
dcveloped s u fllcien t ..ad.apta bi l.ilY 1.0 ..dei\l. \Vil.~. aI:>ru pI . ch.ange~ . in .. t~n1p.er?t.tJ r~., ............ .
C" >C r
a nd only 'ti~~' mo st hardy species survive such changes. Thus, heat increases tend
to decrease the number of species of aquatic plants and animals. [3-17J Further-
.Concentration -
(al
more, increases in water temperature affect ionic strength, conductivity. dissocia-
tion constants, so lubility, and corrosion. potential, all factors associated with
. water quality.
Given constant meteorologic conditions. water theoretically requires an in-
v Bulk finite time of exposure to attain equilibrium after a heat load. Furthermore. an "
u
tnfinite surface area would be required to cool warm water introduced into a .
~E
ro t ~----ll.:---_
ps
__ river or basin to the equilibrium temperature. However. because temperature
"' . Gasfilill decline is nearly loga rithmic , equilibrium can be closely approached within prac-

., !
2 0 ~------------~~------------

.~ I-----"'~
Liquid film "'"
tical limitations of time and su rface area. Many meteorological variables-plus
o ther factors suc h as channel characteristics (depth, width. surface area), channel
volume, etc. - affect the rate of heat transfer in bodies of water. For streams
Cl
Bulk heated by solar radiation over several miles of ht;at-Ioad area. cooling begins only
liquid in shaded areas or at night and may proceed much more slowly than cooling in
C, <Cr
Figure 3-2 Twofilm model of the
streams which receive their heat load in one discharge.
interfa ce between gas and liquid: (Ill In temperate zones. heat transfer in reservoirs and lakes where the influence
Concentration - absorption m ode and (h) desorption of turbulence and current is negligible is controlled by a phenomenon known as
(h) mode . {iIennal sWlijic(I{ion. Fresh waters reach their maximum density at 4C (39F),
;"

I
i
 WATER PUR IFI CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 73
72 WATER

with density declining as water moves toward the freezing point or grows warmer. 9C OC 4C
(See Fig. 3-3.) Thus, during warm seasons and in impoundment s of suffic ient
depth, water divides into an upper layer of warm , circulating water known as the
epilimnion and a lower layer of cool, relatively undisturbed water known as the
hypolimnion: These two layers are sepa rated by the th ermoclin e, or meralimnion , a
Epilimnion
(h
Vertica l
l ee

(h
Ver ti ca l
region of sharp thermal gradient. This stratification is shown in Fig. 3-4a. circu la rion cireu la t ion

Stratification is usually interrupted in autumn (Fig. 3-4b) as surface waters

cool and begin to sink. Wind action can then cause circulation throughout th e
entire body of water so that turnover in the lake's strata occurs, stratification
DJr k.
sUgnan t ,
cooler Hypolimnion
t! tl
disappears, and the body of water reverts to a uniform temperature throughout its water

depth. In cold regions, surface waters freeze over as winter sets in. Waters at 2 e
(36F), being denser than the colder waters above. form a layer a long the bottom , 9C ~oC
a layer in which the aquatic ecosystem survives as long as s ufficient oxygen is a va il- A ugust November January
able, despite the freezing of the lake's surface (see Fig. 3-4c). In spring, the process (0) (b) (el
is reversed as ice melts and turnover occurs (Fig. 3-4d), and summer stratification
Figure 3-4 T emperalure profi les of a deep lake. show ing (a) thermal strat ification, (b) autumnal
begins as surface waters are warmed by increased solar radiation. [ 3-27J circu lalion, (e) winler stagnalio n. and (d) spr in g ove rturn. (Adapted/rom H ammer [3-8].)

Water
1.000 I Water The nature and extent o f stratification varies. depending upon the size, depth,
I
Ice I configuration, and terrain of the body of water. area-vo lume-stage relations,
1.00 ,-r--~
orientation of prevailing wind s, and hydrologic (or induced) inAo w and outAow
characteristics. as well as with seaso nal variations in temperature. [3-25J

0.9995

0.95 Chemical Processes

Na tur a l wa terco urses co nt ai n man y di sso lved minerals and gases th a t in teract
i'7 . c hemi ca ll y with o ne another in complex and varied ways. Oxidation-reduction,
.~ 0.9990
dissolution-precipitation. cwe! o th er chemical conversions ma y alternately aid o r
"
Cl
obs tru ct natural purification processes o f natural water sys tems .
0.9 ci L -L..L-L---'-----'-_
- 10 0 10 20 30
Temperature.oC
(b)
1,--- 0.9985 3-6 CHEMICAL CONVERSIONS

II\~ Strict ly speaki ng. mos t of the oxidat ion-red uction conversions that playa part in
se lf-pLmtica tioll of Ilat erClllll'SeS are biochemically mediated and w ill th e refore
Ij"
t- be discussed in subsequent sect io ns of this c hap ter Be\<Iuse the so lid s dissolved
III 1\~Jt er Me esse lltlal to the metabu li c and reproducti,ie activities o f th e m icro-

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2~ . urga ni s ills th ~lt degrade ane! stabili ze o rganic wastes. man y' of th ose processes a re
Temperature.oC
di rectly o r Indirec tl y Intlu enced by the dlssl,lutio n-prec ipit ation convers ions t ha t
(al
OCc ur in th e watercollrses. /\s ce rtain min e rals pass Into and o ut u f soilitiun. they
become Illore or less I'eadil y availab le to the m icroo rganisms th ~Jt re ly upon them
Figure 3-3 C hanges in the den si ty of (a) wa ler and (bl ice wilh changes in lemperalure. (From Warr ell
for the success ful completion of th eir life processes.
[3-27].)

,"'-----
L
74 WATER
Nitrogen and phosphorus are usually considered the most essential nutrients
found in watercourses. Other materials me equally important to growth of micro-
organisms and plankton. though they are needed ill lesser amoullts. Iron. mangan-
ese. copper. zinc, molybdenum. and cobalt are micronutrients lIsually present in
water Natural chemical conversions th:11 may take place ill water call change
these materials into a form thai is soluble and therefore usable by various aquatic
organisms,
~ Chemical conversions that occur in reservoirs and deep 1:lkes play an imponant
role in the accessibility of ph'lsphorus. Phosphorus may enter the body of ,vater
attached to particles and settle to the bottom with these particles. Phosphorus
may also enter the water as soluble orthophosphate and become incorpoTated in
biomass that eventually settles to the bottom. When ferric iron IS also present
the fo1l0wmg reaction occurs.
Fe."" + PO .. " (3-4)
The insoluble ferric phosphate IS precipitated and settles to the bottom. There. in
the relative absence of oxygen. the iron is reduced tpthe ferrous form and the lOllS
go into solution. During spring or fall turnover. the phosphorus IS lllixed through-
out the entire depth of the lake. With some of it being used by plant life and some
of It recombining with ferric Iron and reforming the IIlsoluble ferriC phosphate
compound. with that precipitate again settling to the bott()m to await reduction.
[3-19J
Chemical con\ersions th:lt take place in streams :llld lakes Gin heir tll stabilize
the pH of those bodiesofwater. For example.lilllestune and other furms otcalciulll
carbonate (CaCO}) dissolve readily in water containing CO 2 , [3 -2oJ
'H';6'f'C(5~" ~'~" 1-1 2 C0 3 *
H 2 CO)* == H+ + HCO:;
The hydrogen ions thus formed react with slightly soluble calcium carbonate to
yield highly soluble calcium and more bicarbonate ions.
CaC0 3 + H' == Ca2+ + I-ICO.J
The bicarbonate acts as a bufTer to protect a stream from pH fluctuations that can
be harmful to aquat ic systems.
Biochemical Processes
Many of the 'chemical reactions II1volvecl Il1 the self-purit\catIOIi process must be
biolo-gicallv mediated. These chemical reactions are not spontaneous but reqUIre
an ex~ernai suurce uf energy for initiation. In the case of biodegradable organics
and other nutrients. this activation energy can be supplied by microurganisms
that utilize these materials for f(loci and energy. The sum total of the processes by
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 75
which living organisms assimilate and use food for subsistence, growth, and re-
production is called metabolism. The metabolic processes and the organisms
involved are a vital part of the self-purification process of.naturalwater systems.
3~7 METABOLIC PROCESSES
The biochemical reactions involved in metabolism are extremely complicated
and are not yet completely understood. It is 'known, however, that two types of
processes, each involving many steps, must occur simultaneously. One process,
called catabolism, provides the energy for the synthesis of new cells, as well as for
the maintenance of other cell functions. The other process, called anabolism,
provides the material necessary for cell growth. When an external food source is
interrupted, the organisms will use stored food for maintenance energy in a process
called endogenous catabolism. Each type of microorganism has its own metabolic
pathway, from specific reactants to specific end products. A generalized concept
of metabolic pathways of importance in natural water systems is shown in Fig. 3-5_
Enzymes playa major .role in biochemical reactions. Enzymes may be consid-
ered as organic catalysts that influence reactions without becoming a reattant
themselves. In biochemical processes, enzymes lower the activation energy neces-
sary to initiate reactions. The enzyme th'en reverts to its original form for reuse.
A model of enzyme-substrate (food) reactions is shown in Fig. 3-6. Enzymes are
complex protein compounds and are very specific in terms of the reactions that they
support. A microorganism thus needs specific enzymes for each reaction in its
Organics
+ Endogenous
catabolism
mil'roorganisms
+
Waste Organic
heat residue
Figure 3-5 Generalized metabolic pathway.
 \VATER PUR I FICATION PR OCESSES I N NATl'RAL SYSTEMS 77
76 WATER

IlIlrogl:110llS
Enzyme +
s,,',,"," ~ /
L' ~ l rbon~l ct'ou~
slill'urolls --.........
WASTES /\~ DECOM POSITION
f /Sl''' ' I tJ ,
Enzyme- pro le lns } LI V I NG \)
f"IS AN I MALS /
I Z
~ <3 I NITI A L
{Tam mol~
. H)
s ubs trate
",<-; w cr: PRODUCT S CO 2 --
(o mpkx -
...- C0 2
OI
t
AN IMAL LI FE
<t
I
"'I ClO .
' t
1,12 S

. I I '
protein, } I c {nitrr tes NO~
Enzy me + Prociu ct I"t s LI V ING ~~ INTERM ED I A T E . CO __ -

Figure 3-6 Enzyme reacti o n mod e l.

...- 0 ,
- C0 2
t
carbohyd rat es PLANTS

~;::~
~g6
- u PRODUCTS
~SU lfurs
2

PLANT LIFE ~
\ ",t,-alc, NOj
metabolic pathway, The fact that enzymes are not used up in the metabolic pro-
cesses is indeed fortunate, as this frees the microorganism to devote its energies and "'-- CO,
- - - - - stl ll:ll ," SO.;-
resources to the building of new cel1ular material rather' than to the constant
(a)
rebuilding of em,ymes,
Microorganis ms are equipped with enzy mes that a re especia l1 y wel1 suited' 1l11rn~l' 1l 0u:,

l" drboIlJ Cl'OLJ S

to the use o f partic ular types of organic m a tter. When these e nzymes are a norm a l
part of a particu la r microorganism. th ey are ca lled co ns tiltlti vl:, Ce lls produce -----.......,.
J)~, CO MPO S I TIO N
special enzy mes. ca ll ed adoptive enzymes. when they are ex posed to unu suaL even
tox ic. substances, This accl imati o n occ urs natura ll y. th o ugh at a relatively slow \
o rg;Jl1ll' Jell.!::-
rate. In m a ny cases. th e continued presence of a tox ic Subst:lIl ce w il1 lead to th e INI TI.,\L CO , ~
PRODUCTS {
gradual development of a specific bacteria capab le of decom p os ing and utili zing H )S ~

th a t toxic compound, For example. phenol-splittin g bacter ia are ofte n fo und in

"" ' '' ''''s"t"ream'sHi:iCliave' j:eceived 'di sdiiiiges bf phen o li c wa ters, [ 3-1IJ
Energy is transferred from th e cat<lbo lic reaction to the anabo lic reaction
t
INTt RMEDI '\TE l' Jillill on;" N H ; ___
thr o ugh high-energy phosphate bo nd s, The remova l o f hyd rogen or the splitting PRODUCTS CO ) - .
of the carbon - carbon bond in the catabo li c process releases e nergy, A sizeable 'i'ulfllk, ~"

~.
fr ac ti o n o f thi s energy is used to add a ph os ph a te atom to adenosine diph os phate
(ADP). converting it to adenosine triph os phate (ATP), The ATP is transferred
to the anabolic reaction where the ex tr a pho sp hate a tom is removed. re leasing
the sto red energy to th e sy nthesis reactioll, The resu ltin g AD P is then trans ferred
back to th e catabolic re ac ti o n to be reen ergized to ;\ TP. a nd th e cycle is repea ted.
Thi s process is s how n g raphical1 y in Fig, 3-7. Thi s descr ipti o n is overs imp lified.

ATP ( iI)

Fi gll'" .I-X NIII')~C " . "ar hnn , " " d su llur c\'cles (II) aerobic and (h ) ""aerobiC , (Fro m Vesrl/lld I 3-~6J-) ,

'- .

ADP + I' Figure 3--7 Energy transfe r mod e l.

78 WA TER WATER PURifi CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 79

a s there are man y s teps in th e process. eac h be ing m ediated by its own se t of
enzy mes. The read e r is referred e lsewhere fo r a mo re co mplete coverage o f the
s ubjec t. [ 3-14. 3-20, 3-7J
Ca tabo lic processes in vo lve e ithe r the oxidati o n or the redu c ti o n of mat e ria l
in th eslibst rCll e (food su pp ly). Iffree mo lecula r oxyge n is a va ilable, it will be added
to th e s ubstr a te anq t he waste produ c ts will be ox id ized co mpo und s. I n the absence
o f fr ee oxyge n. bo u nd oxyge n may be rem oved from oxygen-bea rin g com po un d s
a nd hydroge n added to e lement s o f the substrat e. Th e result is was te produc ts
co mposed of red uced co mp o und s. Oxida ti o n reac t io ns are m ore efficie nt because
th ey release g rea te r a m ou nts o f energy . Con seq ue ntl y. ae ro bic metabo li s m pre-
do min a tes when oxyge n is ava il a b le. Th is is fo rtunate becau se the ox idi zecl p rod-
uc ts o f ae ro bic processes are less objec tion a ble in na tur a l water sys tem s than the
redu ced produ cts o f ana e ro bic processes. H owever. anaerobic metabo lism d oes
play a n impo rtant role in was te ass imilati o n in oxyge n-d epleted wat ers and sed I-
ment.
Severa l interm ediat e ste ps ma y be in vo lved in th e metabo lis m o f orga ni c
ma ter ia l. Eac h int e rm edia te step ha s its ow n end pr od ucts, some o f whi c h may
beco me s u bs tr a te in s ubsequ en t reac ti o ns. Thi s is illl1 strat ed by th e nitr oge n.
ca rb o n. a nd sulfu r cyc les s how n in Fig. 3-8.
Like matter, energy can be neither created nor destroyed. Energy released in
th e catabolic process is transferred to the cellular material synthesized in the
anabo lic process, s tored in the waste products o f catabolism, o r released as
Ilea t or mec hanical energy. The relative quantities dispersed in these ways depend
up o n the na ture of the reaction . as depicted in Fig. 3-9. The end products o f aerobic
catabo li sm are low-energy, s table compounds, with most of the energy being
sto red in the cellu lar materi a l. By co ntrast. m os t of the energy released in a naerobic
cataboli sm remains in the waste product s.
3-8 MICROORGANISMS IN NATURAL WATER SYSTEMS
C lassical no mencla ture divides living organisms into two major subdivisions or
kin gdom s, plants and a nimals. Th e term protista is often used to classify organ-
is ms in which there is no cell speciali za tion ; th a t is, each cell is capable of carrying
o ut a ll of th e functi o ns of that organ ism. Members of the protista group are caUed
protists and may belo ng to either the pla nt or anima l kingdom under the classical
no mencla ture. Most of th e o rga ni sms of significance in natural purification
processes .....: bac teria. a lgae. a nd protozoa - are protists.

B1 0lllJ SS
Bacteria

Bacteria are the primary decomposers of orga nic material. Bacteria are single-
ce ll protists th a t utili ze soluble food. Although bacteria may link together into
Aerobic Availabl e chai ns or clusters, each cell is an independent ..orga.f)j~m .capable.of ca.Hying out ... .. .... .. .
p rocesses ellt..' rgy
W aSlc' hC'al
all t he 'necess a ry 1ifHlt"rii::ti6 iiS.T3-(4J 'the' structures of bacterial cells typical of
na tural wa ter syste ms are illu strated in Fig. 3-IOa. A listing of the relative abund-
a llce o f the element s comprisi.n g the ce ll is presented in Table 3-1. The chemical
formula fo r bacterial cells is assumed to be C 5 H 7 O 2 N. [3-1 SJ
Energy fo r bac teri a l grow th and reproduction may be derived from the
Wa s.! e
prod uc t s
biochemical ox idation of inorganic or organ ic compounds. or from the reduction
o f these co mp o unds. A few bacteria are a ble to utilize ultraviolet energy from sun-
Biomass li ght. M a terial so urces can be derived from either organic or inorganic compounds.
Bac teria are often classified accordi ng to the energy and material sources that
th ey require. Organisms that derive both energy and material from inorganic
so urces are called al.ltotrophs. while bacteria th at obtain both energy and material
from o rga nic comp ou nd s are called li eterotrophs. Pliotorroph s. bacteria wh ich
AJ1~le r obir Available
utili ze sunlight fo r an energy so urce and in o rganic substances for a material
processes ene rgy
so urce. pla y an ins ignificant role in the natural water purification processes.
He ter o tr o phic bacteria are 'the mos t important species in th e degr adation of
o rgan ic material. Aerobic hel erotroplis require oxygen in their met a bolic processes
whil e eIl/uerobic liet emtroplis utilize o rgan ics in the absence of oxyge n . A third
Vv:I Slc pr o c!u . . . l\ g ro up. ca ll edjacu/tative het erotroplis. functi o n as aerobes when oxygen is present
Fi gure 3-9 Energy balance III mel~b,)li,m U/ler Slrele (lnd ,1/ ciiiJel' [3221 ) but sw it c h to a na ero hi c processes when oxyge n becomes unavailable. A maj o r

i'
~
.l
 80 WATER WATER PURIF ICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 81

Cytoplasmic membrane Cy toplasm , con taining Table 3-1 Bacterial cell compo-
regu la tes transport of ribonucleic acid ( RNA ). sition
Ce ll wa ll food int o and was te produ cts contro ls anabo li sm, manufa c tures
gives shape to out of ce ll. and recycles enzymes, Elemenl Dry weig ht . ~~
ce ll and preven ts
stores food.
destruction by
. shear forces: may Carbon SO
be 10-50% o f Oxygen 20
ce ll weight. Nitrogen 14
H ydrogen 8
o . '.0
Ph osphoru s 3
0 '" .'0 '0.' 0' ..0' '.'0
: '.
Sulfur
-'0 .
00' . 0 0 ., o Pota ssi um
, 0 ,.".0 0 ",
Sodium 1
Calcium OS
Ma gnesi um 0.5
Nucleus, a
Chlorine 0.5
S lim e layer of si ngle stra nd of
o rgan ic poly m e rs deoxyribonucleic acid I ron 0.2
va ries in thi ck ness (DNA), co nt ains ge n e tic Allolhers 0.1
with "age" of t he ce ll code: w ith RNA regulates
and o th er env ironm e nt a l metabo li sm . ,<Jour('(': r-rom Gaudyanu Gaudy
co nditi o n s: sto res food [ 171
aQd bi nd s food and o ther
bac te ri a int o floes.
funct ion of auto t rophic bacter ia is t he oxida ti on of nitrogen and sulfur compou nd s
(a)
to stab le end prod ucts.

Protozoa
Like bacteria, protozoa are Single-ce il orga nisms that rep rod uce by binary fiss ion.
Unlike bacteria, protozoa ingest sol id orga nics for food. Si nce protozoa are one
; to two orders of rTla!;llit LI CIc: .largertI1Cll1.pac;te.ri a..lhe prot ozoa d iet often includes
.. ~.
'b~ctc'l:iai' ce(l s' ,is we ll as co ll o idal organics. There are many aquat ic species of
L~

~ protozoa. most of which are strict aerobes. Lik e heterot rophi c bacteria , they obta in
I.
,
f both energy a nd material for growth and reproduction fr om th e same orga nic
food so urce.
The mo st Important pro tozoa l gro up in natural wate r systems is th e ciliata.
Th ese orga ni sms are charact erized by hairlike appendages called ,ilia and may
be either free-sw imming or stalked (attached to a so lid particle). as illu strated in
r
~,
Fig :\-1 1. The free-swimming protozoa use <l rapid movement o f their ci li a to
prope l themselws through the water in sea rch of food. The stalked pro tozoa use
f. their cilia tll bring food in frnlll the surro unding water. Prot ozoa are vO f<lci ous

i" Cons umers of organic material and are impor tan t members of th e aquatic com-
I
munity.

Algae

(b)
Figure 3- 10 (a) Generalized struclure of a bacterial cell; (h) photomicrograph of fre,hwatn bacteria
attached 10 a su rface. Threadlike materials a re ex tracellu lar polymers that hind Ihe organisms togelher
;\Ild 10 the surface (photo courlesy"j W . C . Chararklis) .
Algae arc auto tro ph ic. photosy nth etic organ isms anu . eve n th o ug h they uo not
utili7e orga nic compounus directly. playa significant role in th e natllral purification
prc>cess. In the presence of sunlight. :J!gae metabo li ze th e waste pruduct s of hetero-
trorhll' hacteri:1 (C0 2 , 0 , . PO.,-'- . etc .) wh il e obt:lining energy from sunl ight.
 82 WATER
Figure 3-11 Ph otomicrograph of a stalked protozoan: n o te haIrlike cli la used in the food-gathering
process.
. " . . . .. . . On.e 9U.be.w'Is\e.PJ(xlnctsoflhis.reaclionisox.ygen.When s unligh t is no t a va ilable.
the algae catabolize stored food for energy a nd use oxygen tn the process. This
diurnal nature o f alg a l ca tab o li sm is an important factor in the oxygen balance o f
natural waters that a re nutrient-rich .
Th ere are lite ra ll y thousands of species o f algae of va ri o us sizes. s hapes, and
co lors. Algal ce ll s ma y be fo und in clusters. in lo ng filaments a ttach ed to ba nk s or
bottom materi::li. or may rem a in as single ce ll s suspended in wa ter. So me spec ies
of algae can ha ve negati ve effect s on water qua lit y becau se th ey produce o il y
s ubst ances th a t cause t::tste anet Ddor pro blem s.
Other Organisms
Other microorganis ms may a lso play important ro les in the natural. pur ification
process. R o {ij l'l"S anet uu.\"(ucca are 'Iower -o reie r a nim a ls th a t. prey o n bacter ia.
prot oz()i!. Li nd al gJe. The\' flelp to maintain a baLtnce In th e p(ipulations ofprlln;t ry
producers ;lI1d sc n e as an impo rt ant link in th e chai n by which o rgani c m ate rials
a re passed o n to hi g her-o rd e r animals. SI1IlCj(' worms s uc h as tublfex a ncl bl ood-
worlllS. a s we ll as u th c l' helminths and in sect la rvae. feed o n sl ud ge depos its and
help to brea k down and s() lubilize th e part icu late organics.
l
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 83
Response of Streams To Biodegradable Organic Waste
Th e self-purification of naturalw a(er systemsisac()mplex process that ()ften
in vo lves physical , chemical , and biological processes working sim ultaneously.
C hemical and biochemical re ac ti o ns a re conversion processes rather than re-
mo va l processes. The nature, a nd perhaps phase, of the waste may be changed, .
but t he produ cts remain in th e water until phys ica l processes remove them from
suspension by sedim entation or b y transfer to the a tmosphere. This isillustrated
by the reaction in Eq. (3-4). Here chemical processes combine iron and phosphate
into solid form. and the physical process of sedimentation removes it from sus-
pen sion. Another example is the metabolism of organics by microorganisms.
Bi ochemical reactions convert the organics to biological solids and other end
products that may be recycled several times (Fig. 3-8) before ultimately being
incorporated into bo tt o m sed iments or released as gases to the atmosphere,
both by physical processes.
The self-purification processes can be modeled , provided the waste character-
is ti cs and th e system var iables of the water body are known. The modeling process
is co mplicated in lakes and estuaries by dilution and dispersion characteristics
that are va riabl e with time. A complete discussion of water-quality modeling is
be yo nd the scope of this text. Ho wever. some examples will be used to illustrate
th e interaction of the physical, chemical, and biochemical processes described
ear lier. The examples chosen relate to the assimilation of organic material by
streams and the res ulting effects.on the oxygen balance and the ecosystem . Al-
th o ugh these topics are the o nes most frequently covered in the literature on natural
purification processes. the reader should be aware that other self-purification
processes, with respect to other contaminants, may be of equal importance.
"-
3-9 DISSOLVED-OXYGEN BALANCE
, --
Disso lved oxygen is o ne of the m os t important constituents of natur~1 water
sys tems. Fi sh and o th er aquatic animalspecies require oxygen, and a stream
mu st have a minimum of abo ut 2 mg/ L of dissolved oxygen to maintain higher.
life for ms. At least 4 mg/ L of disso lved oxygen is required for game fish and some
s pecies lllay require m ore. In addition to this life-sustaining aspect, oxygen is
impo rtant beca use the end products of chemica l and biochemical reactions in
anae ro bic sys tems often pro duce aes theti ca lly displea s ing co lo rs, tastes. and odors.
in water.
When biodegradabl e o rganics are discharged to a stream con tai ning.dissolved
oxyge n. mi croorganisms beg in the metabulic processes that convert the organics,
along with the disso lved oxyge n, int o new cells a nd' ox idized w:\ste product s.
Th e q uantit y o f oxyge n required fo r thi s conversion is the biochemical oxygen
demand discussed in Sec. 2- 13. The rate ;It w hi c h the dissolved oxygen is used
will d epend on the quantit y of tli e organics. the ea se with which they are bic-
degraded .. and th e d iluti on ca pac it y of the stre am .
 84 WATER WATER PUR IFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURA L SYSTEMS 85

The di ssolved oxygen that is used from the stre a m must be replaced o r a n aer- bac teria l metabo lism. major a lgal ac t ivit y usua ll y occurs downs t ream fro m . rather
o bic co nditi o ns will devel o p. Two mech a nism s a re kn o wn to co ntribu te oxyge n tha n with in, t he area o f grea tes t bac teria l ac ti vit y w here t he oxyge n is needed th e
to surface wa ters; (I) di ssolu\io n o f o xyge n fro m th e a tm osphe re, o ft en ca lled mos t. Also, in th e abse nce o f li ght. a lgae o bta in ene rgy fr om e ndoge n o us catabo l-
rea era ti o n, and (2) producti o n o f oxygen by a lga l ph o tosy nth esis. ism represented by th e fo llowing reactio n.

Reaeration
Th e princ iples bf equilibrium b et ween wa te r an d gas in cont ac t wi th eac h o t he r
a re desc ribed in Sec. 3-4. Equilibrium co ncent rati o n s o f oxygen in wa ter a t vario us
tempe ra tures a nd salinit y va lu es are g ive n in T ab le C-3 o f th e a p pe nd ix. Whe n
co ncentration s of disso lved oxygen drop below th e equili b rium va lue. th e n et
m o vement of o xyge n will be . fr o m th e atm osph e'r e into th e wa ter. The diffe rence
between the equilibrium co ncentra ti o n a nd th e ac tu a l co ncent ra ti o n is ca lled
th e oxygen deficit a nd is represented m a them a ti call y b y
D = Cs ~ e (3-5)
e
whe re D is th e di ss o lved o xygen d efi c it a nd C, and a re th e equilibrium co nce ntra -
ti o n a nd ac tu a l o xygen c oncentrati o n , respec ti ve ly. T he units o f a ll th e terms a re
milli g ra ms pe r liter o f oxyge n. F or co n sta nt eq u ili b riu m co ndi ti o ns. i.e .. C d oes
no t cha nge. th e ra te o f c h a nge in th e d e fi c it is
dD de (3-6)
ci l dt
T he d eficit thu s incre ases a t th e same ra te th a t th e o xyge n is used up.
The di ssolved oxyge n d efic it is th e dr iving fo rce for reae ra ti o n. Th e g rea ter t he
de fi c it , th e g rea ter the ra te o f reae ra ti o n. It fo ll ows, th en, fro m Eq. (3-6) that the
rate o f reaerati o n in cre ases as th e co n ce ntra ti on o f di sso lved oxyge n d ecreases.
(3-8)
T h is reac ti o n contributes to the oxygen de m a nd ra th er th a n to th e oxygen sup p ly
of th e stream.
The difference in a lga l catabo li sm d urin g li g ht a nd da r k p e ri o d s res ults in
diurnal variations in the dissolved oxyge n in strea ms wi t h heavy alga l g row ths.
T he dissolved-oxygen concentration often peak s arou nd 2 to 4 P.M., wit h t he lowes t
levels occu r ring j ust before sunrise. U nfo rtu nate ly, th e excess oxygen gen era ted
du rin g t he d ay can no t be sto red fo r use du ring th e ni ght , as it is ex pe lled to the
at mosphe re to m a in tai n equil ib riu m. In _cases w here th e a lga l g row th is heavy,
the endogenous catabo lism may de pl ete t he di sso lved oxygen to t he point w here
fish ki ll s occur.
Because of tli c variability o f photosy nth eti call y p ro du ced oxyge n, reae ra tion
is co ns idered th e Ill os t dependab le source o f di sso lve d oxyge n. "t may be necessary
however. to Inc lu de p ho tosyn t hetic oxyge n in a d isso lved -oxygen mode l for wa ters
where algal growths are heavy.
3-10 DISS OLVED-OXYG EN MODEL
Most a ll of the di sso lved-oxyge n mo d e ls in c u rre nt use rela te in some way to the
model de\e loped hy S tree ter <lI1 d Phe lps in 1925. T hi s m odel.predic ls.c na n ges in
t he deficit as a fun ctio n of BOD exertion a n d st ream reaera ti on.

Algal Photosynthesis
Rate of Ox ygen Removal
In t he presence o f s unli g ht , a lga e me tabo li ze inorgan ic com po u nd s, wi t h one of t he
was te product s bein g oxygen. The fo ll ow in g fo r m ul a is a sim p li fi ed represe n tation The rate at \Vhich disso lved oxygen disappears from the stream coincides with the
o f thi s reac ti o n . . rate of BO D exert ion. Therefo re

(3-7) dy de
(3-9 )
~' - III dl
~C\\
algal Substituting into Fl] . (1-6)
cells
til' dD
T he oxygen thu s re lea sed is immed ia te ly ava il ab le to reple n is h t he di sso l\ ed (3- 10)
oxyg(': n in th e wa ter. In th e presence of excessive nu t rien ts and hr ight su nli ght. III cil
a lgal me tabo li sm m ay produ ce S(l muc h oxygen t ha t th e water hecomes s u per-
l'onlirlllil1g th~lt :111 increase In tlie r:lte of BOD exertion results III an incre:lse in
e
sa tura ted . Th a t is, > C, a nd th e defic it has a nega tive v:t1u c. th e ,:lle "f ch: ll1 gc ()f (}.\:gcn delicit . III Sec. 2-1). It was s hown tha t
Ad\ erse fac to rs associa ted wit h excessi\'e a Iga I gn)w t hs (li'ten (lut we igh the
be nefi ts o f the oxyge n th ey prod uce. Because algae use the waste produc ts from I' = L. o - L,

i
. L
 86 WATER

WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NAl1JRAL SYSTEMS 87

Because Lo is the ultimate BOD a nd therefore a fixed va lue.
Table 3-2 Reaeration constants
dy dL,
tit dl (3-11 ) Ranges of k, at 20'C.
Water body
base e
Recalling Eq. (2-20)
Small ponds and backwalers 0. 1- 0.23
dL, = -kL, Sluggish st rcom s and large lakes
Large s!reams of low velocily
0.23 - 0.35
dl 0.35- 0.46
Large streams of normal ,e loci ty 0.46 - 0.69
Swift streams
a nd making appropriate substi tuti o ns in Eqs. (3-11) and (3-10). the following 0.69- 1.15
relationship is obtained . Rapids and waterfalls
Grealer than I 15

dD Source: Afler Melcatf& Eddy, Inc. [3 - 15)

-- = kL
ill ' (3-12)

which states tha t the rate of change in the dissolved oxygen deficit at time I due opposi te effects on the deficit. This is shown gr;tphically in Fig. 3-12. The rate of
to the BOD is a first-order reaction proportional to the oxygen equivalent of the cha nge in the deficit is the sLIm of the two reactions
remaining o rga nics. A more convenient form of Eq. (3-12) is

rlJ = kiL,. (3-13)

where r D replaces the differential form as the rate of change in the oxygen deficit
due to oxygen utilization. The reaction rate constant k, is th e same parameter (3-15)
described in Sec. 2-13 and is derived from laboratory tests on the wastewater. The
The actual oxygen concentration (e, - D,) has a c haracteristic dip as shown in
rate constant is adjus ted for temperature changes. but is not usually adjusted for
other effects of dilution wit h the st ream water. Fig. 3-12. resulting in the term lixYif'1/ sag ClIIT', commonly used to describe the
process.

Rate of Oxygen Addition

As no ted in Sec. 3-9. the rate of reaerati on is a first-order reaction.withTespecl. . .~~ .

to the magn ituci e uf the oxyge n deficit This is expressed mathematically by Cl'"

(3-14)
J. Equilibnuln .::onlcnlr"~~~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

where r R is the rate at which oxygen becomes disso lvell fr o m the atmosphere. {) is _J"
I'
the oxygen deficit defined by Eq. (3-5), and k2 is a re;ler~ition rate constant that is
~'
sys tem-specific. The nega t ive sign reflects t he fac t.t hat an increase in t he oxygen
s uppl y dlle to reaeration reduces the oxygen deticit. Factors atlec tin g kl illclude ...=1.
>, C ,
stream turbulence (a fun ction of velocity and channel characteristics), surface 6
area. water depth. and temperature. Temperature corrections are mad e by Eq. 'tJ
:~
c; --+,-
(2-23) with a value of 1.016 fo r () being most common. Several models are available f"
I "-
- I
for determining numerical values for k 2 [3-16. 3:4], the development of which is C;
I
beyond the scope of this text. A range of\a lues typically found aprlicable to various I
flow regimes is given in Table 3-2. I
I
I
The Oxygen Sag Curve

The oxygen deficit in a stream is a function of both oxygen utili z;lIion and re;ler;l-
Tiull'. day~
ti on In spectlun of b.Js (.3-13) and 13- 14) s hows th"l these two processes ha\.c
Figure .1-12 CharacteriSlics u f the o'ygen sag cuneo
 WATER PUR IFI CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 89
88 WATER

The oxygen deficit, and therefore the oxygen concentration, at any point in The fina l so luti on becomes
time after the discharge can be determined by integrating Eq. (3-15). This is not,
however, a straightforwa rd operation. Recalling from Eq. (2-21) that
Dekll = kILo ( e1k'- k,)r + Do - ~)
k2-kl k2-k\
L, = Lo e- kll or
and rearranging Eq. (3-15), the following equation is .obtained
dD .. '
Tt + k2D = kILoe - k" (3-1 6) and in final form
k L .
which is a first-order differential equation of the forr~ D = \ 0 (e - k" _ e-k, ,) + Doe-k" (3-20)
k2 - ki . .
dy
-d + Py = Q In thi s equat ion. t represents the time of travel in the stream from the point
x of discharge and is the on ly independent variable in the equation. The time of
where P and Qare functions of x, [3-1] The use of the integrat ing factor ex peS P dx) travel from the point of discharge to any given downstream 'point is:
ISnecessary for the solution of this type equation. For Eq. (3-16). the integrating X
t =- (3-21 )
factor is u
where x is the distan ce along the stream and II is the stream velocit y. The units
(3-17)
of 1 must always be days. Substituting va lues for t, or x/u. into Eq. (3-20), will
Multiplying both sides .of Eq . (3- 16) by the right side of Eq. (3-17) yields result in a va lue of D for that point in the stream.
The mos t important point on the oxygen sag curve is often the poin t of lowest
ek" _dD + k Dek" = k L e(k, - k,)1 (3-18) concentration because this point represents the maximum impact on the dissolved
dc 2 I 0
--.\ oxygen due to wastewater discharge. This point is called the cricical deficit Dc> and
The left side of this equation can be factored as follows the time of travel to this point is termed the critical cime tc' Recognizing that the rate
of change of the deficit is zero at the maximum deficit. an expression for Dc can be
dD
ek" _ + k Dek" = _ Dek"
d ..fou l1 cl f.r ornEq. U,\ 6) ...
. . .. ..... dt ..... 2 . .. .. (/t .... ..... . ...... .
..

Separating variables and integrat ing or

JdD ek" = kiLo Je(k,-k,}! dt

and
The. integration of which yields
(3-22)
(3-19)
The solution of thi s equa tion depends on a numerical va lue for cc' which is some-
what more ditfic ult to obtain. First, Eq. (3-20) is differentiated and set equal to
The constant of integrati on C can be determined from known boundary condit ions,
zero. again because Df is a maximum at cc:
that IS, D = Do at ( = O. Therefore
. k L . k c
~. o= k-=--~ ( - kie - k",. + k 2e - k" c ) - k 2 Doe- "
,t 2 \

Dividing throu gh by e- k" c

and
 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 91
90 WATER

rea rra nging b. BOD [Eq. (3-1)]:

y,Q, + y",Qw
'y'mix. = .. .
Q, + Q",

3.0 x 0.5 + 40 x 0.17

and 0.67
k k - k
" _ f) ~ _2 _ _1 l2.4mgj L
2 II kI La
Convert to ultimate BOD. (Assume kl = 0.23 for mixture')
dividing through b~ k I ami taking the logarithm of both sides
y
= .In (k- 2 - k, k2 -- kI) y. ;= Lo = 1 - e k
If
(1,. - k )1 D ) -- - - - -
2 I, "I 'q Lo
12.4
_e- O. 23 )(5
or in more convent ional form

I, Do /" - - -k I)J (3-23 )

= 18.2 mgj L

"I L o c. Disso lved oxygen:

Equations (3-22) ane! U-23) can be used to determine the critical oxygen le vel in 8.0 x 0.5 + 2,0 x 0.17
DO m ;, = 0.67
the stream and the position ~It \\ hich it OCClIlS. Th e procedure is illu strated in the
following examp le. = 6.5 mgj L

d_.Temperature:
Exa mple 3-3: Appl yi ng the BOD sag curve .- \ municipal wastewater-treatmcnt plant
dischargcs secon dary cfJ-lucnt to a surl"ace stream . Th e wo rst co nditi ons arc known to 22 x 0.5 + 25 x 0. 17
occur in the summer month, whell stream tlow is low alld water tempera ture is hi gh. Tmix = 0.67
Unda the se conditIOns. mea surcmClll S arc made in the laborat o ry and in Ihe tield to
deterrTllne- 'rhe- 'cha ra cleri'sl it~; (if' ihl'" \\':l~ ie\\' :!kr' and , Irea III fl ows. The waslewalcr is
I"ound 10 have a maximum flow rai l' \)1" 15.000 rn J;uay. a DOD , 01" 40 mgiL , a dissolved
2. Correct reaclion constants for temperature_
oxygen concenl r,lIion of2 mg L. and a Ic mpcra lu re o f2 5 C Thc stream (upslreal11 from
a. BOD reaction rate [Eq . (2-23)J:
Ihc puinl of wa<lewaler discharge) i, round 10 ha\'c a Illillilllum t1 0w rale 0 1- 0.5 m J/s , a
BOD , of 3 l11g ' L. a dl sso h'cd n\\gCIl concenlralion 0 1' 8 Illg/ L. and a Icmper~!lure of k" .8 = k 20 ( 1.047 12 .8 - 10)
22 ' ('. Complcl c mixin g o f Ih c \\'aslc\\"aler and SlrC:lm "almos l in"lanlaneo us, and Ihc
= 0.23 x 114
\'elocilY of Ih e Il1IXIUI"C IS 02111 " . l- rol11 Ihe 11(1\\ rq!llllc. Ih(' reacr~!li\)n cunSlanl is
cstimaled 10 be 0.4 ua) - , for 2(1 (. cundili,1I1'> .
Skclch Ih e disso h'cd O\ygcl1 IH o liie a IOO klll reach of Ille , Ircam bel o w Ihe dls-
eha rge. /J. Stream reaeration rate

k 22R = k 20 (I.01612.8 - 10)

SOLl' IION
= 0.4 x 1.05
I. Determine'c haracrenstics l)f \\'aste\\"~'ler-Slrealll mixl;,re. );"22" = 0.42 d . I = k2
I d I Il I min
( I. Q:, - IS.noo m' d X X X ---- 3. Determine initia l oxyge n deficit Do
2<1 h (,() min 60 s
(J. At T = 22.8. the eq uilibriul11 concen tration of oxygen in fresh water is 8.7; therefore

= 11 . 17 Ill J S
J Do = 8.7 - 6.5 = 2.2 mg/ L
Qrnlx = 11.17 + n .) = n.b7 Ill , S
92 WATER WATER PURIFICATION PR OCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 93

4. Determine the critical deficit and its location. These point s are connected by a smooth curve as show n in the accompanying figure
to yield the desired oxygen profile of the stream.
a. I, = _I_In[k2 (I _
k,-k, k,
Dok, -
k,Lo
k')] (3-23)
10

= I In [0.42 ( 1 - 20.42
2 -- -0.26)J
c,
- --
- - -- - - - ----------------
}
0.42 - 0.26 0.26 . 0.26 x 18.2
8 .
1, '= 2.5 d . Do
-'
tIi
k, C
b. Dc = - Loe-k'tc
k, c 6
v
en
A
x
0.26 18.2e - 0'
= _ .6 X '.5 o
0.42
= 5.9 mg/ L .~
c. This condition will ~ccur at a distance of

x = 0.2 m/s x 86.400 sid x 2.5 d {c :::. X/II

= 43.2 km downstream from point of discharge
75 100 125
5. Determine the deficit at points 20, 75. and 100 km from the point of discharge. o
Di st3n cc downstream, km
xkm
(I. 1= - - -
u km/d Bot h th e position and magnitude 6r the critical deficit ar e related to t he sys tem
Ikm86.400 s variabl es (/'1' " 2, L o, Do. and u). The time o f travel to the c riti ca l defi c it (rJ is
u = 0.2 m/s x - - - x - - - = 17.3 km/d innuenced more s trongl y by th e va lues of /.:.1 and /.:." . while the magnitude of the
d 1000 m
deficit is m os t affec ted by th e L o va lu e. N o t o nl y do heavier loads resu lt in greater
1'0 = 20/17.3 = Ll6d defi c it s. but th ey extend th e inAu e nce of th e waste farther down s tream H eavy
175 = 75/17.3 = 4.3 d loads of organics may result in th e' developmei1t 'of'a'I1ae-rubic condiriooS.Und'er
t hese conditions, o xygen is tran s ferred in a t a high rate [Eq. (3-14)J but is used up
1'00 = 100/ 17.3 = 5.8 d
by facultative o rga ni s m s that may also be utilizing the organic material produced
b. The deficits at these times are: by a naerobic m e tabolism. In a deep s tream , true anaerobic organisms may Aourish
k L near thebottom. Only after the strength of the waste has been sufficiently reduced
D = _ _ '_0_ (e - '" - e-"') + Doe -'" (3-20) .
k, - k, . will aerobic condition s be re sto red. Since anaerobic metabolism is a siow. process,
recovery of an overloaded st rea m will be slow and the oxygen sag will extend far
D - 0.26 x 18.2 (e'
-0 ,6x II 6 _ e-O .42Xllb)+2.2e - 0.42XI.'6 downstream. - "
20 - 0.42 - 0.26
= 5.1 mg/ L
D 75 = 5.2 mg/ L Limitations of the Oxygen Sag Curve
D,oo = 4.1 mg/ L
Th e limit a ti o n s o f the oxyge n sag c ur ve s hould be at o nc e appare nt Th e rate o f
.6. The dissolved-oxygen concentrations at each po int are found to be: d eoxy gen ~llion and th e ra te o f reaeration a re each affected by many va ri ab les fo r
C 20 = 8.8 - 5.1 = 3.4 Illg!L which the mod el mak es no a ll owance . .

C n2 = 2.8 mg/ L BOD variables Th e eq uati on is ba sed on the a ss umption that th ere IS one source
of BOD w hen there m ay actually be seve ra l diffe re nt point or n onpoin t so urce s of
C 75 = 3.5 mg/ L BOD. Additional di sc harges can be tak e n into cons ideration by s ubdi vidin g a
C'oo = 4.1 mg/ L ri ve r into short reache s, each feci by a single p o int so urce. If tributaries empty int o
94 W ATER
the m ains tream , any di scharge they may have recei ved mu st al so be tak e n Illto
co nside ra ti on, a s we ll as th e in crease in flow o f th e rece ivin g stream.
E ven when care is gi ven to co ns id er all o rga ni c lo ael s intro du ced at di sc har ge
POlll ts, the bi o chemica l ox ygen demand ora str eam ma y be affected by o th er fac to rs
no t app ro ximated by t he k I co n stan t. A lga l re spira t ion in th e absence of s unlight,
nitrificati o n processes that in c rea se ox ygen d e m a nd , and the presencc o f slud ge
d e pos it s in pool area s can al l in c rea se a str eam's BOD. [3- 5, 3-8J In s hall o w
s treams, masses of m icrobial growth attach ed to th e strea mbed lIlay be more
e tncient at utili z ing o rgani cs, and con sequ entl y co nsum e more di ss ol ve d o xyge n
th a n the s us p ended micro o rgani sm s used in th e laborat o ry BOD tes t. [3 -2 IJ
This fac t, though recognized and va lu ed in engineered tr eatment sys tems, is o ften
ig nor ed in self-purifica ti o n stu die s.
Reaeration variables R ep lacement of o xygen is al so affected by man y fact o rs
not taken int o considera ti on by the _form ula s used t o derive oxyge n sag curves ,
notably the reaeration co ntribut ion of algae p h ot os ynthesi s . F u rt he r, th e math e-
matics assumes stead y-sta te condition s all along a ri ver c ha nn e L Becau se such
steady-stat e condi tions wo uld indeed be rare , m o st streams must be s ubdiv ided
and a k c va lue assigned to each reach. Even with subdivisio n into reach es, det e r-
mination o f the kl constant is probab ly th e one area most prone to error in
oxygen -sag-curve wo rk, becau se n o theoretical as sumption of flow characteristi cs
- channe l formation, obstacl es, pool s , effect s of impo undments , and othe r such
var iables - is like ly to fit anyone particular stream perfectly.
Addi t ion s ha ve been made to the bas ic Streeter - Ph e lps model that incorporate
the diurnal effec t o f alga l ph o tosy nthesis, th e nitrifi cati o n process, and th e sedlm en-
tation-resuspension of organic material. Th ese model s a re present ed e lse wher e In
the lit erature [3-22J and require a much more sophi st icilted.llat a ba sefo r use: . . .
Confirmation of the Oxygen Sag Curve
The di ssolved- o xygen pro file o bta in ed fr o m ma t hemalica l mod e ls s ho ul d be
con firm ed by ac tu a l field mea s u rements. Id eall y, th e re s ho uld be a co m p reh e ns ive
samp lin g und e r condi ti on s of kn ow n waste load s and rivt:r hydr o logy. A peri o d
o f warm weat her a nd lo w flow s is desirable, and dail y samp lin g fo r I m o nth fo r all
param eter s is prefe rred. Once the DO d e ficit a nd th e time tll th e c ri t ica l () 2
concen tr a ti on have been verified by a deLl il eci \ vat e r-qllality sline y. oxygen sag
c ur ves ca n be used to fo reca st stream co nditi o n s th a t ca n he ex pec ted fo r g i\T n
Ila s te lo ad s and s tr eam fl o ws.
3-1 I ORGANIC DISCHARGE AND STREA iVI ECOLOGY
In :lddltl o n to \ :Hia t i;) ns In th e o .\v ecn cn ncc n tr at i, )n s. lll ;lll .\ ,' II ,e l piIysiul.
che mi cal. and bi o log ica l c han ges o:c~l r ill streams ;I fl n tiJ e disciI:t r!,!e "r hi,, -
d eg rad a h le o rgani c maleri :Ii . T oge liJ n ", ilh Ihe \' .\\gC ll "I lppl\ . Ih es<: I' r<lcc'ssc.'
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 95
and their products grea tl y influence th e ecology (th e relationship between living
organis m s a nd th eir envir o nm en t) o f th e strea m. Lik e the oxyge n b a la nce the
ec; logical balance of a s t ream rece ivi ng a biodegradable organic discharge c;n be
mod e led. M os t of the model s a ss ume t ha t t he organic waste is com p osed primaril y
of municipal wastewa ter and d o es n o t conta in s ign ifica nt quantities of mat.eri a ls
that wo uld be toxic to t he flora a nd fauna of th e stream.
Ecologica l modeling usually involves divid in g th e strea m int o reaches, o r
zo nes, in w hi ch certain species or certam processes predominate. The model mos t
common ly used in the United States is the o ne devised by Whipple, Fair, and
Whipp le. Thi s model d ivid es the stream into four zones labeled the zones o f
degradation, active decom position, ,:eeaver)', and clean water. A summ a ry of th e
pllyslcal, c hemica l, a nd biological c haracte ri stics o f each zo ne is presented in
Table 3-3.
M a n y o f the ph ysica l c haracteristics described in Table 3-3 may be n o ted b y
the casual o bserve r, but the chemica l c ha rac te ri st ics (w ith the exception of th e
presence of highly od o rou s H l S) ca n be determi n ed o nly thr oug h samp ling and
laborator y test in g. Biol o gical s pecies and numbers are mark edly d ifferent from
zone to zo ne, and spec ies d ive rsity is a prim ary means of establishing zone bound-
ari es. The change in species and number s of o rganisms in each s pecies is illustrated
,. in Fi g. 3-1 1
1
Th e food supply is a primary fac tor in determining the type o f o rga ni sm s that
predom inate. Nea r the po int o f discha rge, bacter ia, protozoa, and molds predom-
inate. Bac teria fi nd an abu nd a nt food supply in the form of carbo hydrates, pro tein s,
and fats. As th ese microor gani sms decompose organic was tes, they co nvert them
into nutri ent material s suc h as nitrates, p h osphates, a nd carbo n dioxide. The
bac teria l populati o ns flouri s h until di ssolved o xygen and lor th e fo od su pply is
. ex ha us ted. Bemuse bacteriaprovrdefoodfor . prOHizCia: ci liat es, ro tifers, and
"r '
cr ustacean s, th ese higher fo rm s of life diminish as bac ter ia die o ff.
Th e abundan t sup ply o f nutri ent materials made avai lab le by th e bacteria!
decom position of o rganic m a tter brings abo ut still furth er changes. About midwa y
through the zo ne of ac ti ve decomposition, w here miner a l nutri en ts (notably
n it rat es ) abou nd, a lgae beg in a ra pid inc rea se. Blue-gree n (Phorl11idillm, Lyngbya,
a nd Oscil/atoria) and g reen alga e (Spirogyru and St ig t'oc/uniul11), a n d diatoms :,
(GulIlrhon ema and Nit zschiu) may be present in thi s zo ne. [ 3-3J ..
In the zo ne of rec over y. a lgae g ro wth peak s, then declines, w ith a lga l p op ula-
t iu ns III th e clean zone beginnin g to appr ox imat e th ose found in the predischarge
purtions of the stream. Blue-gree n (f\llicrocys Lis and Anabaena), pigmented
Ila gellates (Euy lenu and Pando rina ), g reen al gae (Cladorlrol'u and Ankistrodesmus),
and di a tom s (l'vl f' ridio/'l andCrc/o tella) are s pecies fo und in the zoneof recovery.
[ 3-3J . .
. i As nutrient lo ad s dec lin e, BOD decrea ses, an d DO levels r eturn to th ei r
p redi sc har ge le vels, alga e and ba c teria po pulation s return to their clea n- water
statll S, and clean-wa ter invertebrate a nd \ertebrate fauna again popu late th e
str eam. At thi s puint, the s tream 's natural se lf-purifi ca ti o n pro cess ha s esse nti a ll y
bee n co mp leted, but u nl y Ill so far as biod eg radabl e o rg:ll1ic wa stes a re co ncerned.
:lIi' 96 WATER
WATER PURIFI CATION PROCF.ssES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS en
ill
-- Table 3-3 Whipple, Fair, and Whipple model for zones of stream self-purification Table 3-3 (continued)
Physical Chemica l Biologica l Ph ysica l Chemical Bi o logica l
Zone characteri s tics characte ri s tics characteri sti cs Zo ne cha ra cl eri st ics characteristics characteri s tics
Degrad a ti on The water is turbid ; Oxygen is redu ced to Fish and gree n algae a re Recovery \V aler IS clearer.
(Zone 2 Di sso lved oxygen Pro tozoa, rotifers, and
there are sl ud ge about 40 ~~ o f declining ; litt o ral forms o f (Zone 4 co nte nt move s crustaceans ap pea r . Fun g i
in Fig . 3-13) deposits a nd sat urat ion. gree n and blue-green a lgae in Fig 3- 13) upward fr o m 40 :%. a re prese nt to a lim ited
Roating debri s are trailin g from or sa tur at ion; degree . A lgae ap pear 111 the
frequent ly wetted stones. nitrates are prese n t. .. fo ll owing o rel er:
These includ e Cyanoph ycaea,
SIi.qeoc/onium, Oscil/Moria, Chlo rophycaea. and
and Ulolhrix. Bo tt o m forms dialoms. Large plants
in slud ge include reddish (sponges, bryozoans)
worms (Tubilic idae) si m ila r ap pear. Bottom o r ga n isms
10 ea rthworms. s uc h a s include Tuhife x. mu sse ls,
Tuhifex and Limnodrilus. snails, and insect larvae.
Wat e r fungi a re typical ly Ca rp, s uc kers. a nd m o re
whit e. o live green, putt y resistant forms o f fish
g ra y, r usty brown . occur.
Sphacro/i/us norOIlS,
Clean wafer '!atLJrirI ')Irl'am D isso lved oxyge n I S Ma yflies (Ephemerupleria).
Lep lOm ilus, a nd A chlya
(Zo nes I cl)l1dlll l )nS {{ I t' close to sa turatIOn . s to ne fl ies (Plecoplera).
appear , as do ciliated
and 5 in rt';..iored. caddis fli es (Trichoptera).
protozoa or ciliata such as
Fig . 3-13) and gamefish arc fou nd
larchesium. PI.'ily/is. and
VOrticel/a.
Active .\Ollrc~' : r\c.i:Jplc..'d rrnm r1 ahbltl. ["-2]
Wat e r is grayis h and Oxygen leve l moves Bacter ia flora fl our ish;
decompos ition darker t ha n in be tween 40 ~,~ o f a naerobes di splace aerohes ,
(Zone 3 in degradati o n zone; sat urat ion and zero; whic h eappear toward the
Fig. 3-13) SC um may form. then as active lower e nd of t he zone.
septic condition s decomposi t ion Pro tozoa follo\\; course of
may have set in . . .di n:inis hes" ,?xy.&e.n.. .... ae r.Qbic .baCle ria , fir", ..
co nl ent ri ses. diminishing and then
Methane, hydrogen. reappeanng. Fungi fOllow a
a nd s ulfide a re simil a r course, di sappearing / Popu latIOn o f indiVIdu a ls
---L-
given off. unde r true septic co ndition s
a nd then reappearing .
Organisms are thre adlik e
---, /--
In eac h s pecIe

"'"
a nd develop pink.. cream,
and grayish tints . Algae are I /
present to a ve ry slight \
!"
exten t a t the lower end o f
the zo ne. TUbifex are
prese nt on ly at th e uppe r _ _ _ - J, ", ""-- Di sso lved
<l nd lowe r ends of the zone.
Psychoda (sewage fly) la rvae
--- /
oxygen

are present in al l but th e Distance downs tream _

mos t se ptic stage. Rattail
4
maggolS (EristaiJis) and
mosquito larvae (Clilex) are Wa s tcwa te r
found . There is no fi s h li fe. dis c ha rge

Figure 1-13 Changes In POplIl<tllon o f macroo rganis ms caused by waste d isc harge into a e le" n s tream
(COl/lil/lIcd) [3-1 UI
(hulII ""l11l1l1'r . )
98 WATER
Shou ld an;lerob ic condi ti ons de ve lo p in th e zone o f ac ti ve deco mpos ition, a
drastic change in both materials and fl ora a nd faulla wo uld be observed. Reduced
co mp o und s, rath e r th an oxi dized e nd prod uct s, wo uld appear, and aerobic spec ies
would g ive way to a naer o bic and facultative o rga ni sms that , wi th o ut co mpe titi o n
fmm th e a e robes. wou ld flouri s h In g reat numbe rs.
Application of Natural Processes in Engineered Systems
Many o f the ph ysica l, c hemical, and bio logica l processes that fun c ti on in n atu ral
wa ter sys te ms have been in co rp o rated into eng in eered sys tem s fo r wa ter a nd
was tewafer treatment. By carefu ll y contro lli ng th e syste m va riabl es, the rate at
w hi ch th e processes occ ur is maximized a nd th e tim e required for pur ification is
minimi zed. Rea c,tions may thu s be ca rri ed to co mpletion in engi neered sys tem s
in a fraction of the tim e and space required for similar e ffi ciencies in natur a l wate r
sys tem s. The fo ll ow in g secti o n gives an ove rvi ew of the applicat io n o f natural
processes in en gi neered sys tem s whilc Chaps. 4 and 5 prov ide a more co m p lete
coverage o f th e eng in eered sys tems.
3-12 PHYSICAL PROCESSES
T he physica l processes fr eq uently lI sed in e n g in ee red systems inclu de sed im en ta-
tion, filtration, and ga s tran sfer. Th ese are the basic re mo val processes and m ay
be used to remol'e mat eria ls in raw water or was tewa ter o r m ay be used to re m ove
the products of c hemi ca l or biological processes.
...5ed i.n1entatio n.is.used to re mo ve particles and co lloid s fr o m b o th wa ter and
wastewater. This term is often used sy n o n ymous ly with c larifica tion , a lth o ug h
there are su btle diffe rences in their meaning. In wa ter- and was tewate r'treatment
systems . sed ime ntati on is ca rri ed o ut in la rge basin s o r tank s in wh ich the fl ow
IS di spersed unifo rmly to minimize turbulence th a t often keep s particles suspe nd ed
in n a tur a l water sys tem s. When particles arc too small to se ttl e in a reaso nable
len g th of tim e. che mic a ls may be add ed to coagulate them int o larger ma sses that
Ivi II ~e tlle m o re qu ic k Iy. The se t t led so Iid s. or slut/qt'. is rn echa n ica Il y rem oved fr om
the bo ttom o f the tank to prevent accumulation .
Like sed ime nt a ti on. filtr atio n is used as a su i id s-remova l ope rati on in wa ter
and . less co mm o nl y . wa~ t ewate r tr eatme nt. Th e filt er mat erial mo st co millonl y
useci is a gra nul ar medium s imilar to th e sa nd a nd g r<1 ve l enco unt e red in man y
str eams and aquifer s. The mat el: ial. is sized to o ptillli ze filtrati o n rat es and partic le
remo va l. and m ec hani s m s ar e pro vi ded for periodica ll y removing th e impulities
t rapped by thdi lt e r. In mod e rn practice. filtrati o n is o ft en a po lis hin g step fo ll ()\I-
Ill g se ttlin g o p e ra ti o n s that removc th e bu lk o f th e so li ds.
Gas-transfer operat io n s ma y be lI sed in buth \Vate r a nd Ilastcwate r tr e:ltm ent.
Depending on th e tr ea tment ob lcctll"CS. ~ases may be removed fn llll o r added tn
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 99
th e liquid . Removal o f gases that are in low co ncen trations in the atmosphere'is
enhanced by m axim iz in g contact between th e water and air, a n operation often
used to strip undesirab le gases from water intended for potable use. Oxygen, a
major co nstituent of the a tm os phere, may be ad d ed to wastewaters by much the
sa m e principle. The addi ti o n o f gases such as carbo n dioxide and chlorine to meet
s pecific treatmen t objec ti ves (recarbomi ti on a nd di sinfection, respectively) is
us ually accomplished in cl osed pressurized sys tem s.
3-13 CHEMICAL PROCESSES
C hem ica ls a re used in m a n y wa ter- and wastewaier-treatment processes. Chemicals
Ill ay be added to a lter equilibrium conditions and cause precipitation of undesir- .
a ble spec ies. An examp le is the addit io n o f lime to precipitate hardness in potable
water treatm ent a nd to precipitate phosphate in wastewater treatment. Often
the c hem ical adjus tm ent of pH is necessary to effect the desired precipitation.
Ox idi z ing agents may be used if reduced compounds are to be removed. For
exa mple, p o ta ssi um permanganate may be' added to oxidize so luble forms of
iron and m a nga nese to forms that precipitate. Chlorine is sometimes used as an
ox idi z in g agent as well as a disinfectant in both water and wastewater treatment.
C hemi ca l coagulation, ofte n used as an adj unct to sedimentation or filtration,
co nditions sma ll particles and co lloids so that they form large, sett leable flocs.
In a dditi o n to the above, many other c hemicals may be used for special
purp oses in water and was tewater trea tment. ~gain , it should be kept in mind that
c hemical processes a re conversion processes and that actual removal is accom-
pl is hed by physica ll y sepa ratin g the solid, liquid, or gaseous products of the
chemica l rea c ti o n s. . .............. . . . .
3-14 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Bi o logical processes have fou'ndlittle use in the treatment of potable water supplies
becau se of the low levels o f biodegradable orga ni cs in the raw water. However,:)
bio logical processes arc used ex ten sively in was tewa ter treatment to convert :'-
biodegradab le organics and o th er nutrients into a more managea ble form. Bio-
log ica l pi'ocesses for m th e ba s is fo r seco ndar y treatment in which dissolved a nd
co ll(lidal organics a rc co n verted into biomass that is subsequentl y separated from
(he liquid stream. Secondary treatment sys te ni s are designed to op timize contact
be t wee n m icroorga ni sm s and o rganics uncl er t he most favo rab le environmental
co ndltiull s. .
Ollce sep;i rated,. the b iomass becomes a concentra ted was te stream that must
he dealt wi th promptly. l3iological treatmellt o f thi s and ot her orga ni c wastewater
s ludg(;~, ca lled silldy e digestion. is one o f th e most impor ta nt, and m os t difficult,
rll"ocesses in wastewate r treatm ent.
 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 101
100 WATER

3-5 An indu strial wastewater is discharged into a municipal wastewater sewer. The character-
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS istics of the two wastes are as follows:

3-1 Name and briefly describe the majorphysicalprocessesinvolvediil self:purification of

watercourses. Indu strial. Muni cipa l
3-2 Two streams converge as shown in the sketch below. Determine the flow. temperature.
Fl ow = 3500 m' /d Flow = 17,400m' /d
. and dissolved oxygen in the merged streams at point C. BOD , = 1200 mg/L BOD , = 210 mg/ L
PO~ - = 140 mg/L pol - = 2.3 mg/ L
Flow =0'
. Temp =') Determine the characteristics of the mixture.
(DO =') 3-6 Di sc uss thermal stratification and its importance in temperature o f streams and lakes.
3-7 What are three major chemical processes that may a ltern ately aid or obstruct na tural
Flow = 3.7 m}/s / C Stream C purificati o n processes of water systems?
Temp=::loC
3-8 Calculate the solubi lity of hydrogen sulfide in water at 20
c
e.
DO = '4 .5 mg/ L
3-9 Determine the solubility o f the components of air in water at 20C and 1.5 atm pressure.
B 3-10 Wh at is the so lubility of me than e in water at 20C?
3-11 Define (a) metabolism ; (b) catabolism: (e) anabolism; and (d) endogenous catabolism.
\ Flow = 2.5 m}/s
3-12 What are adaptive enzymes? What rol,e do they play in natural purification processes of
Temp = 17 C
bodies of water?
DO = 7.5 mg/ L 3-13 Define (a) autotrophs. (b) heterotrophs. (e) phototrophs. (d) aerobic heterotrophs.
(e) a na erobic heterotrophs. a nd en
facultative heterotrophs

3-14 Exp lain the role of rot ifers. c ru stacea. and s lu dge worms in natural purification processes
3-3 Effluent from a wastewater-treatment plant is discharged to a surface stream. The character-
of bodies of water.
istics of the effluent and stream are as follows:
3-15 What a re the two mechanisms known to contribute oxygen to surface waters?
I
I: Effluent Stream
3-16 What is the oxygen deficit o fa st ream and how is this deficit represented mathematic a lly ?
I'~
3-17 Write a simplified 'formula' fonhe -photosynthetic' process by which algae' popula r iDns '
i
I'
Flow = 8640 m'id Flow = 1.2 m'/s ma y repleni sh oxygen in a body of water.
BOD, = 25 mg/ L BOD, = 2.1 mg/L
I Ammonia = 7 mg/ L
Nitrate = 10 mg/ L
Ammonia = 0 mg/ L
Nitrate = 3.0 mg/L
3-18 Write a formula for the endogenous catabolism by which algae popUlations may contri-
bute t.o oxygen demand. .
~19. A wastewater-tr,9tment plant disposes of its effluent in.a surface stream. Characteristics
Chloride = 15 mg/ L Chloride = 5.0 mg/ L
of the stream and effluent are shown below. .

Determine the stream characteristics after mixing with the waste has occurred. Wastewa te r Stream
3-4 Cooling tower blowdown from a power plant is discharged to it surface stream. The
Flow. m'/s 0.2 5.0
characteristics of each are given as:
Di sso lved oxygen. mg/ L 1.0 8.0
Temperature, OC 15 20.2
Stream Coo ling water BOD , at 20C, mg/L 100 mg/ L 2.0 mg/ L
K, at 20C, d - 1 0.2
Flow = 10 m'; s Flow = 40 m' / min K , at 20C, d - 1 0.3
Temperature = 15' C Temperature = 28"C
TDS = 125 mgjL TDS = 2520 mg/ L
Chromate = 0 Chrom<lte = 0.9 mg/ L
(a) Wh a t will be the dissolved oxygen co ncentration in the stream after 2.0 d ')
(b) What will be the lowes t dissolved oxygen concentration as a result of the waste
discharge?
Determine the characteristics of the stream after mixing.
 1"
102 WATER ,.f WATER PUR ifi CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 103

3-20 A municipal was te wa ter-treatm ent plant discharges 18.925 mJ / d o f treated wastewater ,.
l' REFERENCES
to a s tream . The wastewater has a BOD s o f 30 mg/ L with a k I o f 0.23 d - '. The temperature o f
the wastewater is 27 e
e.
and the d issolved oxygen is 2.0 m g/L The s t ream just above the po int o f r
wastewat er di scharge flows at 0.65 mJ! s. has a BOD s of 5. 0 mg/ L, and is 90 percent satu rated t
;
3-1 Amirlh"r~iah . A.: by personal commun ication, 1982.
ij
.'i '
wi th oxygen . The temperature of the s tream is 23 e e.
After mixin g, the stream and wastewater 1-' Ba bbill, H . E. and E. R. Baumann' Sewerage and Se,rage Trealmelll , Blh ed., Wi ley, New York.
1952 .
, fl ows a t a ve loci t y 0. 5 m /s a nd the reae ra ti o n co n s ta nt is 0.45 d - ' .
i I 3 3 8 arlsc h. A. F .. ami W. M. In gram : Biology of Wal eI' Po I/lil ian, U.S. Dept. o f Int e ri o r W a te r
(a) What is th e oxyge n le ve l of the st ream after 2 d ')
'J Po lluli on ('on!ro l Adrninislra lion, 1967. '
: j (b) What is th e c ritical oxyge n leve l in the s t ream and how far downstream w ill it occur')
3-4 Churchi ll. M . A., H . L. Elm o re , and R . A. Bucking ham: "The Prediclion.of Stream R eae1:ation
;1 '
"
3-2 1 A wastewater-treatment plant discharges to a sma ll s trea m . The characteristics o f the Rales," WaleI' Polllliion Research , vo l. I , Perga m o n, Londo n, 1964.
\vastewate r and th echaracteri s tics o f s tream are give n be low. .1-5 Clark. John W .. Warrcn Viessman, Jr. , and Mark J. Hammer: WaleI' Supply and Pol/ulion Conlrol
3d eel .. Ha rper & Row, New York, 1977. '
3-6 ~oin. The"dore C.. J r .. [(olo.qical Srslems and Ihe Enrironmenl. H oughlon Mifflin, Bosl.on. 1976 .
Siream Waste .,-7 (laudy. A. 1- .. Jr .. "nd E. T. Gaudy: Microhidlo.lJy./or EIIl'ironll1 l'lJ lal Scien li.H.I and Engineers.
t '" McGraw-HilI. New Y o rk. 1980.
~' ' Flow = 10,000 m' Jd
<I Flow = 0.4 m' /s .1-k Hammer. Mark J .' Waler and Was le- WaleI' Te chnology, Wiley , New York, 1975.
BOD = 2.0 mg/ L DO = 0 ms/ L 3-9 Hvnes H B N : Tlw Biololj)' of' Pol/uled WaleI' , Li verpoo l University Press . Liverpoo.l , 1960.
DO = 90 % sat uration Temperature = 21 C 3- 10 Kemmer . Frank N.: The NA LCO Waler Handbook, M cGraw- Hili , New York, '1979.
e
Temperature = 24 C k, =O.23d-' 3- 11 K lei n. LOlns: IIiI'''' POlllllion II . Causes alld E(fecls, Bullerwo rlh , Lp ndon , 1962.
'"' = 0.45 d - , 3 12 Lewis. W K and W . G . Whilman : .. Pr inciples o r Gas Abso r plion. "Ind. Eng. Chem., 16 ' 12 15
: ( 1924)
:i .1- 13 Lind sley. R . K . and J . ll. Franzini: Waler Resources Engineering. 3d cd .. McGraw-Hili , New
I York. 1979.
Determ ine the m axim um BOD s (20 "C) tha t can be discharged if a minimum of 4.0 mg/ L o f
1 3-14 McKinney. R . E.' Microhioloq),/or Sanilary Enqinee r.,. McGraw-HilI. New York, 1962.
.11! 'I oxygen mu st b e maintained in t he s trea m .
3-22 A milk-produc ts industry discharges a wastewate r t o a s tream . Characteristics of the
3- 15 Melcalr 8.: Eddy. Inc . W{fSlelJ'fI/er Engin eerinq.- Tr ealmenl and Disposal, 2d ed .. McG r aw- Hili .
New York. 1979 .
:1, wastewater and the s tream a re s hown below. 3- 16 OConnor. D . J .. and W. E. Dobbins: "The Mechani sms or Rcaeralio n in Nat ural S i rea ms"
,! (a) If no treatment a t all is given to t he wastewater. what will be the lowest oxygen level J San Enq /)ir. AS.C.E.. 82 :S A6 (1956). '
,
in the s tream as a result of the discharge" .1- 17 Park er. F. L .. an d P. A. Krenkel Thermal Polllliion .- SWillS vf lite AN, Dep\. Environmenlal and

I! Parameter \\'a stewatcr Stream

[,
Reso urces Engineering. Vanderbill Univcrsily. Nashvi lle, December 1969.
3-18 Palrick , R.: .. EITecl or Suspe nded So lids, Organic Mall er and T oxic Malerials o n Aquatic Life

! Flow 1000 m ' /d 19.000 mJ id

l t,
... in. R,iver~, .... .I:Valer. a!"1 ,~~IJ:ngf. W91:k~,.f.el? ru ary 1968. p . 90.
3- 19 RU liner. Franz. FllIlllanll'lIlals o/ Limnology, 3d ed" D . G . Frey and F. E. J. Fry (!rans.) , Uni -
ve rsily of Tornnlo Press. Toronlo. 1963.
BOD , a ' 20' C 1250 mg/ L 2.0 mgj L t
3-20 Sawyer. C. N .. a nd P. L. McCariy' Chem islry'/or EnvirollmenlOl Engineers 3d ed ., McGra w- Hili .
DO o
mg/ L 10 .0 mgj L New York , 1978.
Temperalure, ' C . 50 10 3-2 1 Srinanlhakumar. S., and A. Amirlharajah: "Organic Carbon Decay in a Slream w ith Biofilm
k,a I 20C 0:35 d - '
K inelics." 1. In t'. Eng .. ASCE, 109( 1): 102 (February 1983).
I., a120C 0.55 d '" :1-22 Slee!. E. W .. and T. J . McGhee' WaleI' Supply and Sewerage. 91h ed. , McGraw-Hili, Ne\'-, York ,
1979.
T
3-23 S!recler, H . W .. and E. B. Phelps: U.S. Pub. Health bullctin no. 146, 1925.
(b) If the s trea m is a trou t fi s hery and the s tream s tan da rd s require a minimum D O o f
( .1 -24 Tsi vogloll. E.c.: hacer Mea suremenl of Slream Reaerulion. u.s. Dept. or Inl er ior , Water T
5.0 mg/ L what is the maximum B OD, (20 C e) that can be discha rged by t he indus tr y? PoliUlion Con lro l Adntinislr<I1ion. Wa shington . D .C. . J une 1976 .
3-25 Velz. Clarence. J .: Applied Sire/in' SanilOlion, Wiley Inle rsc ience. New Yo rk, 1970.
T
3-23 Write a comp uter progra m to model th e Streeter - Ph e lps equati on. Repeat P robs. 3- 19.
3-20. a nd 3-2 1 u si ng the computer.
3-24 What a r e the fo ur zo nes in th e W hipple. Fair. and Whipple model '! Define the zo nes by
exp la in in g wha t happens in each.
I
f
f
.1-26 Vesilind. P. Aarne: Enrironmenlal Pol/ulion and Conlrol, A nn Arbo r Science, Ann Arbo r, Mich .,
1975 .
:1-27 Warre-n , Ch arb E.' Biology and WaleI' Pol/ulion COl1lr.o'l, Saun de rs. Philade lphia, 197 1.
3-28 Whq'pk. C. c.:The Microscopyo('Drillkinq WaleI'. 4th eel ., rev. by G. M. Fair and M. C. Whi p ple .
Wiley. New York; 1927.
3-25 Mos t oft he nat ura l purin ca t ion rrocesses discussed III thi s char ter have t heir co unt e rpart s ~
i
in ~ng in eered processes for the treatme nt of potable water supp lies or th e t rea tment of was te -
waters. Di scuss bri e n y the ways in which the follow in g na t ura l processes a re utili zed in ,~
engineerin g systems: (a) scdimenta l ion. (h) filtration. (e) gas tra ns fe r. (d) precipitation. and
(~) microbial ac t io n .
I
L

CHAPTER
FOUR
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER
PURIFICATION
An adequate supply o f pure water is absolutely esse ntial to human ex iste nce. Th e
con'sequences of a contaminated water s upply can be illustr a ted by co nditi o ns
prevalent during the industrial revolution in E u ro pe when large numbers of
peasant s were attracted to the cities where th ey crowded together with little or
no sanitary facilities. Human waste. or " night so il" as it was ca lled, was tossed int o
the streets or emptied into pits in common courtyards, often near t he s ha llow wells
that served as the neighborhood water supply. Seepage into these wells and runoff
into nearby streams provided a direct link in the infection cycle. and o nce an out-
" ........ ... .br.eak.:oLdis.ease .occmred.it. usually .spread .rapid.ly . lhwu&h.. L!:J.e. community,. The ...... ..
resultmg loss of lIfe and suffering left scarcely a famil y unt o uched during several
centuries prior to the 1900s.
. The development of effective water-treatment method s has virtually elimin a ted
major waterborne epidemics in developed countries. Thi s is no t to sugges t. how-
ever, that the problem of waterborne diseases has bee n e liminated . Developing
natIOns. where treated water is not available to a ll the p o pUl a ti o n. still experience
occasIOnal epidemi cs of cholera and typhoid . as we ll as manv o utbr ea ks of less
severe disease. Even highl y developed countries. including 'th e United States.
where public wat er s upplies are almost universall y tleated. are no t to tall v immun e
from an occasional o utbreak of gastrointestinal illnesses tra cea ble to bi~logically
contammated water s upplies.
Chemical contamination of water s upplies has become a co ncern in more
recent times. Industrial facilities in developed countries produce and use literally
thousands of chemica.l compounds. Along with a n ab undant arrav or household'
a ndagricultural chemicals. these materi a ls often find th eir way int o 'water suppli es.
WhIle some of these chemical compounds are known tl)xicants. mut age nt s. or
carcmogens. the health effects o f many others are no t prese ntl y kn mv n . Sufllcicnt
104
I ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 105
i~
data are no t presently ava ilab le , to predict the consequences of in ges tin g smal l
qu an titiesof chemicals ove r long periods of time. It is ironic that the high stand a rd
of living that allows ind ustriali zed nation s to provide bio logically pure water to
~ the majority of th eir popUlations a lso res ults in the discharge o f chemical waste
~ th a t may eventually have more deleterious effects on human health than th e d o-
I mest ic waste .th a t helped sp read t he plagues of past centuries.
~ 4-1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF WATER TREATMENT
t
f
[,
The treatment of water int e nd ed for human consumption is a very old practice .
f; Baker [4-6J report s references in Sa nsk rit literature dating back to 2000 B.C. to
~ s llch practices as the boiling and filtering o f drinking water. Wick siphons tha t
~
r'
tr a nsferred water from one vesse l to a no ther. filtering out the suspended impurities
in the process. we re pictured in Egyptian drawi ngs of the thirteenth century B. C .
f, and were refe rred to in ear ly Greek and Ro m a n litera ture. The fact th at these
~ practices were recorded in the medi ca l documents of the times indicates th a t the
~ connection betw een water a nd health had been observed. In fact, Hippocrates
(460- 354 B.C.). co nsidered to be the father o f mo dern medicine, wrote that " ... who-
~
I~~,'.:
soever wishes to investiga te medicin e properly should - consider the water tha t
the inhabitants use - for water co ntributes much to health ." [4-6J
:
These ea rl y wate r-trea tm ent devices were used in indi vidu a l hou seholds:
th ere is no indication o f co mmunit y wa ter supplies bt;ing treated until around the
first ce ntury. Some of th e R o m a n aq ueduct s had settling basins a t the head wo rk s
~
a nd incorpora ted" pebble ca tch ers" in the aqueduct channeL These aqueducts
~
suppli ed a few priva te ta ps and prov ided fou ntains'o r reservo irs for us~ by th e
ge ne ral public. The city of Venice. situated o n isla nds with no fr es hwate r reso urce.
channeled ra inw a ter fr om roofs a nd courtyards into elaborate cisterns thr o ugh
sa nd filters surro undin g the reservoir. Tl~e fir st of these cisterns was built arou~d
the fifth century A.D . and provided private and public water suppli es for abou t 13
ce nturies. [4-6J
Water-treatment practice appare ntly lagged during the Middle Ages, with a
renewed interes t emerg in g in the e ighteenth cen tur y. Seve~a l patents were issued
for filtering d evices. primarily in France and England. As in ancient tim es. however,
th ese devices we re for use in pri \a te households. institutio ns. ships. etc. It was n ot
until the beg inning of th e nineteenth century that th e treatment of public water
supp li es was a tt emp ted on a large sca le. The c it y of Paisley. Scot la nd . is gene rall y
credi ted with be in g th e fir>! c it y w ith a treated wa ter sup p ly. That sy'ste m consis ted
bf.sett ling opera tion s followed by fi ltra tion and was put in se rvice in 1804. [4-6J
ThiS practIce slow ly spread throu g h Europe and by the end of th e ce ntur y. most
major municipal wate r s upplies \vere filtered. These filters were th e "slow sa nd"
type described in Sec. 4-8 . .
The development o f wa te r tr ea tm ent in America lagged behind the European
1JI'Clctice. The first a tt empt a t filtration was made a t Richmond. Virginia. in 1932.
Thi S project was a failur e. :ll1d seve ra l ye ars interve ned befo re anot her significan t
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 107
106 WAT ER

e O'o n \vas ma d e. [ 4-6J After th e C ivil War. o th e r a tt e mpts we re m a d e to fo ll ow 4-2 WATER-TREATMENT PROCESSES
the sa nd filtrati o n pra ctice o f Euro pe. few o f whi c h were successful. Apparentl y
the nature o f the s lls pe nded so lid s in America n str ea m s was s ignifi ca ntl y difTerent Past practices in America have often been to obtain the purest possible source,
fro m t hat o f th e so lid s in European streams. and t he slow sand process was no t even at the expense of transpor ting water over long distances, and to deliver it to
as e ffec ti ve. The d eve lo pment of th e hydraulica ll y c leaned rapid sa nd filt er durin g the consumer with litt le or no trea tment. Some ci ties sti ll own large tracts of land
the latte r par t o f th e nin eteenth centur y p rov id ed a m o re wo rkabl e p rocess. and near the headwaters of stream and restrict activi ties on t hese watersheds
to minimize contamination. Although the benefits of source protection a re recog-'
by th e e nd o f the ce ntur y its use was widespread.
Dur ing th e fir st two- thirds o f th e nineteenth ce ntury. filtr a ti o n was prac ti ced nized as a " first line of defense" in preserving water quality. a ll na t ural waters
will require so me degree of treatment in order to meet modern drinking-water "
to improve th e aes th e ti c qu a li ty o f th e drinkin g wa te r. An unkn ow n be nefit was
the re m ova l o f mi c roo rgani s ms. includin g p a th oge ns. w hi c h mad e th e wa ter standards. The nature and exten t of treatment w ill, of course, depend upon the
m o re w ho l.eso me a s we ll. Th e acce ptance o f thi s fa ct in th e last quart e r o f the cen- na t ure and ex ten t of impurities . .
tur y spurred th e co nstru c ti o n o f the filt er plant s thr o ug ho ut E uro pe a nd Ameri ca .
Ch emica ts Waste
At th e tu rn o f th e century. filtrati o n was the prim a ry defe nse aga in st wa ter bo rn e
Process added stream
d isease.
Acce ptance o f th e ge rm th eo ry o f di sease trans mittal led to the di s infecti o n Raw
l) f p ubli c wat e r s uppl ies. First used o n a temp o rar y basis. di sinfec ti o n w ith bleac h wat er
powd ers and hyp o chl o rites was used in iso lated cases in th e e ig ht ee n-nineti es.
T he fir st pe rm a ne nt in stall a ti o n for c hl o rin a tin g wa ter was m ad e in Belg ium in
1902. Th e p rod uc t io n o f liqu id chlo rin e began in 1909 a nd was fi rs t used fo r wat er Aeralia n . Rem oves u nd esir abl e gases and /o r
ox id a tion of iron a nd m anga ne se.
d is infec tio n in Philadelphia in 19 13. [4-6J Ot her m ea ns o f di sinfec t io n. no ta bl y
ozo nat io n , we re d eve lo ped s imu ltan eo us ly but did no t find wid es pread use. Th e
dr a sti c reducti o n in d ea ths du e to wa terbo rn e di sea ses as a res ult o f di s infec ti o n S ludge removed and
Lim e disposed of ; possible
led to the w ides pread c hl o rin a ti o n o f publi c wa te r s uppli es.
So/ref/ing: Removes ca lcillm a nd /o r m ag nesiu m Sod a recovery and reuse
Othe r wa ter-trea tment pro cesses d eve lo ped m o re s low ly and less dr a matica ll y. 2 o f lime.
ha rd ness; ma y be d o ne in o ne o r two s tages. ash
Coag ul a ti o n a s a n adjunct to se ttlin g was d eve lo ped a lo ng with th e' ra pid sand
." .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . .... .
filt e r in Am e ri ca. So ftening o f ha rd wa te rs w as de m o nstrated in E u rope durin g
.. ... ..... . .the. nineteenth centur y but did no t find w id es pread li se in public wa ter suppli es
until we ll int o th e twe nti e th ce ntur y. The capa c it y o f c harco al to re move di sso lved Bac kwas h wa teT
F il lrario n : Re moves re.sidual CaCO J c ry s tal s d ecanted ; sludge
o rga n ics was obse rveu by early e xpe riment e rs in fi ltra:ti o n but d id no t find ap - Chl o rine
an d Mg(OH) 2 Ooc le ft a ve r fro m so ft e ni ng; 3 combined with
pli ca ti o n in p ubli c wa ter s uppli es. Th e improve me nt o f thi s m a terial int o" ac ti - disi nfec tant may be add ed to preve nt . . sludge from 2
\',lI ed ca rbo n " a nd it s use in wa ter-t rea tm ent p la nt s is a recen t occ tlfrence. as is biological grow th o n rilt er medium . above .
th e use o f sy nth e ti c m e mbran es fo r hype rfiltr a ti o n to re m O\'e di sso lved in o rga ni c
m a teria l. .
D isin/eCiia n . Des t ro ys pathoge ns; en o ugh Chlorin e
M o re prog ress ha s bee n mad e in wa te r purific ati o n in th e la st ce ntury th a n
added to prov ide a resi dual in th e
III a ll o f th e p revio us ly re co rd ed hi sto ry. With few exce pti o ns. trea tmen t p rocesses dis tri buti o n sys tem .
deye loped 111 th e abse nce o f sc ientifi c kn ow led ge cO llce rnin g the bas ic p rinc ip les
UpO Il w hi c h th ey o pe ra te. and o ft en w ith little mea ns to quantitat ive ly assess the ir
Sro rage: Provid es con tac t time for
effec ti ve ness . Onl y within the last 30 to 40 years has the bod y o r sc ientifi c know -
d is infec tio n and s tores wat e r for peak
led ge ca ug ht up w ith the practic e o r wa ter puri fic ati o n. It is int eres tin g to no te de ma nds.
tha t the d e \:e l o pn~e nt o f a th eo ry base has resu lt ed in few c han ges in the basic
processes 'o f wa ter purifi cati o n. U nde rsta nd in g o f sc ientifi c p rinc iples has. how-
to
e\er. led to refi ne m e nt s o f processes. d eve lo pm e nt o f be tte r eq u ip ment , and a ll dis tribution
oye ra ll in c rease in o perating e ffici e nc ies in wa ter treatment. Th e fo llow ing sec ti o n system
!l i\'es a ll ove r view o f m o d e rn wa te r-t re atm e nt p mcesses. w hil e th e remainin g
Figure 4- I Typ ica l plan t trea ting ha rd groundwa ter.
~ections o f th e c h a pt e r co ntain a d eta iled d escr ip t il) 1l o f th e ind ivid ua l processes.

108 WATER
Process
Presidimentation: May be necessary if water
comes from fast-flowing streams. Removes
larger suspended solid s. Chem icals may be
ad ded to oxidize organics o r to arrest their
biologica l oxida tion.
Mixing. flocculation. se ttling: Removes
tur bidity by coagu lating coll oids and
se ttling them o ut ; may also remove
colo r caused by large organ ic molecules.
Filtration: Polishes to remove re maini ng
tur bid ity; d isinfec tant may be added to
p reven t biologi ca l gro w th o n filter medium .
Adsorption : May be necessary if wa ter
contains dissolved organics; may co nsist o f
ac tiva ted ca rbo n co lu mns o r ac t-ivated
ca rbon may be added in powdered form in
opera tion sim il ar to 2 above.
Disinfection: Destroy s pathogen s; enough
added to provide residua l in the dis t ribution
sys tem.
Storage : Provides contac t time ro r d isin fec ti on
and stores water for peak demand .
Figure 4-2 Typica l pl an l Ireatin g lurbid ~urfac~
ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PU RI FICATION 109
Th e processes se lected I'or th e trea t ment of potable wa ter depend on the qua lit y
Chemica ls Wast e
added streams of the r:lw water suppl y. Most grou nd wa ters are clear a nd pat hogen-free a nd do
no t co ntain significa nt am o unt s of o rga nic materi a ls. Such wa ters may often be
Raw
wa te r used in potab le systems with a minima l dose of chlorine to prevent contamination
in the distribution sys tem. Other grou ndwaters ma y con tain la rge qu a ntiti es of
disso lved so lid s or gases. Wh en these include excess ive a mount s of iron , ma nga n-
Sludge removed
periodically and
ese, or ha rdn ess. chem ica l a nd ph ys ica l trea tme nt processes may be requ ired .
disposed of by Treatment systems co mm o nl y used to prepa re po table water fr o m gro undwater
Ammonia spreading on land : are show n in Fi g. 4 ,1 . .
Surface wa ters o rten cont ilin awide r var iety of co ntaminant s th a n grou nd -
water. and trea tment processes may be mo re complex. Most surface waters
Sludge removed conta in turbidit y in excess of drinking-wa ter stand ard s. Although fast-moving
Alum conti nuou sly ;
streams may carry larger material in suspension , most of the so lids will be co ll oidal
disposa l by
Polymers 2 land fil ling or
in size and will requIre chemi ca l coagulat ion fo r rem ova l. Dependin g on the geo l-
o ther sui table ogy of the watershed. hardness mayo r ma y not be a problem in surface waters. If
means aft er ' low levels of color and o th er orga nic mat eri a l are present, adso rptio n ont o surface-
dewatering .
ac tive m::Jte rial, a process not s ignifi cant in natu ra l water systems, ma y be neces-
sa ry. A wide vari ety of microo rga ni sms. some of which ma y be pathoge nic, are
Ba ckwash wa le r a lso co mmon co nstitu en ts of surface wa lers. Treatm ent systems co mmonly useci
C hlorin e deca nt ed, and in treatin g surface W;lIers al'e shown in Fi g. 4-2.
dewatered sludge
dispose d of wi th
tha t from 2 above.
Water-Treatment Processes: Theory and Application
S tea m fro m cleaning
It is genera ll y co n\'en ient to grou p human use of water int o two broad ca tego ries
cycle co nd e nsed and
disposed of. depending upo n th e locatio!l of th e use re lative to the so urce. In -place use of water
. in cl.ud~~ .\l.iWig'lt ion. rCl:rCllt ion , .wi ldlife .propa.ga t io n . .and. the . d~lutio n , .ass imi.J.a- ..
li on, and transportatIon ll f was tew ater. Alt ho ugh hydroe lectric powe r ge neratio n
requi res brief dive rsion of waler thro ugh turbine pen stocks, this use is a lso co n-
sid ered an in-place use . Quantilati\e ly. in-place use is a nonconsumpti ve use and
wil l no t be cove red III this tex!.
For irriga ti o n and Indu strial u se. and fo r indi vid ual and public domesti c
supp li es, wa ter mu st be \\ ithdra wn frc)m streams, lakes. o r aqu ifers in Ih e natural
hyd ro log ic cyc le. Th e po llutant s mos t de leterio us to cro ps (inorga nic sa lt s and
metals) are diflic ult and ex pensive to remove. The vas t quantit y of irrigation wa ter
to . used a nd the low marg.in of proli l assoc ialed with fa rmin g virt ually prec lude a ny
diqributi o n
tl'ea tmenl of thi s waler. Wat er not su ited for irrigati o n is simpl y a band o ned . and
sys tem
avadab le ca pit a l is used in ste:ld to secure an alternate so urce of acce pt a ble qu a lit y.
waler wilh organ ics. Man y industries wilh nccds 1'01' sm;t11 ::tmou nt s o f essentially potab le wa le r o btaill
th eir s upplies fr o m puh lil: sys tem s. SL)me Ill d usiri a l water su pp li es. such as bCl iler,
ked \V;lter. tlla y require a c hcm ica l purity an o rd er nf magnitud e g rea teT than
po tab le wa ter En gi ll eer ing dcsi!!n fo r treatm ent of o ther types of in dustria l \\',ll e r
supplies Illa y al s\ ) hc neceSS; 11 y. ( '\Jo ll ng wa ter. parti cu lar ly th at used on ly o nce
;Intl d isc har!,cd h;lc k III II <tlurc. 1t; 1; Ie\\' qualit y UlIl str;lint s Indi\idu ;ll d OIl1 cs tic
suppli es ;lrc l1 SII ;III 1' dr;1\\ 11 ft'Ulll \\ ells P I' sprin gs of accep table qualit y <lnd se n 'c

lJO WATER
individual ho mes or farmstead s. Such systems are seldom engineered but are
installed and operated by the home owners, perhaps with the advice of the well-
driller and the distributor of ho me water-treatment unit s.
Public water supplies, while only a fraction of th e to tal wa tel' us e, require
by far the larges t amount of efTort expended by environmental engineers in the
water-treatment field. The remainder of this chapter will be devot ed to the prin-
ciples of water purification for potable' supplies. The processes involved are
discussed first from a theoretical standpoint and then from an applications
standpoint.
4-3 AERATION
Aeration is a process sometimes used in preparing potable water. It may be used
to remove undes irable gases disso lved in water (drgasijicalion) or to add oxygen
to water to convert undesirable substances to a more manageable form (oxidCl1ion).
Aeration is more often used to treat groundwater, as most surfa ce waters have
been in contact with the atmosphere for a sufficient period of time for gas tran sfer
to occur naturally.
Groundwater may contain appreciable quantities of gases slich as carbon
dioxide (C0 2 ) and hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S). Thcse gases arc biological waste
products from bac terial decomposition of organic matter in the so il or by-pr6ducts
of reduction of sulfur from mineral deposits. Excessive carbon dioxide concentra-
tion results in a corrosive water. High carbon dioxide levels may also interfere
with other treatment processes. Hydrogen s ulfide imparts an unpleasant taste
and odor to water, even in small concentrations. Altlwugh these gases are only
slightly soluble .at .atrn()~p.be.r.ic.c.QndjtioJJs,.groundw'Lter.may contain considerably
higher concentrations under pressures commonly fou nd in deep aquifers. Aeration
of water supersaturated with these gases serves to speed the release toward equili-
brium conditions.
Although volatile liquids such as humic; acids and phenols ca n be removed
. from water by aeration , the removal rates are too'slow for the process to be practical
except in extreme cases where excessiw quantities must be reduced to more
manageable levels.
Iron and manganese are common elements widely distributed in nature.
In the absence o f oxidizing agents, both of these clements are soluble in w:tter.
Forming compounds with other so luble ions. hoth iron and man ganese are
so luble in significant quantities o nly in the + :2 oxidation sta te, i.e" Fe' , and Mn +.
U pon contact with oxygen, or any other ox idizin g agents. both ferrou s iron and
manganese are ox idized to higher valances, forillin g new io nic compkxes that are
not soluble to any appreciable extent. Thu s. the jron ancl manganese may be
. removed as a precipitate after aeratiun. Chemically. these reacti ons may be
wr itten as fo llows.
4Fe 2 ' + O~ + IOH 2 0 41e(OH)., 1 I- 8 1-1 >
2Mn2 ~ + O2 + 2 H1 0 :2 1\'1nO 2 ~ ~ .:j H 0
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 111
In Eq. (4- I), Fe goes from the + 2 .to the + 3 oxidation state and in Eq. (4-2)
M n goes from the + 2 to the + 4 OXidation state. In both equations the free oxygen
(0 J IS reduced, and the anion ongmally :tssociated with the ferrous and mangan-
OtiS Ions recombin es With other cations in the solution. In both cases, the pH of the
solution IS lowered by the production of hydrogen ions.
Iron and manganese are found in appreciable amounts only in groundwater
and in water from the hypolimnion of strailfied lakes where anaerobic conditions '
exist. Aeration of this water provides the oxygen necessary to convert both elements
to t he insoluble form. Chemical oxidants, such as potassium permanganate, can
also be used for this purpose. They are sometimes used in connection with aeration
to speed up the process. When aeration is lIsed to precipitate iron and manganese,
additional treatment will be required to remove the precipitated solids.
Both degasification and oxidation are governed by the principles of gas trans-
fer that were presented in Sec. 3-4. Subtle differences in liquid-gas contact systems
can have a pronounced effect on the overall gas-transfer process. An understanding
of gas-transfer principles is essential in aerator design, and the student is en-
couraged to reread Sec. 3-4 before proceeding into the following discussion.
Liquid-Gas Contact Systems
Liquid-gas contact systems are designed to drive the water-gas mixture toward
equilibrium as quickly as possible for degasification purposes and to provide'
supersaturation of oxygen for oxidation purposes. These goals may be accom-
plished by either dispersing the water into the air or by dispersing the air into the
water.
When water is dispersed into the air, as depicted in Fig. 4-3, the interfacial
"a re;Lper..yo.lume .of..wate.r. is maximized by minimizing the drop size. This will
inc rea se the desorption rate for supersaturated solutions (Fig. 4-3a) or increase
the absorption rate for undersaturated solutions (Fig. 4-3b). In general, this ap-
proach works better for desorbing gases than for absorbing oxygen, although the
latter can be accomplished for undersaturated waters.
( ;as
fo"n ~
2 Bulk
gos
Lo q uod
!'tlm
ra) rb)
(4-1 )
Figure 4-3 Water dispersed in air: (a) desorplion and (h) absorplion.
(4-2)
 112 WATER
In water purification plants, water-in-air systems may consist of fountains,
cascade towers. o r tray towers. F otln tains consist of a piping grid suspended over
a catch basin. Nozzles located at the int ersection of the pipes are fixed to direct
the flow of water upward. Once its kinetic energy is dissipated, the wa ter falls
bac k into the catch basin where it is recovered. portions of the fl ow perhaps being
recycled . The height of the spray, and therefore the water-air co ntact time. is de-
termined by the pressure in the pipes, whi le the d ispers ion pattern is determined
by the nozzle characteristics. Nozz le size may vary from 2 to 4 cm in diameter.
While smaller nozzles result in finer sprays. which yie ld greater surface-to-volu me
.ratios, freq uent clogging of small nozz~e s ca n resu lt in hi gh maintenance cost.
. Design parameters for spra y ae rators includ e system pressure, nozzle spacing.
and flow rates per nozzle. Pressures of aro und 70kPa ( 10 Ibj in 2 ) are commo n and
prod uce fl ow rates offrom 5 to 10 Ljs through each nozzle. Grid spac in g may vary
from 0.6 to 3.5 m depend in g on the distance necessary to prevent extensive over-
lap of nozz le discharges. A typical design may consist of 2.54-cm nozzles on 1.25-m
centers operating at 70-k Pa pressure. resulting in an -area requirement of ap-
proximately 10 m 2 /(50 Ljs) o f water treated (or abou t 100 ft 2 j(Mgal/d.
Cascade lowers consist of a series of wa terfalls th at drop int o smal l pools.
In this case the water is no t dispersed as droplets bu t is exposed to the atmosphere
in thin sheets as it cascades down each step. Each step in a cascade tower is usually
abo ut 0.3 m in height. and as many as 10 steps may be emp loyed. The number of
steps det erm ines t he con tac t time between the wa ter and t he air. Head loss th rough
th e system is simpl y th e height of the topmost step. The cascades may be arranged
longi tudinall y like stair steps or may be arranged in a ci rcle, wi th the steps extend ing
concen trica ll y outward from top to bot tom. Area requirem ent for cascade aera tors
ranges from 4 to 9 m 2/(50 Lis) (40-90 ft 2/(Mgal/d, depending upon t he number of
_ steps used. [4-50J . need on ly be sufficient to deliver the requ ired air vo lu me at the pressure determined
.. . . .. .. ... " . .. Tra J Tt1IVi-i r.n't(e 'si'ril'i laY 'iii 'ifit ll're' i 0 'c'a~;cai:le' t'o\\':e'rs"iii "t'I;,it i i1e"\~a ic'r is lift ed
and allowed to fall to a lowe r eleva ti o n. Instead of being intercep teu in poo ls,
tray towers int ercept the flow with solid surfaces over which the water mus t pass
in its downward journey. The so lid surfaces may be a series of redwood slat
tra ys which break the fl ow of the wa ter or a ser ies of porous-boltom tra ys contain-
ing stones, ceram ic sp heres. or oth er porous packing. In any case. tray material
prov ides large sur face areas ove r which th e fl ow is spread in thin fi lm s. Po rosit y
of the system must be sufficie nt to ensure circulati on of air around the surfaces.
Tray towers are most oft en used for oxida tion of iron and manganese. Usua ll y
the tray packing wi ll be large chunks of coke wh ich have been precoa ted with a
st rong oxidant such as potassium permanganate to help initiate th e ox idation
process. Films of iron and manganese solid s are deposit ed on the' surface o f the
medium. and th ese film s se rve to ca ta lyze the prec ipit at io n. reacti on. Manganese '
prec ipit ates very slow ly be low a pH of about 9. and it may be necessary. t6 raise
the pH to thi s le vel in orde r to speed the react ion.
In addition to the above operations, there are lIlany proprietary devices on
th e marke t wh ich make use of' one or more of the basic princ iples just discmsed.
Informatio n on these dev ices may be obtain ed fr om curren t lit erature or from th e
manufac turers o r distribu tors.
ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 11 3
Bulk Bulk
liquid liquid
C, <C, C, >C,
Liquid Liquid
film fi lm
(a) (b)
Figure 4-4 Air dispersed in waler' (a) deso rplion and (b) absorption.
Another meth od or ae rating water is to disperse th e air into the water. Again.
bo th absorp ti on and desorption are enhanced by maximizing the interfacia l area ,
in this case by minimizing th e size of the air bubble. Figure 4-4a can be used to
illu strate the situati o n for a supersa'turated water (desorption). and the process
for an undersaturated wa ter (absorptio n) is shown in Fig. 4-4b. In genera l. thi s
approach work s better for absorption th an for deso rp ti on.
Air-in-water systems mo st o ften consist of tanks fr om 2.5 to 5.0 m deep thro ugh
which th e water /l ows. Air is then injected th(Ough a porous bo tt om or through
spa rgers near th e bottom. Since the energy-for this system is expended on the air,
not the water, smaller. less complicated equipment is requ ired. Blowe r capacity
by head loss through the distribu tin g mechanism, plu s the depth of th e wa ter.
Thi s type of aerat ion dev ice has fo und -grea ter 'use in was tewa ter treatm ent th an
in potable water treatment.
Severa l varia ti ons of this process may be employed. Ca rr yi ng ou t the process
in an enclosed tank with a positive pressure in the atmosphe re above the liquid
wi ll speed th e absorption ra te. although.i t will also decrease the desorption rate.
An impeller pla ced Ju st above the poi n't of air injec ti on will break the a ir flow in to
slIla ller bubb les and enh ance mixing patterns. As in th e case of water-in- air
sys tems, there are several proprietary dev ices which make unique app li ca tion of
the basic princip les discllssed here.
All aera ti o n operati ons must be we ll ventila ted to prevent the buildup of
gases which ma y be tox icant s or asph ixa nt s.
4-4 SOLIDS SE PAR AnO N
The terms sedilllelllolioll and ('fliriliclil ion are co mm only used interchangea;l ly
with regard to prcp;II';ilI OIl llf j)'ltable \\,;ltCI' ..\lthough there ,II'C some suhtl e
t1i1lcrcllces in the Cllll ll otatlllllS t'f the two word s. th ey hoth co nvey the id e~t of
 114 WATER WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 115

physically separating solid material from water. Separation may occur by flotation where CD is the coefficient of drag, Ap is the cross-sectional area of the particle
if the water is denser than the solid matter. In the preparation of potable water, perpendicular to the direction of movement, and v is the velocity of the particle.
virtually all of the solids requiring removal are heavier than water; therefore, Because the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and in-
sedimentation with gravity as the driving force is the most common separation creases as the square of the velocity, acceleration occurs at a decreasing rate
technique. until a steady velocity is reached at a point where the drag force equals the driving
Sedimentation may be classified into various types depending upon the charac- force:
teristics and concentrations of suspended materials. Particles whose size, shape;
and specific gravity do not change with time are referred to as discrete particles. (4-3)
Particles whose surface properties are such that they aggregate, or coalesce, with
other particles upon contact, thus changing size, shape, and perhaps specific For spherical particles,
gravity with each contact, are called flocculating particles. Suspensions in which
the concentration of particles is not sufficient to cause significant displacement of
water as they settle or in which particles will not be close enough for velocity
field interference to occur are termed dilute suspensions. Suspensions in which the Substituting into Eq. (4-3)
concentration of particles is too great to meet these conditions are termed con-
centrated suspensions. These differences result in significantly diflerent settling (4-4)
patterns and require separate analysis. Settling in dilute suspensions is discussed
Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow regimes. For
below. Since concentrated suspensions are most often encountered in wastewater
laminar, rransitional. and turbulent'flow, the values of CD are:
treatment , that discussion is presented in Chap. 5.
24 . (4-5)
CD = - (Iamll1ar)
Re
Type-l Settling
Discrete particles in dilute suspension, type-I settling, is the easiest situation to = -24 + - 3- 2 + 0.34 ( ..
transItlOna 1) (4-6)
Re ReI !
analyze. If a particle is suspended in water. it initially has two forces act ing upon it:
(I) the force of gravity = 0.4 (turbulent) (4-7)

where Re is the Reynolds nUITI.~~r ............. ............................. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

in which Pp is the density of the particle, g is the gravitational constant, and Vp is the VrPw d (4-8)
Re = - - -
volume of the particle; and (2) the buoyant force quantified by Archimedes as J1
Reynolds numb'ers less than 1.0 indicate laminar flow, whil values greater than
10 indic;lte'turblIlcnt flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional flow. The
where Pw is the density of the water. Since these forces are in opposite directions. shape factor is added to correct for lack of spherosity. For perfect spheres, the
there will be no net force when Pp = p".. and no acceleration of the particle in value of is 1.0. For laminar flow, substitution of Eq. (4-5) into Eq. (4-4) yields:
. Tchtion to the water will occur. If, however. the density of the particle differs from g(pp - p,Jd 2
= - - - -- (4-9)
that of the water, a net force is exerted and the particle is accelerated ~n the direc- V
r 18 J1
tion of the force:
which is known as the Stokes equation. Terminal settling velocities for the trans-
fnel = (p p - P,Jg Vp itiunal flow involve simultaneous solutions ofEqs. (4-6) and (4-4). Use of the above
This net force becomes the driving force for acceleration. equations in determining the terminal settling velocities of discrete particles in
Once motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to vi scous friction. dilute suspensions is illustrated in 'the following example.
This force, called the drag force, is quantified by
Example 4-1: Finding the terminal settling velocit)' of a sphere in water find the terminal
sell ling \'e!Ocil y or a spherical particle with diameter 0.5 mm and specific gravity of 2.65
, cliling Ihrou gh WOll er al 20Ve
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 117
116 WATER

SOLUTION Wat er lev el

I. Assume laminar flow; from Eq. (4-8) with p .. = 998.2 kg/m 3 and J1 = 1.002 x 10 - 3

N s/m 2 at 20C

Vt = 18 x 1.002 x 10':3 N s/m2

(Recall that the units of N are kg . m/s2)

v, = 0.22 mls
2. Check Reynolds number:
0 .22 m ls x 5 x 10 - 4 m x '998.2 kg/ m 3
Re = - - - - ' - - - - - - , - - - - . , - - - = -
1.002 x 10 - 3 N . s/m2

= 112, which indicates tran si tio nal flow

24 3
. 3. CD = ill + 112 1/2 + 0.34
= 0.84 - ~
S"mpllng [lort

4 (2650 - 998.2) 5 10 - 4
V,2 = - x 9.81 x x
4. 3 0.84 x 998.2 Figure 4-5 Setll in g column for analyzing lype- I sus pen sion .
v, = 0.11 ml s
Observing that the tim e of travel is equal for the two particles. it follows that
5. With v, = 0.11. repeat steps 2. 3, and 4.
Re = 55 Zo Zp
10 = - =- and
CD = 1.18 t'o L'p

v,. = 0.1 0 mls '" 0.11 m/s (see step 4)
. Direct application of Eqs. (4-4) through (4-9) is se ld om possible in water
treatment because the size of particles must be known and a correction fac to r
to account for departure from sphericity has to be determined. An indirect method
of measuring settling velocities of discrete particles in dilute suspensions. and of
determining settling characteristics of a suspension, was devised by. Camp. [4-11 ]
A settling column is constructed as shown in Fig. 4-5. The suspension to be tested
is placed in the column and is mixed comp.letely to ensure uniform di stributi on
of the particles. The s\lspension is then allowed to se ttle. quiescently .
S.uppose that a particle is just at the surface at time t;:qual zero and its set tlin g
velocity is such that it arrives at the sampling port at a later time, say I = 10 , Now.
the averaging settling velocity of this particle can be calculated as
distance traveled Zo
Vo = - time of tr avel 10
Suppose also that another particle is initially suspended at a distance Zp above the
sampling port a nd that its te~minal se ttlin g velocity. less than Vo , is suc h th a t it
arrives at the port at the same time as the previous par(.icle. (ts se ttlin g velocity can
be calculated as
di stance traveled Zp
v = - - -- -- - = --
p time o f travel 10
Some ge nera li zed statements can be made based o n th e above equation .
.J. ' All'particles With dianiet'elsequa iio~~'g~~~t~;; i1~;1do,s~~h 'that their se ttling
velocities equal or exceed l 'n . will a rri ve at or pass the samp ling port in time co
2. A particle with diameter ell' < do will have a terminal set tlin g velocity vI' < Vo
and will arrive at or pass the sampling port in time 1o . provided its o ri gi nal
position was at , or be low, a point Zp .
3. If the suspensio n is .mixed uniformly (i.e., all particle sizes are randomly dis-
tributed from top to bottom of the co lumn), th en the fracti o n o f particles of
size el p with settling velocity 1'1' which will arrive at o r pass the sampling port
in time 10 will be Z p/Zo = l' / l'O' Thus. the removal efficiency o f any size particle
from suspension is the rati o of t he sell ling ve locity o f tha t particle to the settling
ve locity Vo defined by Zo/Io
These principles can be used to determine th e settleabi lit y o f any given s us~
pension . An apparatus simi lar to th ;\t shown in Fig. ~- 5 is fi lled with the'suspen sion
to be tested. Theoreticall y. the depth of the water column IS not a factor ' in the
analysis. but practical considerations dictate a depth of about:2 m. The s uspens io n
IS mixed complete ly to ensure an initially uniform di stribution of particles. A
suspended-so lid s tes t is rliF on a sam ple of th e comp lete ly mixed suspension. a nd
an initial concentratIOn CO IS determined . After the sus pensi o n is a ll owed to se ttle
for a tim e I, a second sample IS then drawn o O'a nd an o ther concentration C t is
Il8 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WAlft PURIFICATION 119

determined. All particles comprising C j must have settling velocities less than Example 4-2 : Settling column analysis of type-I suspension A settling analysis is run on
a type- I suspension. The column is 1.8 m deep, and data are shown below.
Z 01II l' Thus , the mass fraction of particles with V I < Zo/t I is
C j Time, min o 420
x = --
Co
Cone, mg/ L 300 27
The process is repeated several times with Xi a lways being the ma ss fraction o f
particles with Vi < ZO/Ii' When these values are plott ed o n a graph, as shown III What will be the th eo re tical rem ova l efficiency in a settling basin with a loading rate of
Fig. 4-6, the fraction of particles co rresp o ndin g to a ny settlll1 g ve loc it y can be 25 m 3 / m 2 d (25 m id)? .. .

o bt a ined. SOUJTION
For a given detention time [0, an overall percent removal can be o btained .
All particles with settling velocities grea ter than lio = Zol lo wi ll be 100 .percent l. Calculate mass fraction remaining and corresponding settling rates.
removed. Thus, 1 - xo fraction of particles Will be removed co mpletely Il1 time
1 , The re maining particles will be remo ved accord ing to the rati o vJvo, corre- Time , min 60 80 100 130 200 240 420
0
sponding to the shaded area in Fig. 4-6. If the equation relatlllg V and X IS kn ow n,
mass fraction remaini ng '0.63 0.60 0.56 0.52 0.37 0.26 0.09
th e a rea ca n be found by integrat io n :
xo [' . u, x 10 2 , m/min .I .55
I
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 0.83 0.48
x = J - Xo + -~ Jx (4- J0)
o Vo

whe re X is the total mass fracti o n rem oved by sedimentation. In most cases, 2. Pl o t mass fr act ion remaining vs. settling velocity.
it is simpler to int egrate by finit e intervals as demonstrated in th e following ex -
amp le. 1.0r-----------------~------,

1.0 0.9

0.8

0. 7
'0"
0. OJ)
c
VI c.
0.6
"E
t:
t::
S 0.5
U
'"
<.-
t. x = 0.06 c
0.4 E
~ t.x = O. I E
,; N
I

'J
0.3 0
t.x=O.1
'-'"

6.x = 0.06 ~~.JL-

6.x = 0.06 1....l--..l_..L...L...L-..L........:L-....L---.JL--------.JL-----.......;

Seltling ve IUCIII"s." = - S; 3.0 4.0
I I, ~ ~ ~ 1.0 ~ 2.0
o 00 .
Fi gure 4-6 Co ll ection efficie ncy as a funeli ol1 of se ttli ng velocity . Ve locity, m/ min X 10- 2
 3. Determine Vo = 25 m J / m 2 d = 1.74 X 10 - 2
m/ min .
I ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PU RIFI CATION 121

4. Determine Xo = 54 percent.
5. Determine ~x . v, by graphical integration.

D.x v, llx . fl
I~
II
0.06 1.50 0.09
0.06 1.22 0.07
0.1 1.00 0.10 E
.~ 0. 1 0.85 0.09 c
'.
0.1 0.70 0.07 E
0.06 0.48 0.03 0
u
0.06 0.16 0.01
. ~

LD.X '", = 0.46

6. Determine overall rem ova l efficiency.

" tJ.x . v,
X = I - Xo + L --
110

0.46
= 0.54 + -- Figure 47 Isorernova lli!leS rrorn sell ling anal ysis.
1.74

= 0.46 + 0.26
=72%
.- . Type-2 Settling
Type-2 settling involves flocculating particles. in dilute suspension. Flocculating
suspensions cannot be generalized in the same manner as discrete particle sus-
pensions. Th'e Stokes equation cannot b~ u~~q.!:?~"l!-u~e flocculating particles are
. ...-.. ........... continually 'changing 'ifniie: sh'<ipe: 'iiiiCi, 'if a large aggregate of particles collect ,
specific gravity because of entrapment of water in the interstitial space. So many
factors contribute to the flocculation process that it has been impossible to develop
a general formula for determining settling velocities.
An analysis of the settleability of a flocculating suspension similar to the analy-
sis for a discrete particle suspension just described can be made. The settling
column must be altered somewhat to allow for sampling at several depths . As
given isoremova l line is the instantaneous veloci ty o f the fracti o n of particles
represented by that line . .
It should be noted that the velocity becomes greater (I.e., the slope of the
isoremova l lines beco mes steeper) at grea ter depth. Thi s common characterIstIc
of flocculating sllspensioI1s reflects the increase in particle size a nd subsequent
increase in settling veloc ity because of con tinued collision a nd aggregatIon WIth
other particles.
For any predetermined de tenti on time. the overa ll percentage removed can
be obta ined as illustrated in the example below.
Example 4-3: Settling column analysis of flocculaling particles A co lumn .ana lysis of. a .
. .., I ., 1 ' 1 be low . The inilial
flocculallng SLl spen slo n IS run In tIC appdf3 tu s s lOWI
so lids concen
.
tration is 250 mg/L. The resulting maHix is sh o wn be low What Wi ll be the .overa ll Fe-
moval efficiency of a settling ba sin whi c h is 3 In deep with a detention time of I h and
45 min?

If
in the previous analysis. samples are drawn off at several time intervals and an- Time of sampling. min
alyzed for suspended-solids concentrations. These concentrations are then used Dep lh.
III 30 60 90 120 150 180
to compute mass fraction removed (instead of the mass fracti on remaining)
at each depth and for each time. 0.5 1:1 3 83 50 38 30 23
1.0 180 125 9} 65 55 43
~

~
(4-11 ) 93 70 5~
x 100 U 203 150 II
2 13 168 135 110 90 70

I
2. 0
2.5 220 I () 145 Ii } 10J 80
where xij is the mas~ fraction in percent tha t is removed at the ith depth at the ~
1 8~ 155 I ,} 11 3 95
3.0 225
.--., jth time interval. These values are graphed as shown in Fig. 4-7, and a family of
isoremovallines is drawn similar to a contour map. The slope at any point o n any Result s or sll spen ded so lid s les t on sample C,' mg L
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 123
122 WATER

SOLUTION IV Z, IVZ;

I. Determine the rem ova l rate at each depth and time . 0.Q7 2.6 0. 18
0. 1 1.8 0. 18
0.1 1.2 0. 12
X;j = (I - C;)Co) x 100
0.1 0.8 0.08
0.1 0.45 0.04
Tim e of sampling. min 0.1 0. 15 0.0 1
Depth. LIVZ; = 0.6 1
m 30 60 90 120 150 180

0.5 47 67 80 85 88 91 tJ.,z
5. Determine the removal efficiency, R = '0 + r --'
1.0 28 50 63 74 78 83 zo
1.5 19 40 53 63 72 77
2.0 15 33 46 56 64 72 0.6\
2.5 12 28 42 51 59 68
= 0.43 +-
3.0
3.0 10 25 38 47 55 62
= 63%

2. Plot isoconcentration lines a:; s hown in th e accompanying figure.
3. Construct vertica l lin e at 10 = 105 min.
4 . From the figure. approximately 43 percent 01' the so lids will reach the 3-m depth 111 10 ,
The y wlil pe 100 percent removed. Some percentage of the remaining particles will be
removed. Working upward along t he 10 line, tktermine increments of rem oval and
depths to the midpo int of these increme nt s.
4-5 SETTLING OPERATIONS
The sed imentation process has ma ny applications in the preparation o f potable
wa ter. Materials that may be remo ved by sedi menta ti on include suspended solids
or igina lly present in the water or dissolved so lids which have been precipitated
in the course of other treatment processes. S uspensions in water-treatment plants
are ass umed to be dilute, a lthough some zone settling may occur near the bottom
of settling basins.
Cr iteria for desi gn o f settling basins have evolved as much from practice as.
fro m theo ry .. S.ettling .. l:.~~i~s ..employed. J()r . s.o li~~ . rernoyal,in . \V.~t~r.-.t.re~t.!penL ........... .
plants are classified as either long-rectangular, circular. or so lid s-contact clarifiers.
Although these are all continuous-flow systems, the settling theory for batch analy-
sis discussed in the previous section can be applied_

LO'ng-Rectangular Basins
"E
::J E
cC> Long-recta ngu la r basins are commonly used in treatment plants processing large
.c
OJ)
0. fl ows. This type of basin is hyd rau lica ll y more stab le, and flo w contro l thro u g h
.S
c" large volumes is easier with this configuration. A typical long-rectangular tank
"
Vl
is shown in Fig. 4-8. Typical designs consist o f basins whose length ranges from 2
to 4 times their width a nd fr o m JO to 20 times their depth. The bottom is slightly
sloped to fac ilitat e slud ge scrap ing. A slow-moving mechanical sludge scraper,
usua ll y redw ood slats o n a ch a in drive. continuously pulls the settled material
int o a sludge hoppe r whe re it is pumped o ut periodically.
A long-rectangular settling tank can be divided' into four different functional
zo nes:
I. The inlet zone in which baffles intercep t th e incoming water and spread the
Tim e. IllIIl
flow ulllfo rmly both horizontally a nd vert icall y ac ross the tank
 124 WATER J"NGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 125

-
~~~~--~~~~

\
Settling zone '*
I
I
I
Sludge I
scrapeJ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
..... I
" I
I

o I,
Sludge
out (u) Figure 4-9 Di sc rete pdrl icle removal in Ihc se tlling zone o f a I,lng-rectangular setlling basin.

particles fallm g Ihrou gh the settling co lumn wtll n(lW have two co mp o nents of
velocity. the vertical co mponent.

and the ho ri zont<li component. that is. the \elocity of fl ow through the se ttling
zone_

\;,het:e:4 ;stli ec ; oss~sect;;';li ,il ~i;,e;1.~;;

(/J)
Figure 4-8, Lo~g-rectangular settling basin: (a)diagrammatic sketch and (b) view or interi o r sh ow ing
sludge scraper arrangemenl. (PholO courtesy oj Em.irex Inc., 0 Rexnord Companv,)
2, The outlet zo ne in which water flows upw3rd and over the ou tlet weir
3. The sludge zone. wh ich extends from the bottom of the tank to ju st 3bove the
scraper mechanIsm
4. The se:tlin g zone. which occupies the rcmaining vo lum e of the. tank
. Although a'II four zones musi function properly for efficient sol id s removal.
pmr:ary a ttentIon here will be focused on the settling zone. Assume that the
settllflg
. colu mn Ifl F'Ig. 4 - 5 IS
. sllspended 111
. the flow of the settling zone as shown in
Ftg. 4-9. The column travels with th e flow across the settli;lg lone. Discrete
ii~ e\\; i(Jiiitlm esthedepih.the sl.liTi of these
velocities is th e absolute ve loc it y of th e particles.
No\\' cO ll sid er th e panicle In the b<ttch ,1Ilalysis for type-I settling whi ch was
Initially at the surl'ace an d se ttled tilr ough th e depth of the column Zoo in the tim e
In II' 0 also correspond s to the time required for the colum n to be car ried ho ri-
zonta ll v across ihe se ttlin g zonc. then th e particle will rail into the sludge zo ne and
be rCllloveci from suspension at th e pOint ;It \\'hleh the co lumn reach es the end of
the se tlling zo ne. ,\5 in th e batch anal ys is. a ll parllcles with 1', > 1:0 wil l be removed
from suspens ion at some poi nt along the settlin g zone. Now consider the particle
with settling vc loclty < l'o. lft helnitialdepthnfthisparticlewassuchthatZ p !u, =
I". thiS particle wtll ,liso be removed. as sho\\n in the b~ltch anal ysis . Therefore.
the rem ova l of suspe nd ed particlcs pa sslllg thr u ugh the settling zone wil l be in
proporti o n to the ratio of the Incli\idual settling \'eloet ties to the settl ing ve locir-y
t
u
Anot her poi nt ca n bc mad e by this analysis. The lim e 10 corres ponds to the
retention time in the seltltn g zone.
I' LZ n IV
In =
Q Q
 rn
i'
I
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 127
126 WATER

A lso

(0

therefore
LZ oW . Q
Q
and !o =I w
or
Q
"0=- (4-12)
As
w here As is th e surface a rea o f the set tling basin . Thus, the depth of the basin is
not a factor In determining th e size par ticle th at can be removed co mpl etely in
the settlIng zon e. The determining factor is the quantity Q/ As' which has th e units
o f ve loc It y and IS refe rred to as th e ove rfl ow rate qo This ove rflow ra te, expressed
as cub IC meters per squ a re-meter hour (or ga llo n s per sq ua re-fo ot day), is the design
fac tor fo r settlIng baSInS a nd corres p o nd s to the terminal sett lin g ve loc it y of the
partIcle that IS 100 percen t removed.
If a similar co mparis on of flocculating particles is made be tween batch Figure 4-10 In board weir arrangement to increase weir length.
se ttll!l g and continuous se ttlin g in lo ng-rec tan gul a r ta nk s, th e path of the falling
partIcles wIll not be a straIght lIne . As determined in the batch ana lysis, average Large weir overflow rates result in excessive velocities at the outlet These
velOCItIes of flo cc ulatIng partIcles increase w ith d ep th. Since the paths of particles ve locit ies extend backward into the settling zone, causing particles and floes
tend to curve d ow nw a rd as illustr a ted in Fig. 4- 7, d epth is a factor in fl occ ul a nt which would o therwise be remo ved as sludge to be drawn into the outlet Overflow
3
se ttlin g. Therefore, the batch analysis mu st be p erfor med in a col umn of the same rates ranging from 6 m 3 j h per meter of weir for light flocs to about 14 m / h per
depth as th e basi n which it is to model. meter of weir for heavier discrete-particle suspensions are commonly used . [4-44J
. Settling basins designed for di sc rete particles are usuall y from 2.5 to 3 m d ee p, It may be necessar y to provide special inboard weir designs such as the one in
wh Ile those for flocculating p art ic les are usuall y 3 to 4 m deep. [4-44J From a Fig. 4-10 to acco mm o date the '!owe'r we{r
over'flow' rates. . .. . . ' ................... , .... . . .
practIcal standpoint. w idth s in excess of about 12 m crea te problems wi th s lu dge The design of long-rectangular settling b as ins i"S illustrated in the following
removal equipment ; thu s length s a re usually kept to less than 48 m. Multiple un~s
examp le.
III paralle l are used to o btain the vo lume and retention tim es need ed for large
flows. In fact , It IS always good practice to have at least two unit s so one can co n- Example'4-4~ Designing a long-rectangular settling basin for type.- 2 settling A city mu s t
tinue fun c tio ning while the ot her is down for repairs or routine maintenance. treat about 15,000 m) /d (4 Mgal /d) of water. Flocculating particl~s are prod uced 'by
F o r dilute suspen sion s, overflow rates for di scre te particle set t liu g usuall y range coagulation, and a colum n analys is indicates that an ove rflow rate of20 mid will produce
satisfactory remova l at a depth of 3.5 m. Determine the size of the required settling tank .
from 1.0 to 2.5 m / h (0.4 to 1.0 ga l/ ft 2 . min), wh ile ove rfl ow ra tes for fl occ ul a ting
suspensIons range from 0.6 to 1.0 mi ll (0.25 to 0.4 gal /ft 2 . min). Detention times
SOLUTION
range from 2 to 4 h for discrete particles :1I1c1 from 4 to 6 h for flu cc ulating suspen -
3
s ions . [4-44J I. Compute surface area (provide two tank s at 7500 m /d each).
Alth ough se lec ti on of the overflow rat e and the detention time determine Q = qoAs
the size o f the basin, o th e r parameters also have to be co nsidered. These include
.7500 m 3 /d = A , x 20 mi d
th e horizontal ve loc ity Vh and th e weir over f~ow rate (/"'. 2
The motion of the s lud ge scraper may momentarily res uspe nd li g ht e r particles A, = 7500/20 = 375 m
a nd fl ocs a few ce nt ime ters above the sc raper blades. Since excess ive horizo nt,d 2. Se lecting a length -t o-width ratio of 3/ 1. calcu late surface dimensions.
ve loc ities wou ld m ove this material progress ive ly toward the ~lIt lct zo ne where It w x 3w = 375 m'
wou ld be los t in the overflow, horizontal flow veloc! ty s hould not exceed 9.0 I1l/ Il Width = 11.18. say 11 m
(0.5 ft/ mlll) for hght fl occulent sll spensions or about 36 mi ll (2 ft / min) for hea vier.
Length = 33.54, say 34 m
discrete-partIcle suspen s io ns. [4-44J
 128 WATER ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFI CATION 129

3. Check retention time. It is essential that the weir plates be precisely level. since a ve ry sli gh t differ-
ence in elevation will result in considerable short circuiting (dIrect channe lltl g
volume II m x 34 m x 3.5 m
(= - - - = from influ ent to effluent). Uneven distribution and wltld currents can also cause
flow rate Id
7500 mid x - short circuiting. These fa cto rs make flow con trol more difficult Itl cIrcular bas ll1s
24 h
than in lon g-;ectangu lar ones . Because fl ow-con trol problems become m o~e
= 4.19 h difficult to co ntro l as tank size increases. it is usually adVIsable to lImIt cIrcu lar
4. Check horizontal velocity. tank diameters to 30 1Tl or lcss. .
Design of circu lar sett lin g basins is based on overflow rates and detentIon
, d
Q 7500 m Id x -24- h times. Th e limit s presented for long-rectangular tanks are app lIcable to cIrcul ar
t', = - = - - - - - - - := 8. 1 mi h tank s. For obvious reaso ns. neith er horizontal ve lOCIty. nor weI r overflow rates
A, II m x 3.5 m
are a consideration in th e design of circlllnr settlIng bas1l1s. " .
5. Check weir overflow rate. If simple weir is placed across end of tank, overflow length The following exa mpl e illu s trat es the ciesign of cIrcular se ttltn g bas1l1s.
will be II m and overtlow rate will be
Example 4-5: Designing 3 circular settling basin Using the data in Ex a mplc-4-4. deter-
m' I dIm' mine the diameter required fo r circu lar se ttling baslIl s.
7500 -- x ~- x - - = 211 A - -
d 24 h II m h .m
SOLUT tON
Five times this length will be needed . Design weir as shown in Fig. 4-10.
6. Add inlet and outlet zones equal to depth of tank. and sludge zones as shown in the Aga in pro vid in g two ta nks. the surface area is cal cu lated as befo re.
accompanying figure.
,4 , = 375 m'

34.0 2. The tk"lIn eter is ca lculat ed by

/. ./ rrtl' , -I = 375 m '

Inlet
zone
3.5E Outlet
zone
=:J 35
.
Dep th of
se ttling .
3. Inlet. outlet. and sl udge 70nes afC
tI = 2 1.85. say ~2 m

pro\ .1d ed as,'110"-1' 1 in the accompanyin eu fl!!Ur

~ e.
Slope Iii 00 zo ne plus
0.5 fre eboard
plus 0.5 for
. ............. AlI.dime-nsions in meters slud ge Zone
.... . .... . ....... . .................. . .

Scrtllllg 101lt.;
Circular Basins

Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long-rectangular
basin, but the flow regime is quite different. When the flow enters at the center and
Oulicl
zone
4.0

f-J
1-''''''''"' '
110

-
Inkl 71 lilt'
4 .0 ) - - - - -
110

--- 4.0

L
OUlkt'
zone

is baffled to flow radially toward the perimeter. the horizontal velocity of the water
is continually decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thu s. a discrete
.,./ ~
particle with a settling velocity Vo is continually undergoing a change in its absolute
velocity due to the decrease in ho rizontal velocity. Thus. the particle path in a

.-....
circular basin is a parabola as opposed to th e straight particle path line in the lo ng-
rectangular tank.
Circular t.anks have certain advantages. Sludge' removal mechanisms are
simpler and require less maintenance. [4-57]. Excessive weir overfl ow shou ld
never be a problem because the en'tire circumference is used for overfl ow. In fact.
I --=--
-

-,

to prevent extremely thin sheets of water from being drawn off. overflow weirs Solids-Contact Basins
on circular tanks usually consist of V-notched met a l plates which reduce the effec-
.' ICI'.dII
. I 1'I0'cr Cll nstl
." !th ough sll lid s-cLl ntaCl b:t~tns ) : fl"')ll1 either CIrcular or Illng-
tive overflow area. These strips are bolted onto the collection trough and can be I .
~.
rectan gular , . t Ile\ Stll
h:lsins with respec t 1(\ ll oll' regll11es. 1 nnk , c use of th e rrlnctples
adjusted to correct for differential se ttling of the basi n after construction.
130 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 131

of sedimentation previously discussed . The upward veloci ty of the flow in solids-
contact basins works contrary to the settling velocity of the suspended particles.
Referring to Fig. 4-11 the vector sum of velocities for any given particle is its
terminal settling velocity minus the upward velocity of the flow at the level of the
particle. At high upward velocities (near the bottom o f the cone), vir tually all
particles and floes are swept upward with the flow. As the cross-sectional area
of the cone increases, the upward velocity of the water decreases, and the vector
sum of the velocities reaches zero; the particle stops and is suspended at that height
in the cone. At this point, a particle is considered" removed" from the water.
Obviously, larger particles with greater sett ling velocities become suspended
nearer the bottom of the cone where upflow velocities are higher. Particles whose
settling ve locity is exceeded by the upflow velocity at the top of the cone are swept
on upw ard and into the overflow of the tank.
Particles collect at positions dictated by their settling velocities until a so lids
blanket is formed . creating a concentrated suspension. even if the original sus-
pension was dilute. The creation of the solids blanket is an importan t part of
upflow clarification. Very small particles. which would normally be swe pt out of
the clarifier. mu st first pass through the concentrated zone. In flocculating sus-
pensions, the chances are excellent that enmes hment in the sludge blanket will
occur so th~t even very small particles or floes win be removed. Thu s. the blanket
acts similarly to a filter for solids removal.
The elevation of the sludge blanket in the cone is determined by the concen-
tration of the solids in the blanket. higher concentration resulting in a greater rise.
The concentration, and thus the elevation, of the solids blanket is controlled by
drawing off excess sludge once the desired concentration and height have 'been
reached ..
At section
velocity is equ a l to the
As a factor of safety, the unit is usually sized so that the upflow velocity at a
point 1.5 m below the top of the cone is one-half of the settling velocity of the particle
that is to be removed . [4-1 J Generally speaking, upflow velocities of about 1 m/h
at the liquid-so lids interface for flocculent sludges and about 2 mlh for nonfloccu-
lated slurries are adequate. Solids concentration of approximately 3 percent by
weight for flocculated sludge blankets and approximately 5 percent by weight
for nonflocculated slurries s hould be maintained in the solids blanket. Since
horizon tal velocities are to be avoided in this process, overflow weirs should be
arranged to ensure essentially vertical flow. Horizontal flow distances should not
exceed the depth of the clarified zone by more than a factor of 3. [4-44J
4-6 COAGULA nON
Virtually all surface water sources contain perceptible turbidity. Some particle
sizes common to most surface waters are listed in Table 4-1, along with their
terminal settling velocity (assuming quiescent conditions and specific gravity of
2.65). From these values it is obvious that plain sedimentation will not be very
efficient for the smaller suspended particles. Under conditions normally encoun-
tered in setiling basins, efficient removal of particles less than 50 pm in diameter
cannot be expected.
Agglomeration of particles into groups, increasing the effective size and there-
fore the settling velocities, is possible in some instances. Particles in the colloidal
size range, however. possess certain properties that prevent agglomeration. Surface
waters with turbidity resulting from colloidal particles cannot be clarified without
special treatment. A knowledge of the nature of colloidal suspensions is essential
bb,
the upflow
. XO .tbis removaL.. ......................................................... . ............................. ..

Colloidal Stability
se ttling velocity of the
particle . Th e net velo.ci ty
Cylindrical is zero, 3nd all particles Colloidal suspensions that do not agglomerate naturally are called slable. The
section with ihis settling velocity. most important factor contributing to the stability of colloidal suspensions is the
remain suspended in the excessively large surface-to-volume ratio resulting from their very small size,
flow at Ihis point-.

b-l-~l--
-b
Table 4-1 Settling velocities of various size particles*
Coni ca l
section Particle Size
Upflow Settling
diameter typical Settling
velocity ve loci ty
a- mm 01 velocity
of particle

At sect ion aa, the upflow velocity 10 Pebble 0.73 In iS

Uptlow Settling Ntt
exceeds the sett lin g velocity of the
velocity velocity vdocity
Coarse sand n.n Inf'

.L,,,,,,,
particle. The net velocity of the 01 Fine sand 1.0 x' 10 - ' m!s (0.6 m / min)
particle is in the directio'l of flow. 01' p3.ticl e
001 Silt 1.0 x 10 4 m /s (R.6 m /d)
and the particle is swept upward at O.UOOI Large collnid 10 x 10 - ' Ill !, (0.3 In/ yr)
the net velocity. OOOOUO I Small colloid 1.0 x 10 \J Ill is (3 m / million yr)
velocity
------- --------- --
Figure 4-11 Principles of upAow clarification. . . Srhcrcs With srecific gravi ty or 2.65 in water cit 20"('
 132 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 133

Surface phenomen a predominate over mass phenomena. The most impo rtant
surface phenomenon is the accumulation of electrica l charges at the particle
surface. Molecul a r a rrangement within crys tals. loss of atoms due to abrasion of
the surfaces, or o ther fac to rs may result in th e s urfaces being charged. In most
surface waters. colloidal surfaces are negatively charged.
Ions contained in the wa ter near the colloid will be affected by the charged
surface. A negatively charged colloid with a possible configuration of ions around
it is shown in Fig. 4-12.The first layer of cations attracted to the negatively charged
surface is " bound " to the colloid and will travel with it. shou ld displacement of the
colloid relative to the water occur. Other ions in the vicinity of the colloid arrange
themselves. as shown. with greater concentrations of positive. o r co unter. io ns
being closer to th e co lloidal surface. This arrangement produces a net cha rge
that is strongest at the bo und layer and decreases exponentially with distan ce fr o m
the colloid .
'- -
+ + " \
+ \
+ \
+ \
\
+ \
Wh en two coll oids come in close proximity there a re two forces acting o n them.
The electrosta ti c potential created by the " ha lo" of cou nter ions surrounding
eac h colloid react s to repe l th e pa rti cles. thu s preventing contact. The second force.
an attracti on forc e ca lled th e mn der Wau/s[orce, supports co nt act. This force is
in verse ly proportional to the six th power of th e distance between the p a rticles
and also decays expone nti a ll y with distance. It decreases more rapidly than th e
electrostatic potential. but is a str o nger force at close distances. The sum of th e
two fo rces as th ey relate to o ne coll oid in close proximity to ano ther is illustra ted
in Fi g. 4- 13. As noted in the figure. th e net force is repulsive at grea ter distances
and becomes attractive on ly after passing thr o ugh a maximum net repulsive force.
ca ll ed th e eYler9.1' harrier. at some distance between co lloid s. Once the force becomes
attrac ti ve. con tact betwcen t il e particles tak es pl ace.
/\. means of overco min g th e ene rgy barrier mu st be ava ilable before agglomer-
ation of particles can occur. Brown ian movem ent. th e ra nd o m movement of sma ller
co ll oids becau se of molec ular bombardment. may produce enough momentum
for particles to nvercome the ene rgy barrier and thu s co llid e. Mechanical agitation
of the water ma y impart eno ugh moment lim to la rge r particles to move them
across the energy barrier. Th ese processes are too slow . howeve r. to be efficient

/:
+ I
I
+

I
B:;/ + +
_/
+
/
/
+

+ ......... ....... . . ......... . .

~ ~
"'1)
Nco.
' 0"

Distance
o ~----~~------~=---~~------------ be t ween
co ll o ids

Net rorce (Lcta - va" dcc Waal s)

- - - - - - - - -~::a---r-

Diffused layer
Di stance from particle
J
Figure 4-12 Charge sys tem in a co ll oida l suspen sion. Figure 4-1 3 Force fields b,,,ween (plio Ids of like charge.

L.
 134 WATER
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 135
in water purification. and neither results in collisions of medium-sized colloids.
Thus. other means of agglomeration must be used. In water purification this is
generally accomplished by chemically coagulating the colloids into clusters. or
flocs. wh ich are large enough to be rem oved by gra vit y sett ling.

Coagulation Theory
t
~
:::
.2
In water-treatment plants. chemical coagulation is usually accomplished by the '-
o
addition of tri va lent metallic salts such as AL 2 (S04).1 (aluminum s ulfate) or
FeCI ] (ferric chloride). Although the exact method by which coagulation is ac- "
.D
E
:;
complished cannot be determined, four mechanisms are thought to occur. These Z
include ionic layer compression, adsorption and charge nel tralization , entrap-
ment in a flocculent mass, and adsorption and interparticle bridging.

Ionic layer compression The quantity of ions in th e water surrounding a colloid

has an effect on the decay function of the electrostatic potential. As illustrated in
Fig. 4-14 a high ionic concentration compresses the layers composed predomi- Diffused
nantly of counter ion s toward the surface of the colloid. If this layer is sufficiently layer
compressed, then the van del' Waals force will be pred o minant across the entire Distance from particle

area of influ ence, so that the net force will be attractive a nd no energy barriers will (a)
exist. An example of ionic layer compression occurs in nature when a turbid
stream flow s into the ocean. There the ion content of the water increases drastically
and coagulation and settling occur. Eventually, deposits (deltas) are formed from
material which was originally so small that It could not have se ttled without
coa~ulation. Although coagulants such as aluminum and ferric salts used in water
. treatmenl 'iDn ize ; 'at t he 'conce'ntrarion 'co ttjmtiiilY''tfsed''fhey \vQuld not increase
the ionic concentration sufficiently to affect ' ion layer compression.
~
t
:::
~
Adsorption and charge neutralization The nature , rather than the quantity, of the o
a.
ions is of prime importance in the theory of adsorption and charge neutralization. '"
Although aluminum sulfate (alum) is used, as in the example below, ferric chloride "
o"~N ~~~~~~~~~~ __________~~
behaves similarly. U. ~ Distanc~ between
The ionization of aluminum sulfate in water produces sulfate anion s (SO/ - ) ~ particles
~
and aluminum cations (A1 3 +). The sulfate ions may remain in this form or combine
with o th er ca tion s. However. the A1 3 + cations react immediately with water to
form a var ie ty of 3quometallic ion s and hydrogen.

AI.l + + H 20 ----'--+ AIOH 2 + + H ' (4-13a)

A1 3
+ + 2H 2 0 Al(OH 2 )! + :!W (4-13&)
7A I J
' + 17 H 2 0 AJ 7 (OH)! " ~ ' -/- 171-1 ' (4- 13c) Figure 4-14 Ionic compression: (a)
reduction of thickness in diffused layer;
(b) (b) reduction of net force .

AI" -/- 3 H 2 0 ---~ Al(OH), -/- 3 11 (4-IJn)

 136 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PUR IFI CATION 137

The aquometallic ions thu s fo rm ed become part of the ionic cloud surround- Inili a l odsorpll o n 01 Ihe optimum polym e r dosage
ing the colloid and, because they have a great affinity for surfaces, are ad sorbed

~
o nto the surface of the colloid whe re they neutra lize the surface c harge. Once .the
surface charge has been neutralized , the ionic cloud di ssipates and the electrostatic
potential disappears so that contact occurs fre e ly. Overdosing with coagulants ~ Polymer
+
0
Pori icl e

Destabi li zed
pa rt iele
can result in rest a bilizing the suspens ion. If enough a quomet a llic ions are form ed

~~
and adsorbed: the charges on the ' particles beco me reversed and the ionic clo ud s F loc forination
reform , with nega tive ions bein g the cbunter io ns. This phen omenon will be dis-

~"iO"
Flo ccul a tion
cussed more fully in a later section.
(pe rik inetic or
orthokin e ti c)
Sweep coagulation According to Eq. (4-13n), th e la st produ ct fo rmed in the
Destabili zed pa rti cles
hydrolysis of alum is aluminum hydroxide , AI(OHh. The AI(OHh form s in
amorphous, gelatinous flocs th a t a re heavier than water and se ttle by gravity. Secondary adsor pll on of po ly mer

~
Colloids may become entrapped in a floc as it is formed , or th ey may beco me Restab ili zed padicle
enmeshed b y its "stick y" surface as th e floes sett le. The process by which colloid s
are swept from su spension in thi s manner is known as sweep coagulation.
Destabiliz ed particl e
~

No contact wit h vacant site s

on ano lher particle
@
Interparticle bridging Large m o lec ul es may be formed when aluminum or fe rri c Ini tial adsor pti on excess

- ~
sa lts dissociate in water. Equati o n (4-13c) is an exa mple , although larger o nes poly mer dosage
are probably formed also. Synthetic polymers a lso may be used in stead of, or
in addition to, metallic salts. These polymers ma y be linear or branched a nd are
highly surface re a ctive. Thu s, seve ral colloids m ay become a tt ac hed to o ne
polymer and seve ral of the polymer-co lloid groups may becom e en meshed (Fi g.
4-15), resulting in a se ttleable m ass.
5 it 7
\
\
Excess polymers
"
+
0
Part ide
Ruplurc of !loc
Stabl e particle
(no vacant sit es)

~ -96~
In addition to the adsorption forces, charges o n the pol ymer ma y assist in ' I
the coagulation process. Metallic polymers form ed by the addition o f aluminum
.. .- ..... ............or.ferr.icsalts are positively cha rged , while synthetic polymers ma y carry positive Intense or
Floc
. . ..

or negative charges or may be neutral. Judicious choice of appropriate charges pro longed fragments
Floc part ide agi tatio n
may do much to enhance the effectiveness of coagulation.
Secondary adsorp tio n oj pol y mer

.~
Jar Tests for Optimum Coagulant Dosage
Coagulation is no t yet an exact sc ience. a lthou g h rece nt advances have been m ade
in understanding the mechanics o f the process . Therefore. selection and optinlum Ftoc fra gmen t -' cY
Restabilized !loc
fragment
dosages of coagulant s are determin ed experimentally by the jar tes t instead o f
quantitatively b y fo rmula. The j ar test must be performed on eac h wa ter th a t is 'Figure 4-15 Irll crparticle bridging with polymers. (Alier O' M elia [4'-41].)
to be coagulated and must be repea ted with each significa nt cha n ge in the q ua lit y

I
of a given. water.
The jar test is p erfo r.med using a se ries of g lass co ntainers that ho ld at leas t
I L and are of uniFo rm size and s ha pe. Normall y. s ix jars are used w ith a stirrin g
device (Fig. 4-16) th a t simultaneollsly mixes th e co nt ents o f each jar with a uni-
fo rm power input. Each of the s ix. jars is filled to the I-L mark wit h water whose
~
turbidity, pH, and a lk a linit y ha ve been predetermined. One jar is used as a co ntro l,
while the rem a inin g fi ve are do sed wi th different amou nt s of coagulan t(s) a t
different pH va lu es until the minimum valu es o f residual turbidit y are obta ined.
Aft er chemical addi t io n. th e \vater IS mixed rap idl y for about j min to ensure
co mplete di spersion of the c hemicals. then mix ed slow ly for. 15 to 20 min to aid
in tlie formati on of flocs. The water is nex. t a ll owed to se ttl e for app ro ximately
30 min , or' un til clar ifica ti on 'h a s occ urred P o rtions o f th e se ttl ed wa ter are then
removed a nd tes ted to d eter min e th e re maini ng turbidity. Test res ults are used
to calc ul a te th e type and quantity of coagu la n t to be u sed in th e wate r-trea tm en t
plan t.
138 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 139

At higher co lloida l concen trations (Fig. 4-17b), destabilization by adsorption

Figure 4-16 J ar test apparatus.
Jar tests also serve to illu stra te the me'c banics of coagulation. Ge nera lized
curves for residual turbidit y as a fury:tionof coagu lant dosages and initia l turbidit y
appear Il1 FIg. 4-17 . Co ll o Id concen tra tIOn? S are measured in terms of surfac e
area per liter a nd increase from SI to S4' A-t low coll oidal concen t ra ti ons (Fig.
4-170), insufficient numbers of colloids are present to form settleable masses
(zo ne I), even if the surface charges la re neutralized. In such a case. co agu lat io n is
no t initiated until enough coagulant has been added to precipitate as a metallic
hydroxide . At low collo idal concentrations. the preqominant mechanism is-sweep
co agu lation. I ' '!
and charge neutra lizati o n OCC llrs early (zone 2), but continued addition of the
coagulant results in c harge reversal and restabilization (zone 3). Still greater
colloidal concentrations (Fig. 4-17c) resu lt in more chances of collisions, and thus
better coagulation over a wider range of concen tra ti on. Continued addition of
coagulants result s first in restabilization and eventually in hydro xide f1bc formation
and sweep coagu la ti on (zo ne 4). .
Extremely large co lloidal concentrati o ns (Fig. 4-I7d) theo retically provide
eno ugh co lloids to result in coagulation by adsorption and charge neutra lizati o n
(zone 2), a lthough it is probab le that polymer bridging and sweep coagu lation
also occur. Restab ilizat ion of highly turbid waters is seldom a problem.
Information from many curves similar to th ose in Fi g. 4-17 can be summarized
as show n in Fig. 4-18. Two very useful observations can be made from this figure.
First. coagulation by adsorp ti on an d charge neutralizati on (zone 2) is impractical
unless coagu lant dosage can be ve ry carefully con trolled . As illustrated by the
coagula ti on region for t he colloid concentra tions S 2, a very sli gh t overdose results
in restabilization . Second , highly turbid wa ters may require a lesser a mount o f
coagulan t for good coagu la ti o n th a n waters wi th slig ht turbidit y. For this reason
it is sometimes adva nt ageo us to odd turbidit y to re lati vely clear water. For example,
if water with an initial turbidity correspond ing to SI were made more turbid ,

Coll o id co nc. = S.

Zone I
(d ) c:
!!
Co ll oid conc. ~ Optimum
'8 coagu lan I
~ (losage to
Zone I ~ produce
~ "sweep noc"
(3
a
; ; ~---. . ;. .:;.:, ~--=--------~,..., Zone 1
"
e>: 0plimum
Zo ne 3 coagula nl dusage I
I in s[oichiomerric I
( b) I destabiliza tion :
Benl oni te I
Co lloid co ne . =St I
addi ti on I I

Zone I s; S4
(a) Co ll oid concen t ration , e x pressed
as co ncen lration of surface (S)
Dosage of coagulant

Figure 4-17 Results of ja r tests at increasing turbidities . (Af ter O'Jleliu [4 . 4 1).) Figure 4-18 Coagulant dosage as a funcliu n of lurbidil Y. (A/ ter 0' Melia [44 I l)

]40 WATER
say ro S3 or beyond , savings In coagulants could be realized. Bentonite clay is
generally used for this purpose.
Alkalinity-Coagulation Relationships
As noted in Eq. (4-13), the coagulation of metallic salts releases hydroge n ion s
as well as coagulant species. These hydroge n ions neutralize alkalinity. H ydrogen
resulting from the addition of I mg/ L of alum will neutrali ze 0.5 mg/ L of a lkalinit y.
If the'initial alkalinity of a water is low. further reduction will destro y it s buffer-
ing capacity and the pH will drop rapidly. Since optimum pH values must be
maintained for best coagulation and since alkalinity must be prese nt for hyd roxide
floc formation, low alkalinity wate rs must be artificially buffered. This is usuall y
accomplished by the addition of lime [Ca(OH)2J or soda ash (Na 2 CO).
Coagulation Practice
Aluminum sulfate. the most commonly used coagulant in water purifica tion , is
most eflective between pH ranges of 5.0 and 7.5. Ferric chloride. effective down to
pH 4.5. and ferrous sulfate. effective on ly' above pH 9.5. are sometimes used. [4- 54J
Although less expensive than alum . these coagulants can cause color problems if
the precipitate is not removed completely. It is sometimes advantageous to use
synthetic polymers in addition to alum. These pol ymers bind small fl ocs togethcr
to make larger masses for faster settling.
Alum dosage may range from 5 mg/ L to 50 mg/ L. depending upon the turbidity
and nature of the water. At low turbidity and high dosage, AI(OH) , is almost
..... ,uJd .. the.distance .. bctwee n.... As .an examp le, two water particles m oving I m /s
certain to form so that thepredominant tubidity~removal' meclTanis~y is 'sweep-"
coagulation . At high turbidity and lower dosages. adsorption and charge neu tra l-
ization will be the predominant mechanis m. although interparticle bonding prob-
ably plays a significant role. Ionic layer compression woilld not be significant at
these concentrations. With regard to coagulation. surface waters can be gro uped
into the four general categories described below. [4-41 J A more useful concept of velocity gradi e nt s. however. is given in term s o f power
Group 1: High turbidity-low alkalinity. With relatively sma ll dosages of coag ulant.
water of this type should be easily coagulated by adsorption and charge
neutrali zation . Depression of pH m akes this method more elfecti ve. since the
aquometallic ions are more effeclive at lower pH values. Howeve r. care should
be used to prevent excessively low pH.
Group 2: ,High turbidity-high alkalinity. The pH will be relatively unaffected by
coagulant addition. Because of the higli alkalinity, adsorption and charge
neutralization will be less effective than in waters of low alkalinity. Higher
coagulant dosage should be used to e ns ure sweep coagulation.
Group 3: LOll" fIIrbiliily-hiyh allwlinity. The small number of colloid s mak e coag u-
lation difficult. even if the particle charge has been neutralized. The principal
coagulation mechanism is sweep coag ulati o n with moderate coagu lant
ENG INEERED SYSTHIS FOR WATER PURlFICATION 141
do sage. Addition of so me turbidit y may decrease the amount of coag ul a nt
needed.
Group 4: Lo\\' liIrniditr-low alkalinilY. Again. the small number of colloids make
coag ul a tion difTicult. <lndlow alkalinity prevents eflective AI(OHh formation.
Additio nal turbidity can be added to convert thi s wate r to that of group I. or
additional alka linit y ca n beadded to convert it Lo a G roup 3 type. It may be
advantageou s to add both turbidit y and alkalinity.
It s hould be recognized that the above cases are generali zat ions. Optimum
trea tm e nt of an y wate r c an o nl y be determined by ca reful analysis us in g th e jar
test o r o ther pilot -plant procedures.
The laborat o ry coag ulation jar test is model ed after the coagulation process
used in most water- treatme nt plants. In both cases. the coagulant is first added to
the water, and the water is then vio lentl y agitated to ensure uniform mixing. This
operation is termed rapid lIIixilly. Th e water is then gently stirred to k eep all the
so lids in suspension and to promote co llisions between destabilized particles and
between p artic les and floc s. This ope rati o n is ca ll edjlocclilat ion. Finally . the water
is passed through a se ttling basin wherc the fl occ ulated solids are removed by
type-2 se ttlin g. These operatio ns a re illu strated in Fig. 4-19. and detailed descrip-
tions ar,' given in the following scc ti o ns.
Rapid mixing Thorough mixing is essentia l if uniform coagulation is to occur.
Conseq uently. careful attention must be paid to the design of rapid-mix units.
Design param cter s for rapid-mix unit s are mixing time I and ve locit y gradient G.
The velocity gradient is a measure of th e relative veloc it y of tw o particles of fluid
rela tivc to cach othcr ai a dista nce 0.1 111 apart would have a ve loci ty grad ient of:
1.0 m/s
I () S I
0. 1 m
di ssipation per vo lum e. [4- 12J
Ci (4-14)
\\'jlerc (i. = vclocity g.radient. s . I
P '= polYcr iilput. W (N . m /s)
I' = \o luill c ,)f"lllixing basin. Ill .'
2
/1 = \'isc0s it y, N s/ m
Ibp iLi mi'\ln g ca n he aC C<l lllpllShed III IlUlllc rou s ways. Illcluding Injection o f
Coag ul<lllt s at th e s uc ti <>n side u f pumps. ups tr ea m rl"Olll hydr a ulic Jumps. or in
 I
142 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 143

Fl oct'ulalor C lar lfi~ r

Flat-

.. '
2J . ,
blade
impeller ~ .'.

\.!.ts
:~
D'
, .- D

:..:~ .
Impeller
'.,
D'

_Chemical
feed
(a) (b)

Figure 4-20 Typical rapid-mixing tanks: (a) back-mix impeller and (b) flat-blade impeller.

impellers (Fig. 4-20a). A more effective unit might be a square tank with baffles
and flat blade impellers as shown in Fig. 4-20b. [4-4J
In-line blenders are designed for complete mixing in less than 1 s. Values of C
Ge:.H Chain for in-line blenders, calculated from flow rate and power input or head loss, range
motor (a)
from 3000 to 50000 s - I [4-32J Several configurations of in-line blenders are

I
available ; two models are shown in Fig. 4-21.
..... Haodrail
Turntable Tor of tank Flocculation The flocculation process relies on turbulence to promote collisions.
Velocity gradients are also a convenient way of measuring this turbulence. Time
is an important factor, and the design parameter for flocculation is Gt, a dimen-
sionless number. Values of Ct from 104 to 10 5 are commonly used, with t ranging
from 10 to 30 min. [4-28J Large G values with'short times tend to produce small,
den'se floes, while low C 'values and long times produce larger, lighter floes. Since
Sludge discharge pipe
large, dense floes are more easily removed in the settling basin, it may be advan-
(0)
tageous to vary the G values over the length of the flocculation basin. The small,
Figure 4-19 Rapid mixing and flocculatio n followed by a sq uare settling ba sin: (a) plan and (b) sec- gense floes produced at high G values subsequently combine into larger floes at"
tional elevati o n (cuurtesy 0/ Dorr-Olin:T , In c.). the lower G values. Reduction in G values by a factor of 2 from the influent end
to the effluent end of the ftocculator has been shown to be effective. [4-33J
flow-throu g h basins where head loss around baffles provides power input. Most Traditional flocculator design is illustrated in Fig. 4-22. These units consist
modcrn designs. howevcL use either mixing tanks with back-mix impellers or of long-rectangular basis equipped with mechanically operated paddles to provide
in -lin e flash mixers .. In-line fla sh mixers Illay ha ve mechanically dri ven impellers power input. The paddles are usually constructed of redwood or aluminum slats
or may rel y o n head loss created by static constrictions in the pipe. and may operate either transverse or parallel to the longitudinal axis of the basin.
Rapid -mixing tanks operate best at C va lu es from 700 to 1000, wi th detention . More recent design tends toward units which combine rapid mixing, floccula-
times of ap prox imately 2 min . [4-10,4- 36J Numerolls config urati ons of ta nks and tIon, and settling in one tank. Such a unit is shown in Fig. 4-23. The principles
impel lers are used, with the most popular units being square tank s with back-mix of mixing and floccu lation in this unit are the same as those for the long-rectangular

b
144 WATER

(b)

(a)

(II)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4-21 In-line blenders: (a) powe r-driven (courtesy of Walker Process Corp.); (b) sialic mixer
pipe section (courtesy of Kom ax Systems, In c.); (c) static mi xe r in2.5 x 2.5-m-squarc channel secl io n
This mixer processes 530.000 m 3 /d a t Ih e Val Visla waler-Irealment pJa~1 in Ph oenix, Arizona. NOle
chemical reed lines in front o r vanes (courtesy of Komax Systems, Inc.)

basin. although the method of operation is some~hat different. While these unit s
are limited in the quantity of flow th at they can handle. l11ulti ple units ca n he
provided in parallel to meet any demand .
. . 'The G value for mechanicall y dri ven flocculators is calculated as follows.
First. the power input is determined by
(c)
P (4- 15)
Figun' 4-22 Flnccuialnr unil'. (a) paJdk arr:tngemcnl III long "Ink (pho to cOl/rtesy of Emirex Illc., a
where P = power input. W (N . l11 /s) Iinnor" Cllmp/my): (h) mulllStage 11111" (pito to m:"lt '.'.1' or WlIlkl'r Profess Corp.) : (c) lurbine-type
unIt:-, (pho/(J ('UIIr!('.\'Y oj /:,,,,-irex. /11(' . (J RI .\ non A q'0 111/70'11 ').
D = drag. force on paddles. N
t:p = \'e locity of paddles. mis
./. ' '1
I 1~ 5

I i
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 147

The drag force on the paddle is given by

.,
C (4-16)
:J
-0
0
c: 0.
.E t
1
~
where CD = dimensionless coefficient of drag, 1.8 for flat blades
"
.5
~
"0
Ir Ap = area of paddle blades, m 2
p = density of water.kg/ m 3
"0 I
c t Equation (4-15) now becomes
.,
~
:::'"0 r~
.0
: ~
i
..... 0 1

0'"
00
"
..!: I
""'"
!; r Subst ituting into Eq. (4-14)
"U
c
~
C) ~ c
A 3
pu
'"coc '"c " [ G= _ D_ p_.-!!.
) 1{ 2

~.
'.
( 2V,u

!
0
x
"
N
C
....
0 'c-
c'~
~
The area of the paddle A p refers to the combined area of the slats that are
'" u
"0 '"
C ., ., ~ perpendicular to the cylinder of rotation. This area should not exceed 40 percent

~
sO::
~
., .~ of the total area encompassed by the paddle. The veloci ty of the paddle tip up is the
"0
U)
... 1. veloc it y relative to the water and is about 75 percent of the actual paddle speed.
~
.,
-0
'"c "U

,l
Paddle velocity should be less than I mis, and a minimum distance of 0.3 m
"0.
E
0
N
C u"c shou ld be maintained between paddle tips and all o ther structures in the f1occulator
.2 f .
... .......
'''> 'c ' . . Tei 'pteveiifTocal":rr"t:as' of'ex'ce-ssive'vetoc1ty" gradients: ..... . .... .
.2 f~
~ e'" It should be noted th at in transferri ng water from the flocculator basin to the
v
0.
o(j
Of>
~
U
u
~
t
settling basin, extreme care must be exercised to avoid turbulence that can break
.~
0
0 "E
x
0
a::
"0
c
t,
~
up the floc. T his is usua :ly not a problem in units in which mixing, fl occu lation,
and settling are comb ined. In the long- rectangula r units, the settling basin is
0::

~
C

ct
'"c
OJ)

;;:
E
iI often constructed adjacent to the floccu)ator, with the common wall omitted.
Necessary baffles are designed for low G va lues.
,.'" -5 Design of fl occu lation units is illustrated in the following example.
"0
'1< ~
,,~,

"
<= ~

I
.;::
~ Example 4-6: Designing a flocculator A water-treatment plant is being designed to pro-
0'" u'"
, cess 50,000 m' /d of water. Jar testing and pilot-plant ana lysis indicate tha t an alum
u dosage of 40 mg/ L with flocculation at a GI va lu e of 4.0 x 10' produces op tim al results
;:'" at t he expected waler temperatures of 15C. Determ ine:
0
~
."2
C
.g
i" I. The mon th ly alum requ irement.
VJ
~ 2. The fl occulati o n ba sin dimens ions if three cross flow horizontal paddles are to be used.
I
r<l
N
c c:
~
,j. The flocculator should be a maximum of 12 m wide and 5 m deep in order to co nn ect
"
:J ~
appropriat e ly with the sett ling basin .
E "
a<: ~
w (Z 3. The power requirement.
146 4. The paddle conligur:ltioll.
 148 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WAIER PURIFICATIO N ]49

SOLUTION E
":
0
I. Monthly alum requirements:
----, ---., ---,
,I
40 mg/L = 0.04 kg/m 3
r--- r--- r---
I I I I I
I I I I I
and I I I I I
I I I I I
0.04 kg ' m 3
_ _ x 50000 - x 30 d/mo = 60,000 kg/mo
IL ___ ___ J
I
I
I
L ___ ___ .JI IL ___ ___ J I

---,
:IC1
m3 . ' d 0
r--- - - - , r - - - r--- ---..,
I
I I I I I I
2. Basin dimensions: E I I I I I I
a. Assume an average. G value of 30 s - 1 '"
0 I
I
I I
I I
IL ___
I I
___ JI IL ___
I
___ ...JI
GI = 4.0 x 10'
4.0 X \0 4 I min
'0
L ___

I
l

r--- ---"I r---

___ ...J

I I
---,I ,---
I
---., I
I
1= 30 ~ I I I I I
I
I I I, I I
1 = 22.22 min
IL ___ I I I
___ J .IL ___ ___ .J L ___ ___ JI

b. Volume of the tank is 1""'" ... E PI<ln

V = QI = 50,000 m 3/d x 22.22 rrT)'!fl x I d/ 1440 min ""
0

= 771.5 m 3 3. Power requirements:

c. The tank will contain three cross-flow paddles. so its length will be divided into a. Assume G value tapered as follows.
three compartments. For equal distribution of velocity gradients, the end area of First compartment. G = 40 s - 1
each compartment should be square, i.e., depth equals t length. Assuming maximum
Second compartment, G = 30 s - 1
depth of 5 m, length is
Third compartment, G = 20 s - I
3x5=15m I
b. Calculate power requirements for compartments 1,2, and 3:
and width is
P = G' V/I
5xI5xw=771.5
.... ";'; ~iO.3 m' V =: 771.5 m 3 /3 = 257.2 m 3
c
At 15 C
d. The configuration of the tanks and paddles should be as follows: J1 = 1.139 x 10- P N '5/m'
P, = 40 2 / S 2 x 2572m 3 x 1.139 x 1O - 3 N.s/m 2
E = 468.7 N . m)s x 10 " 3 kW,f N mls = 0.47 kW

61.~.~~_.~~~
, I

P2 = 30 2 x 2572 x 1.139 X 10- 3 x 10- 3 = 0.26 kW'

i C>() iEB k9;)

3 3
P, = 20' x 257.2 x 1.139 x 10 - x 10 - = 0.12kW
E 4. Paddle configuration
0
u. Assume paddle design as shown below.

~l~/: --/
on

. 6t ~/. ~--T-
~j H ~
1

+
. ,
~ '0:4;;;""
k
1r-rrr77""TTT:~ ~~ 4.2 m
0.8 m 0.8 m V//////////// _~____ ~_
J 5m (.

Profile
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 151
150 WATER

Third compartment:
Each paddle wheel has four b oa rds 2.5 m long and w wide- three paddle wheels per
compa rtment.
b. Calc ulate IV from power input and paddle velocity.
l' = (120 N. m /s x _1_~)'{3
p 3777 N s'
CDAppv~
p = - - --
2 = (0.03 m) /s) ' !) = 0.32 mrs J
(
. . I ,
At 15C L' p actual = 0.32 m/s x - = 0.42 m/s -'
. 0.75
'p = 999.1 kg/ m J
(<) = 1.91 rev/min
Assume "p = 0.67 m/s x 0.75 = 0.5 m/s and CD = I.lI.

Ap = length of boards x IV x number of boards

4-7 SOFTENING
.\ paddles at 4 boards per paddle = 12 boards
Hardness as a water-quali ty parameter was discussed in Sec. 2- 10. The reduction
12 x 2.5 x IV = JOw = Ap
of hardness. or sojiening, is a process commonly practiced in water treatment.
P, = 468.7 Nm/s = (1.8 x 30w m x 999.1 kg/m) x N s'/kgm x 05) m)/ s) / 2 Softening may be done by the water utility at the treatment plant or by the con-
sumer at the point of use, depending on the economics of the situation and the public
937.4 m = 1.8 x 30 x 999.1 X 0.5)w
desire for soft water. Generally, softening of moderately hard water (50 to 150
937.4 m = 674~w mg/ L hardness) is best left to the consumer, while harder water should be softened
IV = 0.14 m
at the water-t reatment plant. Soften ing processes commonly used are chemical
precipitation and ion exchange, either of which may be employed at the utility-
c. Calculate rotational speed of paddles. owned treatment plant. Home-use softeners are almost exclusively ion-exchange
Fir sl compartment: units.
m
v = nD -
P rev
x (lJ Chemical Precipitation ----)

The different species of hanJness have different solubility limits, as shown in Table
= 1l4.2 -
m
x (;.) 4-2. The least soluble forms are calcium carbonate and magnesi'lim hYdroxlde.......... .
rev
Chemical precipitation is accomplished by converting calcium hardness to calcium
rev 60 s carbonate and magnesium hardness to magnesium hydroxide. This can be ac-
0.67 m/s x - - - - x - -. = J05 rev/ min = w
4.21l m min complished by the lime - soda ash process or by the caustic soda process.

Second compartment: Lime- soda ash All forms of carbonate hardness as "well as magnesium noncar-
bonate hardness can be converted to the precipitating species by the addition of
) N . m/ s
p = 0.26 kW x 10 - - - lime (CaO). In the following equations, the symbol s is used to indicate that a
kW
solid precipitate forms and that it is sufficiently dense to settle by gravity.
Ca2+ + 2(HC01r + CaO + H20 -----+ 2CaC0 3 $ + 2H 2 0 (4-17)
Mg 2+ + 2(HCO,)- + CaO + H20 ~ CaCO)$ + Mg2+ + CO/-
= 1.8 (30 x 0 14)m ' x 999. 1 kg /mJ x N s,lg ' m x 1' ~12
(4-18)
260 N . m!s = -37}7 N 5' j m x rF

up =
( 260 N . m/s x '3 77 17-mN'~ s:-'_) 1: J

= (007 m ' /s.1 )") = 0.41 m is

AClual speed = u,,/075 = 0.55 mi s
(() = 2.5 rev/ min
 152 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER P U IUFI CA TI ON 153

Table 4-2 Equilibrium of solid and dissolved species of 200

common ions

Mineral F o rmula
Soillbility, ..
mg/L CaCO) at oec
rf 100

Calcium bica r bonate Ca(HCO,h 1,620

r,. - 160
Calcium carbonate CaCO, 15 t "-
0.
. Calcium
Calcium
chlo ri de
sulfa te
CaCl, 336,000 ! ,2

I
CaSO. 1.290
Calcium hydroxide Ca (OHl, 2,390 E. 140

M agnes ium bicarbonate Mg(H CO J ), 37, 100 <

"..,
V;

Magnesium carbo nate MgCO , 101 I co

E 120
Magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium
chloride
hydrox ide
sulfate
MgC l,
Mg(OH ),
MgSO.
362, 000
17
170,000
i ~
'"c
IOC)
Concentralion 01 calcium
io n in t:'qui li briul1l wilh
ca lcium l'arhonah'
SodwlILbica rbon ate NaHCO J 38.700 '" ~
Sodiu m ca rbona te Na ,CO) 61.400 "i::;
Sodium ch lo ride NaCI 225,000 :; xo
Sodium hydroxide NaOH 370,000 '-
Sodium sulfate Na ,SO. 33,600

Source: Adapted from Loe wenth a l and Marais. [4 38J "..,

~
hI)

.,
0
Iv 4()
As seen in Eq. (4-20). removal o f magnesium no ncarb o nate ha rdness results in
the formation of ca lcium noncarbonate hardness. Thi s calcium no nca rbon a te \ t i -.O llcentlatlonol magnesium
hardness. as well as any initially present in the water, can be removed by the ad 20 ~. io n in cqlulibrruill wIth
dition of soda ash (Na 2 CO): .
....... ma g JlC' slllll1 hydrox](je
f'.,.. ...,/
0
..... -. ~ ... . ... I j J
l) 10 II 0
\3 14
pH ,crlU e"

Figure 4.24 E4uilibrium concent ration of ca lciu m and magnesi~m io ns a s a function o f pH (From
I'o,,ell [4.43].)

The sodium in Eq. (4-21) is so luble a nd . unless excessive a m o unt s are added . is Although thi s reaclion does !l o t redu ce hardn ess. it d oes co ns um e lime. Rem ova l
permiss ib le in p o table water. o f super sal urated CO 2 by ae ratio n is o ft en pracliced to reduce lun e reljUlrements.
The precipi ta t ion of CaCO J and Mg(OH }z is pH-depend ent. as is illustrat ed If CO 2 exceeds 10 m g/ L it ma y be eco n o mi ca ll y advanlageous to remove tt prIor
in F ig. 4-24. The optimum pH fo r CaCO) precipita tion by line addition is from lo soft ening.
9 t o 9.5, wh ile effective precipitati o n o f Mg(OH) 2 under water-treatment p lant Caustic soda. All forms of hardn ess can also be conve rt ed t o th e precipit aling
';.... -
condit ions requires a pH of ab o ut J 1.0. Since mo st n a tural waters have a pH species by the addil ion of caus li c soda (N aOH ).
cons iderab ly below t hese va lues. it is often necessar y to a rti fi c iall y r:lise the pH .
Th is ca n be accomp li s hed by the additi o n o f an excess am o unt o f lime :
CO 2 + 2Na O l1 ----> 2Na- + ('0,/ - + H20 (4 24)
Ca: ' + 2( HCO,) ' + 2N aOH
(422) CaC0 3 $ + 2Na + + ('0/ - + ~ H;O (425)
.-"'-,

The addition of about 1.25 mequi\ !L of lime is sufli c ient to raise the pH to 11.0. i\ lg'; + 2( HC O ,) + 4 NaO H
If di sso lved ca rb o n di ox ide is present in water it wi ll a lso react wi th lime. M g.( OI1) 2$ + -iNa ' + 2(0 / - + 2 H20 (426)

(4:27)
- '\
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 155
154 WATER

Example 4-7: Single-stage softening A water with the ionic characteristics shown in the
The soda ash formed [Egs. (4-24), (4-25), and (4-26)] will react with calcium non-
bar diagram below is to be softened to the minimum calcium hardness by the lime-soda
carbonate hardness as previou sly shown in Eg. (4-21). As in the lime - soda ash
ash process. Magnesium removal is not deemed necessary.
process, it is necessary to raise pH to 11.0 to precipitate magnesium hydroxide.
An excess of 1.25 meguiv/ L of sodium hydroxide is added for this purpose. I. Calculate the chemical requirements and solids produced in milliequivalents per liter.
2. Draw a bar diagram for the finished water.
NaOH (4-28)
3. For a flow of 25,000 m'/d, calculate the daily chemical requirement and the mass of
solids produced: Assume that the lime used is 90 percent pure and the soda ash is
Stabilization Complete removal of hardness cannot be accomplished by chemical 85 percent pure.
precipitation. Under conditiolls normally prevailing in water-treatment plants,
up to 40 mgjL CaCO) and 10 mg/ L Mg(OHh usually remain in the softened water. to 50 60 80
Precipitation of the supersaturated solution of CaCO } will continue slowly. mequiv/ L
however. resulting in deposits in water lines and storage facilities. It is therefore
necessary to "stabilize " the water by converting the supersaturated CaCO) back CO~
Ca 2 +
I Mg 2 +
I Na+

to the soluble form. Ca,2+ + 2(HCO-. Stabilization can be accomplished by

the addition of anyone of several acids. Using sulfuric acid as an example:
mequiv/ L
HCO;

3.5
I SO~-

8.0
2CaCO} + H 2 S0 4 2Ca 2 ' + 2(HC01 f -I- SO/ (4-29)

Mg(OH)2 + Hz SO (4-:l0) SOLUTION

The most common practice. however. is to make the cOllyersion with carbon The following treatment scheme will be used.
dioxide:
CaCO) + CO 2 + H 2 0 Ca 2 + -I- 2(HCO}) - (4-31 ) Lime
Mg(OH)2 + 2CO l Mg 2' + 2 (HCO) (4- 32) Soda ash

Settling
This process is .generally called recarbollalioll. Flocculator basin
If the pH has been raised to facilitate the precipitation of magnesium. it will Recarbonation
.... Rapi~ . . . . . . . . . .. ... .
be necessary to neutralize. theexcess..bydroxy.l..ions. PLjQ[. 10. stabilization. This mix
necessitates a two-stage treatment process. Typical reactions are:
l. Calculate chemical requirements using appropriate formulas.
With sulfuric acid
I.OC0 2 + I.OCaO - - l.OCaCO,!
Ca 2 + +'20H~ + H 2 S0 4 Ca2+ -I- SO/ - + '21:-1 2 0 (4-33)
2.5(Ca2+ + 2HCO,) + 2.5CaO - - 5.0CaCO,! + S.OH 2 0
2Na+ + .20H - + H 2 S0 4 2Na + + SO/- -I- 2H 2 () (4-34 )
1.5(Ca2+ + SO/ - ) + 1.5Na 2CO, - - I.SCaCO,! + 1.5(2Na+ + S042-)
With carbon dioxide
Second-stage recarbonation will be required to stabilize the water. Assuming a CaC0 1
Cal f -I- 20H- -I- 2C0 2 CaC03~ + H 2 0 (4-35)
concentration of 40 mg/L in the effluent from the settling basin, 25 mg/L should be
2Na ~ -I- 20H 2 + CO 2 - ---> 2Na + -I- CO/- + H 2 0 (4- 36) converted to reach the equilibrium of 15 mg/L of CaCO,.
05CaCO, + 0.SC0 2 + 0.5H2Sl - - 0.5Ca(HC0 3 h
The pH must be lowered to approximately 9.5 before signiticant stabilization
occurs. Total chemical requirements are:
Lime = 1.0 + 2.5 = 3.5 mequiv/L
Chemical requirement The CJuantity of chemicals to soften wat e r can be calculated Soda ash = 1.5 = 1.5 mequiv/L
using the appropriate formulas from Eqs. (4-17) through (4-36 ). These calcula-
CO 2 = 0.5 mequiv/L
tions arc illustrated in Examples 4-7 and 4-8.
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICAT ION 157
156 WATER

SOLUTION The following Irealment scheme will be used.

So lids produced are

CaC0 3 = 1.0 + 5.0 + 1.5 - 0.8 = 6.7 mequ iv/ L

Lim c . sod" ash
2. T he ba r diagram for the finis hed water is

o 08 18 53 3

coj-
Ca 2>

l HCO;
Mg2>
I SO~-
Na>

Rapid mix
2. Flocculation
3. Set tling
0.3 0.8 5.3 4. Fir st-stage
rccarbonalion
Second-stage
3. The equi va lent mass of lime and soda ash is reca rbonation

. 40 + 16 .
Lune = -2-- = 28 mg/ meq ulv
I. Calculate che mical quantities using appropriate formulas.

2m) + 12 + 3(16)
.. 0.6CaCO ) 1
Soda ash = - ..- - - - - - - . - - = 53 mgj mequJ\ 0.6CO , + 0.6CaO
2
34(Ca' > + 2HCO) - ) + 14CaO 6.8 CaCO ) 1+ 6.8 HP
12 + 2( 16) .
Carbon d iox ide = ---
~ -- = 22 mg! meq ll iv
L
1. 5(Mg H + 2HCO, - ) + JOCaO
1. 5 Mg(O H ), t+ 3.0CaCO, t
The da ily c hemica l req uirements are: 1.5(Mg H + SO.' - ) + 1. 5CaO + 1.5H , 0
I kg 6
~) (1 /0.9) 28 m g!m equiv x 3.5 meq ll iv/ L x 25 x 10 Ljd x - 6 - = 2722 kg/ d
. 10 mg
1.5( Ca' + S04 + 1.5Na,CO,
. ___ ________ ____ . __ (I / 0 .gS)-53- m g/rnequi V")(" 15-meqoiv/ t- x 23 -x I06T/d-x Tkg/ (Oi;-i;;g--~ -iiiR k-gjd-

22 mg/mequ iv x 0.5 meq uiv/ L x 25 x 10 6 Li d x J kg/ 10 6 m g = 275 kg/ d Excess lime = 1.25 mequivj L

T he m ass of d ry so li ds p rod uced per day is For first-stage recarbo Jl ation_ use CO, to neutralize excess lime.

50 mg/ mequiv x 6.7 meqlliv! L x 25 x lOb Lid x I kgllO" mg = 8375 kg;d 125(Ca' + + 201r) + 125CO , -- 125CaCOd + 1.25H zO

E x ampl e 4-8: T wo-s tage soft ening A water with the ionic characteristics shown below Ass umin g 40 mg/ L CaCO J and IQ mg /L Mg(OH) , remain ing in so lution af~er second-
is to be softened to th e mi n im um possible hardness by the limc - soda-ash - excess-lime stage se ttling_
process. Calcu la te the required chemica l quanti ties in milliequivalent s per liter. Draw a 0.2 Mg(OH) , + OACO,
bar d iagram of the fin ished water.
0.5CaCO) + 0.5eO, + 0. 5 1-1 , 0

06 40 70 80 Total c hemi cal quantities are

Ca 2> Mg1 N,,>
CO~
I I Lim e = 0.6 + 3.4 + 10 + 1. 5 + 1.25 = 'US

soi- .Soda ash = 1. 5

HCOj

-
I- co, = 1. 25 + 0.4 + OJ = 2.1 5
 158 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 159

2. Bar diagram of final water: Mg, = magnesium concentration in the raw water, mg/L
Mgt = magnesium concentration remaining in the fraction of the water
08 10 35
.. receiving first-stage treatment. [As previously stated, practical
C, a 2+
I Mg2+ Na' limits are 10 mg/ L Mg(OH)2 (as CaC0 3 )]
A typical split-treatment system for removing magnesium is shown in Fig.
C05-\ HCO:; SO~- 4-25. The quantity of softe:1ing chemicals saved by this system is illustrated in the
following example.
0.3 3.5

l.im e Soda ash

Softening operations Softening operations consist of several steps and may be
carried out in one or two stages. The operations include mixing of the chemicals
Influent
with ' the water, flocculation to aid in precipitate growth, settling of precipitate,
and stabilization. The solids-contact system shown in Fig. 4-23 is often use'd for
softening operations. These systems operate in much the same manner as the
systems for coagulating and ' removing turbidity discussed in Sec. 4-6. Design
criteria, however , are slightly different and are summarized in Table 4-3.
Bypassed flow Qx
Table 4-3 Typical design criteria for softening systems

Selliin g Solids'- Figure 4-25 rIow diagram for softening by split trcatment.
Parameter Mixer Flocculator basin contact ba sin
Example 4-9: Softening by split treatmcnt Use split treatment to soften the water with
Detention time* 5 min 30- 50 min 2- 4 h 1- 4 h ionic strength given in Example 4-S. Assume that a final hardness of less than 100 mg/L
Velocity gradient, s - 1 700 10- 100 NA t is acceptable, provided the magnesium IS less than 45 mg/L. Calculate the chemical
Flow-th rough velocity. I'tis NA o 15- 0.45 0.15- 0.45 NA requirements and draw a bar diagram of the finished water.
Overtlow rate, gal / min / ft' NA NA 0.85 - 1. 7 1 427t
SOLUTION
This should be confirmed by pilot-plant analysis for each water. The treatment scheme shown in Fig. 4-25 wi'li b~-useif. -., ., . - - - . ............. ., . ., .. ... .. _. - .... .
. 't Velocit y gradient in mixer and Aocculator compone nt sho uld be approximatel y
the sa me as in flow-through units. J. Calculate the bypass fraction:
t At slurry blanket-clarifier watcr interface. Q = Mg f - Mg,
SOllrce: Adapted from Recommended Standards . [4-44J
x Mg, - Mg,
0.9 - 0.2
Water with high magnesium hardness is often softened by a process called
split treatment. This process bypasses the first-stage softening unit with a part of the = 3.0 - 0.2
incoming water. Excess lime is added to facilitate the removal ofinagnesium in the = 0.25
first stage and, instead of being neutralized thereafter. is used to precipitate the 2. Calculate the quantity of chemicals added to first stage:
calcium hardness in the bypassed water in the second stage. Since no magnesium
06CO, + 0.6CaO
is removed in the bypassed water, the initial magnesium hardness and the allow-
able magnesium hardness in the finished water govern the quantity that Olay be 3.4(Ca'+ + 2HC0 3 - ) + 3.4CaO - - - - - t .SCaCOd + 6.SH,O
bypa ssed: (1.0 - o 25)(1.5)(Mg 2 + + 2HC0 3 - ) + (10 - 0.25)3.0CaO
. -----to I.13Mg(OH),! + 2.25CaC0 3 i
Qx = Mg f - Mgt (4-37)
Mg, - Mgt (1.0 - 0.25)(1.5)(Mg 2+ + SO/ - ) + (1.0 - O.25)1.5CaO
-----t 1.13 Mg(OH), + 1.l3(Ca2+ + SO/ - )
where Qx = fract ion of the total flow bypassed
Mg r = Magnesium concentration in the finished water , 40 50 mg/ L 1.I 3(Ca 2 + + SO/ - ) + 113(Na,C0 3 )
(as CaC0 3 ) usually acceptable -----t I.I3CaCO}! + 1.13(2Na+ _I- S04' - )

;.
160 WATER I! ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 161

Check to make sure extra lime is enough to provide 1.25 mequiv/L: Gas

(0.6 + 3.4)0.25 Air

- -0-.7-5-'--- = 1.33

1.33 > 1.25, so acceptable

.~ ..... -. : .:", --;, ..:.~:- " ".: ::: ~"". '.;.::
For second-stage recarbonation:
O,5CaC0 3 + O,5CO l + 0.5H 2 0
0:75 x 0.2Mg(OHh + 0.30C0 2
Total quantity of chemicals:

Lime = 0.6 + J4 + (1.0 - 0.25)(30 + 1.5)

05(Ca 2+ + 2 HC0 3 -J
015(Mg2+ + 2HC0 3 -

= 7.38 mequiv/ L
)
I ','

..
.0

.. ,'
'.-

.~ ~ :
' .~.
'

Soda ash = 1.13 mequiv/ L

CO 2 = 0.30 + 0.5 = 0.80 mequiv/ L
I :(7

,',
',-.-.'
.','
')" :
.
. .

. . ' . ':'.~ .
'.
..
,',
..
3. Calculate ionic strength of finished water: .'0

.'0,
. ,. '.
',.,

.....
/
.~

Ca2+ = 0.8
o
.. ','
'.: :
'.",'~.
Mg2+ = 0.75 A 0.2 (first stage) + 0.25 x 3.0 (in bypass) = 0.9 # "'I'

- ;~.~I' . ' . ; .!-. :::.'" :,~ .. ')

Na+ = 1.0 + 1.13 = 2.13
CO/- = 0.3 .. ~.' :'::::.: :.~'.
:: :.
HCC?3 - = 0.5(conversion "fCaCO,) t- O.15(conversion of Mg(OH),)
+ 0.25 x 1.5 (associated with by passed Mg) = 1.03

.. Figure.4,26 .Subm.cr.ged.burner. for recarbonalion. (C.oWNS}'. or.O.zark,M.{dIQ(lirJg.CQ~IJIl{J!!Y.) ..

08 1 711 Where split treatment is employed it may be necessary to follow the recarbonation
Ca 2+
I Mgl+
I Na
unit with a settling chamber if the influent to the units still contains an excess of
lime. [4-45J All recarbonation units should have provisions for periodic cleaning
2
c0 3 - / .,
0.3
HeO'j

113
I SOJ-

3.83
as some precipitate will accumulate.
The source of CO 2 may be the exhaust from combustion of natural gas
(CH 4 + 20 2 .... CO 2 + H 2 0) or CO 2 which has been purified and shipped to
the plant in containers. Walker [4-5RJ suggests that the stoichiometric quantity
of CO 2 be mUltiplied by a factor of 2 to compensate for inefficiency of CO 2 transfer
For a more complete descripti~n of split treatment, the reader is referred to
from the exhaust gases if submerged hurners are used. Llquified CO 2 that is
Cleasby and Dellingham. [4-20J
essentially pure (99.S percent) can be obtained: this greatly enhances the efficiency
of the recarbonation process. Storage of liquid CO 2 presents a problem since it
Recarbonation Recarbonation for pH reduction and stabilizati()n takes place in
. gasifies at 31 C. resulting in extremely high vapor pressure. The usual procedure
a closed reactor. Carbon dIOxIde IS added under pressure and dissolved according is to store liquid CO 2 at around - 20C and 2000 k Pa. This necessitates strong
to gas-tra~sfer pnnclples prevIOusly dIscussed. Figure 4-26 shows a typical
tanks and refrigeration equipment.
recarbonatlon process. .
Large water-treatment plants often find it economically advantageous to
Typical recarbonation units consist of two chambers, one for mixing the CO 2
recalcify the CaC0 3 sludge, reco'vering both lime and carbon dioxide.
and one m whIch the reactIons occur. Detention time in the mixine. chamber
should be from 3 to 5 min, with a total detention time of at least 20 ~in. [4-44J CaO + CO 2 (4-38)
 162 W ATER ENGI NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 163

Wh ere prec ipit a ted s lud ges a re esse nti a ll y pure C a C0 3 , reca lc ifyin g s ho ul d pro - Na+ Na+ N.+ Na+
du ce a n excess o f bo th the lim e and the CO 2 requircm ent s fo r th e pla nt. Lime + + + +
A nio n A n ion Ani o n Ani o n
kiln s rep rese nt a sub stanti a l inves tment in ca pital equip me nt a nd maint ena nc e
a nd o p e rati o n cos ts a nd a re usua ll y justifi ed o nl y thr o ug h eco n o mi es o f sca le.

Ion Exchange

A w ide variet y of di sso lved so lid s, including har dn ess. c:ln be re moved by io n
excha n ge. The di sc uss io n he re w ill be limit ed to io n exc ha n ge fo r softenin g; a
. .. . ..
m o re gen e ra l di sc ussio n o n io n exc han ge fo r co mpl ete d em in e ra li za ti o n is co n-
ta in ed in a lat e r sec ti o n o f thi s c ha pter.
:' , .
As prac ti ced in wat er so ft enin g, io n exc ha n ge in vo lves re pl ac in g ca lc ium and .: .... ,'

m ag nes ium in th e wa te r w ith a n o ther. n onhard n ess cati o n. lI su a ll y sod ium . Thi s
exc ha n ge tak es place a t a so lid s inte rface. Alth o ug h th e so lid ma te ri a l d oes n o t
d irec tl y e nter into th e reac ti o n. it is a necessar y a nd impo rtant part o f the io n -
exc han ge process. Earl y applicati o ns o f ion exchan ge Ll sed zeolite. a naturallv
:.: : .: ::
occurring sodium alumino-silicat e mater~al sometim es call ed yre ensand. M od e r~
a pplicati o n s more oft en use a synthetic resin coated w ith th e de sirable exc han ge
ma teriaL The synthetic resin s ha ve the advantage of a g rea ter num be r o f exc hange
s it es and' are more easily rege nerat ed.
+ + + +
In equal quantities. ca lcium and ma gnesium a re a d so r bed mo re stron gly to A nio n Anion Anion
An ion
th e medium than is sodium. As th e hard water is co nt ac ted with the med ium. th e
fo llo w in g generali zed rea c ti o n occ urs. Re!in w ith
N" + R
D''.' . .
. .
Act ive
excha nge
_

{ca}+ {ca}
adso rbed . . .' zo ne
Mg [ani o n] + 2 Na[RJ M g [R ] + 2 Na + [anio n] (4- 39) Figure 4-27 lon-exchange process .

The reaction is virtuall y in s tantaneo us and co mplet e as long a s ex chan ge s it es
a re a vailable. The process is depicted graphicall y in Fig. 4-27 .
When all of th e exc han ge sites have been utili zed. ha rdn ess beg in s to appear
in the effluent. Referred to as hreaklhrough. thi s necess itat es tile rege nerati o n o f
the medium by co nt ac tin g it with a stro ng sodium -c hl o ride so luti o n. Th e strength
o f the so lution ove rrid es the selec tivit y onhe a d so rpti o n sit e. alld calcium 'a nd
m agnesium a re rem oved and replaced by the sodium.
is a ccomplished using from 80 to 160 kg of sodium chloride per cubic meter of
resin in 5 to 20% solution at a flow rate of about 40 L/min . ni 2 .
The effluent from the regeneration cycle will contain the hardness accumulated
during the softening cycl e a s well as excess sodium chloride. After regeneration,
th e medium s ho uld be flu shed with softened water to remove the excess .sodium .
c hloride. These highl y min e rali zed waters constitute a waste stream that ~uSt ,
be di sposed of pro perly. .

{ca} {ca}
lon-exchange o perati o n s a re usually conducted in enclosed structures con-
Mg
[R]
.
+ 2 NaC I (excess) Mg 2 CI + 2 Na[R ] (4-40) ta ining the medium. W a te r is fo rced through the material under pressure at up
to OA m3 / m in . m 2 Sin g le o r m ultiple units may be used and the medium may be
Th e sys te m can a gain fun c ti o n a s a soften e r a cco rdin g to cq . (4-31)). co ntained in either a fix ed o r a moving bed. Where continuous operation is neces-
Th e capacit y and effi c ie nc y o f ion-exchange so ft ene rs va ry w ith man y fact o rs. sary. multiple units or mo vin g beds are used . Single-stage fixed beds can be used
in c luciing type o f so lid m ediulll . type o f exc han ge mat c l'ia l used fo r coa tin g. when the flow of tre a ted wa ter can be interrupted for regeneration. Most treatment-
qu a ntit y of rege n erati o n ma te ri a ls, and regen erati o n co nt ac t tim e. Th e overall pl a nt operations are o f th e co ntinu o us type, while h o me softeners are serviced
qu a lit y o f th e wa te r to be so ft en ed is al so a n impo rtant facto r. ;\ co mplet e d isc us- ill te rmi !ten tl y.
sio n o f th ese fac to rs is heyo n cl th e sco pe o f thi s text and t he read er is referred to Io n- exch a nge soft enin g a t wa te r-treatm ent pla nts is becoming more common-
Refs. [4-47J and [4-53J fo r g rea ter d e ta ils. Ge nerall y. th e ca pac it \' o f ion-excha nge place as m o re effi c ient resins a re de ve loped a nd as the process is better understood
j
llIat er ia ls r:lll ges fro lll 2 to 10 m equ iv /g o r aboll t 15 t(> 100 kgi /ll Regenera ti o n by d es ign eng in ee rs. Io n exc ha n ge p roduces a softer water th a n chemical pre-
 ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICA TION 165
164 WATER

d. Add three extra tanks for use during regenerati on cycle. To ta l vo lume of exc ha nge
cipitat ion and avo id s the large q uantit y of sludges encou ntered in the li me-soda
resin is:
process. The physica l and mechanical a ppa ratu s is m uch smaller and simpler
to operate. Th ere are seve ral disadva ntages, however. The water must be essentiall y v= No. of tan ks x area x height
free of turbidi ty and particulate matter or the resin will fun ction as a fil ter and = 12 x 3.14m 2 x 2.0m
become plugged. Surfaces of the medi um may act as an adso rben t for organ ic = 75.4 m
mo lecu les and become coa ted . Iro n and manganese Pfecipil ates can also foul
the su rfaces if oxid ation occurs in, or pri or to. the io n-exchange un it. Soft eni ng 3. Deter min e chemi ca l requirements for rege nera tions.
of clea r grou nd wa ter should be done immedi ately (befo re aerati on occurs),
Q. Vo lume of one unit
whi le surface wa ter should receive a ll necessar y trea tment, incl udin g filtration,
pri or to softening by ion exc hange. Th e wa ter should not be chl ori na ted prio r to v = 3. 14 x 2.0 = 6.28 m3
ion-exchange soft ening. b. Sa lt requirement

Exa mple 4- 10: Designing an ion-exchan ge soft ener An ion -e xchange so ftener is to be 150 kg/ m 3 x 6.28 m.1 = 942 kg
used to treat the wa ter described in EX3mpie 4-7. The medi um se lec ted has an ad so rpti ve Regenerating 9 un its/c1 wi ll req ui re 9 x 942 = 8,478 kg/ d o f Na e !.
capacity o f 90 kg/m' at a flow rate of 04 m' /min . m '- c. Using a 10 % so luti o n. th e vo lume of rcgenerate liq ui d is 942 kg/O.I = 9.4 20 kg. o r
Regenera tion is accompli shed usi ng 150 kg of sodium ch lo ride per cubic meter of app ro ximate ly 9 Ill' for each unit.
res in in 1 0n ~ so lutio n. Dete rmine the volume of med ium required and the physical d . At a loading ra tc of 0.04 m 3 / m 2 . min. the regenera ti on tim e is
arrange ment for co ntinuo us ope ration in fixed beds. Al so det ermine the chemica l re-
quirement and the regeneration c\'ele time . 1 = 9.0 m 3 /(0.04 m 3 / m 1 min x 3.14 m 2 )
= 72 min
SOLUTIOr-:
Ass umin g a tota l of 2 h fo r all opera ti ons necessary to regen erate units in gro ups of
1. Determi ne vo lume of medium . three. all 12 unit s ca n be regenerated in an R-h wo rk day .

Q. T o ta l hard ness = 6 mequiv i L x 50 mg/mequ i\' = 250 mg/ L. Ass ume 75 mg/ L
hardness is acce ptab le. By pass 75/ 250 = 0. 30. or 30 pe rcen t o f the flow . Treat
0.70 x 25,OOO m ' /d,or 17.500 m' /d
4-8 F ILT R ATION
b. Hard ness to be removed :
As prac ticed In mode rn water-treatment plan ts. fi lt rati on is most often a polis hin g
step to remove smal l Il ocs or precipitan t pa rticles not remo ved in the sett li ng of
c. Vo lum e o f medium fo r I-d o pera tio n- coa gula ted or so ftened wa ters. Und er cert ain cond iti ons. fi ltrati on may serve as
the primary tu rbidi ty-remova l process. e.g .. in direc t fi lt ration of ra w wa ter.
4375 kg/d x I m'/90 kg = 4X .6 m' medillm/d opera tion
Alth o ugh fi ltra tion removes many pa th ogenic orga ni sms from water. fi ltra tio n
2. Determine surface area a nd he ight of medium. should not be reli ed up on for complete hea lth protec tion.
Q. 17,500 m'/d x d/ 1440 min = 12. 15 m' /min
PreCOO l ji/(ralion . a process in which a thin shee t of d ia tomaceous eart h. or
2
Area = 12. 15 m' / mi n x min j04 III = 30.38 m othe r ve ry Mnc media. comb in e wit h so lids in the wa ter to form a "ca ke " on a
mi crosc ree n. ma y ha ve ad va n tages under ce rtai n circ u mstanccs. A discu ssion
b. Use tank s 2.0 m in di ameter.
or precoa t fi ltrat ion is beyo nd the scope of th is text a nd the reade r is referred to
A = rrd 2;4 = 3. 14 Ill ' Baumann [4- 7J fo r a th oro ugh d isc ussion of the su bjec t.
} ()}8 The most common ly used fi lt ra tion process in vo lves passing th e water thro ugh
No . of tank s = ---- = 9.67 : use 9 tank s. a stationary bed of gra nular med iulll. So lids in the wate r are retain ed by the fi lter
3-14
mediulll. Several modes of opera ti on are possible in gra nula r medium fi ltra tio n.
to ta l vo !L;me
Height of medium = '--~-.- ---.~ Th ese in clud e upll ow. billow. pressure. and vac uum fi ltra iion. Whi le an\' of these
tota l area may li nd app li ca ti on unde r spec ialized co ndili ons, the most com lll o l~ prac tice
48.6 m 3 IS gravity li ltration in a c1ownw.arcl mode, with the we igh t of the water co lumn
9 x -3j4 - ~2 above the filt er pro viding the d ri ving force. The ablwe o perati ons are ciep icted
graphicall y in Fi g. 4-28_
= I. 72 Ill. sa y 2 m
166 WATER
i ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 167

I basins). inertial impaction . diffu sion of colloids into areas of lower concentrations

T
and / or lower hydraulic s hea r. [4-42J and. to a lesser extent, Brownian movement
and van der Waals forces. Retention of solids once contact has occurred can be

~
--

~
-.- . ---=-
Wa sh-wat er
~:.:) tank
attributed primarily to electrochemical forces, van der Waals force, and physical

I
'-'
Water level
Wash-water adsorption.
during filtering
trough 7-10 m With chemical preconditioning of the water, a well-designed and operated
filter s hould remove virtually all solids down to the submicron size. Removal
Water leve l . ----, . begins in the top portion of the filter. As pore openings are filled by the filtered
-+
I
during . 300-760 mm
back washing material, increased hydraulic shear sweeps particles farther into the bed. When
F=h==A===t' the storage capacity of bed has thus become exhausted, the filter must be cleaned.
600 mm
freeboard Modern practice is to clean the filter i:Jy hydraulic backwashing. Backwash
~ water containing the accumulated solids is disposed of and the filter returned to

'+ '"
.," -, ..... :- .... ...........>. : .~.:::.: .

iM..0~0.t;lf;~;~iW;
Innuent A se rvice.
m
Many va riables influence th e performance of granular media filters. An
understanding of filter hydraulics, media characteristics, and operating procedures
is necessary for the design of effective granular medium filters.

Underdrain sy s tem
-
Wash water Filter Hydraulics
Filter hydrau lics falls into two separate categories, the actual filtration process
by which the water is cleaned and the back washing operation by which the filter
How filt er operates is cleaned. These operations are equally important in the overall filtration process.
I. Open valve A. (This allows innuent to now to filter.) Fl ow throu gh. the packed bed can be ana lyzed by classic hydraulic theory. Carmen
2. Open va lve B. (This aJlows water to now throu gh filter.)
3. During filter operati on all other valves are closed. [4-14J modified the Darcy - Wiesbach equations for head loss in a pipe to reflect
conditions in a bed of por.OllS media .of.un.ifor.m.size. .Development-of this equ~tioN .... .. ..... .
How filter is back washed
I. C lose valve A.
is presented in several texts (Refs. [4-16J, [4-29J, [4-53J) and will not be repeated
2. C lose va lve B when water in filter drops down to top of ove rnow . here. The resulting equation. known as the Carmen- Kozeny equation, is:
3. Open valves C and D. (This aJlows water from wash-water tank to now
up through the filtering medium, loosening up the sand and washing the
accumulated so lids from the su rface of the sand, out of th e filter. F ilt er (4-41 )
backwash water is return ed to head end of treatment plant.

How to filter to waste (if used)

I . Open valves A and E. All o th er valves closed. Ernuent is sometimes where hf = friction loss thr ough bed of particles of uniform size dp' m
filtered to waste for a few minutes after filter has been washed to L = depth of the filter. m
condition the filter before it is pu t into service.
e = porosity of bed
Figure 4-28 Typical gravity flow filter operation:(From Metcalf & Eddy, In c. [4-40].) V, = filtering velocity. i.e .. the ve locity of the water just above the bed
(total flow Q to th e filter divided by the area of the filter), m/s
!J = gravitational acce leration, m/s2
The so lid s- remo va l operation with granular-medium filters invo lves seve ral d p = diameter o f filter meuia grains. m
complicated processes. The most obvious process is the physical strainin g of
particles too large to pass between filter grains. Other processes are also important. The remaining term!' is a friction factor related to the coefficient of drag around
since most of the so lid material contained in se ttl ed water is too sma ll to be re- the particles. In the usual range of filter velocities (laminar tlow) this can be ca leu-
moved by straining. Removal o f particles and flocs in the filter bed d epends o n lateu by
mechanisms that transport the solids thr ough the water to the surface of the filt e r
grains. and on retention of the so lid s by the medium once con ta ct has occurred
Transport mec hani sms include sett lin g (pore openings act as miniature se ttling
r =
(I - e)
150 ----- + 1.75
Re
(4-42)

'"
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS f OR \VATER P URIfI CATION 169
168 WATER

3. Ca lculate head loss by Eg . (4-41).

where
193.24 x 0.67 m(1 - 0.4) x (Ull x 10 - ' )2 m ' /s2
Re = Reynolds number = ---
Pw Jl,d
J1
(4-43) "f = -- . OA3;9'8I-;;/s274~O-x~4-;;----

and Pw and J1 are the density and dynamic viscosity, respectively, of the water.
The units of Pw are kilograms per cubic meter, and the units of J1 are newton-
seconds per square meter. The shape factor ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 for most
filter material. . Wat e r a.! 20 G
Equation (4-41) can be modified for abed of nonuniform medium. From a
sieve analysis of the medium, the weight fraction xij between adjacent sieve sizes
is determined. The average particle size d'j is assumed to be halfway between the
sieve sizes. The depth of the particles between adjacent sieve sizes can be taken as
xijL and Eq. (4-41) can be rewritten as follows:
= 0.60 m
Example 4-12: Determining head loss across a bed of nonuniform . stratified particles
e
is passed thr o ugh a fi lt er bed at 1. 2 x 10 .' m /' (4 .32 m/h) Th e bed is
0.75 m deep and is composed of no nuniform sand (s pec il1c gra vity of 2.65) strat ified so
that the smallest particles are o n to p and the largest on bottom. The p o rosity and shape
factors are 0.4 and D.X5 throughout the depth of the bed. The size di stribution of the
granules is give n in th e table helow Determine the head loss for clea n water flow throu gh
the bed.

L(l - e)V; ,,fijx,,,

hJ = 3 L - d- (4-44)
e9 ij Sieve analysis

Equation (4-44) assumes that the bed is stratified by size and that the porosity is Particle size range.
US. sieve no . 111m /\ \T'rage Ma ss fra c t.
uniform throughout. Calcula'tion of head loss across a uniform and a stratified in size ran ge
S ile
media is illustrated in the following examples. Passing Rcta ineel Pa ss ing Rdain ~J ti,) ,111 m X,}

Example 4-11: Determining head loss across a bed of uniform-size particles Clean water 14 1.41 141 0. 01
at 20C is passed through a bed of uniform sand at a 111tering velocity of 5.0 mlh (1.39 x I~ 20 I.~I (j . S ~ I 13 0.1 1
20 2S (l.~~ 0 .7 1 0/8 0 .20
10- 3 m /s) . The sand grains are OA mm in diamete r with a shape factor of 0.85 and a
2S 30 0 .7 1 0 .60 0.66 0.32
. specific gravity of 2.65. The depth of the bed is 0.67 m and the.porosity is OA. Det ermine
30 35 0 .60 050 0.55 0.21
the head loss through the bed.
35 40 0.50 042 O. ~ 6 0.1 3
'''40 . '042" . '6.42'" 662'
SOLUTION

I. Calculate the Reynolds number by Eq, (4-43).

At 20C p = 998.2 kg/ m] SOL UT tO t'

kg m
II = 1.002 x 10- 3 N . s/ m2 .x -2-- I. From Eg. (4-43):
s .N
0.85 x 998 .2 x 1. 2 x 10 ' J m 's
= 1.002 X 1O - 3 ~_ Re = _._._._._. ___ . ......
1.002 x 10 - 3 k gj l1l ' S
. d, ) m
m s

998.2 kg/ m' x 4.0 x 10 -m x 1.39

4
x IO - J
m/s I01 6d,j
Re = 0.85 ,.
1.002 x 10 kg/ m . s

= OA7 < 1.0 (laminar flow confirmed) 2. From Eg . (4-42):

2. Calculate f' by Eq. (::1-42). " I SO(I - 04)

I i) = '-' 10 16'[ - + 1.7~
'J
, (I - OA)
f
.
= 150 --_-
0.47
+ 1.75

= 19124
170 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 171

a porous bed, the head loss must be at least equal to the buoyant weight of the
3. Determine L;;j x'i as follow s: par ticles in the fluid. For a unit area of filter this is expressed by
dij

hfb = L(l - elm - Pw (4~45)

'Pw
P art icle size. fij ~ l ' m
x Ill' j,j ~/ij
. where h fb = head loss required to initiate expansion, m
d'J 111 x!J
L = bed depth, m
141 0.0 1 65.6 465 I ~ e = fraction of the packed bed composed of medium
I 13 0: II 81.4 7.924
30.026
Pm = density of the medium, kg/m 3
078 il .20 11 7.1
0 .66 032 138.1 66.958 Pw = density of the water, kg/ m 3
0.55 0.2 1 16 5.4 63, 153
197.4 55.787
The head loss through an expanded bed is essentially unchanged because the total
0.46 0. 13
(J42 0.02 " 16.0 10.286 buoyant weight of the bed is constant. Therefore:

Lf;j ::~? = 234.599 Weight of packed bed = weight of bed fluidized

d, )

4. Calculate "I fr om Eq. (4-44):

or

- L (l - e) (4-46)
m x (I.______
- 0.4) x .(1.2 x iO ___")'. -----
m'/s' x 7'4 "N I 1m L fb
" _ 0.73
__ . ____ _ __ -
(l - e fb)
1 - 0.4 " x 9.~1 mis' --.- ,
where Lfb = the depth of the fluidized bed
= 0.24 JJ1 e fb = the porosity of the fluidized bed

...... 1t. sllot.J!dbe .noted.. lhatEqs. (4~41)ancJ ,(4-44) are ap'plic~tbleonl\, to. c lean .. The quantity efb is a function of the terminal settling vdocity of the particles
filt er beds. Once so lid s begin to acc umul ,it e. the porosi ly of the bed c han ges. As the and the backwash velocity. An increase in the backwash velocity will result in a
poros ity decre;]ses. th e head loss increases. The rat e at which so lids accllmulate greater expansion of the bed . The expression _commonly used to relate the bed
in th e filt e r. and therefore the rale o f head-loss change. is a functi o n of the nature expansion to backwash velocity and particle settling velocity is [4-28]:
of th e suspension. Ih e characteristics of the media . and filter uperatIon.
Although alte~pt5 to formulate a mathe mati ca l express ion ofa general nature efb -
_ (VB)O.22 (4-47)
to quantify changes in head loss with so lids rem ova l have not been very successful. Vc

some general observations can be mad e. To maintain a constant filt er ing ve locit y
~';. an in crement in driving force must be applied to match e:lC h in cre ment in
where VB is the backwash velocity (backwash flow Q divided by the total fiiter
area). The depth of the fluidized bed and the backwash velocity for a given size.
head loss res ult ing fr om decreased porosity. Conversely. if a constant driVIng force
medium (with known vc) can now be related as follows :'
IS app lied. the filtering ve locit y wi ll diminish as the porosity decreases. In fllt er
operation s. a run is ter minat ed when sutn c ient so lid s have accum ulat ed to ( 1) L(I - e)
use LIp th e a\ailable driving forc e: (2) cause th e flltering velocity to drop below a L fb = -_-'-(~~-v~~)""O'-c.2'"'2'--
pred ete rmincd leve l: or (3) exh:wst the sto rage ca p ac ity of th e bed so i.hat solids .
(4-48)
begin to "break thI OUgh:' into th e ef]-1 l1 ent. At this point, the.filt er must be back-
was hed. This equation can also be modified for a stratified bed of nonuniform particles
BacK\\'ashIIlI! ()f ranlilar-medi lllll hlt ers is accom plished hy rnersIIlg the tl; where
flo\\' and f,)J"c Ill g~c l ea; water upward thr o ugh th e media. To clean th e interior of
th e bed . it is necessary to expand it so that th e granu les are nl! lon gcr In contact
wi th c,Ic h nthe r. thus exposing all s urfa ces for cle:lIlin g. To hydr;llI!i c tll v expand
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 173
172 WATER

6. From Eq. (4-47) :

Again xij is the weight fraction between adjacent sieve sizes. Assuming uniform
porosity in the packed bed, Lij will be the depth of the layer of media represented ~ ) 0.22
by Xij' The expansion of this layer is represented by 0.7 = ( O.O~ ..

L(I - e) VB = 0.7 4 . 5 5 x 0.07 m / s

Ljb,ij = xij . (V . '8)0.22 = 1.4 x 10 - 3
mls
. 1 - '-.
l't,i)
7. From Eq. (4-46):
The total expansion is the sum of th e individual layers 0.67 m (I - 0.4)
L fb =
1 - 0.7
Ljb = L(l -e)I-l--'(X;-::~'-:-8--;-.)"O''''22 (4-49)
= 1.34 m
L r , iJ
Example 4- 14: Finding the expanded depth of a nonuniform stratified bed The filter bed
Total expanded depth should range from 120 to 155 percent of the unexpanded described in Example 4-12 is to be back washed at a velocity of 1.5 x 10 - 2 m /s Determine
depth. [4-7J Amirtharajah [4-5J has shown that the optimum expansion for the depth of the expanded bed.
hydraulic backwashing occurs at expanded porosities of from 0.65 to 0.70.
SOLUTION

Example 4-13: Finding the expanded depth of a uniform medium The filter medium
Each "layer" of particles defined by the sieve analysis of Example 4 - 12 must be treated
described in Example 4-11 is to be expanded to a porosity of 0.7 by hydraulic backwash.
Determine the required backwash velocity and the resulting expanded depth. separate ly and the results summed.
For the bottom layer. dij = 1.41 and x ij = 0.01.
SOLUTION
I. Estimate an initial velocity assuming turbulent flow [Eq. (4.4) WIth CD = O.4l

9 81 12 10 - 3
m
_ )I /2
I. The terminal settling velocity for the medium is first calculated from Stokes' law a. v, = (4~ x _ ._ ~Pm ~-'". x dijmm x
. 3 0.4 Pw mm
[Eq. (4-9)]
9.81 m / s (2650 - 998.2) kg/ m 3 x (4 x 10-
4
m)2
...... . ..... .. . ........ . .... v~.~.. .. . .... .... 1.8.x .l.om.x.. .1.0: ] N s/m2 = (5 .4 X 10- 2 x 141)1 /2 m!s
= 0.14 m/s (rounded)
.= 0.28 m/s
2. Check Reynolds number [Eq. (4-43)] , O.SS x 998.2 kg!m 3 x v, 111 0'S X "ij x 10 - :l m/mm .
b. Re = (/>1' dp/I.l =--- - -~ ----- . --.--- -~-~ . -
0.14 m/s x 4 x 10 - 4 m x 99S.2 kg/m3 , 1.002 x 10 - 3 N si111 <
Rc = 0.85 x --~--
1.002 x 10 -' j N s/m2
= 847 x 1', X . dij *
= 47.4 (transitional flow)
= 847 x o.n x 1.41
24 3
3. CD = 4- 7-.4 + 47.4 112 + 0.34 = 329 (transitIol1al flow)

24 3
= 1.28 c C - - --. + .---c-
112
+ 0.34
D - 329 329
4
1 4/3 x 9.81 m / s2 (2650 -'998.2) kg / m 3 x 4.0 x 10- m
4. f = - -- --------...-- . = 0.58
,' . 1.28 x 998.2 kg/ m 3'
--l ' .2 Pm - p". dij 10 3
v, = O.OS mls . d. I.', = ~ X 9.81 m/ s .. - -- .. ~ --;- 111m x - .. -~ ..
_, . PH" (D 111m
5. Repeat steps 2. 3. and 4.
Re = 26.6 = (2.158 x lo- 3 _ ~12 __ (!,j Illnl) I , '
S2. nlln C/1
CD = 1.85
l', = 0.07 mis
= on m/s
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 175
174 WATER
The repetitive nature of the above example suggests solution by computer.
e. Repeat steps b, c, and d using * expansIOns. Final solution is:
The principal cleaning mechanism in backwashing filters is hydrodynamic
Re = 274 shear. which tears adhered material away from medium grains. While increased
backwash velocity might increase this shear. the resulting expansion could result
CD = 0.61
tn several undesirable effects. Jets of water aimed at the surface of the filter and/or
v, = 0.22 m / s mechanically powered rakes are often employed to create turbulence in the ex-
f Determine expanded porosity of layer by Eq. (4-47). panded bed during backwash. In addition to increasing the shear forces without
increasing backwash velocity, these operations also promote collision of media
e lb
= (~~_ )022 = (~~ _ ~_~~m/s)o.12 grains, with the inherent abrasion assistiJ1g in the cleaning process_
v,. ij v,. iJ Another technique, air scour. is also use;;ful in increasing shear forces in back-
= 0.55 washing filters. Air is introduced along with the backwash water and creates
additional turbulence without substantially increasing expansion. Cleasby et al.
[4-22. 4-19. 4-21] and Amirtharajah [4-5] have shown thai air scour at su b-
Xij!(1 _(~~)O.21) V,-ij
= ~~_.
I 0.55
= 002
fluidizing water flows may provide more effective cleaning of granular-medium
filters.
2. Repeat all pr'eceding steps for each layer of particles. Again, * expression can be used
directly with proper values inserted. The results are tabulated below Filter Components
A tyrical granular-medium filter system used in water treatment was shown in
Fig. 4-28. Filter components include the containment structure (filter box). an
X 'j underdrain system. and filtering media. Additionally. piping systems. pumps,
Average
part icle
V'ii'
m/s
(-~~r"
{;r.IJ
I -u-~r21t'.ij Xi}
- (~ir 2
/' 1 i j
valves. backwash troughs, and other appurtenances for controlling the flow of
water 10 and from the filter are necessary.

1.41 022 0.55 0.45 0.01 0.02

Filter box Containment structures for filters are usually constructed of reinforced
I 13 0. 19 0.57 0.43 0. 11 0.26
0.61 039 0.20 051 concrete, although corrosion-resistant steel or other suitable material may be
078 0.14'
0.66 0.12 0.63 0.37 0.32 (U6 used: StructoraHy; the' filter'bux must be 'strong'enough to -suppor-t..the wetghtof. -... .......... _..
0.55 0.10 0.66 0.34 0.21 0.62 the underdrain system, filter medium, and water column. Additionally, the
0.;:16 0.08 0.69 0.31 013 0.42 structure must be watertight at pressures corresponding to the height of the
0.42 0.07 lUI 0.29 0.02 0.07
maximum water column expected.
Usually square or rectangular in shape. filter boxes are arranged facing each
" - ______(--~'-j'7')"--0.7C22 = 2.76 other across an access corridor containing common piping and other appurten-
- l~~ ances. If more than two filters are necessary. a series of multiples of two provides
the economy of common walls and minimized piping, These filter galleries. as
they are commonly called, are usually enclosed in suitable hOllsing with the
controls located for central operations.
3. The expanded bed depth is found by Eq. (4-49).
Underdrain systems The purpose of the undcrdrain system is to collect and remove
LIb =' L(l - e) x --(:--'~--"i:-')-'(O-)1""2 the tiltered water and to disperse the backwash water. Underdrain systems in
1- - tilters may consist of built-in-place main and lateral pipe arrangements or of
. Vl.ij
proprietary units manufactured elsewhere and assembled on site. Figure 4-29
= l.24 m shows several types of underdrain systems. Many systems of this type require a
graded gravel packing to prevent loss of filter media into the underdrain system.
and
Figure 4-29a is illustrative of the sizing of the gravel. No gravel packing is required
1.24 for underdrain systems such as the ones shown in Fig_ 4-29c and 29d. These
- -- x 100 = 165 ~~ , of original bed depth
0.75
 . : .. ~:-l--------'--- ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 177
.... Dispersion orifices
Filter medium
Control orifices systems have slit openings which are too narrow for grains of filter media to pass

e" Level up top

of depressions
through.
Underclrain systems of all types contribute significantly to heacl Joss clue to
.f
C)
with gravel friction during filter runs and during backwash. Hydraulically, underdrain systems
must be deSigned to handle backwash flow rates, which usually exceed filter ing
~~~~~~~~~
rates by at least a factor of 2. An excellent discussion of underdrain design is
presen ted by Cleasby. [4-17J
75'0101 spheres
30-0101 spheres Filter media Traditionally, silica sand has been the medium most commonly
35-0101 spheres used in granular-medium filters. Modern filter applications often make use of
Ca) anthracite coal and garnet sand in place of, or in combination with, silica sand.
Cb)
The important properties of these materials are size, size distribution, and dens i ty.
Clay tile
The sm;]ller the size of granular media, the smaller the pore openings through
filter block Camp nozzle bolt
which the water must pass. Small pore openings incr~ase filtration efficiency not
~rl~:::;'( Camp nozzle cap only because of straining but also because of other removal mechanisms. However,
Gasket as size of pore openings decreases. head loss through the medium increases,
resulting in a diminished flow rate. Larger media increase pore size. reduce head
loss. and increase flow rate. but at a sacrifice of filtration efficiency.
Coupling
Since large quantities of filter medium of any uniform size would be difficult
to obtain ami therefore quite expensive. filter media vary in diameter within a
selected size range. In modern filtration practice, the effect of varying size ranges
Nozzle assembly becomes important because of stratification during backwashing operations.
When the bed is expanded, small grains are lifted farther than larger grains and
settle more slowly once the wash cycle is ended. Thus, a bed of nonuniform medi um
(e) will stratify with smaller particles. and therefore smaller pore openings. at the
top, an inetncient arrangement because most of the removal and most of the head
Slotted
. 1655 d lli'ing the' filit:<iiioI1 cyCle'\vill occiii:'iti the sui-f<ii:: .'
?"~~2/:;:;;?7'- nozzle Another factor which influences the height of expansion during backwash
and the rate of settling after backwash is the density of the medium. When two or
more matertals with different specific gravities are used, the lighter material
is located above the denser material of the same size.
The Clll'ice of size. size distribution, and density of the filter medium is an
important aspect of filter design. Through these variables. the engineer attempts
to match the filter to the characteristics of the water to be filtered and to the desired
quality and quantity of the output. Examples of engineered filter designs are given
in the followttlg paragraphs.

Slow sand niter The first filters to be used on a widespread basis for water purifi-
metering slot cation were slow sand filters. These filters were constructed of fine sand with an
effective size of about 0.2 mm. The ejjeclii'e ..I'ize is the size of the openings of the
Back wash sieve that retains :0 percent or'the medium. This small size resulted in virtually
i
i- ' water all of the suspended material being removed at the filter surface. Adclitionally, a
mat of biological organisms was allowed to develop at the water-sand interface,
Figure 4-29 Proprietary filter underdralns: tal BIF, Unil of General Signal Corp., (h) F. B. Leopold which aided in the filtration process. The resulting high head loss produced very
Company, subsidiary of Moeller Company; (el Walker Process Corp.; Cd) Inlileo Degremont. Inc. lo\\, flow rates (0.12 to 0.32 m / h). necessitating the construction of very large
L 176
 178 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 179

filters. Cleaning was accomplished by periodically (usually no more frequently

than once a month) draining the filters and mechanically removing the top few
centimeters of sand, along with the accumulated solids and the biological mat.
Slow sand filters have large space requirement and are capita l-intensive.
Additionally, they do not function well with highly turbid water since the surface .c
0.
plugs quickly, requiring frequent c leaning. The rapid sand filter was developed in o'"
the mid-1800s to alleviate th ese difficulties.
Rapid sand filter The rapid sand filter utilizes a bed of silica sand ranging from
0.6 to 0.75 m in depth. Sizes may range from 0.35 to 1.0 mm or even larger. with
effective sizes from 0.45 to 0.55 mm. A uniformity coefficient (60 percent less than
size/ IO percent size) of 1.65 is commonly specified . These larger sizes, coupled with
(a)
frequent cleaning and the absence of a biological mat, result in a rate of filtration
an order of magnitude larger than that of the slow sand filter. Common filtration
rates in rapid sand filters range from 2.5 to 5.0 m j h.
An important feature of the rapid sand filter is that it is cleaned by hydraulic
backwashing w ith resulting stratification of the medium. Filtration of relatively
clean water presents few problems. However, filtration of turbid water necessitates .c
0.
frequent backwashing. Coagulated water with large, strong Hocs cau ses binding
o"
at the fine-grained surface and results in a rapid buildup of head loss, necessitating
frequent cleaning. This situ ation co uld be a lleviated if the gradation of the filter
could be reversed so that larger grains were deposited on top with media of
progressively decreasing size below, so that the sma llest grains were on the bottom.
-
Such an arrangement would mean the large pores on top would retain mostly
larger suspended material, while subsequent ly smaller pores would retain succeed - (b)
ingly finer material. Thus, the entire depth of the filter would fun ction efllcientiy.
Figure 4-30 Size gradation in dual-media filters: (a) sharp gradation and (0) partial mixing .
. .ancllarger ..volumes.Qf .sllspended. solids..could.be .retainedbetween. backwashes.
The overall result wo uld be longer filter runs, less head loss, and greater filtering
The large pores in the anthracite layer remove large particles and flocs, while
rates.
most o f the sma ller material penetrates to the sand layer before it is removed.
By carefu l selection of medium with regard to size and den s ity. it I S possible
Dual-media filters thus have the advantage of more effectivel~ utilizing pore
to approximate this reverse gradation. Dual-media filters do this to some ex tent,
space for storage. This results in longer filter runs a nd greater filtration rates
and mixed-media filters essentially approximate reverse gradation.
because of lower head losses. A disadv'lntage of dual-media filters is that the
Dual-media filters Dual-media filters are usually constructed of sil ica sand and filtered material is held rather loosely in the anthracite layer. Any sudden increase
anthracite coal. The depth of the sand may range from O. J 5 to 0.4 m, with the coal in hydraulic loading dislodges the material and transports it to the surface of the
depth ranging fr om 0.3 to 0.6 m. Size and uniformity coefficients of the two media sand layer, resulting in rapid binding at thi s level.
can be selected to produce either a distinct separation or a given degree of mixing
after backwashing. These conditions are illustrated in Fig. 4-30. As an example, Mixed-media filters As noted ea rlier, the ideal filter would consist of a medium
the foll owing material would pl'oduce a filter 0.6 m deep with approximately graded evenly from large at the top to small at the bottom. This can be accom-
0.15 m of intermixing. [4-17J plished by using three or more types of media with carefully selected size , density,
and uniformity coefflcients. A typical installation might consi.st of a 0.75-m bed ...-'
Sand l o,il with 60 percent anthracite, 30 percent si lica sand, and IO percent garnet sand, with
- - -- - - -- specific gravities of 1.6, 2.6, and 4.2, respectively. 'Effective sizes ranging from a
Deplh. m o\ (U maximum of 1.0 mm for the anthracite to a minimum of 0.15 mm for the garnet,
Speclric gra\'il, 2." 5 l..j I.()
coupled with carefully selected uniformity coefficients, will produce intermixing
Efleclive size, I11Ill () 5 (I )' 11') If)
Unifo rmity coefilc it.: l)t < I .f,;:;' / I .X and result in a pore-size gradation as shown in Fig. 4-31. [4-24J
 180 WATER
ENG I NEERED SYSTEM S FOR WATER PURIFICATION 181

Thus, the mixed-media filter (perhaps" mi xed- up " media is;) mo re descriptive
TOPrr~:----------------r---'
term) approaches an idea l filt er. Filtra tion rates range from 10 to 20 mj h, consider-

\"
'\. Sand ably higher tha n rapid san d filter s a nd about the sa me as for dual-media filters.
\1 Thereve rse gradation avo ids t he major problems of eac h of these medi a. however.
Dual- and mixed-med ia fi lters make possib le the direct filtration of water of
\ '\
\ low turbidity without sett lin g opera ti ons. Coagulating che micals are often added
to the influent of the filter to produce small. stro ng flocs to enha nce turbidit y
remova l.

/'
//1
.
'<amd '-
Filter Operation
The two basic modes of ope rat in g granular-med ium fillers a re ( I) constant
Bot tom '-":.......<:.....,:---_ _ _ _ _ _:..-..C~_ _I
Particle distribution. 'If head - vari able flow and (2) cons tant tlow- variable head. These two modes are
(a) often modified to obta in better res ult s.
In the co nstant head -- variable flow mode. the water level above th e fi lter is
kept at a prese lected level. Si nce a clean fi lter bed presents limit ed head loss. the
flow rate will be ljuite large . As the filter becomes clogged. the head loss inc reases
and the flOW rate dill1inishe~. When the fl ow re~lches the design minimums, th e
Iilter must be backwashed.
Because yerl' rapid !low through a clea n filt er results in poor effic ienc y.
throttling the fl ow from the I-ilter with a !l ow-control va lve may be necessa ry This
va lve is dcsigned to prov ide add iti ona l head loss in the underdrain system and
decrease the flow rate to an acce pt ab le leve l. When the filt er medium is clean, the
valve operates with a small o peni ng to produce a large suppl emental head loss.
As the head loss increases due to medium plugging. the va lve gradu a ll y o pens to
dec rease supplem ental head loss ane! to maintain a more o r less constant head
loss across the ent ire system Th e resu lt is essenti a ll y a constan t heact-'- cbil"slah"i'
...... . . ....... ... ..... .. . . ........ -.
1I0w filte r.
If wa ter is introduced inti) a clea n filt er at a constant rat e. an equilibrium will
be estab li shed between the height of the wa ter column and th e application rate.
At first. the head will be low due to th c minimal hea d loss in the medium _ As th e
medlllm beco mes plu gged ~I n d glTate r head loss occurs. the heigh t of the water
co lumn m'ust incrcase to pro\'ide the needed1.lrivingforce. When the wa ter co lumn
reac hes a predeterm in ed Ic\eL the filt er is back washed and the cyc le repea ts ilself.
Filters that o pera te in this wa y must be des igned to preve nt dewatering of
the bed duri'ng the ini tial filt er cycle. i\ minimum depth of water ilbove the bee!
ca n be asslired bv ele\atinl! thc entran ce tll the c lear well abo\ e the surface of th e
fi lt er media.' ,
Mure n;ce nt desil!n ()I" !;Iruer lil ter plailts usua ll y makes use uf a cOlllblllation
(b)
of tile dh()\"C modes Ill' [) l'er: lt l~,n . /\ consta nt now is delivered to a bank of severa l
Figure.4-31 Size gradalion or
mix:d-mcdia fillcr: (a) panicle di,lriblllilln and pore SIZC and (b) multi- lilters tltroul!lt a 'Cllm11l011 lte:tder ~!nd is a ll owed tIl distrib ut e It se lf accordinu to
media segrega led ancl mixed by backwashing ICOllrlC.IT 01 Nep/III1{' ,\IlIrutloe. 11Ic.). the ()pel:ltin~ rate 1)1" c;;c h ind l\ idll a llilt e;. Th c hcighi (ll" the water col uilln is' the
Sdille' ~Ib(\\e :111 the lilter lIllltS. \l'ith the c!c:lncs t filter :Icccpting thc greatest 1I0w.
Whcn thc !lo\\' ra te thrlllluh :111\ (.lne unit decre~ l ses tl) a predctermincd IC\'eL that
fi llt;r IS taken oIT-lint: :I nd [)ack \~' ashcd. I\ C1l1U1 al pf (we liltCl" I"(su lt, in an increase
182 WATER
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 183

in flow to th e remaining filters, with a subsequent increase in head and flow rate
through each filter. When backwashing is comp leted, the newly cleaned filter is
returned to service and will accommodate a larger flow ra te. Water level will
therefore drop slightly in a ll the filters, resulting In a decrease in flow through
each filter.
Regardless of the operating mode, a uniform flow rate is essent ia l to the best
._.
performance of a granular-medium filter. Any increases in flow rate must occur
gradually, or the quality of the effluent will deteriorate. Large changes occurring
quickly produce the greatest degree of deterioration.
When automatic control valves are useu to (egulate filter output they must
be maintained to ensure that they produce gradua l changes in the orifice opening.
Otherwise, a rapid c hange in flow rate wi ll occur. with signif ican t deterioration
of the effluent quality. As noted earlier, fluctuations in filtering rates occur in
variable-declining-rate filtration each time a filter is taken off-line for backwashing.
The magnitude of the fluctuations increases as the number of filter units in the
system decreases. To prevent sign ificant disruptions in filter q ua lit y. a minimum
of four filters shou ld be used in this mode of operation. [4-18J
Figure 4-32 Typhoid fever and
1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 treated water supplies during two
decades. (From Vesilind [4-56].)
4-9 DISINFECTION
Complete disinfection cannot be accomplished because Nl' the number of organ-
As practiced in water treatment, disinfection refers to opera ti ons aimed at killing, isms remaining at time 1. will only approach zero asymptotically as time gets
or rendering harmless, pathogenic microorganisms. Ster ilization. the comp lete excessively large, However. since the number of organisms initially present (No)
destruction of all living matter, is not usually the objective of dislIlfection. The sho uld be small, 99,9 percent kill can be affected in a reasonable time. The value
effect of disinfection on the reduction of waterborne disease is quite dramatic, as of the constant k must be determined experimentally.
evidenced in Fig. 4-32. [4-56J Factors which militate against effective disinfection are turbidity and resistant
Other water-treatment processes assist in removing pathogens. irie'xcess' 6f" .. 'organisms:' TiJroiaiiy:pYod'titliig" to'lloids" 'offer"'sancwgty' to' "organis-m's, .. thus"
90 percent of the bacteria and viruses should be removed by coagulation. sett ling, sh ielding them from the full action of the disinfectant. Particulate matter may
and filtration. Excess-lime softening is a~ effective uisinfectant due to th e high adsorb the disinfectant.
pH involved. However, to meet the EPA's standard o f one coliform organ ism per Viruses, 'cysts. and ova are more resistant to disinfectants than are bacteria,
100 mL and to provide protection against regrowth, addit ional disinfection must AdditionaJ exposure time and higher concentrations of the disinfectant will be
be practiced. , . . required for an effective kill of these organisms,
A good disinfectant must be toxic to microorgani'sms at conce ntrati ons well Disinfectants include chemical agents such as the halogen group, ozone, or
below the toxic thresholds to humans and high'er animals. Additiona ll y, it should si lver: irradiat ion with gamma waves or ultraviolet light; and sonification, electro:':
have a fast rate of kill and should be persistent enough to prevent regrowth of cut ion, heating. or other physical means, In America, disinfection and chlorination
organisms in the distribution system. The ratc of kill is often postulated as a rirst- have become synonymous terms. while ozonation has been practiced more
order react ion: widely in Europe.

Chlorination
liN
- k {\' Chlorine may be applied to wa ter in gaseous form (CI 2 ) or as'a!) ionized, product
rif
of solids [Ca(OClh. NaOel]. The react ions in water are as follows:
Ci 2 + H20 - -- t H+ + HOC! (4-5 J)
Ca(OCl) 2-----> Ca 2f
+ 20CI - (4-52)
(4- 50) NaOCI - - --> Na + OCI - (4-5 3)
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 185
184 WATER

The hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and the hypochlorite ion (OCI) in the above
equations are further related by
HOC]
a relationship governed primarily by pH and temperature, as shown in Fig. 4-31
The sum of HOCI and OCI - is called the free chlorine residual and is the
primary disinfectant employed. HOCI is the more effective disinfectant. As
indicated in Eq. (4-51), HOCI is produced on a one-to-one basis by the addition of
CI 2 gas, along with a reduction of pH which limits the conversion to OCl - [Eq.
(4-54)]. Chlorine gas can be liquefied by compression and shipped to the site in
compact containers. Because it can be regasified easily and has a solubility of ap-
proximately 700 mg/L in water at pH and temperatures generally found in water
purification plants, this form of chlorine is usually the preferred species. The
application of the hypochlorites tend s to raise the pH, thus driving the reaction
more toward"the'less effective ocr.
Commercially available calcium hypochlorite
100 o
~ Form of c hlnrillc
contains approximate ly 70 to 80 percent avai lable chlorine, while NaOCI contains
only 3 to 15 percent available chlorine. [4-53J Some practical difficulty is involved
in dissolving Ca(OCI)z. and both hypochlorites are more expensive on an equiv-
(4-54) alence ba sis than liquefi ed C l z
There are other considerations. however. which sometimes dictate the use of
hypochlorites. Chlorine gas is a ve ry strong ox idant that is toxic to humans. Since
it is heavier than air. it spreads s lowly at ground level. Therefore, extreme care
must be exercised in its manufacture. shipping. and use. Accounts of evacuations
of pop ulated areas because of rail or barge accidents involving chlorine gas have
become common news ite ms. The use of hypochlorites is often mandated w here
large quant ities cif ch lorine are needed in treatment plants located in highly popu-
la t ed areas.
At loll' concentrations. chlorine probably kills microorganisms by penetrating
the cell and rea cti ng with the enzymes and protoplasm. At higher concentrations,
oxidation of the cell wal l will destroy the organism. Factors affecting the process
are

90 f\.. to
2.
3.
pH
COllcent ra t ion

80 't 20
4.
5.
(,.
Contact timc
Type of o rgan ism
Temperature

70
\\ 30 Hypochlorous acid is mOle erTectlvc than the hypochlorite ion by approximate ly
tw o orders of magnitudc Beca use the free-chlorine species is re lated to pH, one

60
\\ .
40 ............ . . ....... . ..... . .
.. \v(!lI10..eli.p.ec.t.a. relalionship. between .efficiency and pH. Empirically. it has been
found that ch lorin e dosa~es mu st be increased to compensate for higher pH .
('hh)rine concentrati~)n and contact time relationship is often expressed by
v !.-.
0 U
:r: 50 50 0 (4-55)
C"l" = k
<f
20 0
e where C= concentra ti on of ch lorine, mg/ L
40 ( ,0
11' = tim e required for given percent kill , min
\OC n. /; = ex pe rimental derived constants for a given system
:30 70 An ex ample of thi s re lation s hip was reported by Be rg and is s hown in Fig. 4-34.

\~ [ 4-49J

, 110
The c!Teets of temperature va ria t ion s can be modeled by the following equation
20

~
deriled from the I<IIl't HolT Arrhenius equation [4-40J
I I ,(Tz - T
I) (4-56)
10 90 III ..- = .-.----~
I, .R TI . T2
0 ~ I 00 where 1 1.1, = tIme required for gil'en kills
4 6 7 8 9 10 II 7"1 "/ : = temperature corresponding to 11 and [2' K
pH R "" gasconstanl. 1.0cal/ K-mol
Figure 4-33 Distribution of HOCL and OCL as" function o f pH . (F,om .\mrycr (tIlll Mclartl" [4481-) I-. ~ activ:ltion energy. related to pH (as shown in Table 4-4)
 J&C ~~t,c?'
~ _f(" 1 ~..ti'<.
~ ~" J}r~'~'<R "'~'" '"' W>Th' "U''''C'''ON 187
( ', V'

186 WATER

{,tJ Destruction
of cht orine
Destruction of Formation of free chlorine and
chloramines and presence of chloroorganic
0.5 residu al I chlmo-organic I compou nds not destroyed
I by reducing " compounds
I com pounds ~----!~~-------,,,

-
....J
cO
E
0.4
I
I
Formati on of chloro-organic
compounds and chI o ra mines

-
....J

E
eo
...:
'"
::l
'0
''';
0.3

~ ~
c:
0. 10 t>
8 c 0.2
u .2.c
0 U
:r: 0.1

o 1.0

Chlorine added, mg/L

Figure 4-35 Gene rali zed curve o btained during breakpoint chlorination. (From Metcalf & Eddy, ll1c.
[4-40].) .
Contact ! illle for 9 9~j kill, !nin
ine to form severe taste and odor problems. The original organics must be removed
Figure 4-34 Concentration 01' free residual chlorine and cuntac! lime necessary fo r 99 pe rcent kill at
o a nd 6"C (From Schro" ier [4-49l)
before chlorination, and undesirable compounds must be removed after chlorina-
tion, o r the co mpounds mu st be prevented from forming. The compounds can
be re mo ved by adsorption ont.o activated carbon, or their formation can be pre-
Being a s tr o ng ox idant. chlorine will react wilh almost any material that is
vented by the substitution of chloramines, which do not react with the organicsor
in a reduced stat e. In water, this us ually consists of Fe " + , Mn " r , H 2 S, and organics.
phenols, for tree chlorine. Chloramines can be formed by first adding a small
Ammonia (NH)) is so metimes prese nt in small quantities or ma y be added for
quantity of'ammonia to the water. then adding chlorine. The reactions of chlorine
purposes to be presently discussed. These o xidi za ble mate rials will consume
with ammonia are as follows:
a'
. "c hlbfiile 'befo're it hi s'<l'ch it'tlce' i6'~ici '~i;; dislofe'ctant The amount of c hlorine
required for thi s purpose must be determined ex perimentally. since th e exact NH3 + HOCI --> NH 2 C! (monochloramine) + H 20 (4-57)
na ture a nd quantity of oxidizable material in wa ter is se ld om kn own. A typ ica l (4-58)
NH 2 C1 + HOCI NHCl z (dichloramine) + H 20
titration curve is shown in Fig. 4-35.
The pro duct s of organics oxidized by chlorine are often undesirable. Organic NHCl 2 + HOC! --> NCI 3 (nitrogen trichloride) + H 20 (4-59)
ac id s (humic' ful vic) form chlorinated hydrocarbon co mpound s that are s uspected
These reactions are dependent on seve ral factors, the most important 'ofwhich
of bein g ca rc in oge nic. Minute quantities of phenolic co mp o und s react with c hlor-
~re pI-I, temperature, and reactant quantities. At pH greater than 6.5 mono-
chloramine will be the predomitl<tllt species. [4-53J Since combined residuals are
Table 4-4 Actiyation less effective as a dis infectant , co ncentration of 2 to 3 mg/ L with contact time in
energies for aqueous excess of 30 min is often required. C hloramines are persistent and provide con-
chlorine tinued protection againsrregrowth in the distribution system. . .
Provisions may be made fo r application of chlorine at several points within
pH C. 'cal
7.0 8.200
th e water-treatment process. When treatin g raw water of good quality, no early
8.5 . ~ .40() applications ma y be necessa ry, yet it is advisable to design a ,plant to allow for

~
9.8 I ~ , O ()U easy addition of ea rl y applica tion s la ter. s ho uld future conditions require them.
10.7 I S.!Jf.JO C hl o rine m ay be added to th e incom ing fl ow (prechlorination) to assist with
the ox idation of in urganics or to arrest bi o logical action that may produce un-
.\'0/1/"(' (' I r ~ )Ill t:;l1r
dcsimble gases in the s lud ge at the bo ttom of Clarifiers. Chlorine is frequently
c! ,iI . [ 4-3 UJ

188 WATER
added just pri o r to filtration to keep algae from growi ng at the medium sur face
and to pre ven t large populations of bacteria fro m developing w ithin the filter
medium. . ozo ne react s vigorous ly wi t h bacter ia and viru ses. It is repo rt ed to be more
Safe and effective app li ca ti on of ch lorine requires spec ia li zed equipment and
considerable care a nd sk ill o n th e part of the plant operat o r. Liquefied ch lorine
is delivered to water-treatment plants in tanks con taining anywhere from 75 to
1000 k g. Large plants m ay be designed to a llow use o f chlorine directly from a
tank car. In su c h cases, designers sho uid be aware of the Inters tate Commerce
Comm ission (I CC) and Occupational H ealth and Sa fety Agency JO HSA) regu la -
tions for sh ippin g and handling ch lor ine.
Mixing is o n e o f the most impor tant aspect s of th e c hl or in a ti on process. [4-40J
A s uffi c ient ve loc ity g ra dient mu st be applied to ens ure uniform co ncentrati on o f
ch lorine thr o u g h o ut the water and to break up a ny remaining flo cc ulent material
that might shield mi c roorga ni sms from co nt ac t wi th th e c hl or ine. Any of the
rapid-mixing devices discussed in Sec. 4-6 may be u sed for thi s purpose. A con tac t
chamber mu st be provided t o ensure an adequate k ill ti me. In water- trea tm ent
plant o p erati ons. mixing 'and con tac t ope r a ti ons m ay be accompli shed by sec ti o n-
ing off part of t he clea r well.
Safet y considerations m a n da te storing of.ch lo rin e tanks in a se parate rool11.
S torage a nd oper a tin g rooms sh o uld not be direc tl y co nn ec ted. nor sho ul d th ey
be directly connec ted to o ther enc losed areas of the trea tm ent plant. All doors to
th ese faciliti es s h ou ld b e open to th e o ut s id e. and wi ndo ws sho uld be provided
for visual ins p ec ti o n from the o ut s ide. Safety eq uipm ent , including ma sk s w ith
a ir tank s. c hl o rin e detecti o n de vices. a nd e m e rge ncy re pair equ ipment: s ho uld
be provided in stra teg ic loca ti o n s.
Otber Means of Disinfection
Given the pro blems associated w ith c hl o rinati on. it IS n o t surpri sin g that a sea rc h
for a substitut e means of di s infec ti on has been in progress for yea rs. H owever.
t he lis t of candidates fo r replacement remain s q ui te s malL w ith ch lOl:ine dio xid e
and ozone bei ng the leading conte nders. A lt hough both o f !hcse are effec ti ve in.
destroying pa th ogens, ozo ne does not leave a disinfec ting residual that can guard
aga in st pathoge n regrowth in th e distribution sys tem , a nd both are more expensive
th a n c hl o rin e :md have prac ti ca l problems assoc iat ed w it h th eir use.
Ozone O zo ne , the a ll otropi c form of oxygen. ca n be produced in a hi gh-strength
e lec trical field from oxygen in pure form or from the io ni zation o f clean. dry air.
high
O2 - ~~~ 0 +0
(4-60)
Ozone is a powerful ox id ant w hich react s with red uced in organic compounds
and wi th o rgan ic material. The difference. h oweve r. is that a n c1xygen ,! tonl.
ENGINEEKEI ) SYSTEMS FOK WATEK PUR IFI CATION 189
ins tead of a c hl OI'ide atom. is added to the o rga nics. th e elld res ult being an e n -
vironmenta ll y acceptable corhpo und. Once thi s ozo ne demand has been mel. th e
effec tive than c hl orine in ina ctiva ting resi stant strains of bacteria and viru ses .
[ 4-58J
. Becau se ozone is chem ica ll y unstable it mu st be produ ced on-s ite and u sed
3
immediate ly. Typica l dosages range from 1.0 to 5.3 kg/ IOOO m [4-58], with powe r
consum pt io ns of from 10 to 20 k W h/ kg of ozone [4-53J Cost o r ozona tion IS two
to three tim es h ig her than t he cost o f ch lor in atio n . Since no res idual remain s; i.l
lVil l be necessar y to use a s ma ll amo unt o r ch lor ine ofler ozonatio n to provide
con t inued pr()te~ ti ()n again st regrow th in th e di stribution syste m .
Becau se ozo ne has a low solubilit y in water. it must be mixed th o ro ughly
wi th the wa ter to ensure adequa te co nt act. Thi s ca n be a prob lem when air is
used as the ox yge n sou rce. s ince large vo lu me s o f ni trogen mu st al so be hand led.
In spite of t hese proble m s. ozo ne is w id ely used in Europe for disinfecting
water con ta inin g co lo r <Inc! orga ni c co mpound s. In the United States. ozo n a ti on
has bee n limit ed. prim<lril y because ch lo rinati o n has been more economical.
Howeve r. Olonation wi ll no doubt come int o wider use a s a resu lt of re cen t ly
adopted sta nd ,lJ'ds o n chlo r in;lleci hydrocarb o n co mpound s. When raw water is
known to cun tLiin precursors of haloform co mpo unds. use o r ozone s hould be
sc riou sly co nsidered.
C hlorine dioxide Chlo ri ne di oxide (CIO z) ha s many of th e sa m e properties as
ozonc. A s tro n ~ oxidant w hi ch forms ne ither c hlorofo r m s no r chloramines, it is
pa rti cularly e fl':ct\ vC in oxidizillg phenol ic co mpounds. Alth o ugh highl y so lu ble ,
chl Orine dioxide does not react c hemicall yw it.h. water. .Contact with.lhe. aLmo.-.
sphere will re sult in loss of ClO , by gas tran sk r. and th e prese nce or light res u lt s
in pholOoxiciatl on. Chlorine dioxide mu st th e refo re be generated on-site. in
,lqlJ COlJS I'orm: usua lly by the t;h lorina ti on of so di um chlorite at low pH. [4-2 5J
The cli sinfecta nt prope[t ies oJ c hl o r ine dioxide a re similar to t hose of ch lor in e.
,JIld Its li se rc sull s in a mea surab le res id ua l. A lt hough its prin ci pal a ppli cation ha s
bt:en in wastcwa ler di sinfecti o n. chlo r ine dioxid e has had li mi ted use in pot ab le
water tl-catJllent for oXlcii z iJli.! Ir on and m<lnl!<ln ese and for removal or ta ste and
odor compo unds. Its pl lssi blc red ucti on t(l ~h l ora te. a suosun ce which may be
toxic to humans. JIlakcs CjlJ cs ti o naol e its use in potab le \\:Iter.
Other disinfec tants Ir ra ckJlI Oll with ultra viole t light is a pr o mi sing m e t h od or
di si nrecti o n . 1\ltl~ o lJl(h it pill vides no res idual. this m eth od is efrective in in-
<lct lva tm g 0011; bact~ rJ'l and viluses. [4 5k J Ul t ravio le t li ght s pans the wa ve-
lengths 01 2()UO to .190U A (angst rums) The mo st effec tiv e band for disinfection'
is in the sholler rangc o r 2000 to 3000 A. Li ght with thi s \\'a ve length can b e
genc rated wi th low press ure m e rcury vap o r lamps. A powe r input o f 3D Il W / cm2
applied [() thin sheets or turbidit yfree w,ller s hould be s uffi c ie nt. A m ean s of
keeping th e gla ss surface clear o f deposits JIlU Si he prOVided.
190 WATER
A va ri e ty o f o th er disi nfecti o n methods may be u sed in specia l circumstances.
Th ese includ e o ther halogens (iodin e. bro mine). m e tal s (copper, s ilver), o th e r
ox id a nt s ( KMn0 4 ) . so nifi ca ti o n . e lec tri ca l curr ent. a nd gamma- ra y ir radiation.
It is unlikel y, howeve r. that any o f these processes will find widespread use in
di si nfec tin g pu b lic wa te r s uppli es in th e foreseea ble future.
Other Water-Treatment Processes
Th e water treatment proc~sses di sc ussed in the prev ious sec tion s o f thi s chap te r
a re suffici e nt to rend er mo st natura l surface water or g ro undwa ter p o tabl e. In
some ins tances, howeve r. the wat er suppl y may co ntain materials that a re not
rem oved by th e co n ve ntional water-treatment processes. Examp les ar e g ro und -
wat er with ex cess ive disso lved solids and surface waters that contain orga ni c
compounds fr om d o m es ti c o r in dustria l wastewaters o r naturally occu rrin g
o rga nics s uc h as humi c a nd ful vic acids or produc ts o f a lgal bl oo m s. Processes
are a vailable fo r removing the se c o nt a minants. Th ese processes in vo lve so phi s ti -
ca ted equipm e nt. require h ighly skill ed o p e rato rs, a nd a re th e refo re qui te expens ive.
Th e ir u se in p o tabl e wat e r pre parati o n s hould be co nsid ered o nl y wh en a bett er-
qualit y wa ter supp ly is no t a vai la ble.
The fo ll owing sec ti o ns w ill di sc u ss processes fo r re m ov in g in organ ic and
o rga nic di sso lve d so li d s from water inte nd ed fo r p o tabl e use. These sa me processes
m ay ac t as te rt iary trea t ment fo r wastewater wi th so m e m odi ti ca t io n . Th e discuss io n
is arran ged according to targe t co ntaminants rath e r than process type.
4-10 DISSOLVED-SOLIDS REMOVAL
Targe t con tamina nt s ill disso lved-so lid s re mo va l processes may be Inorgani c
min e ral s or refr ac to ry o r g~\Ili c compounds. Severa l processes a re av a ilabl e for
reduc in g the leve ls o f th ese co mpound s in' wa ter intended for potab lc use. and
process se lecti o n mu st be based o n eco nomi cs and d e pendabilit y.
Inorganic Material
Demil1E'ralizmiu/i :lIld desa/inizatiol1 are sy n o n ym o us terms app li ed to th e removal
o f in o rgani c rntn era l subs tances from water Thi s is mo's t uften ;I cco mpli s hecl by
se lective. s taged io n- excha nge unit s o r bv processes e mpl oy in g the use of se mi -
permeable mem bra n es. Bo th proced llTes req uir e vir tuall y co mpl ete re mO Ved of
sus pend ed so lid s prior to their app lication.
Ion exc hange The pr in ciples o f th e io n -e xchange process we re desc ribed in
Sec. 4-7 as re lat ed to water so ft e n ing. In th ci t process. sod ium ions we re exchanged
for ca lci ulll and m3gne s ium io ns o n a n eqUiva lence basis and th e l'e was no ne t
d ec rease In di ssolved so lid s. F o r d e miner a li zat io n . h owever. th e e xchan ge d ion s
mu st not co ntribut e disso lvccl so lid s to the e fllu en t Thi S IS accomplished by
ENGINEERED S YSTEMS FOR WATER PURI F ICATION 191
exc hangin g h ydr oge n for the di sso lved cations and hydroxide for the dissolved
anio ns. The tw o th en co mbine in equal amounts to form H 2 0, leaving no residual
ane! not affecting the pH. The resins are rege nerated w ith acids and bases , respec-
tive ly.
The io n-exc h a nge process mu st be carried out in two or more steps. Generally,
the cations a re removed fir st, followed by the an ions. The process and related
chemical reactions are shown in Fi g. 4-36 . Becau se completely demineralized
wa te r is und cs ira ble , a porti o n of th e wat e r is bypassed and blended with the
process effluent to provide a stable water.
Microporous membranes Deminerali za tion of wate r can be accomplished using
th in. micro poro u s m embran es. Th e re a re two bas ic modes of operation in use.
One sys tem uses press ure to drive water thro ugh th e membrane against the force
o f os motic press ure and is ca lled rerene osmosis. eve n though the pressure applied
is seve ral o rders of m ag nitud e in excess of th e nat ural osmo tic pressure . The other
process. called electrodialysis, use s electr ica l force s to drive ion s through ion-
selec ti ve m embra nes.
Th e me mbr a ne com m o nl y used in reverse osmos is is composed of cellulose
aceta te ane! is ab o ut 100 tun thick . Spec ial tec hniques of casting result in an asym-
me tr ic arrangement, wi th o nc s id e of th e m e mbran e having a thin (0.2 11m), dense
fi lm. wh ile th e re mainder is more p o ro us. The film con tain s microscopic o penin gs
that allow water mol ec ul es to pass thr o ugh but reject di sso lved so lid s by either
mo lec ular sievi ng o r by so m e o ther m ec ha ni s ms n o t yet co mpletely understood.
r4-25 ] The process res ults in a concentrated so lution of th e ion s o n the pressure
side of th e membrane and a pro duct water wh ich is relat ive ly free o f io n s.
Three basic membrane configuration s are used in reverse-osmosis sys tems.
.. Th-ese are' t he 'spira: IC\vo lt'nds'ys!crn' (Fi g~ '4': J7a)~ 'iIi 'wiiich 'r-rleri-ibra r1es' imd support
materi al are placed in a lt ernate layers. roll ed into a cylindrical s hape, and placed
in tubes o f suit ab le mat eriaL The supp o rt m a terial is porous and serves as a tran s-
port medium for the liquid strea ms. Separat ion o f th e product wa ter and con cen-
trate is accomp li s hed by int ernal a rrangement within the containment tube.
T ub ular sys tem s (Fig. 4-37b ) are avai la ble in w hich the m e mbrane and its porous
sup po rt sys tem are fo rmed to fit ins id e a co ntainment tube of up to 125 mm in
dia meter. Product wa te r is w ithdra wn from the p o rou s support medium, while
the co ncent ra te passes thr o ugh t he core of th e membrane. H o ll ow-fiber membranes
(Fig. 4-3 7c) are extreme ly sma ll tub es. diameters of 1.0 pm o r less being common.
T he la rge wa ll-thi c kn ess- to-diam ete r rati o provides a good radial s tren gth, and
the fibers ca n be suspend ed in the fluid w ithout the use of the s upport medium.
Th e feed wa ter is usually 011 th e o ut side of th e fib er. w hil e the product wa ter is
withdraw n thr o ugh th e cen ter. ' .
The spira l-wound and hollow'- fib e r systems' genera ll y provide higher fl ow
rat es but are m ore susce ptib le to fou lin g than are th e tubul ar systems and are
mo re o ften used fo r d emin erali z in g po tabl e water. Tubula r unit s are better su ited
fo r was tewa ter trea tm ent because membrane fou ling ca n be minimized by in-
creas in g th e fl ow ra te thr o ug h th e tu be.
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 193

0....) 0'
U
~.U N

'" '" Z'"

ZZ
+
:r:: :r::
o 0
z'"
0:::
~ I
!t:r::
Ij I
1
~
z
+
(a)

C/J
0'
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Figure 4-37 Rnerse osmosis modules: (0) spi ral-wou nd ultrafiltrati o n m odel (courlesy 0/ Ahcor. fll c.);
181tubular mod eil collrll'1Y ,,{Ahcrn, l// c.); (c) hollow-fiber m o del (coflu esy of Dflponl).
192

194 Wi\TER
Flu x ra tes of a pproximately 0.1 m J j m 2 . d are typical for spiral -wo und a nd
tubul ar systems, with considerably lower rates for the hollow-fiber units. However,
mu ch more membrane surface area is availab le in m o dul es packed with holl ow
fib ers than in comparably sized spiral-wound mo dules, and product water per
mod ule unit is approximately the same. Modules a re placed in parall el to provide
the necessa ry ca pac ity and in series to increase efficiency. . the slightly acidic ran ge may be necessary to prevent inorganic precipitation.
Reverse osmosis systems can operate a t 90 percent efficiency or better with
respec t to to tal di ssolved solid s. In addition to inorganic ion s, the membranes a lso
rem ove res idual o rganic molecules. turbidit y. bacteria, a nd viruses.
Th e electr o dial ys is process uses a se ri es o f membran es made fr o m ion-exchan ge
resins. T hese membranes will selective ly tran sfer io n s. One membra ne is cati o n-
permea blT.""that is, it wi ll pass cation s but wtll~ons. while the o th er mem-
bra ne is an io n-permea ble and rejects ca ti ons. Wh en p a ra llel c hanne ls are
const ru cted by a lterna tin g membranes and an electrica l cur rent is passed across
them, an e lectrodia lysis cell is formed as shown in Fig. 4- 38. Ca tions are drawn
towa rd the cat hode, passing thr ough the cation-se lective membrane but being
stopped by th e anion -selective membrane. The o ppos ite ac tion occurs with a ni ons,
resu ltin g in io n s being rem oved from one channe l a nd co ncentrated in the ad-
joinin g chan n el.
Me mbran es in elec tr od ialys is unit s are approxima tely 0.5 mm thick a nd are
separated by po ro ll s spacers about I mm thick . Water flow s through th e porous
spacers. Severa l membran es and spacers a re sa ndwi ched together into one electro -
dialvsis ce iL
'A contac t time o f 10 to 20 s is required wit h rem oval effic iencies o f abollt
25 - 60 percent. [4 -25J Ce lls are pl aced in seri es to increase efficiency and in
para lle l to meet tl ow requirement s. Under id ea l co ndition s. approxima tely 90
. . . . . . . .. .... ... . . P(oolicnv'it e r
Ca th ode
Anode
H
(+ )
Cation
Am on
pcrm<' abk pefllleahle
nlL'lllbr;lflc
lll embrJIlt:
Figure 4-3S Schemalic of ekclrodial ysis proce". (From Lllcey [4-]5].)
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS fOR WATER PURIFIC ATION 195
percent o f the feed water is deionized, with the ions being concentrated in the
remaining 10 percent.
Both reverse osmosis and electrodialysis require a high degree of trea tment
prior to th eir application. Suspended so lid s removal is absolutely necessary, and
dissolved organics should be removed to prevent fouling. Adjustment of pH to
Reverse osmosis generally produces a higher-qualiti effluent than does electro-
dialysis, although at a higher cost. D esign parameters for demineraliza tion pro-
cesses are given in C ulp et al. [4-25J
Both reverse osmosis and electrodialysis produce a waste stream that may
range from 10 to 25 percent of the feed water. In potable water supply systems, an
ad ditional volume of water must be processed to offset this loss. In both water-
an d wastewater~treatment systems the concentrated wastewater streams must
be disposed o f properly.
Organic Material
Refractory organics can be removed from water and wastewater by adsorption
processes or by chemical oxidation. The processes are essentially the same for
both water and wastewater trea tment, although the applications may differ
somewhat.
Adsorption Adsorption can be defi ned as the accumulation of substances at the
interface between two phases. [4-53J In wa ter a nd wastewater treatment, the
in terface is between the liquid and solid surfaces that are artificially provided . The
material removed from the liquid phase is called the adsorbate, and the material
providing the solid surfaces is called th e adsorbent. ............ .
The adso rbent most commonly used in water and wastewater trea tment is
ac ti va ted carbon. Activated carbon is manufactured from carbonaceous material
such as wood, coal, petroleum residues, etc. Achar is made by burning the material
in the absence of air. The char is then oxidized a t higher temperatures to create
a very porous structure. This "activation" step provides irregular channels and
pores in the solid mass, resulting in a very large suiface-a rea-per-m ass ratio.
Surface areas ranging fr o m 500 to 1500 m 2/g have been reported [4-53]. with a ll
but a. small fraction of the surface area being associated with the pores . .
Once fo rmed , activated carbon is crushed int o gra nules ranging fr om 0.1 to
2 mm in diameter or is pul verized to a very fine powder. Disso lved organic material
adsorbs to both exterior and interi o r surfaces of the carbon . When these surfaces
become covered , th e ca rbon must be regenerated . Although adsorption properties
and mechani sms are essentially the same. applica ti on techniques for granular
ac tiva ted carbon and powdered act ivated carb.on a re co nsiderab ly different.
The contact system for granular acti va ted carbon (GAC) consists of a cylin-
drica l ta nk which contains a bed of th e material (Fig. 4-39). The water is passed
through th e bed with sufficien t residen ce time a ll owed for completion of the ad-
sorption process. The sys tem may be operated in e ith er a fixed-bed or mov in g-bed
 ENG I NEERED SYSTEM S FOR WATER PUR IFICAT ION 197
196 WATER

10 p ercent expa n sio n a t a ll tim es so sus p end ed solids in th e in tlu en t can pass
F ull o pell cove r with
portho le throu g h. TIllS m ode o f o perati o n ha s a n added adv a ntage in that a d so r bed o rga n i c,
II1 c rea se th e d en sit y o f th e carbo n , and th e spent carbon mi g ra tes to th e b o tt om
Bo lUing
o f th e Auiui zed bed fo r rem ova l to th e rege nerati o n process.
D es ign o f g ranu la r-acti va ted-ca rb o n sys tem s is based on Ao w ra tes and co nt ac t
t imes. Fl ow ra tes o f 0.08 to 0.4 m J j m 2 . min and cont ac t tim es o f 10 to 50 m i n
based o n empt y- tank cross secti o n a nd vo lume, a re common p rac ti ce Dow nt i m~
o
Wash
wat ~ r
- o
\t ___S~~~\~~~ __
'--------------
Ca rbon be'd surface
o
o f up to 40 perce nt s ho uld be included in the pla nt capac ity, wit h 5 to 10 perce nt
m a keu p car bo n be ing prov id ed aft e r eac h rege ne rati o n cyc le. T he int eres t ed
read er is referred to C u lp, W es ner, and C ulp [4- 25 J for amore'de ta iled disc ussi o n
o f d es ig n.
4-5m
o . C arbo n co lumn s can be a rran ged in pa ra llel to inc rea se th e ca p ac it y and in
se n es to In crease t he co nt ac t tim e. T o a pp r oximate th e co un te rcurre nt a ppl'oach
o
m a se ri es o f hxed -bed co lumn s, wa ter. proceed s fr o m th e column whic h has been
o used th e lo nges t to th e o ne in use fo r th e sh o rt es t tim e.
25- mm sampling taps Powdered ac ti vate d car bo n (PA C ) ca nn o t be used in a fi xed -bed arra ngement
\ 0
becau se o f It s slll~ t11 size anu th e subsequ e n t hi g h head loss th a t wou ld result from
2 -3 m '---0 pass in g wa ter th ro ug h it. Powde red ac ti va ted ca rb o n is co nt acte d with th e wa t er

~ ~::~:::o~Ne~\'=ac:lo~g,
in o pen vesse ls w here it is maint a in ed in s us pen s io n fo r th e n ecessa ry Cllllt ac t tim e
a nd th e n rem oved by co n ve nti o nal so lids- re moval processes . Fl occ ul a tio n
eq u ip m ent descri bcd in Sec. 4-6 is suffic ie nt fo r thi s purpose.
-----...;.~ EfIlu cll t Powde red ac ti va ted ca rbo n is much m o r e diffi cult to regen e ra te th a n g ra nu la r.
Mos t systems cmrl oy a flu id ized bed a rr a n ge m e nt in w hich a m ixt u re of steam
Cln u (l th e l' ho t S~l ses ho lu s th e ca r bo n in s us p ens io n while th e rege nerat io n pro-
cesses occur III so m e cases, sa nd is Auidi zed al o n g with the carbo n to help ho ld
Figure 4-39 T ypica l activated-carbon ad so rpti on co lumn. (From M e/ccil! & Eddy, Inc. [4-40]. ) hea t in t he sys tem.
III was tewat e r treatmen.L. pow.d ef.ed. a ctiva ted .eacb.on. .can .be. a.d ued .. to. t11e.
ae ra ti o n basi n a nc! re m oveu w it h th e bi o log ica l so lid s in the seco n darv c la rifi er
mode. Fixed-bed systems are ba tch o perati o n s th a t are ta k en o fT th e lin e w hen the
In thi s case, bo th refra c to ry and biod eg ra dabl e o rgani cs a re a d so rbeJ 8i o mass
ad s orp ti ve capac it y of the carbo'n is used up.
gm wth o n th e ca rb o n surfa ce ut ili zes t he b io d egra dab le fr ac ti on. Re m oval
Alth o ugh fixed g ranu lar carb o n bed s c an be c lea n ed in a place w it h s upe r-
effi c iency for biod egrada ble orga ni cs may be Improved by thi s process. but usua II v
heated steam, the most co mm on prac tice is to rem o ve th e ca rb o n fo r c leanin g in a
at th e ex pense o f refra c to ry organi c removal e ffi c iency. U se of powd ereu a C l i va t e ~1
furnace . The regeneration process is esse nti ? lI y the same as th e o ri ginal ac t iva tion
a car b o n in secon d a ry was tewa ter sys te m s res ult s in an inse p a ra bl e m ixtu re o f
process. The ad so r bed organics ar e fir s t burned a t about 800 C in. th e absence o f
Qlo lo g lcal so li ds and ca rbo n . Th er m a l rege n era ti o n o f th e car bo n a lso res ult s III
oxygen. An o xidiz in g agen t, usually steam. is then a pplied a t s li g htly hi g he r
des tru ct io n o rth e bi o m ass, elimin a tin g the need fo r othe r s lud ge pr ocess in g an d
temper a ture s to rem o ve the residu e and reac ti va te t he ca rb o n .
d is posa l tech niqu es, b ut incre a si ng th e size o f t he carbo n rege n e l'a ti o n sys te m.
In a moving-bed sys tem, spent carbon is co ntinu o us ly re m oved fr o m th e
. In current pra c ti ces, mos t sys te m s treating potable wa ter use p o wd er e d
bottom of th e bed, wit h regenera ted carbo n bein g re p la ced at th e top. M os t
ac tl vat.ed car bo n, w hile ad vall ced wa ste wa te r sys te m s use m ovi n g-bed. g ra n ula r
modern app lica ti o n s u se th e m o vin g- bed sys tem w ith a co unt e rcurrent Aow; th a t
. ac ti vat ed ca rbo n. Bett er rege nerati o n procedures woule! g reatl y enh a nce t he li se
is, the water is introduced a t th e bottom of the bed and moves upward again st t he
of powdered uct ivated carbo n in was tewa te r trea tment , partic ul a rl y III the seco n -
Aow of ca rbon. da ry processes. .
The major proble m associa ted with g ra nular-acti vated -carb o n-contact sys-
tems is plugg in g o f the bed by su sp ended so li d s in the water. Provis io ns ma'y be
Che mi ca l ox id at io n C he m ica l oxid ati o n 01' re fra cto ry o rgan ic compo u nds can be
made in the d esign of the ve ssel fo r backwa shin g the bed in a fas hi o n simil a r to
llser! a s an alt e l'l1ati ve to th e ad so rpti o n process in bo th po tabl e wa ter a nd
filter backwas hing. O th er design s a vo id plugging by operat in g with the bed in a
\V<lStt:w~ lt e r - t rcat m en t syste ms. Large , comp lex o rga ni c m o lec ul es . r ing-str uctured
fluidized stat e. Sufficient upA o w ve loc ity is prov id ed t o m a intain th e heu at ah o ut
198 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 199

detergents, and phenolic and humic compounds can be broken into simpler 4-10 A particle with a diameter of 1.0 mm and a specific gravity of 3,0 is released in water at
compounds by strong oxidants such as ozone or chlorine. Further oxidation by 30"e. How long will it take the particle to travel 2 m?
chemical or biological means may result in stable end products. Added advantages 4-11 A particle with a diameter of 0,5 mm and a specific gravity of2.5 i's released in water with
of this process may include ammonia removal , oxidation of inorganic substances a temperature of 25 C. How far does the particle travel in 3 s?
such as iron and manganese, and disinfection. The discovery that chlorine react s 4-12 Two particles are released in water at the same time, Particle A has a diameter dA of
with some organic compounds to form undesirable haloforms makes its use as a 0.4 mm. Particle B has a diameter dB' of 0,9 mm. What is the ratio of the.settling velocity of
particle A to that of particle B? Assume equal densities. ..
chemical oxidant questionable .
The application of ozone for both disinfection and chemical oxidation in 4-13 Suppose that a column is filled with water containing a uniform suspension of particles '
potable water treatment has been a long-standing practice in Europe-The destruc- A and B as described in Prob. 4-12. Particle B is removed with 100 percent efficiency in exactly
10 s. What is the percent removal of particle A?
tion of taste and odor compounds and color-producing organics by ozonation is
4-14 Name three types of settling basins employed for solids removal in water-treatment
quite effective. Application of ozone to wastewater organics is less etIicient. Some
plants.
of the biologically resistant compounds in secondary effluents are also chemically
resistant. Generally. a 3-1 ratio of ozone to organics on a mass basis is sutIicient 4-15 Describe the four functional zones of a long-rectangular settling tank.
4-16 A settling column analysis is run on a type-I suspension, The settling column is 2 ill taIl,
'-
to reduce the COD by approximatel y 70 percent. [4-40J Better efficiencies can be
and the initial concentration of the well-mixed sample is 650 mg/ L. Results of the analysis are
obtained only by significantly increasing the dosage.
shown below.
Application of ozone for chemical oxidation and disinfection is a simultan-
eous operation in potable water systems. I n wastewater systems, chemical oxidation Time. min o 58 77 91 114 154 250
is more cost-effective when applied alter secondary treatment, or after tertiary
processes if these are included 111 the sys tem. The specific characteristics of ozone Cone remaining, mg/ L 650 560 415 325 215 130 52
and systems for contacting it with water were discussed in Sec. 4-9 and will not be What is the theoretical efficiency of the settling basins that receive this suspension if the
repeated here. loading rate is 2.4 x 10- 2 m/ min?
4-17 Using the data from Prob. 4-16, determine the theoretical efficiency of a settling basin with
a loading rate of 3.0 x 10 - 2 m/min.
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS 4-18 Using the data from Prob. 4-16, determine the theoretical efficiency of a settling basin
with a surface area of 500 m 2 and an inflow of 14.400 m 3 /d.
,,,,!ler
4-1 Briefly discuss the diflerences in !b.e. qLFlJi.t,Y. .Qf eo.
o b.t <t.in f(o.n.l.gfP.ql)O~(lte.UOljr~eS. . ..4,19..Determine.the.theoretical-efficiency gf.the settling basin in Prob, 4-18 if Vi = 0.04x.
and water obtained from surface water sources. What kinds of treatment processes might be 4-20 A settling column analysis is run on a type-2 suspension with the following results,
needed for groundwater intended for potable use? For water taken from a mountain reservoir (Entries are suspended-solids concentrations at stated times,)
an9 intended for potablc use') For water taken from the Mississippi River and intended for
potable use')
4-2 What kind oT treat'ment is needed for well water intended for agri~ultural use? Surface
waters intcnded for agricultural use')
4-3 WOldd ordinary tap water from a city water supply be adequate, without further treatment.
for all industrial uses? Why or why not ')
4-4 Why is aeration used in water-tre;ltll1ent plants? Is it mo re commonly used with ground -
water or surface wat er ') Why"
4-5 Name and describe three communly uscd water -in -air systems found in water purificatio n
plants.
4-6. Describe an air-in -water system cOJllmunly used in wate r purification plants.
4-7 Define (0) discrete particles. (h) l'locc Lllating particles, (c) dilute suspen sion, and (d) con-
centrat ed suspen siun . .
4-8 What is a type- I suspe nsion "
4-9 De te rmine the settling vckKlt y of a spherical parti c le witli a diameter of 100 I,m and a D;termine the theoretical efficiency of a settling basin with a depth of 3.5 m, a volume of 1400
speciti c gravity of 2.3 in wat e r at l y e . ,and an II1flow of 11.200 m)/d.
III
 i,

ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFl CATtON 20 1

200 WATER

4-21 Using the data from Pro b. 4-20. dete rmine the th eo retica l efficiency of a sett ling bas in 4-3 7 i\ fl occ ul a to r padd le of th e design and dim e nsio ns sho wn be low is ro ta ted th ro ugh wa ter
with a depth of 2.5 m, a volume of 2,200 m 3
, and an infl ow o f 13,200 m/d l. e
at 20 v wi th an angul a r speed of 4.0 r/ min.
3
4-22 A settling basin processi ng 14.400 m /d of wa ter has a dep th of 4.0 m a nd a vo lume of
j
ii, 1200 m] Using the data from Prob. 4-20, determine th e theoretica l efficiency.
3.0
I ~'
4-23 What is a type-2 suspensio n?
4-24 A water-treatment pla nt is to process 19.000 m'jd. A se ttling basi n for a type-2 suspen sion
is to operate at 0.75 m/ h. Determine the dimension of th e basin for (a) a lo ng-rec tangu lar unit

JL a nd (b) a circular unit. Check detenti o n times. hor izo nt a l ve locities. and weir ove rfl ow rat es. I
4-25 Determine t he appropriate number of units a nd dimensio ns for settl in g basin s to treat

III 75.000 m 3 /d a t a n overflow ra te of 0.8 m/ h.

4-26 Assume that th e sett ling bas in s in Prob. 4-25 will be const ru cted of re mforced co ncre te
T
0. 1 !11
E E
a nd th at the cos t of fo rm ing and pou rin g circular walls is 1. 25 tim es th e cos t of forming and
'"
IlL po uring slraight wa lls. Wh a t will be th e relati ve costs of using circular tank s com pared to
rectan gu lar tank s uti lizing common wa ll s where poss ible~
0. 1 m

Iil- 4-27 C hemica l coagu lati o n in water-trea tmen l planls is acco mplished by the additi o n of ~
tri vale nt meta lli c sa lt s. Name tw o of these.
1:1 I
,-:r
11 4-28 Name a nd di sc uss the fo ur mecha ni sms th o ug ht 10 occur durin g coag ulati o n.
'---.
4-29 Explain the imp o rt ance ofth eja r tes t in coag ul a ti o n opera li o ns and desc ribe Ih e test. ()

l. ~ 4-30 Un"der wha t conditi o ns mi ght it be desi rable to ad d turbidi lY In wa ter in a treatment
plant 0 Fro nt Vl eW
. Sldt' View

4-31 Under wha t circum sta nces a re lime and/ or soda ash ad ded to waters d uring coagu la tio n
'Ir- opera t ion s?
(a) How mu c h po wer is di ss ipa ted int o the wat er ')

l 4-32 Name and describe the fo ur genera l ca tego nes int o which surface wa te rs a re gro uped with

t
(h) Iflh e tallk in whi c h thi s padd le is ro tating ha s th e dimensi o ns o f4 x 4 x -1m a nd t he
regard to coag u la t ion.
fl ow through the tank is SOOO 1l1 .\ (d. determin e th e (;1 value fo r th e fl occ ulat or
4-33 Define (0) r3pid mixing and (b) fl occ ulati nn.
4-38 Soft ening of hard wa ter ma y be do ne a t a wat e r utility trea tment pl a nt or by th e co nsume r.
~
. .4-':H .~ .,:".<*r:\~e~tI11~n.t p.1 a nt is to process 30.000 111"'fd. Th e rapid mixing ta nk will ble nd .As a gen e ral rul e of thum b. what ha rdness le ve l ind ica tes the need 't o so ft en a t the trea tment
35 mg/ L of a lum with the ti ; ~; a'n'd 'i; i o' l~ a'~e'~ 'de'ten i'ori 't lin e iln riii'ri : llie l ::i iik is' fo 'nav'e
plant 'I
a square cross sec ti o n wi th ve rtical baffles and a Rat blade impeller sim il ar to Fi g. 4-20b.
4-39 Difl"ere ntiat c betwet:n sin gle-s tage a nel two-s ta ge softening processes.
De ter min e the fo ll ow ing :
4-40 A wa ter has the fo llowi ng ionie constituent s (meq ui v/ L):
(a) Quantit y (kilogra ms per da y) o f a lum added
(b) Dime ns io ns 'o f t.he tank
(e) Powe r input (kilow.at ts) necessary fo r a C va lu e of90() s- I. Th e wa ter tempera ture is
22 'C. Ca ' , -u HCO, - = 2.5
=
4-35 The fl ow described in Prob. 4-34 is to be Ilocc ul a ted in a basin hav ing fo ur fl occu la tors ~tg2 1. 0 SO, ' = 2. 9
i;L. with tran sverse padd le units. (See F ig. 4-22a.) The basin may be a maximum of 10 m wide and N,,' 2.2 CI = 2.5
"
4 m d eep to co nn ec t to the settlin g basi n. Dete rmin e'
(,,) Bas in dimen sions
el l , -- 06
(h) P ower req uirements
,. (e) Padd le config ura ti on and ro tati o na l speed
The best (;1 va lue fo r th is system has been fo und to be ~.5 x 10
j ." 4
.,.-. (oi) Calculate the chemica l requiremcnt s (l11illicq ui va lenl s per liter ) required to rCl11 o\e
4-36 The fl ow through a fl o.ccu la to r processes 16.800 m 3 /d nf water at 17C. The padd les are as mueh of Ihe cal ciulll as pO SS ib le and to res tabili l e t he wat er. (N o Mg" rel11 ol'a l is re-
arra nged lo ngi tudin a lly. The o ptimum CI va lu e ha s bee n fo und frolll jar tests to be 4.5' x 10
4 . quired.)
Dete rmin e In) I)r ~I\\' a ha r d i: lg r:llll of Ihe fin ished \\" ate l
(0) Bas in dimension s (c) Cd cu la tc I he d:lil y q L1 a lll il y (k ilogra ill s per day) o f lime Cl nd sod :1 :hh (as, u nl e a r>u rit\
J
(h) Powe r appl ied 10 th e wa te r of 'n perccn l for Ih c li llle a nd ';I() perce nt fo r th e su d a ash) to treat 17.5nO Ill d of Ihis wat e r.
( e) Paddle co nfig urati on and ro tational speed (iI) Dct erm ine the dr) Illa ss (kil og ram s pc r d a) ) " f th e slud ges prl)ci uu:d .
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 203
202 W ATE R

4-57 A rapid san? filter has a bed depth of 0.7 m. It is composed of sand grains that have a
4-41 A water-treatment plant processes 24.500 m 3 jd or water with the foll owing ionic concen- s~eGlfic graVIty 01 2.65 and a shape factor of 0.82. The porosity of the bed is 0.45 throughout.
tration : 1 he sieve.analYSIS 01 the sand is shown below.

0.5
M ass retained, Average particle size,
Na' Sieve no . ~o mm

14 -20 0.87 1.0

HCO l cr 20- 28 8.63 0.71
28- 32 21.J0 054
0.5 32-35 28.10 0.46
35--42 23.64 0.38
(a) Determine the quantities or chemicals (kilograms per day) required to so rt en this 42-48 7.09 0.32
water to the minimum possible hardriess by two-sta ge lime -soda ash sortening. 48 - 60 3. 19 0.27
(b) Draw a bar diagram ro r the fini shed water. 60- 65 2.16 0.23
( e) Calculate the dry mass of the so lids in the sludge. 65- 100 1.02 0.18
4-42 What is split treatment ')
4-43 Rewo rk Pro b. 4-41 ll sing a split-trea tment approach in which 1.0 meq ui v/ L or M g'
Determine the head loss through the bed irthe flow rate is 5.0 m/ s and the water temperature is
is accep table in the finished water. 17 ' e .
4-44 Determine the percent sav ings in chemicals ir two-stage treatment (Prob. 4-41) is re-
4-58 A constant head or 2.5 m is maintained above the filter bed described in Prob. 4-57.
placed with split treatment (Prob. 4-43). Determine the Aow rate through the filter. . .
4-45 What is reca rbonation and und er what conditions is recarbo nati on necessa ry in a water-
4-59 Write a computer program anel rework Prob. 4-57 by computer (or a hand-held pro-
treatment system ? grammable calculator).
4-46 An ion-exchange system is to he used to soften the water described in Prob.3 4-40. The ~O . Determine the backwash velocity (V,) at which the filter bed in Prob. 4-49 will just begin to
resin has an exc han ge capacity o r9 5 kg/ Ill) when operated at a Aow rate orO.35 m / m ' min. flUIdize.
Deter mine the vo lume or resin needed and a tank configuration to allow con tinuous o peration
<!-{il. Determine the backwash velocity at which the filter bed in Prob. 4-55 will just begin to
ir the regenerati o n time is 2 h. flUidize.
4-47 Determine the chemi ca l req uirement ror regeneration or the ion-exc h.ange system in
4-62 The filter bed in Prob. 4-49 is to be expanded to 1.5 ti!De~.ils origioal.depth cluriog backc ..... .... _..
'Prob'. A.46 if rege neration is accomplished using 140 kg or sodium chloride per cubic meter
wash. Determine the required backwash rate (m/ h) assuming that the backwash water is 18C. J
of resin. What volume or back wash Auid mu st be disposed or ir the sa lt used is in I 0 ~,~ so lut ion?
4-63 The filter bed in Prob. 4-55 is to be expanded to 1.6 times its original depth during back-
4-48 Define" breakthrough" as it relates to treatment or hardness and discu s~ what steps must
wash. Determine the required backwash rate (m/ h) assuming a water temperature or 20C.
be taken arter breakthrough po int is reached
4-64 The filter bed describ~d in Prob. 4-5iis to be completely fluidized during backwash.
4-49 A bed or filter sa nd 0.75 m deep is composed or uniform particles with diameter 0.5 mm ,
(a) Determine the backwash veloc'ity' that.willjust fluidize the largest particles in the bed.
spec ific gravity 2.64, and shape ractor 0.9. The po rosit y or the packed bed is 0.45. Plot a curve (b) For the velocity determined in (a), calculate the expanded bed depth.
for head loss vs. filtering velocity over the filter velocity range or 2.0 to 7.0 rrij h at a water
4-65 Write a program and s~lve Problem 4-64b by computer or hand-held programmable
temper a ture o r l3 e C. calculator.
4-50 Discuss filtration as a mea ns o r wate r treatment. What is precoa t filtrati on')
4-66 A filter plant is to be constructed to process 75.700.m J jd. Pilot-plant analysis on mixed
4-51 What is the principal cleaning mec hanism in backwashing filters ? ~letha lIldlcates that a filtration rate or 15 mj h will be acceptable. Assuming a surrace con-
4-52 Differentiate between slow sa nel filters and rapid sand filters. guratlon of approxImately 5 x 8 m. how many filter tJllIts will be reqUIred? Allow one unit
4-5-3 What are elual-media filter s" Wh ilt are their advantages a nd disadvantages" ou t or ser vice ro r back washing. .
4-54 What are mixed-media filters " What are their advantages and disad va ntages " 4-67 The backwash velocity required to expand the filters in Prob. 4-66 is 36 m/h. Each back-
4-55 A hydrostatic head or 2 m is maintained above a 0.6-m-eleep bed or filter sand. The sand . wash period requires 20 min, and the water is wasted ror the first 10 min or each filter run.
is uniror mly sized with di a mete r 0.4 111m. spec ific gravit y 2.65. a:lel shape ractor 0.85. Determine Deter~line the net producti9n or each {-ilter if it is back washed once a day.
the How rate th ro ugh the bed if the w~l t e r temperat ure is I sec. 4-68 Describe the characteristics or a go~d disinrectant.
4-56 An experim ental filt er co nsi sts Dr a 2-m depth or unirorm sand with a diameter orO. 85 mm 4-69 Name severa l commonly used disinfectants and discuss the adval1laees and disadvant-
and a shape fa cto r 01'0.7. The pur us,t\ of tile bed is 0,35 and th e specific gl'av ity of the sa nci is ages posed by each. Which is the mos t commonly used in the United State~? In Europe')
2.65. Determine thc head (meters of water column anel kil o pasca ls) to maintain a fl ow of water
u 4-70 What ractors militate against effective di sinfection ?
through the bed ;It a !low ra te of I() m h. The wate r temperature IS 15 C.
 204 WATER
4-71 What methods are common ly used for desalinizati on of water?
4-72 How are refractory organics removed from water and wastewater?
4-73 Why is powdered activated qr.PQn(PAC). unsuitable Jor.u se. in a fixed-bed adsorption
arrangement?
4-74 A city draws its water supply from a large reservoir. The water has consistent quality
throughout the year. It has a turbidity ranging from 20 to 50 unit s. and its maximum hardness
is less than 100 mg/L as CaC0 3 . Refractory orga nics are not a problem and the TDS is low .
Draw a schema tic diagram of a treatment plant that may he ll sed to render this water potabl e.
Identify each unit and briefly state its purpose. Show point s of chem ica l add iti ons and identify
the chemicals.
4-75 A city water supply is obtained from a deep aquifer. The water has uniform quality. It is
clear and free of organics; hardness is in excess of 300 mg/ L and cons ists or both calc ium and
magnesium. Dissolved CO 2 is approximate ly 15 mg/ L and iron (Fe z.) is abollt 1.0 mg/L.
-. Other dissolved constituents are below problem levels. Draw a schematic diagram of a treat-
ment plant that will render this water potable. Iden tify each unit and briefly state its purpose.
Show points of chemical addition and identify the chemicals.
4-76 A large st ream flowing through a highly industri a li zed area mll st serve as a raw water
supply for a community. The water is consistently turbid, has hardness in excess of 300 mg/ L, .
and has refractory organics that are known precursors of trih alomethanes. Draw a schematic
diagram ofa treatmen t plant that shou ld render this water potable. Id entify all units. state their
purpose. and show points of chemical addition. Identify all chem icals.
REFERENCES
4-1 American Society of Civil Engineers, American Water Works Association, "nd Conference of
State Sanitary Engineers: 'Waler Trealm enl Planl Design, A WWA . New Y o rk. t 969 .
.- 4-2 American Water Works Association : Waler QualilY and Tr ea ltll enr. A H andhook 0/ Public Waler
Supplies, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill , New York , 1971.
4-3 Amirt harajah , A.' "Des ign of Flocculation Systems," In R . L. Sank s (ed.). Wal er Trealmenl
Planl De!ign, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich ., 1978.
4-4 - - - - : "Design of Rapid Mix Units," in, R. L. Sanks (ed.) , WaleI' Trealm elll PIOIlI DeSig n, Ann
Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1978.
4-5 - - - : "Op timum Backwa s hing of Sand Filters." J Enl' Enlj Dil' II srE . I 04(EE 5). 91 7 (October
1978).
4-6 Baker, M. N.: The Quesi/o'r Pur.e Wal er, AWWA, New Yo rk . 1948.
4-7 Baumann , E. R .: "Granular Medi a Dee p Bed Filtration." in R . L. Sonks (cd.), WaleI' Trealmenl
Plant Design, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich ., 1978.
4-8 - - - : "Precoat Filtrati o n ," in R . L. Sa nk s (ed.), Wa ler Treollllelli PlolIl Desi,elll . !\ nn Ar bor
Sc ience, Ann Arbo r', Mich ., 1978.
4-9 Bernado , L. D., and J. R . Cleasby: "Declining-Rat e vs. Co ns ta nt-Ratc F il trat io n." J EliI' Eng
Dir, ASCE, 106(E E6): 102 3 (Decembe r 1~80)
4-10 Camp. T. R.: "Floc Volume Concentration," J A WWA , 60(6) ' 6 5b (196 8) .
4-11 - - - : "Velocity Gradients and Intern a l Work in Fluid M o ti o n ," 1. BoslOn SocielY o( Ciuil
Engineering, 30: 219 (1943) .
4-1 2 - - - and P . C. Stein . .. Sedimentation and D esign of Sett li ng 1>"1b." '/'rOIlS A S CE. 11 I ' 895
( 1946).
4-13 Ca rl , K. J ., R. A . Young, and G . C. Anderso n: "Guidelin es t'or DetCfmining Fire F lows,"
J AWWA, 65( 5):335 (1973).
4-14 Ca rmen. P . c.: " Fluid Fl ow Thro u g h Grallular Beds." Tran s 111.11 Che lll Eml (Lon d o n ). IS , ISO
( 1937).
ENG I NEER ED SYSTEMS ro R WATER PUR I FICATION 205
4- 15 Chanletl. E. T .. !:'lI l'irunlll ellwl Pr{)( ec li()lI , 2d ed" M c Graw- H ili , N ew Yo rk , 1979.
4-16 Clark. J . W .. W . V,e >S Ill'"1. Jr ., and M. J. Hammer : IYaler S upply alld Pol/ulion COIllI'OI, 3d ed.,
H arpe r '& R ow, New York. 1'!77 .
4-17 Clcasby. J. L .. "Filtr"t,,)n" in W . J . Webe r. Jr . (cd.) , Physiochemical Processes/or W aler QualilY
COlll ru/. Wiley Inlerscicncc. New York , 1972
4- 18 _.-.- by pc rso nat eo rlllnuni ca ti o n . Jan uary 1980.
4-1 9 - - , J . Arboleda. D . E. Burn s, P. W. Pre ndiville. and E. S. Sava ge'" Backwa s hin g of Granular
Filters ,",/ AWWA. 69 : 11 5'( February 19 77). '
4-20 "-'--- . and J . H . Del tingham' " R" tional Aspects o f S p lit Trea tm ent." Proe A SCI.' . .I Sail Eng
Ole. 92 (S ;\ 2) 1 ( 1%6)
4-21 --- - . "nd .I . C. Lore ncc "Effectiveness 01 Bac kwas hin g for Wa s tewate r Filt ers .. J Ellt' Fnc;
Dil . .ISCE. I04( EE4) ' 749 (August 1978)
4-22 - ---' . L IN. Stangl. and G . H . R ice . . Develop me nt s in l3ackwash ln g o f Granular Filters."
,/ Elle Enel Dil'. AS CE. 101 (EE5) . 7 t .1 (Octobe r 1975).
4-23 Co hen. J . !\ t.. and S . II. ~I annah ' "Coagulation and Flocculation ," in W(t{ rr Quallf}' ond Treol-
ml'lIl. 3d cd .. McGraw- H ilI. New Yllr k. 1971.
4-24 Conley. IV R . "Waler Poll nti 0n T echnology Report," NepICme k/ croF/oc fil e., 2( 1). F ebruar y
1968
4-25 ('ulp. R . L .. G . IVI. Wesner. a nd G. L. Culp. H andbook oj Advall ci'ci WaSII' Il'O ln' Trealmenl,
Van NLlstr"nd RCilil lO ld , New Y,)I'k. 197R
4- 26 Da VIS, S. N .. and R J . M . De Wi es t J-/)'rlroqeoloq)', Wile y, N ew Yo rk. 1966
4-27 De.llgll 1'vIC/nCiolfe'r SClsp" ICIled Solids Rel/rowl, U.S. Environme ntal Pr o lec ti o n Agency. 19 75.
428 Fair. G. IVI .. and J C Geyer W(lf l'r Supply and Wa Slell'(ffCY Disposal, W iley. New Y o rk , 1961
4-29 - --- - ---- - - .. ant! D . A. Okun ' nelllenlS of Wale/' Supply and W aslewaler Disposal, 2d ed.,
Wiley. New Yo rk . 19 7 1
4-30 - - - - . F. C. M,m". S. L. Chang. I. Weil. a nd R. A . Bu rden " The Be ha vior or Chlorine as a
Water D isinfectant . . ,/ A WWA. 40 ' 105 1 (1948) .
43 1 Gehm. H. W. and .I . I Bregman (cd s.): J-/olldlJOok oj "Jimer Resource.> IInel POl/lliioli Conllol,
Van No s trand Rcinh o ld. Ne\\ York. t9 7h.
4-32 H lld son, H . 1::.. Jlld J. P . Wotrner : .. Dc ' ign of Mixing a nd Fl OCC illati o n BJ sl n s." J A WWA ,
59 : 1257 ( 191,7)
4-33 IV'es: T K. "iicl 'i\' T . 'OI;,;le" " tilc',iii 'ofJ':ioccu t',il; OI; 'f~; 'Co ~i;',;~ ~',; ~ Fi ~ ~ Systems" J EI1I'
Ell!! D" AS(E 9~ ' 11 (IYn).
4.1 4 Kammere r J . C. "lVater Quantit v R eqllirements for Publi c Suppli es and Other Uses." in
H . W . G ehm and .1. I Rregrn'"1 (c,b) . [[olldbo'ok 0/ IYoll'r Reso urces ond POl/ulloli COl1lrol.
Van Noq,,",, 1 Reinl",ld. Ne\\' York. 197(, .
4-35 La ce)'. R E ... ,,,lem hr,,nc Separall o n P ,,;cesses, " Chern Enq. 4 :56 (Se pt e mber 19 72)
-1 36 Lettcrman . RD .. J E. VII'"'. and R . S . Gem m ell' " Inll ue nce o f R apid-Mix Paramete rs on
Fl oecul,"I OII." .I .1 1I'1I'.,t. 65 : 7 16 (19 73) .
4J7 Lilld s le y. R K .. "nd .I . 13 . h'"1711l1 W il li'/' Re'.wurefs Ellgineering, 3d ed .. McGraw H ill, New
Yo rk . 197 9 .
4- .\ 8 L.O\\cllth,d . R . t . . ,",,1 B. \'. R Mar",, ('orhonale Chelllislry 0/ Aqu(;'ic' SYSlems . Theory ond
IlppIiCO/lOII ,\ . :\ nll ,\rhp i Science. Ann Arbo r. Nl ich .. 19 76
4-.19 M eWh inlic . R ( .. and I' . R . .I l) tll "o n ., Water Storage ant! D istrib ut"l11. " in A . \V . Gehm and
J. I. r1 rcglllan (cd;>, . ). num/boo/... 0/ J J "(Il l'/" Nes() urcl's and Pol/lIIion lon tr ol. Van No s! rand R einhold.
Ncw Yo rk. ]tJ76
440 M etcal f & Edd,. IIl l' Il osle" 'al{'/' F".C/lI/ eC'l'inq. Tr" olmenl, Dispos(i/, Reusr, 2d ed . M c Graw-HIli.
New YprK. 1\.)79 .
441 O Mcl ia. ( R "( ' "~III<III \ 'n "lid 1locl'III" t i()I]. in W . J . We be r. Jr (cd .). I'h ysroehwll cal
1)/"0( "(\\.\'('.\ III ! \V t! t'~ I I1[l'r ~(jc ncl' . New Y n rk, 1972 ,
If"lI f l ' l" (ju lIlll l"
4 -1 2 ;] n.l I) K . ( r; lpp' " S"nl C ( 'he mic,,1 !\ spects of R" piJ Sand Filtrallun.".1 .IIVI-I A.
56(I OI. f " : 6( kt"hc ll <)(,-I 1.
4 ,,4 ~ P\l\h:l 1. S 'I 11 '(lI e/ ( (l lIdllll) /I /1/O /0/ 11Il.'I/Hr r. ~lc(jr~ I\\'-ll ill. Nc\\' York, 1954,
4 - ~ _1 Ul ' / fJ lI l lIIl Jldl'd,\)/dlldli r d S /1l 1 II -cl lll 1,1"(/...,, Health Fduca l ioll Sen'icc. Alban y, N , Y. i ()l h .
206 WATER

CHAPTER
4-45 Rch. Ca rl W.: .. Lime-Soda So ftening Processes," In R . L. Sanks (ed.). Water Treatment Plant
Design. Ann Arbor Science. Ann Arbo r. Mich., 1978. FIVE
4-46 Rich. L. G.: Environmental Systems Engineering, McGraw-Hili, New York, 1973 .
4-47 Sanks. R . L.. " Io n Exchange," in R. L. Sanks (ed.) , Water Treatment Plant Desi<Jn. An n Arbor
SClc ll ce, Ann Arbor, Mich .. 1978.
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER
4-48 Sawyer , C N ., and P. L. McCarty Cherrll5tr}'for Enrironmental Engineer>, 3d cd .. McGraw-Hili, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
New York, 1979.
4 -49 Schroeder, E. D. : Water and Wastewater Treatment, McGraw-Hili , New York , 1977.
4-50 Scott, G. R. "Ae rati o n ," in Water Quality and Tr('{/tment , 3d cd ., M cG raw- Hili , New York ,
1971 .
4-5 1 Slee l. E. W .. and T. J. McGhee. Wat er S lipply and Sewerage . 9th ed., M cGraw- Hili , 1979.
4-52 Stumm, W, and C R . O'Melia . . Stoichiomet r y of Coagu la tion," J A WWA, 60 514 ( 1968) .
. 4-53 Sundcrs tro n , D . W .. an d H . E. Klei W astewater Treatment , Pre ntice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N. L 1979.
4-54 Tebbutt, T.H. Y . . Principles of Water Quality Control. 2d cd. , Pergamon. Oxford, England , 1977.
4-55 Todd. D. K. Grou ndwater Hydrolo<JY, Wiley, New York, 1960.
4-56 Vcsilind. P. A . : Em'ironmental Pol/lltion and Cantrol. Ann Arbor Science , Ann Arbor, Mich.,
197"
4-57 Walker, D. J.: .. Sedimentation ," in R . L. Sanks (cd.), Water Treatment Plant Desiyn, Ann Arbor
SClcnce . ."'nn Arbor. Mich .. 1978 . In modern soc ieli es pro per management of wastewater is a necessity. not an
4-'~ Walker. Rodger Wllter Supp/r Treatment ami Distrlbutivn. Pre ntice- Hall . En glewood C litIs . opt illn . The public health consequences of poor wastewater management have been
N ..I . 1978 . di scussed in prev ious chapters. Hi stor ically. the practice of collecting aild treating
4-59 \Vebt:r. "Y . J. (el1.) : Phrsioc/temical ?ruct's.ws .ItJ{ ~V(ltt'r Qllolity ('Of/Ero!, Wile y Interscience .
was tewa te r pri or to disposal is a relatively recent undertaking. Although remains of
New York. 1972.
sewe rs have been fo und in :.Jncient c ities. the extent of their use for wastewater
carriage is not known. The elaborate drainage system of ancient Rome was not
used for was te disposal. a nd wasles were speci fically excluded from the sewerage
sys tems of London . Pari s. and Bo ston until well after the turn of the nineteenth
centur y.
Prior to this time, city residents placed" nig ht soil" in buckets along the streets
"a-lid' \voi-ke;s"~mi;1 ;~~r 'tl~e . ~vaste into "honeywagon" tanks. The waste was
transported to rural areas for disposal over agricultural lands. The invention of the
flu sh loilet in Ihe nineteenth century drastically changed waste-disposal practices.
Existing sys tems for transporting urb a n wastes for disposal on agricultural lands
we re not adeq uate to handle the large vo lume of liquid generated by the flush
toilets. Faced w ilh this tran sportation problem, cities began to use na tural drain-
age systems and storm sewers for wastewater carriage. against the advice of such
men as Edwin C hadwick. who in 1842 recommended "rain to the river and sewage
to th e so il.' [5-21] Construction of co mbined sewers was commonplace in large
ci ties during th e la tter half o f the nineteenth century. Since storm drain systems
naturall y e nd ed at wa tercourses. waterborne wastes were discharged directly to
stre:.Jll1s, lakes. and estuaries without treatment. Gross pollution often resulted ,
an el'hea lth pro.blems were transfe rred from th\} sewered community to downstream
users of th e wa te r.
The 'first "modern " se\~erage system for wastewater carriage was built in
Hamburg. Germany. in 1842 by a n innovative English engineer named Lindley.
Lindley's sys tem included many o f the principles th a t are still in use today. [5-10]
1\10S1 or th e improvements in wastewater collection sys tems over the last 100 years

207
 208 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMroNT AND DISPOSAL 209

have consisted of improvJd materials and the inclusion o f manholes, pumping greatly from industry to industry, and, consequently, tre2. tment processes for
stations, and other appurtenances, industrial was tewater also vary, a lthough many of the processes used to treat
The treatment of wastewater lagged consideHlbly behind its co llectIOn. municipal wastewater are a lso used in industrial wastewater treatment. Acomplete
Treatment was considered necessary only after the se lf-purification capac ity of coverage of industrial wastewater treatment is beyond the scope of this text,
the receiving w2ters was exceeded and nuisance conditions became intolerable. and the interested reader is referred to other text s on the subject. See Refs. [5-7,
Various treatment processes were tried in the late 1800s and ea rly 1900s, 5-1 8, a nd 5-38}
a.nd by the 1920s, wastewater treatment had evo lved to tho se processes in Water collectecI in . municipal wastewater systems, having been put to a
common use toda y. Design of wastewater-treatment fa cil iti es remained empirical, wide variety of uses. co ntains a wide var iety of contaminants. A list of contaminants
bowever, ulltil midcentury. In th e last 30 to 40 ye ars, great advances have been commonly found in municipal wastewater along with their sources and their
Imide in understanding wastewater treatment, and the original processes have been environmental consequences is given in Table 5-1.
formulated and quantified. The science of wastewater treatment is far from stati c, Quantitatively, constituent s of wastewater may vary significantly, depending
however. Advanced wastewater-treat ment processes are currently being developed upon the percentage and type o f industrial waste present and the amount of dilution
that will produce potable water from domestic wastewater. Problems associated from infiltration / infl ow mto the collection system. Results of an analysis of a
with wastewater reuse will no doubt challenge the imagination of engineers for typical wastewater from a municipal collection system are given in Table 5-2.
many years to come. The compos ition of wastewater from a given collection system may change
Philosophies concerning the ultimate disposal ofwaqewater have also evolved slightly on a seasona l bas is, reflec ting different water uses. Additionally, daily
over the years. As previously mentioned, the practice of land disposal was replaced flu ctua tions in quality are also observable and correlate well with flow conditions
by the convenience of the water carriage system with direct di sc harge to surface as noted in Fig. 5-1. Generally. sma ller systems with more homogeneous. uses
waters. Operating under the assumption that the "solution to pollution is dilution," produce greater rlu ctu,ll ions in wastewa ter composition.
the assimilative capacity of streams was utili zed before treatment was deemed The most s ignificant components o(wastewater are usually suspended solids.
necessary. For many years. little, if any. treatment was required of small com biodegradable organics. and pathogens. Suspended solids are primarily organic
munities located on large streams, while a high level of treatment was required by in nature and are composed of some of the more objectionable material in sewage.
large cities discharging to small streams. In more recent times, the policy has shifted
to require a minimum level of treatment of all waste discharges, regardless of the
capacity of the receiving stream. Under current practice in the United States, all Table 5-1 Important wastewater contaminants'
,.;'":-
dischargers are given a permit sfating the maximum amount of each pollutant
Contaminant Source Environmental signifIcance
.. ..... ..... thaI theyare 'at]Dwed' to discharge:' DischaTge'permits' aTe-'rro'longer-intended to
just prevent discharges that exceed the self-purification capacity of the streams, Suspended solrds Domestic use , industrial wastes, Cause sludge deposits and
but are concerned with obtaining the " fishable. swimmable" goals mentioned in . erosion by infiltration/in flow anaerobic conditions in
Sec. 2-17. aquatic environment
Where extensive treatment of wastewater is necessary to meet stringent I3iodegradab!e organics Domes! ie :1 nel i ndust ria I waste Cause biologicat degradation,
discharge permits: the quality of the treated effluent ofte n approaches that of the which may use up oxygen in .
receiving stream. These effluents should be considered a va luable water resource, receiving water and resu lt in
undesirable conditions
particularly where water is scarce. Regulatory agencies enco urage utilization of
Pathogens Domest ic waste Transmit communicable
these wastewaters for irrigation. non-body-contact recreational activities. ground-
disea-ses
water recharge, some industrial processes, and other nonpotahle uses.
Nutrients Dom estic and industrial waste May cause eutrophication
Refract ory organics Indu strtal waste May cause taste and odor
5-1 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS problems, may be toxic or
carcinogenIc

Wastewaters are usually classified as ilidustrial wastewater 0 1: muniCipa l' waste- Heavy metals Illclll ~ tn,lI \\ ;t~tc. mining, etc Are toxic. may interfere with

water. Industrial wastewater with characteristics compatible with municipal effluent reuse

wastewater is often discharged to th e municipal se wers. Many industrial wa5te- Incr c;l~l':-' ahll\"C level ill watt:f May interfere wilh ettlucnt r ellSe

\\aters require pretreatment to remove noncompatihle substan ces prior to dis sllpph hy dOl11estic and / or
industrial U Sc
charge into the municipal sys tem. Characteristics of industrIal wastewater va ry
210 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 211

Table 5-2 Typical analysis of municipal wastewater soo O.S

Concentration

-' 400 0.4

Constituent, mgj L * Strong M edium W ca k cO
E
~

SoJids, to tal 1200 '720 350 :?

Dissolved, total
Fixed
850
525
500
300
250
145
S;
-0
"
300 0.3
-
~
~

E
Volatile 325 200 lO S '0
C i
...
Suspended, total 350 220 lao '"f?- 0.2 LL.
200
Fixe d 75 55 20 ~
275 165 80 '0
Vol a tile C

0'"
Sett leabl e soli d s, mL/ L 20 10
Biochemical oxygen demand, 5-day, 20"C (BOD,) 400 220 liD 0 100 0.1
co
Total organic carbon (TOC) 290 160 80
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 1000 500 250
Nitrogen (total ils N): 85 40 20 o L -_ _L -_ _L -_ _L -_ _L-_----'L...-_--' 0
Organ ic 35 IS 8
12 M 4 AM 8 AM 12 N 4 PM 8 PM 12M
Free ammonia SO 25 12
Nitrites 0 a 0 Time or day
Nitrates 0 a a
4 Figure 5-1 Typicat variation in flow, suspended solids, af)d BOD , in municipal wastewater. (From
Ph o sphorus (tota l as P) . 15 8
5 3 I Me",,I! & Edell', Inc. [5-36].)
Organic
Inorganic 10 3
Chlorides 100 50 30
Alkalinity (as CaCO J ) 200 lOa 50 Although pathogens causing some of the more exotic diseases may rarely be
Grease 150 lao SO present, it is a safe assumption that a sufficient number of pathogens are present in
all untreated wastewater to represent a substantial health hazard. Fortunately.
* Un less otherwise noted.
Source : Fro m Metcalr & Eddy , Inc . [5-36J
few or the pathogens survive wastewater treatment in a viable state.
Traditional wastewater.treatment processes. are.d.esigned to reduce.suspended ........... ... . .
so lid s. biodegradable organics. and pathogens' to acceptable levels prior to
Body was tes. food waste. paper. rags. and biological ce lls form the bulk of suspended
disposal. Additional wastewater-treatment processes may be required to reduce
solids in wastewater. Even inert materials such as so il p<lrticles become fouled by
levels of nutrients if the wastewater is to be discharged to a delicate ecosystem.
adsorbing organics to their surface. Rem ova l o f s uspended so lid s is essential prior
Processes !o .remove refractor y organics and heavy metals and to reduce the level
to discharge or reuse of wastewater.
of lIlorganic dissolved solids are required where wastewater reuse is anticipated,.
Although suspended organic so lid s are biodegradable through hydr o lys is.
biodegradable material in wastewater is uSllall y considered to be soluble organ ics
Soluble organics in domestic wastelvater are co mposed chiefly of proteins (40 to
60 percent). ca rh ohydra tes (25 to 50 perce nt). and lipid s (approximately 10 5-2 EFFLUENT STANDARDS
percent). [5-52J Proteins are ch idl v amino acids. while carbohvdrates are co m-
pounds such as s ugars. starch es. and ce llulose. Lipid s include fat~. o il. and g rease. The Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-500) mandated the
All of these material s contain carbon that ca n be converted to carb o n di ox ide En viro nmental Protection Agency to establish standards for wastewater dis-
biologically. thus exerting an oxyge n demand as di sc ussed in Sec. 2- 13. Pr o teins Charges. Current standards require that municipal wastewater be given secondary
a lso conta in nitrogen. and thus a nitrogen o us o xygen d emand is al so exerted. treatment and that most effluents meet the conditions shown in Table D-7 of the
Th e bIOchemica l oxygen d e mand test is therefo re used to quantify bi o degradable appendix. Seco ndary treatment of municipal wastewater is generally assumed to
o rgan rc s. include se ttl;ng. biological treatment. and disinfection. along with sludge treatment
All forms o f " o[t'I"h IJrne [iU{/IIJ(J('11S may be ro und in d(lrnestic wastewater. As and di sposal. Thus. the principal components o f municipal wastewater, suspended
di sc ussed ill Sec. 2- 15. these inclucle bacteria. "'Inr s~s. pro tozon. and helminths. So lid s. biodegradable materiaL and pathogens should be reduced to acceptable
Th ese org~lni s m s are discharged IIY pe rs o ns who arc infected with th e di sea se. levcl s through secondary treatment. Industrial dischargers are required to treat
 212 WATER
E.NG I N I: ERFIJ S\ S II MS 10R WASTE\\X I ER TRE .~n l ENT .~'JD DISPOSAL 213

their wastewa ter to the leve l obta in able by th e" bes t availab le techn o logy " for Table 5-3 U nit opera tion s, unit processes, and systems for wastewater
wastewater (rea tm en t in that particular type of industry. trea tm ent
The EPA regulati o n s further define rece iving streams a s "effi ue nt-Iimited "
Contaminant l !ni! OPCf:11J()Il. LIllI{ process. o r Ircatme n! system
a nd ~water~qtia litY ~ l irrilied".Aii e.fflue nt-limir ed stream is a stream that will mee t
its in-stream sta ndards if a ll discharges to th a t stre a m meet lhesecondary-treat- Suspendeo solio s SeutmentalHHl
ment a nd "best- ava ilable-techno logy" standards. Municipalities and indu stries Sc reeni n g 3Jld commi nu tion
d ischarging to effluent-limited streams a re assigned discharge permits und er t he Filtration yartali o ns
Fl o tatIon
Natio n a l Ib lluti o n Disch a rge E limin a ti o n System (N PDES); these permit s reflect
Chemical-p\1Jymt: r additIon
th e seconda ry trea tm e nt and best-ava il a ble-tec hn ol ogy sta ndard s. C oag ulati on sedimentati on
A \Vater-quality-limited stream wo uld nor meet th e proposed in-stream s tand- Land trea t ment sys tems
ards, even if a ll di sc harges met seco nd ary -treatment and be s t ~ava ilabl e- te c hn o l ogy .<\cll\'aled- ~ludge \'a r!at ion~
B ll)degradabk org anll:::'
levels. FIXed- film Irickllng filler s
I-j.xt.:d.nlm ro tating bIol ogical cont a CI OfS
La goon and oxidatIOn pond variation s:
In te rm ittent ~ and fi lt ration
5-3 TERMINOLOGY IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Land Ircatlll t: JlI s ) s tt:m ~

Ph ys l c <ll ~c h l' J1li c a! system ::.

The termin o logy used in wastewater trea t men t is often confusing to the UI1 -
( ' hlorln alllHl
initi a ted person . T er m s s uch as unit o perati o ns, unit processes. reaClOrs. systems. Il ypochln n n:ilion
a nd primary, secon'Clary. a nd terti ary trea tm ent fr eq ue nt ly appear in I he lite ral ure. 07on~ltlon

and th eir usage is no t a lways cons istent. The mean in gs of th ese te r ms. as us eci i'n I. and IrC<.Jtm l' llt :' ) S ICIll S

thi s text. are discu ssed in t he fo llowing paragraph:.. Nutrient s'

M eth ods u sed fo r trea tin g muni c ipal was tewaters are often referred to as Nitrogen Su~pendcd-gr O \\'lh n itnn C<lll oll and d en itrificati o n
\oal'!<tt!ons
either unit o pera ti o ns or unit processes. G enerally. IIllil opl'rario/l s invo lve COll-
!' I,\cd -fi ll1l Illtrlfi c at lon and dC!1llriti cali o n vaflatl ollS
. tamin a nt remova l by phys ica l fo rces, whil e un ir proc('sses in vo il e biologica l and / or
':\JllIl1 01l1a ~ trlrping
ch emica l reactions. I\)Jl exc han ~t'
The term reactor refers to the vessel, o r containment structure. al o ng with all ,Br~i,l ~p.o,ip,t, ~,h,l p.r.1I~~ ~l.Q I),
.~- ........ . o f its a ppurt ena nces, in which th e ullit operation or unit proces, takes place'.' La nd t reatment sys tems
A lth o u g h unit o pera ti ons a nd processes a re natura l phe nomena. they llla y be Phosphor", ivktill-I..all addition
initiated, enhanced. or o th e rwise con tr o ll ed by a lt ering the environment in th e Lime cOilculatio n sedilllt."nt<l lion
reactor. Reacto r design is a very important aspect of \\astewater tre~ltmel1t and n l l.)h)gic:ll-chClll i ~a l phosp hor us rem o val
I,and Ir e,IIJlh:n t sys tem s
requires a thorough und ers tc)n d ing of the unit processes a nci unil operallon s in-
vo lved. Rcfr ;\ctO I y o rg;IJli c~ ( ':lr\.1PIl :HJ ~(l rpIIOn
T c rtl i.Jr) 01.011a liol1
A WQsreW(lrer-O'eallneI11 syslem is composed o f a combination of unit opera-
l;1IHllrcallll t'11 1 sys t C' Jll :"
tions and unit processes designed to reduce certain C{)nst itu e nt ~ of wastewater (0
Chemica! pr c'( lpilall01l
a n accep ta ble leve l. Many differe nt co mbin a ti o n s are possib le. Al t ho ugh piau i-
l Oll ~'(Chilllg.l'
ca lly a ll wastewa ter-trea tmen t systems a re unique in some respect s. a geil e ral Land 1[(' ;11111 (' 111 s:s tCnl S
grouping of unit opera ti ons and unit processes acco rding to target co ntamlnan! s
I(l n t:,\ (h an gc.'
has evolved ove r th e years. Unit opera ti ons a n d processes commonly used in R CH:r:-;l' o...,mn:-;JS
was tewa ter t"rea t men t are li sted in Tab le 5-3 and are a rra nged according 10 Fkct r o d i;.lly . . ls
co n ve nti ona l grouping. Actually, o nl y a few wastclVater-trea tme:lt methods fall
com ple tely int o one ca tego ry. Thu s th e usefuln ess of thi s c lassification sys tcm is
so mewhat comprom ised .
Munic ipal wastewater-treatm ent sys tems are llften d ivided int u primar y,
secondary , and te rti a ry su bsys tems. The purpose of {)lil/lIlrr /r (,lItnJl'lI/ is ( 0 remove
so li d materi a ls from the incoming was tewat er. Large debl'is may bt: rcmoved hy
 214 WATER ENG tNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 215

Prima ry
Screens cla rifier Effluent to
From primary -----+1 .furth er treatment
'/~ trea tmen t or to stream
Emu ent to
secom13ry
Raw

J
trea tmen t
w as te wa ter

Co mminut er
Part of
stud ge returned
I Sett led sludge
r - -----
,
(grinding)
Undernow to /
sludge trea tm ent
To sludge Irea tment
Figure 5-2 Typical primary treatment system.
(a)

sc reeilS or may be red uced in size by grindin g dev ices. In o rganic so lid s are re-
moved in grit channe ls, a nd much of the o rganic sll spended so lid s is re moved by
sedimen tati o n. A typica l prim a ry trea tmenl sys te m ( Fig. 5- 2) sho uld remove
approximately one- ha lf of the suspen ded so li ds in the incoming wastcwater. Th c
Effluent to
BOD assoc iated wi th th ese so lid s acco unt s for abo ut 30 percent of the influ ent '-~ ___ further treatment
BOD. From rrim ary _-"lr_~~~~~~~~5!-------1 or 10 stream
lrca tm cn t
Seconda ry treatm ent lI sua ll y con sists of bi o log ical co nversio n o f disso lved and
co ll o id a l o rgani cs int o biomass that ca n subseauent ly be removed by sedimenta-
Trickling
ti o n. Co nt ac t between microorganisms and the orga ni cs is o ptimized by suspendin g fitter
the biomass in the was tewa ter or by pass ing the wa stewa ter over a film of biomass
att ached to so lid surfaces . The most co mm o n suspe nded biomass sys tem is the Effluen t recycle
activa ted-s ludge process shown in Fi g. 5-3a. Recircu la ting a portion of the biomass
maintains a large number of o rganisms in contact with th e \vastewnt er and speeds To sludge
. lip t"tie converslo n pr-acess. 'The classical aHacheclcbiomass syste-m is thetTickling trea tmen t
filter show n in Fig. 5-3b. Stones or o th er so lid media are used to increase the surface (b)
a rea fo r bi o film gro wth . M at.ure bioilims peel o fl' the surface and a re washed o ut
to th e settlin g bas in with the liquid und erfl ow . P a rt of the liquid effiu ent ma y be Figure 5-3 Secondary trea tment system : (a) act iva ted sludge system and (b) trickting filter system.
recyc led thro ugh the system for additi o nal trea tment and to maint a in o ptima l
hydrau lic fl ow ra tes.
Second a ry systems produce excess bioma ss that is biodegradab le thro ugh nalura l systems. wi th oxygen being suppliee! by a lga l photosynthesis and surface -.
end oge no us catabo li sm and by o ther microorgani sms. Seco nd ar y s lud ges are reitera ti on. This oxygen se ld o m penetrates to th e bo tt o m of the pond, an e! the
usua ll y combined wi th p rim a ry slud ge fo r furthe r t reatmen t by anaerobic bio- so lid s that settle are decomposed a naerobica ll y. In the aera ted lagoon system
logical processes as show n in Fig. 5-4. Th e result s are gaseo us end product s. (Fi g. 5-5b) oxygen is supplied by mechanical ae ration, a nd the entire depth of the
pr in cipa lly methane (C H 4 ) and ca rb o n di o xide (C0 2 ), a nd liquid s a nd inert pond is aerobic. Decompos iti o n of the biomass occu rs by aerobIc endogenous
so ii ds. The methane has significant hea tin g value and ma y be used to mee t pa rt of ca tabo lism. Th e sma ll quantity of excess sludge that is produced is ret a tned l!1 the
the power req ui reme nt s of th e trea tment pla nt. Th e liquid s contain la rge con- bottom sediment s.
centr Ct ti ons of organ ic compo unds a nd are recyc led thro ugh the trea tm ent plant. In mos t cases . seco nda rv treatme nt of municipal wastewater is sufficient to
Th e so lid res idue has a hig h mineral co ntent and may be used as a so il cond iti o ner meet ~ffi uent stand ard s. In ~o m e instances. however. addi ti onal treatment may
a nd fer til ize r o n agric ultura l lands. Oth er means of so lid s disposa l may be by be requ ired . T eniary lr('(/ tm ellt most oft en involves furt her remova l ofsuspcnded
inc inerati o n or by la nd tillin g. su iids ,md /or the remova l of nutrients. So lids removal may be acco mpltshed by
Sometimes prim ar y a nd seco ndar y trea tmen t can be acco mpli s hed toge th er. as tiltrati o n. ,; nd ph osp horus a nd nitrogen compounds ma y be rem oved by combina-
shown in Fi g 5-5. Th e oxid:1ti o n pO lld (F I!"-. 5-5(/ ) most nea d )' a prrnxi l11at es ti ons o r ph ys ical. cbemica l. and bi o log ica l processes.
 216 WATER ENG INE ERl D SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWA TER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 217
'"\
Excess water A carefu l inspec li o n of Figs. 5-2 through 5-5 leads to an interest ing observa-
to primary cla rifi er ti on. The " remova l" processes in was tew ater treatment are essenti all y concentra t-
in g. o r thickenin g. processes. Suspended so li ds a re removed as slud ges. and
dissolved so lid s are co nverted to suspended so lid s and subsequentl y become
Sl ud ge from
primary and
removable slud ges. Ham mer [5-2 5J sta tes that prima ry and second a ry treatment.
- - se'condary fo ll owed by slud ge thi ckenin g. ma y co nce nt ra te organic materia l rep resented by
c1ar'i fiers 250 mg/L of suspend ed so lid s and 200 mg/L BOD in 375 L of municipal waste-
water (the average per capita contributio n) to 2.0 L of slud ge co nta ining 50,000
mg/L of so lid s. M ost of Ihe o bjectio na ble materia l initiall y in the was tewa ter
Gases

I
I
CH 4 , CO 2 ,
N H 3 , e lc.
is co nce ntrated in the sludges a nd mu st be di sposed of in a sa fe a nd enviro n-
mentall y acce pt ab le manner. Vesi lind [5-5 5J no tes th a t a maj o rit y of the ex penses ,
effo rt . and pro bl ems of wastewa te r trea tment a nd d isposal are associa ted with

\1 Diges led
sludge 10 - -
di sposa l
the slu dges.
Design of was tewa ler-treatmen t systems is an important pa rt of a n enviro n-
ment a l engineer's wor k. A th o ro ugh underst anding of the unit ope rati ons and
processes is necessary hefore the reac to rs can be designed. Th e fo ll ow in g secti o ns
(o r
me chani ca l
of thi s cha pter arc devo teclt o the va l'io us unit o perations and processes co mm o nl y
dew a lering) used In treat ing muniCipal wastewa ter Man y of these are simi la r. if not id ent ical.
Figure 5-4 Slud ge Irealme nl syslem.
tv those used in prepar ing powb le water. With the excepti on of nutri ent remova l.
tertia ry treatment opera ti ons fo r lI'astewa ter invo lve essentiall y the sa me principles
useci in prepal' ing wate r of poor che mica l qu a lit y fo r a po table supply. Wh ere
material wo uld he clu[lli ca led. th e rea cler is referred back to C ha p. 4.

Primary Treatment

To furth er
Wastew,11 CI' CO Ilt[\II1S a wid e va ri ety of so lid s of va ri ous sha pes. sizes. a nd c1ensi t ies.
--+----........ Ire" lm en l Or lfTec ll ve remova l (lf lhcse so lids may require a co mbinat io n of unit operati o ns sli c h
Iu stream :ISsc ree nin g. grind ing. <I Ill! set t lin g. i\ \t hough no mater ia l is removed by t he process.
!iolV-measlll"ement deviccs are esse nlial fo r Ih e operation of wastewater-treatment
plant s and arc ge nera ll y included in the pI:ima ry system. Operati o ns to elimin ate
(a )
large ohJec ts anei griL along with flow meas ure ment, often referred to as prenm'inory
i }"(' or InC liI. d re an int egra l part of primary trea tm ent. Operat ions common to prima r y
systems in must \\'aSlcwa ter-tr eat me nt plan ts a re described in the fo ll owing
para gra ph s.
)
, 1/ ,1/ ,1/

Raw waS l ewal er

/""
,v.
/t'
.
Surface
ae ral ors
,~/' ~/
/I' To fUriher
Irea l menl o r
XO s[ream
5-4 SCR EEN I NG

Screenll1l( de:II CCS ,liT used to remOve coarse solid s from wa stew a ter, Coarse
/ 1' /1"- /1' 'io\i ds u)~)s i st of st icks. r;lus. bo'lrei s. and o th er lar ge objec ts th a t oft en ancl. in -
cx [lllc lbil.lin<i th eir \"I V I~t o lVaslCWdl er co tleetio n ~yst ems. Beca use the primar y
(b) ;,r
[l1Ji"[lOSC ,cree lh I, to' p["( ltec i pUI11[ls and ot her mechanical equipmcn t and to
Figure Prima ry ~nd seco ndar y w;lIer treatme nt In comorna!lOI1 . ( (I)
prele nt clogging (If l a \l es ;11lL! o ther <t[lpurt enan ces ill the lI'astewater pl an t.
lag oon 5-5
. O'if
I allo
' n pond and (h) acraled
scree ning IS norillall : th e fir st opcra tl on pe rfclr med o n the In co mill g I\Cls tCwate l'

,
S
218 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 219

Wastewater screens are classified as fine or coarse. depending on their con-

Direction
stru ction. Coarse screens usually consist of vertical bars spaced I or more centi-
of flo w
meters apart and inclined away from the incoming flow. Solids retained by the
bars are usually removed by manual raking in small plants, while mechanically
~ : :. ~ o - .. - . . . . . . . .
cleaned units are used in larger plants. Fine screens usually consist of woven-wire
Section cloth or perforated plates mounted on a rotating disk or drum partially submerged
in the flow, or on a traveling belt. Fine screens should be mechanically cleaned on a
continual basis. Typical screening devices are shown in Fig. 5-6.
Screening devices are contained in rectangular channels that receive the

o
flow from the collection system. Manually cleaned devices should be readily
access ible for cleaning. and mechanically cleaned systems should be enclosed in
suitable housing. Proper ventilation must be provided to prevent accumulation
of explosive gases. A straight channel section should be provided a few meters
ah ea d of the screen to ensure good distribution of flow across the screen. Hy-
Plan draulically, flow veloCity should not exceed 1.0 mls (3.3 ft /s) in the channel, with
(0) 0.3 mls (1 ft /s) considered good design. Head loss across the screen will depend
on the degree of clogging. Clean bars and screens result in a head loss of less than
0.1 m. Provisions' should be made for a head loss of up to 0.3 m for manually
cleaned or for manually operated , mechanically cleaned screens.
The quaniity of solids removed by screening depends primarily on screen-
opening size. The quantity of screenings removed from a typical municipal waste-
wat er as a function of the screen size is illustrated in Fig. 5-7. Screened solids are
coateo with organic material of a very objectionable nature and should be promptly
disposed of to prevent a health hazard andl or nuisance condition . Disposal in a
'sanitary landfill. grinding and returning to the wastewater flow. and incineration
are the most common disposal practices. .

100
<U
90
'"~
:':! 80
. ~
'-
70
0

E
60
'<>
a 50
~
~

"" 40
S
c::
"~ 30
~
'--
0
20
E 10
0
0 3 4 5 6 7
(b) Openin g be tween bars, c m

Figure 5-6 Scree nin g dt,; \'ices used in wa Sl e\V :ll e: trea tmt' nt (u) ma nuall y clean ed ha r r; H.: k (li"om Steele Figure 5-7 Quantit y of screening from municipal wastewat e r as a function of bar spacing using
r
[/ nd M cG hee 5-501 (b ) 1l1 t:l:h a n ic all y clean ed bar scree n (co ll rfe5Y ( ~/ E1Jl"irex IlI c._ (/ R exl10 r d Com pany). rnechani cally clea ned bar sc reen s. (From tlie/cal(& ddr, In . [5 36].)

I
(-

220 WATER
5-5 COMMINUTING
As mentioned ,above. screenings are so metimes shredded a nd returned to the
wastewater flow , A hammermill de vice is most oft en used for this purpose, More
often, a shredding device ca lled a comminu/or is loca ted across the flow path and
intercept s the coarse so lid s and shred s them to approximate ly 8 mm (i in) in size,
These so lid s remain in th e wastewater.
Man y kinds of comm inut o rs are avai lable. Ba sic pan s include a sc ree n and
cuttin g teeth. The screen ma y he a slo tted drum th a t rotat es in the vertica l plane.
Sta ti onary teeth th en shred material' th at is inte rcepted by the sc reen. Other
types use a sta tion a ry semicircu lar screen and rotating or osc illating cu tting teeth.
Another device. ca lled a borminll/or. uses a ve rti ca l bar sc reen \v ith a cuttin g head
that trave ls up and down the rack of bars. shredd ing the intercepted materiaL
T yp ical sh redd in g unit s are show n in Fi g. 5-8.
Channe l des ign for comm inut ors is similar to th a t for sc ree r~s. Since material
does no t acc umul a te on the device. head loss rarel y exceeds 10 'Clll (4 in). ('0111-
minutors are hi gh-maint ena nce it ems. a nd provis io ns sho uld be made to bypass
the unit when repa irs are needed. In sma ll plants. bYP:l sS thro ugh a bar screen
is usuall y provid ed. Large r plant s may o perat e seve ra l comminutors in parallel
so that flow from o ne o r more di sabled units may be proportioned through
the remaining unit s.
,.,~.
(a) (b)
Figure S-8 Typical shreddin g dcvices osed in wastewaler Irealmenl plants : (0) con"n lllUlor, Willi
rOI~ lin g lcelh behind Ihe slaliona ry stollcd drum: (b) barnllnUlOr with Iravcltng CUlling ItraJ (Uili/'/('S)'
of C/O ... CorpOral/Oil),
ENG I N EERED SYSTE~ I S FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AN D DISPOSAL 221
Shredding de\ices should be loca ted ahead of pumping faci lities at the trea t-
ment plant. Grit remova l ahead of the shredder will S<lye wea r on the clitti ng head .
Usually, however. gl'it chambers are located at or above gro und leve l to facilitat e
grit handling, a nd pumps ma y be necessary to lift the sewage to them. In this case.
shredding is done ahead of th e pumps and cutter wea r must be to lerated.
5-6 GR IT REMOVAL
Municipal waste\vater cnnt;llns :1 \\'ide asso rtm ent of in organic so lid s such as
pebbles. s:lm!. silt . egg shelb. gl ass. and metal fra gments. Operations to remove
the se in (lI'ga nics \\ ill :list) rem ovc some urthe larger. heavier organics such as bone
chips. seeds. and coO'ce and tea grou nd s. T oge ther. these compose the mat erial
kn ow n a<; .r;ril in \\astl'wa ter treatment sys tem s,
Most of the suilsta nces In gr it ,II-e abra sive in nature and wi ll ca use accelerated
wear un pumps and sludge-h:lndling equipment wi th wh ich it comes III con tact.
Crit deposits in :!reas of 10\\' hydraulic shear in pipes. sumps. and cl,Hifiers ma y
abso rb grease and su lidify. l\dclltl o nall y. th ese materia ls are not biodegrauable
,Inc! occupy valuable spa ce in sludge digeste rs. It is therefore desirable to se parat e
them fwm the organic suspended so lid s.
Beca use inh ltr:ltion is a major so urce of Inorganics, th e quantity of grit va ries
with th e type, age. ;Ind co nd itlun o r the pipe in th e co ll ecti o n sys te m. Th e type and
quantity of industria l \\'aste ,Inti the prc\'alence of domestic garbage grind ers are
3
also cOllll'ibuting f;lctor". Q U;lIlt il ies rangi ng from 4 to 200 m / 10" m} have been
reported, with a typical \a lu e llf.arll und ISm } ' 10" m' of wastewater. [ 5-36J
.G.ri t . rCI1!Qya I. rac:i.Ilt.ies,. \)as lc;t1I,Y ..co.nsist ..0.1'. ,In .en Iarg(:d .cha[j[je l area where
redu ced ~l ow \'elocitics ;d lo\\' t' rit to settle Ollt. Many cl;nfig urati ons' o(g'r;t ta nk s
arc availahle, wit li the 1ll0,t rCl'Cn t 11lS 1,dlali uns usual ly being channel-t ype or
aerated rectangular basins such as those shoWIl in Fig. 5-9. Th e deposited gri t is
removed by mec hanical sc rapers.
- 'I
'
I
II I
Fi.l:!Ufl' 5-9 T )plcal gfll I Cllhn all'qll lpnh:nl cIJallllL'I-!ypc Ch;ll11 an d hucktt grn chamher (cOllrtL\T o j
I:'l/l"Irl'X /11(' {f UI'\,I1f1rd ("0111/)(11/1'1
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 223
222 WATER

SOLUTION
Weir plate
1. Assume a rectangular cross section with depth L5x width at maximum flow

Ax = W X 1.5w = 1.5w 2

Opening for Q m3 s d min

10,000- x - - x x-
now passage d 0.3 m. 1440 min 60 s

= 0.39 mi '

w=0.5Im

D=0.76m

2. Assuming a settling velocity of 0,02 m/s. the detention time is

\ I--- Theoretical c" = Dlv,

\ I sectIOn
= 0.76 m /(002 m/s)
\ =' 38 5

3. Determine length.

~_ _---' Practi cal L = c"v.

sect Ion = 38 s x 0.3 mls
= 11.4 m

Tank dimensions are therefore

(b)
.. Figu<e .5.10 .Veloclty .conaol sections for. horizontal. grit. (hamlels:. (ll) .prnportiolliJlg .weir lInd. (b).
parabolic channel section . (Adapl edfrom Sleele and McGhe e [55 0]. )
Hydraulically. grit chambers are designed to remo\e. by type-I settling.
discreie particles with diameters of 0.2 mm and specific gravity or2.65. In channel-
type. horizontal-flow grit chambers (Fig. 5- 9). it is important to maintain the
hori zontal velocity at approximately 0.3 m/s. A 25- percent increase ma y result
in washout of grit. while a 25-percent reduction may result In retention of non-
target organics. Since a wide variation in flow rates may be encollntered. the
horizontal velocity must be artificially controlled. A proportioning weir on the
effluent end of the tank (Fig. 5-IOa) or a parabolic tank sect Ion (Fig. 5-1 Ob) is
often used to maintain steady . flow at 0.3 m / s. The design of channel-type' grit
chambers is illustrated in Example 5-1.
Example 5-1: Designing a channel-type grit chamber A grit chamh'er is designed to reo
move particles with a diame ter 01"0.2 mm. specific gra vity 2.65. Settling vel ocit y for the se
particles ha s been found to range from 0.016 to 0.022 m /s. dcrcndin g on their shape
fa ctor. A flow-through velocity of 0.3 m!'i will be maintained by a rropo i"tl onin g weir.
Determine the channel dimensions for a max imum wa stewater now of IO.OOIl m l /d.
\\' = 0.51 m
D = 0.76 m
L = 11.4 m
In larger treatment plants. the' trend is toward aerated grit chambers. Turbu-
len ce created by the injection of compressed air keeps lighter organic material in
suspension while the heavier grit falls to the bottom. Since roll velocity. rather.than
horizontal velocity. serves to separate the .no.ntarget organics from the grit,
artificial control of the horizontal velocity is not necessary. Adj"ustment of air
quantit ies provides settling control. The design of aerated grit chambers is based on
detention time at peak flow. Typical design parameters are shown in Table 5-4.
Aerated grit chambers may serve another useful purpose. If tlie sewage is
anaerobic when it arrives at the plant. aeration serves to strip noxious gases from
the li4 Uid and to re store it immediately to an aerobic condition, which allows for
better treatment. When an aerated grit chamber is used for this purpose. the
aeration period is usually extended from 15 to 20 min.
Grit. particularly from channel-type grit chambers. may contain a' sizable
fra ction of biodegradable organics that must be removed by washing, or
must be disposed of quickly to avoid nuisance problems. Grit containing organics
mu st either be placed in a sanitary landfill or incinerated, along with screenings,
to a sterile ash for disposal.
 EN Gt NEERED SYST EMS Fon W ASTE WA TER TREATMENT AN D DISPOSAL 225
224 WATER

Table 5-4 Design parameter for aerated organic solids if good grit and sc um removal are provided for in preliminary
treatme nt. The th eo ry and prac ti ce o f primary settling operations in wastewater
grit chambers
are esse ntiall y the same as th ose fo r clarifying water for potable supplies. and
Value th e read er s hould review Secs. 4-4 an d 4-5 before proceeding.
M os t o f the sllspended solid s in was tewater are " sticky" in nature and floc cu-
hem Range T yp ical
lat e na turally. Prim a ry settlin g o pe ra tions proceed essentially as type-2 settling
without the addition of chemical coag ulants and mechanical mixing and floccula-
Dimensions:
Depth, m 2 5 ti o n o perations. The o rganic mat e ri a l is slightl y heavier than ' water and settles
Length. m 7. 5- 20 slowl y. usua ll y in the range of fr o m 1.0 to 2. 5 m/ h. Lighter materials. primarily
Width. m 2.5 7.0 oils a nd g rease. fl oat to th e surface a nd mu st be skimmed off.
Width-depth ratio I : 1- 5: I 2. I
Prim a ry sedim entatio n is acco mplished in either long-rectangula r tank s o r
Detention time at peak
flow. min 2- 5
circul a r tanks similar to those desc ribed in Sec. 4-5. Scum removal in rectangul a r
Air supply. tank s is accompli shed by havin g the s ludge scrapers penetrate through the surface
m J I min . m of length U.15 - U.45 U.3 as the y return to the effluent end o f the tank . Floating material is carried to a
Grit and scum quantities' collec ti o n point so me distance be hind the effluent we irs where it is re mo ved o ve r
Grit . mJ!lO J m' 0.004- 0.200 0.01 5
a sc um weir or by a transverse sc um sc raper. Circ ular ta nks have a skimmer arm
SOllree: From Metcalf & Eddy. lnc . [5-36]
att ac hed to th e sludge-scraper dri ve mechanis ms. The scum is wiped up an
inc lin ed apron and into a scum tr o ugh for removal. In botll cases, a scum bafl'le
sh o uld be locat ed between SC Uitl re mov al faciliti es and the efl'luent weir. Th e
5-7 FLOW MEASUREMENT m odifi cations necessar y fo r scum remova l are s ho wn in Fig. 5-11. Separated sc um
is usua ll y dis posed of with sc rec nin gs, un washed g rit , or digest ed sludge.
Although the measurement of wastewater flows does no t in itself result in removal D es ig n crit eri a fo r prima ry sed i me n tat io n ta n ks are presented in Table 5 5.
of contaminants. it is an important adjunct to wastewater treatment. A knowledge
of hydraulic loading rates is necessary for the operation of many of the reactors in a
wastewater-treatment plant. Chemical additives. air volume. recirculation rat es. Table 5-5 . Design criteria for primary sedimen-
and many other operating parameters depend upon the hydraulic flow rate . tation tanks
. Additionally, records of flows should be kept to establish trends in flow quantities Val ue
.. . .... for.eva+uationof.infiitrationjinilowquantities and to estimate future capacity need s.
Para mdc r R a ll !-!L' T ) pi c al
The most common devices used for measuring flows in a wastewater-treatment
plant are Parshal flumes and Palmer- Bowlus flumes. These devices. essentially I.'i 2.5 2.0
D ete ntion time, h
open-channel venturi meters. have an established flow-head relationship from O ve rfl ow rate , m J/ m ' . d
which the flow is determined by simply measuring the water elevation at a gi ven Ave rage 110w 32 - 48
point. Continuous-stage recording devices can be installed to provide flow records. . Pea k fl ow 80- 120 100
\Vcir l oad i ng, m J/m d 125 50(1 250
The hydraulic design of flow-measuring devices is beyond the sco pe of this text.
D im t:nsio ns: m
and the interested reader is referred to other texts. See for instance. Refs [5-50.
Rcctan g ula r
5-30.5-48]. Dcp lh 1 ~ } .il

Lcnglh 15 -90 25 - 40
Wid lh * } 24 6 10
5-8 PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION Sludge scraper speed. m 111111 11 .0 I 2 1.0
Ci rc uia r
Primary 's edime'l)tation is ;1 unit operation de'signed to concentrate and remove D e pth 4 .1
suspeqded organif.: ~olids from the wa~tewater. When primary treatment was D iam e te r ; .h {,(I 1 4 1

considered sufficient as the total treatment. primary se ttling was the most im- Bo tt o lll Sll.lPC, Tll m : 1ll 6() IW ,U
Sludge sc raper .s peed, r m ill 00 2 Il 0\ ('I !H
portant operation in the plant. Its des ign and operati o n were critical in reducing
waste loads to receiving streams. With the current universal require ment for '" iVl ust divide inl\) b;l\ :;' of no1 !!rclt l '\ 11l~11l 6.0 III \\"1(_k
secondary treatment. primary sedimentation plays a lesser role. Indeed. many of for mec han ical s ludge rCIl~oval cqui;lllc ll l
the secondary wastewater-treatment unit processes are capable of handling the SOIlI' ,,,: From M e tc alf & Fd ch . Inc. [1.36J
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 227
226 WATER

lnl el In large plant s. th e use of several rectangular tan ks with common walls reduces
well co nstru ct ion costs and sp ace requ irements. Sma ller plants tend to use circular
tanks because of the simplicit y of slud ge removal. Some settling basin arrange-
ments common ly Llsed in primary trea tment are shown in Fig. 5- 12.
Sl ud ge should be removed from the primary sedimentation tank before
anaerobic conditions deve lop. If the slu dge begins to decompose anaerob ica ll y.

Drive unit
Scum trough Supports
Drive Budge
-shaft

Scum
bafne
rr~~~g~~~~~~~~~~~b~~~~~~d~~~~~~~~ Eftluen l weir
Ernucnl
launder

12

Rep laceab le r-------w:-:-e l- r-p~l~a-l-e+------J Scurn

Sludge drawoOff pipe
pil
urelhane
strip
la)

(a)
Alternate weir location ( ' ; \
(center takeoff) \..J Maximum water Alicrntl.te weir local ion
(rim takeoff)
Bridge
Handrailing
8
Efnuent pipe

12

Sludge drJw -off pipe

(b)

Traveling
bridge Bridge
travel
Collecting

W31c r level
Sludge collt:ctlon PO Sition
Emu"nl
.....
(b)

}. j)! urt' 5- 11 Scum 1I..:muv ai from surface (If pf1lll<!r~ cI;lflflc'1 ((II dlagLlI1l (it .... klllllllln~ dl..:\lc~ (courtesy
0/ In/dco f)f!yr eI1l0flf, ' /c) : (b)" SClllTl lrough arr<lng.l:n1clll ([lltU!" Clm,{ny oj" ,\/(JI//(IfUl /)/'f'(1rtnlL'f1f (~(
(c)
I h(//{h lim/ ElIllr(}nml'II/(t/ .)'cil'nc('s).
Figure S-12 T ypica l pr imary clorifiers: (a) circular basin, cenler feed Ufom lv/e tcalj & Eddy, In c.
[5-J~)), (/ CIrcular baSin. rim feed (from Metcal} & Eddy [ 5-36J): (e) long-rectangular basin with
Iraveling bridge sludge scraper (collrrnr of FMC Corpuratioll, Mat erial Hamllin" Sl'stems DiLisionj .
 ENGtNEEREO S YSTE~ IS [OR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND D ISPOSAL 229

SOL UTIO N
80
1. From Fig. 5- 13. a n overllow rate of 35 m 3/ 1ll 2 . d should yield a suspended-solids
remova l efficicncy of abollt 60 pe rcent. Required surrace area is
70
\
. I~","d'd ,olid , 35~~3h;;>d - 143 m 2

60 2. Using a circular tank. the d ia metcr IS

~ , =( 4--n/1) ( :.2_~)' /2
I 2
13.5 m
-;;; I 1 14
>
0 SO

C
E
~

<U
~
'"~ 3. !\ ssu ming a sid n vall dept h of 3 n1. ,,,Iu me of tank is approximately

14 ] x 3 = 429 tn '
<U 40
"-
'-.... ~

~
and the detention ti me at ''''crage fl0\V is
4' l) m'
.......... -~ :.. ---.-- = 0.09 d = 2. 06 h
30 ~ ll()() Ill ' ' d
~
~ l"'-....... . 4. At pc" k now conuJl ions. the o"e rr]o \\" rate is
20 1/500 ml d
-: - --_ ... ' = 87 mid
14 ] m 2 '

Figure 5-13 Suspended solids and

10 BOD remova l as a runction or and the detenti on lime i<; "pprn xlIl1'l tely SO min (a lillIe low). From Fig. 5-13. the
o 20 40 60 80 100 ove rfl ow ratc. (Adapted }rom <; uspcnded-solids removal ellic icncy dr ops to about 3Rpercent for peak flow conditions.
Ove rOo w rale, mid S teele alld M cGhee [5-50].)

gas bubbles will be produced and will adhere to so lid particles a nd lift them to-
ward the surface. This reduces the compactness of the sludge and makes remova l
much less efficient. Sludge removal systems sho uld be designed to move sl ud ge from
the farthest point in the taBk1O the sludge hopper within 30 min to I h of whe n it
settles. 'Removal from the hopper to the digester should be made at frequent
intervals.
The quantit y 'of slud ge removed in primary sed imen ta tion Illay depend
on several variables, including th e strength of the incoming waste, the efficiency
of the clarifier. and th e co nditi ons of the sludge (i.e., spec ific gra vit y. wa ter conten t,
etc.). Removal efficiencies of well-designed primary tanks depend upon overflow
rates, as shown in Fig. 5c 13. Average suspended-solids remova l for well-operated
systems should be around 50 to 60 percent. BOD removal relates on ly to the BOD
of the solids removed , since no dissolved organics are remo ved and bi oox id a tion
in the primary s~ ttlin g tank !s
neg li gib le .
Example 5-2: Designing a primary settling basin A municipal wastewater-treatment plant
processes an average f10\\ of 5000 Ill' /d. with peak fl ows as high as 12,500 Ill ' /IJ. Design
a primary clarifier to r<:mo\<.' approximately 60 percent of the suspended solids at a vcrage
. flow.
Secondary Treatment
The effluent from primary treatm ent stdl contain s 40 to 50 percent of the original
suspended solid s and virtuall y all oftht: o ri glll<J1 disso lved organics and inorganics.
To meet the mlllimli m EPA s1<ln dards for d ischarge. the organic fraction, both
suspend ed and dissol ved. mu st be signifi cantly reduced. ~his 0 gan.ic-~ernova l.
referred to as secondar y t reatm ent. ma y co ns ist ofchemical:.rhys ical processe~ r
bi o logica l prOCesses.. CO ll1oin a tion s :) f ch e mical-phys i ~1 opera tions such as
coagulati on. microsc reell ltlg. filtrati o n. chemica l OXidat Ion , ca rbo n ad sorpt io n.
and other processes can be used to r': move th e solid s and reduce the BOD to
acceptable levels. Currently. th ese o pe ratio ns represent a high-cost opt ion with
res pect to both capi ta l ilnd operating eXp'enses. and thus are'no t common ly used.
Riological processes are used 'in practically al l municipa l wastewater-treatmen t
:,ys tem s \-,here seco ndar y treatment is empl oyed . .
In bi o log ical treatm ent. mi croo rgani sms use the o rganics in wastewater as
a food supply and COil ve rt tiJ em inl(} bi o log ical cells. or biomass. Because was te-
wate r conlain s a wide variety of organi cs. a wid e vari ety of organ isms, or 3..1J:Jixd
m/rure. is reqlllred 1"0 1' n llnpkt c tre;ltlll cnt Each type of organ ism in the mixed
 , 2;' k

230 WATER
-1 r1 f ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DIS POSA L 231
,';([>'
I)
culture utilizes the food source most suitable to its metabolism. Most mixed
cultures will also contain grazers, or organisms that prey o n other species. The
newly created biomass must be removed from th e wastewater to com plete the Endogenous
treatment process. phase
The microorganisms involved in wastewater treatment are essen tially the
same as those that degrade organic material in natural freshwater systems. These c:
organisms and their metabolic pathways were desc ribed in Secs. 3-7 a nd 3-8. .2
Th processes are not allowed to proceed in their natural fa s hion , however, but c:
0)
are controlled in carefully engineered reactors to optimize both the rate and u
c:
completeness of organic removal. Removal efficiencies that would be effected over o
U
a period of days in natural systems are accomplished in a period of hours in
engineered systems. Design of biological sys tems requires an understanding of the
biological principles, kinetics of metabolism, principles of mass balance, and
physical operations necessary to control the environment in the reactors. Basic
Time - - -
biological principles were disc ussed in Secs 3-7 and 3-8 and sho uld be reviewed
Figure 5-14 Biomoss growth ond rood utilizati o n .
by the reader before proceeding. The fo llowing sections describe the kinetics of
biological growth aild substrate utilization and the principles of reactor des ign.
Maximum growth cannot continue indefinitely. The food supply may become
limiting, environmental conditions may change (i.e., overcrowding, waste-product
5-9 GROWTH AND FOOD UTILIZATION buildup, etc.), and a population of grazers may develop. Cells that are unable to
obtain food from externa l sources begin endogenous cataboJism or the cataboliz-
The relationship o f cell growth and food utilization can be illustrated by a simple
ing of stored protoplasm for maintenance energy. Other cells die and lyse, or
batch reactor such as a stoppered bottle. A given quantity of a food containing all
break open, releasing their protoplasm, which adds to the available food. Segment 3
the necessary nutrients is placed in the bottle and inoculated with a mixed culture
of the curve, the stationary phase represents the time during which the production
of microorganisms. If S represents the quantity of soluble food (in milligrams per
of new cellular material is roughly offset by death and endogenous respiration.
liter) and X represents the quantity of biomass (in milligrams per liter), the rate of
Although some reproduction continues beyond the stationary phase, endo-
.. .tiiliizatlon' 6((6od dS jdi 'a'ridifie' f11ie 6fbiorriass' grow th' dX jdt can be represented
geno us respiration and death predominate in segment 4 of the curve. In this
by curves as shown in Fig. 5-14. final S/1(Ii~g"n()tls phase, biomass s lowiy decreases, approaching zero asymptotically
There are several distinct segments in the biomass curve that warrant further
after a very long time.
examination. The microorganisms must fir st become acclimated to their sur-
The most common method of quantifying biomass is the sus ended"solids
rounding environment and to the food provided . The acclimation pe riod, called
test. When the wastewater contains only soluble organic material, this testiliould
the lag phase, is represented by segment 1 on the curve and will vary in length,
- be fairly representati ve, alt00ugh it does neit distinguish between living and dead
dependlllg on the history of the seed organisms. If the organisms have been
cells. The volat ile suspe nded-so lid s test is a better test when the wastewater con-
accustomed to a similar environment and similar food, the lag phase will be very
tains a sizable fraction of suspended inorganics. Neither test will differentiate
brief. Once growth has been initiated, it will proceed quite rapidly. Bacterial cells
between biolog ical so lids aJld organic particles originally in the wastewater.
reproduce by binary fission; that is, cells divide into segments that se parate to
In the log-growth phase. the biomass increases according to
become tw o new independent cells. The regeneration time, or the time required
for a cell to mature and separate, depends on environmental factors and food ix
supply and may be as short as 20 niin. Wh!e n maximum growth is' OCcurring, the --= kX (5-2)
dt
rate of reproduction is exponential according to th e equation
dX
(5-1) where ... - = the growt h rate of the biom ass mgj Lt
(I!
where N is the number of organisms produced fr o m one indi vidual after 11 re- X = the conce nt ration of biomass, mgj L
generation times. Maximum growth thu s occurs at a loga rithmic rate, and seg-
k tl:: growth rate constant, r - I
ment 2 on the grow th c ur ve is called the log-grOlvrh phase.

232 WATER
Direct evaluation of the growth rate constant is impossible for mixed cultures
of microorganisms metabolizing mixed organics. Several models have been
developed, however, which indirectly establish a _alue.... k. The most widely
accepted of these is the Monod equation. [5-37J This equation assumes that the
rate of food utilization, and therefore the rate of biomass production, is limited by
the rate of enzyme reactions involving the food compound that is in shortest
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 233
is a first-order equation in biomass; that is, the growth rate rx is proportional to
the first power of the biomass present. When S <:g Ks. the system is food-limited.
InJhis case
r, = cops t au.l.-
and the growth rate is zero order i~ bioma-ss; that is, the gro')Vth rate is independent
of the biomass present. When S = K s ' the growth rate constant is one-half the

-
supply relative to its need. The Monod equation is maximum as per the definition of Ks
Substituting Eq. (S-3) into Eq. (5-2), the rate of biomass production becomes
~o
S
where ko = maximum growth rate constant, t - 1
0' ~K:, +S

S = concentration of the limiting food in solution. mg/ L BOD, COD,

(5-3)
I
.
"
dX
= - - = --- --
dl
koSX
K, + S
If all of the food were converted toJ2.iomass, then the rate of food ut ilizati'on would
(5-4)

equal the rate of bioma ss producti o n in Eq. (5-4). Because catabolism converts
or TOe ' part of the food into waste products, the rate of food utilization will be greater
Ks = half saturation constant, i.e'., concentration of limiting food when than the rate of biomass product ion.
k = ~ko, mg/ L
dS
r, =-- }" - Yr,
The growth rate of biomass is therefore a hyperbolic function of the food con- dl
centration, as shown in Fig. S-\S. or
Several observations can be made relative to Eq. (S-3). When there is an koSX
- _._0 ____ (5-S)
excess of the limiting food, i.e. y K.s' then the growth rate constant k is approxi- r, = y Y(K, + S)
mat~ly equal to the maximum growth rate ko 111 Eq. (S-3), and the systerri is enzyme-
limited. Since the enzymes are supphed by the microbial mass, the system IS where
essentially biomass-limited, and the equation
(";7';'.. <: '
~ ..)
.. j ..
I,. r ' : f')
dS
; p .

r, = -,- = rate of food lItllization_ mg: LI

., , (I

The factor Y varies dependin g o n the metabolic pathway used in the conversion
process. Aerobic processe;s are mqre efficient than anaerobic processes with
respect to biomass conversion and thus' have a gre~t~r value for Y. Typical
values of Y for aerobic reac.tions are aboutf0:4 td\'{l.8 'kg biomass per kilogram
c of BODs ,while anaerobic reactions range from 0.08 ~ 0.2 kg biomass per kilogram
r;
~
ko ------------==------ of BODs. ----...;
o Equation (5-4) is II1compkte without an expression to account for depletion
u

"
~
of biomass through endogenolls respiration, Endogeneous decay is also taken to
be first order in biomass concentration. '- I ::= .
ilX
- (end)= - k<lX (5-6)
ill

Where k~ = endogcncolls deca y r~lte cons tant {. 1 Incorporation of Eq , (5-6) into

K , Eq. (5-4) result s 111

Limiting food concentration S, mg/ L d.\' koSX (5-7)

- -- LY
dl t:. , + S d
Figure 5-15 Monod growth rate constanl as a function of limiting food concentratioll.
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 235
234 WATER

1-----------------------------------1
Endogeneous decay has very little effect on the overall growth rate in the
initial phases of the growth curve in Fig. 5-14. In the stationary phase, however,
endogeneous decay is equal to the growth rate and becomes predominant in the Primary effluent! ! Effluent

enclogeneous phase. Secondary

clarifier
Several external factors may affect the rate of biomass produc tion ~ld fo C;d I
Reactor
ut~o.n. These include Gr:m perat!!Ji plix aDd toxin). Rate constants increase I
)
" with increasing temperatures within the range of 0 to 55 C, with a corresponding
_ '[' increase in biomass producti~n and food utilizatlop Increases in reaction rates I QR II Studge I Sludge
,y,/" approxImately follow the van r Ho.fl-ArrhenlUs rule of doublIng wIth every lOC
/ Trr(.! It1crease 111 temperature [5-47J up toa maxImum temperature. ExcessIve ea t
~'
denatures the enzymes and can destroy the organism.
~ -
Sludge)
waste --+-Q I
Xu return . Qu' Xu I
-X----'---------:--'
W' u
underflow

The pH o f the surrounding microorganism is also important. Enzyme systems

have a fairly narrow range of tolerance. Microorganisms that degrade waste-
I
'( 'J water organics function best n!ar neutral plol, with a tolerance ran ge offrom abo ut L ___________S~stem ~ounda~______ .. ___ __.J
I I

jlH 6 to H 9. (a)

Other factors such as toxicants. salt concentration. and ox idant s influence

biomass growth. T oxican ts- poison thc mi~roorganis~'i;]lt conccntrations inter-
fere with internal-external pressure relafion ships. and oxidants destroy enzyme 1-----------------1
and cell materials. Microorganisms are capable of adjusting to a wide range of
most environmental factors. provided changes occur gradually. Sudden changes.
I I

such as a rapid drop in pH or a s lug of salt. may do irreparable damage to the Primary effluent I I Effluent
Reactor Secondary
culture. QO' SO Xo I Q + QR clarifier Q - Q",
variable X and 5 X, S. )
Several types of reactors ma y be used in biological treat ment of wastewater.
Although batch reactors may be useful in a few applications. those considered here I
I < iX" 5,

~'l;!:~~ ..................... si;d;;l f

will be co ntinuou s- flow sys tems. Reactors may contain s uspended cu ltures or
attached cultures . In ~'vsf!n/de4 culL4I:es, the microorgani sms are sus pended 111 the
wastewater either as single cells o r as clusters of ce lls callcd, pod' They 'ate' thLI~""
.. . \.
surrounded by the wastewater which contains their food and other essential Sludge I u I underflow I I
elements. J1t.cached cu ltures consist of masses of organisms adhered to inert ~~~~--l-----~~Xu-----J II

surfaces with wastewater passing over the microbial film. Qw' XU)

.
I---------------------------------- J
System boundary
5-10 SUSPENDED-CULTURE SYSTEMS (b)

Figure 5-16 Typical aClivatedsludge systems' (a) completely mixed reactor and (b) plugflow reactor.
Suspended-culture reactors may be of three basic types: (l) completely mixed
witho.ut s ludge recycle, (2) completely mixed with s ludge recycle. and (3) plug-
!l ow with sludge recycle. Recycling sludge. which consists primarily of micro- increase the available biomass and speed up the reactions. The a.ctivated-slugge
organisms. increases the biomass in the reactor and therefore directly affects the proces~ is thus a ~~~Oed,,-c.ulture p[Qcess with sludge return and may be either
.'
biomass production and food utili zation rates described by Eqs. (5-5) and (5-7). a completely mixed or a plug-flow proces's, as depicted in FIg. 5-16a and b. The.'
process is aerobic. with oxygen being supplied by dissolution' from entrained air.

5-1] ACTIVATED SLUDGE

Completely Mixed Reactors
The activated-sludge process is a suspended-cu ltu re system that has been in use
Equations (5-5) and (5-7) serve as a starling point for activated-sludge analysis.
since the early 19005. The process derives its name from thc f:lctth'lt settled sludge
Reaction rate equations are coupled with system variables. and. for a completely
containIn g li vi ng. or actll'e. microoreanisl11 s is returned ttl thc reactor to
\ " c ~() (f (' Y..I .

r.)r
 LN( ; INU. RFIl SYST [ ~I S FUR WAST EW ATER TREAT ME NT AND DISPOSA L 237
236 WATER

mixed system, mass balance equations are written with reference to Fig. 5-16a. Combining these eqll:lti uns givcs
Mass balance equations are written around the entire system (dotted line) for
Qo Y
biomass and food . At steady-state conditions. i.e .. no change in biomass or food _.-- - (So - S) - k (5-1 2)
1 )( V X d
concentrations with time, these equations are as follows:
The in ve rse of the ex prcss ion s Q",Xj VX and Qo/ V have uniqu e ph ys ical
Bioma ss + Biomass =. Bi o ma ss o u t
signifi cance ITl th e :tct i\ itlt::I -s ludge system modeled in Fig. 5-16a . The quantity
in growth (effluent .+.wasted slud ge)
I p~(>, Ir"'" ) ;// /1
/. /Q" = O ~- (1. Y' (5 -1 3)
(5-8)
is th e hyd raul iulc:Lt:lltion time ITl Ihe rc::tc tor based on intluent flow. Th e ra tio o f
the total bio ma ss In the rC ~ lcto r to th e bi omass wasted per given time
Food in - Food consum ed = Food out
VX
--- = e (5-14)
. koSX _ (Q _ Q)S
QoSo - V Y(Ks + S) - 0 w +
Q S
w
(5-9) Q,::''' '\ (
represent s the ave rage e th at mi croo rgani sms spend in the-;:;;;ctorJ This
3
where Qo, Qw influent and waste-sludge flow rate, respectively, m /d
= parameter. called the IIji'dlI c('//- r es J(l c lI cc lir!.!!.'. wIll be grea ter than the hydraulic
'X 0' x. X,. X" = biomass concentration in influent. reactor, effluent. and clarifier detenti on time sin ce mos t o f th e sludge from the clarifier is returned to the reactor.
3
underflow (waste sludge), respectively, kg/m Substituting Eq s. (5- 13) and (5- 14) Int o Eq . (5-12):
So . S = soluble food concentration in the influent and reacto r. re-
spectively, kg/m)
V = volume
I
- -
II, -
y( So - S)
---_._- -
OX
"
d (5-15)

K" ko, kd' Y = kinetic constants as defined in Sec. 5-9, kg/m) , d - I , d - I , kg/ kg
The co ncentratl OI1 of bi ll rnass. o r.~~.::...~~~~~~!:!....:l~.!i:),..lJ,k:u...~~
Equations (5-8) and (5-9) can be simplified by making the following ass ump-
tions :
IJ, Y (S o- S)
1. The influent and effluent biomass concentrations are negligible compared to
x .-_._.- -~~ -

biomass at other points in the system.
2. Th~ influent food concentration So is immediately diluted to the reactor co ncen-
. tr'ation S because of the complete-mix regime ..
3.. All reactions occur in the reactor; i.e .. neither biomass producti o ri no r food
utilization occurs in the clarifier.
Because of assumption 3. the volume V represents the vo lume of the reactor
only.
(5-16)
O( I + "dOc>
Alth ough thi s equati o n IIldi cat es th:lt s hortening th e hydraulic det enti o n time
in creases th e M LSS when th e oth er vari ab les are held constant. there is a limit
beyond whi ch thi s is not tru e. Wh en th e hydraulic detenti on time approaches the
regeneration tim e fo r th e mi croo rgani snls. cell s are washed out of.1h..e reac.tor before
growth ca n occ LlI-.-Co nseqll cntl y. .Y dec reases and S approaches So. meaning that
no treatm ent is 'lCc LlFIin g. I

With these assumptions. Eqs. (5-8) and (5-9) a re rearranged as follows: Plug-Flow Reactors
. . .
The plu g fl ow With slud ge recyc le rea cwr (fi g. 5-1 6h) is oft en used in the activ::ttecl-
(5-10)
slu dge ploccss. I\ ss nn lln g c() l1lpl ~ te mixin g III th e tr:Cln sve rse plane but minimal
mi xin g in the d ircc ti() n ()r 11 0\\. the mi xtme of was tewat er and return ed slud ge
tr ~t\c l s as a unit thr()ugh tlie IT~I Cl(lr. l~c~ l c t i() n kineti cs for bi o mass produ cti on is
~~ = Qo.2::, (S - S) (5- II)
Ks + S V X 0 silnilar to the b~l t c h PJ(lCC SS (SCl. 5-'!). wi th tl10 exce pti on of an initiall\'. hi coher
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREAHIENT AND DISPOSAL 239
238 WATER

bi o mass co ncentration and lower food concentrati on because of sludge return. most promising. Biological con stants associa ted with the wastewater and the
Law rence and McCarty [ 5-29J der ived ex press ion s for an a ve rage M LSS and reactor are determined , and the operating parameters that will produce the desired
degree of trea t ment are quant ified . 1\ prelim in ary design of each altern at ive is made,
food utilization as foll ows:
and the one pro vin g the most cos t-effecti ve is selected for the more detailed design
necessary fo r it s constructio n.
(5- 17)
Although few abso lutes apply to process and reac tor selecti on , some general
observations can be made in li ght of recent experiences. ' Beca use of required
and reactor volume, extended aeration systems are often limited to Aows of 7500 m 3 /d
(2 Mgaljd) or less. Hi gh-rate processes, except f()I' ~he pure oxygen system, produce
1.:.0 5X a hard-to-settle slud ge and are not usually used where a high-quality effluent is
r, = - - - - - (5-18)
Y K, + 5 required. Complete-mix reactors are supe rior to plug-flow r.eactors where wide
fluctuation s in fl ow rates occur. In stantaneo us dilutio n in the aerator" dampens"
where X = ave rage biomass concentr ati on in the reacto r (milligrams per lit er). out shock loads th at wou ld carry through plug-flow systems and result in va riable
Th ese equation s are applic ab le onl y wh en 2: 5. eele effluent characteristics. Wh ere loading is reasonably constant, plug-flow systems
Int egrating Eq . (5- 18) over the detention time in the reactor and substituting produce a more mature sludge with excellen t settling characteri stics.
the a ppropriate bou nd ary conditi o ns and recyc le fa cto I' yie ld s the foll ow ing O ne fac tor in activa ted-s lud ge design that shoufd be stressed is the inter-
equation: dependen ce of the biolog ica l reac tor and the seco ndar y clarifier. High biomass
co ncentrations ancl short aeration period s may produce good trea tment efficiencies
____
k 0(_5 0_ - }1 ____ I.:.
(5- 19) wi th respect to so luble BOD. The sav ings in aeration tank vo lume is o ffset, how-
(5 0 ,- 5) + (I - 'l.)(K, In 5 j 5) <l
eve r, by the large secondar y clar ifier req uired to clarify the effluent and thicken
the slud ge. Beca use of thickenin g limit atio ns, it is the secondary clarifier th at usua lly
where (/. = recyc le facto r. Q/Q, sets the upper limit s on th e bio mass concentratio ns in the reac tor.
Si = concentratio n of substrate after mi xmg with recyc led sludge, mg/L Design variab les for ac tivat ed slud ge reactors ha ve included (1) volumetric
' Ioading rates. (2) food-to-ma ss ratios, and (3) mea n cell-residence times. The
v'o lumeiric loading rate VI- is th e Illass of BOD in the influent divided by the
5 = ~ + a5
, 1+ CI.
. vo lume of th e reac tor. or

(5-20)
Process Variations
In practice, severa l variations 0 1' the completel y mixed and plug-now sys tems arc the unit s of wh ich are kil ogra ms of BOD per cubic meter-day .. he food-to-mass
oft en used . Some invo lve subtle differences. such as rates and po ints of a ir o r waste- rati mass of BOD removed' divided by the bioma s e reactor,
wa ter applicat ions, de tenti on tim es, reac tor shapes, and methods of introducing
air . O thers in volve more drastic differences. such as sorpt io n and settling prio r to
bio logica l ox ida t ion and the use of pure oxyge n rat her th an a ir. Th e most co mmon FIM = Q(5 o - 5) (5-21)
of these va riati ons are id entified in Fi g. 5- 17. VX

the unit s bein g ki logra ms or BOD per kilogram of bioma ss day.

!
Design Considerations Th e mean ce ll res idence time, e, in Egs. (5-14);(5- 15), and (5- 19). is current ly
Th ere are man y fa ctors. which must be con sidered in th e des ign of activated- th e most co mmonl y used design parameter. Both the r i M-ratio and 0" approach .
slu dge systc ms. 'Co mbinati ons of th e process var iati o ns and reac to r types that are to design all ow fo r trade-off between reactor vo lume and co ncen trat ion of M LSS
co mp ~l tibl e with the was tewa ter cha racteri sti cs and environ mcntal co nstraints
in the reac tor. . .
Typica l design parameters for ac tiva ted sludge systems are given in Table 5-6. \
mu st hc se lected. Ex tern a l fa cto rs such as cons tructi on cos ts, operati on and
maint enan ce difficulties and C'ost, and space limitati o ns Illu st a lso be cons id ered.
Usu:11I y. the enginee r se lec t fllf de tailed ana lys i,;severa l () fth e schemes tha t a ppea r
Th e design of a co mpletely mi xed activa ted-s lud ge reactor is illustra ted in the
exa mple Oll page 243.
,
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 241
240 WATER

Effluent
-
Secondary Efnuent
Brushlype
clarifier
aeralors

I (c)
Sludge

L_______ --:...-::'~~.:~~----------t----~~:.---
(a)

Primary effluenl Effluen t

Prim ary effluent Effluent
Seco ndary
Reac tor clarifier

Influent Effluent
Secondary
clarifier Primary
I
I cmuent
Sludge
:: ce~to.
ct . 1~ roll
S~ {~if .
b L ____
Sludge
~~~e__ _
Or
raw was(c-
I
return I Reacto r
: lv~\X"
~
/ water

~-----~.
,
~ J.--t~-1>---+J :
.: .
Sludge return (omitted in
1
I
1 .
\ow f/r-A
Sl ud ge
LUX?4
(Iv\. ~ ~
(c)
. Compressed air
L_________
I .
~~:~~~~ __________l ____ ~~~ ___ ~
(g)

Pure oxygen ~__O_x_y:..g:;.e_n_re_t_u_r_n,_ _ Was te Figure 5-)7 COIllIllon \ariatiolls o f the activated- sludge procl: s=>. (a) Step ae ration. influent adclJlion
gas at intermedIate points provides more uiliform BOD removal throughout tank . (h) Tapered aeration:
illT i~ added in prnportiun In BOD exerted. (c) ('ontact ~tJ.bi li zatj()n. biomass adsorbs organics in
Primary Contact b<l slIl anu se ttles out in se( ond~f\' clarifier. the thickened sludge ISaera ted before heing returned
e fflu e nt Efflue nt
~onl,;cl b"sin . (d) Pllrc~1 " ~ II\aled sludge oxyge n added under press ure keeps dissolved
Seco nd ary oxygcnlevcl high. Ie) OXldalion dilch. pl'ln ,,ew U) H igh rale shon detention time and high rood !mass
clarifier . ratio in ;lenllnr 10 maint:lin clilture in log-gr o wth phase . tg) Ex tended aeration lo ng oet ention time
I
I ;Ind l{l\~ f0 0 cl ma :--s ratin I n ;]l.'r<tlor 10 maintain culture in endogcll\) US phase.
I
I Reactor
I
I Sludge
I
IL _________________________
Sludge return I ________
..l.. was te ......
(d)
 ENG INEER ED SYSTEMS FOR W ASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 243
~o
'-=0
8: eo
o coee Example 5-3: Designing an activated-sludge reactor A n activa ted-sludge system is to be
'""
~
-t:
-E
ell
-'" a-. 0\ a.. (1\ a-
I
' /')
-r
I
V"'l
.q-
'A
.,.
I
If)
">1"
I
or,
..q
I I
CO
0-
used fo r seco nda ry Irea tm ent o f 10,000 m 3/d o f municipal wastewa ter. After primary
clarifi cat io n, Ihe RO D is ISO m g/ L, and it is desired 10 ha ve not more th im 5 mg/L of
;..,
so luble BOD in the e muent. A co mpletely mixed reactor is to be used, and pilot -plant
U
a nal ysis has es ta blished the fo llowing kinetic valu es : Y = 0.5 kgjkg, kd = 0.05 d - 1.
":>0 'u"c
Cl
0
eo "
E
~
fE
",
</>

'",J,
OC
</>

00
'r,
,J, ,J, '"
0- ~

X
,J,
</>

OC
0
0'
2,
OC
0
0-

'"
".
''-' C
, ,J,
0- 0-

X>
.;\
C-
Assumin g an M LSS co ncentra ti o n o f 3000 mg/ L and an underflow concentration of
10,000 mg/ L fr o m the seco nd ary cl a rifier, determine (I) the volume of the reactor, (2) the
'-
~
.
"
E ..,.
mass a nd vo lu me of so lids th a t mu st be wasted each day, a nd (3) the recycle ratio .

:2 :2: SO L U Tt O~ A sc hema tic o f th e system is shown in the accompa nyin g figure.

0 00 u.. u.. u.. :2: u.. L;.. / .
G: 1: "- "- "- V 0.. 0.. 0 U V
...
~
""~
OJ
"
U
U
'"' 0 ~
',-, ' '-'
6 6
,r,I I
</>
V',
C-
0
O

,A .)., ,J,
0 0
v:,
0
6
."
.,
''-' v.
I
0

,r \ .
r-
'"""~ '"
et: E a'i '"6 '"6 '"6 '""" '"6 6'" 6
lllnu ent
""
0. 0 0
:g o~o
00 0
0 0 'n c
o
0
C
cooco
co.:::. C

<= r'l ...c ~OO~~

:= M
r
("',
I I i , ,
.....E0
0 0 '0 0 00
0 0 0 ,,:::, 00
~ ~ fig '-0
'" 0, ..,

cOJ
.~
.~ C
co ..,
"" ;;
C C C

""
OJ ~
c 00
, -to c, , C"

!:: E~ ~ .~ .c I
=
OJ
C1l
:r:'"' ~ .D :::, "" " ''-'
~
" 6
.",
:=
-q; u
c
E
-;c.
.",
0:; 0 -c 00 C 0
'"-;- -C
.., ~.
~
CJ)
6 , co
,...,I 9
E 0 r ;l
I

-""""...
~

U > .2"
0
'::l

~
co
ell
-'"
~. -C
6 6 '0 ' b' .:...'
OC 0 -Co 00
...:. -
-c.

-
U,
I QY(So- S)
vx k"
0
'-
3
'"... ~.
0. 1 c1 - I = I O.~~3 !d~~ (0.15 kg/m - 0.005 kg/ m3) _ 0.05 c1 - I
~ V 3.0 kg/ m )
. <.1
E "
'E
0 -r -r '-C; 'r, O
""... c -r- ""T,
_ _, 241.67 m 3 /0
-g ~ 99cr' ~, 0. 1) d = _. - -._- ._-
""
c:
C
0 ('l (" I ,..", (" I r l
V
", . "-
<= V = 16 11 m )
.S:
~ "
...
OJ
U
C
v or , f; ~.
2. At equ il ibrium co ndi tio ns. Eq. (5- 14) a pplies.
g- ~= ~ -r
,
'X C
;
ma ss of so lids in reacto r VX
~i3 ~ " mass~f;olid s wa;i~
-,:
<= II, "'" = Q" X ;:
0:
<= c VX
C1l
';; .2 _ Q" X" = -It
0'" - c
2 C'": - :.c l C~_,.J 161 1 111 ) x 3.0kgim 3
"?
'r,
o 2~ ~' ~ '-J N ~ ~ ~ -------_._-
c: E 1 10 d
:: x
.c
0:
~ cr. -;L~ g Q".X " = 4H3. 3 kg/d
Z-lZ f- I c..... j"
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 245
244 WATER

If the concentration of so lids in the underflow is 10,000 mg/ L Air diffusers Man y types of air diffusers are avai lable from manufacturers. Fi n e-
bubble diffusers produce many bubbles of approximately 2.0 to 2.5 mm in
483.3 kg/ d 3 .
Q ... = - - - - , = 48.3 m Id diameter, while coarse-bubble diffusers inject fewer bubbles of a larger (up to
10 kg/ m -
25-mm diameter) size. Both types have advantages and di sadvantages. With
3. A mass ba lance around the secondary clarifier can be wri tt en as fo ll ows' respect to oxygen transfer, the fine-bubble difl'user is more efficient because of the
larger surface area per volume of air. However , head loss through the small pores
(Q + Q,)X = (Q + Q, - Q... )X,. + (Q, + Q".)X" necessitates greater compression of the air and thus greater energy requiremen t s,
Assuming that the so lid s in the effluent are negligible compared to the innuent anc!
and compressed a ir must be filtered to remove all particulates that would plug
the tiny diffuse r openings. Coarse-bubble diffusers offer less maintenance and
underflow.
lowe r head loss, but poorer oxygen transfer efficiencies. One compromise is t o
QX + Q,X = Q,~" + QwX" locate a mechanical turbine just above a coarse-bubble diffuser so that the shearing
action of the blade at high rotational speed breaks the large bubbles into smaller
Q,(X" - X) = QX - Q... X" ones and disperses them through the liquid. Typical installations of air diffuser
Q = QX ~ Q. X" syste ms are illu strated in Fig. 5-18.
, Xu - X

The recirculati o n rati o is

1\
.1:"' .' ~. -' .

Q, 4.217
- = - -- = 0.4 1 ,0 ,
Q 10,000

Aeration of Activated Sludge

--The' rate at which'oxygen 'is consumed 'by themicrourg,mism ilnI1c"hiological'" (a) (b)
reactor is ca lled the oxygt'11 UTilizatiol1 rate. For the activated-sludge processes.
the oxygen utilization rate will always exceed the rate of natural replenishment.
thus so me art ificia l means of adding oxygen must be used. With the exception of
the pure oxygen system. oxygen is supplied by aerating the mixed liqu or in th e
biological reactor. .
The oxygen utilization rate is a function of the characterist ics of both t hCl\<lstc-
water and the reactor. Treatment of ordinary municipal wastewater by extencled
aeration usually results in an oxygen utilization rat e of approximately 10 mg,- L . h.
Treatment of the same waste by conventiona l activated-s lud ge processes result s
in an oxygen utilization rate of about 30 mg/L h. and up to 100 mg iL . h if
treatment is by th e high-rate process. [5-25J Oxygen addition should bc sufficient
to match the oxygen utilization rate and sti ll maintain a small excess'in th e mixed
I ~ liquor at all times to ensure aerobic metabolism.
(d)
Aeration tec hniques consist of using air ditfu sers to inject 'comprcssed afr (e)

into the biological reactor and /or using mechanical mixers to st ir the co ntent S Figun :'- IH T ypi cal appllc:lIInn \)f ddfu:-l'd aCfdll()n ~y :-. tcl1l:-'. (oJ MIXlIlg action by d!n'tl s ~rs mounted
violent ly enough to entrain and d istribute air through th e liqUid. It is CO ll11l1on On ~iLic nf [t) n g, 11;1 rro\\" t~lll k , ! h) 111cch:l1lical t u rhi nc it bd\ ~ a n1arsl>hu hblc d i n"use r (t'ollrtfS), nf;\'/ 0I1l0rt {/
practice to use diflused air in plug-flow systems and mechanical aerators in ,,'{(Ill' f)t'/ lurtnWI'I1 u ( I-Ica/,IT): (C.-, pnrpll ~ dlA'u"cr:-.;lt bUlium uf 3Cr:llioll bi:1Sin. (d) hubhk aClion rc-
completely mixed sls lems, although there are exceptions In bllth c~l,es Sltltill~ fr'.)l11 11l~lilll;IIHI!I III (d
"""'- - - - - -

J-
....
246 \V ATl'R

Mechanical aerators M ec ha nical aerators produce turbulence at the air-liquid

interface. and this turbul e nce en trai ns a ir into th e li qu id . Mechanical aera tors
may have h igh-speed impe llers iha t a dd large qu a ntiti es of a ir to relatively small
quantities of wa ter. Thi s aerated water is then mixed wi t ti the reactor conten ts
through ve locit y gradients. Large impellers driven at slo J speeds agitate larger
quantities of wate r less violent ly. Typical units of bo th types are shown in Fig. 5-1 9.
Use 01' th e smaller J ed units is co m on in exiended aera ti on system s,
whi le the slow-speed units are more common in eo~ventlOna l ac IV e -s ud ge
sys tems. Brush-t ype aerators are used to provide both aeration and momentum
to wastewater in the oxida ti o n-dit c h va ri a ti on of the ac tivated -sludge process.
Their use is illustrated in Fig. 5-20.
(a)

,~. .-
;>':~":~1'" -;f" ~_ ,.,'

.~ }!:t.~~~~"
(a) #~':~'" (b)

(b)
Fi gu re 5- 19 T y p ical mcc h a ni l:al at!rCl( o r ~ lI sed in tl c tl 'v atc d -sllldgL' pnh.:C">Sl''', (lI) I.tl\\ -specd Il H:c hani cal
;it: rato l mlHJflled on fi xe d pl atfo rm (,!lU}(O COffrln.l 11/ 1::11111'('.\ ItlL. tf R e ynfl rd C O/"fl{ IO IIY): (h) h lgh -
' j1 lTd I l (l tl ! ln ~ ~ l\.' ratl.) r (pho/(I ('/l lIrl f>.\\ ' uj " . 111 i l"l.' \ I f!( . (/ N t'.\ 1/lInl ( ' oml'{/I1\ ).
Fi gur E." 5-20 O xi lial iD n d ilCh "H.' ration . (a) Rot or aerat o r bru sh used in oxidation d i tch (photo ( ourtt'sy
o/Kathleen M tllrr-I/{)(mf) : (h ) brush a Clio n in :.I n oxi d alion dilch (photo COllrtCS), oj Lakeside Equipm ent
C"'p.): ) 1) l' lcd arr,, "~e m cn l "r ac r " I,W, ill o xicinli o ll chi Ch lrholV COur'fSl" oj" Ll1kesidf EquipmeJlt
Corp.).

2~7
 248 WATER ENGINE ERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 249

5-12 PONDS Su nlight

Wi nd

In addition to the activated-sludge processes, Qther suspencleclcculture biological

systems are available for treating wastewater, the most common being ponds and
lagoons. A waste~ater pond, alternatj yely known as a stabilization pond 0 jdgJjO.l A I'"" ~
:\ pond, and sewage lagoon, consists of a large, shallow earthen basin in which waste-
r

2'
-water is retained lo;g enough for natural purification processes to provide the
g"
necessary degree of treatment. At least part of the system must be aerob ic to

o~
N
U
produce' an acceptable effluent. Although some oxygen is ,provided by difftision :0
from the air', the bulk of the OlL)Cgen-i . p.ond p.wvided by photosynthesis. A""",, po, so, 2v
~
~ are distinguished from p onds in that oxygen for lagoons is provided by
-' artificialie.I:ation here are several varieties of ponds and lagoons, each uniquely
suited to specific applications.
, ~ in which dissolved oxygen is present at all depths are caTTed
aerobic pon!!J... Most frequently used as additional treatment processes, aerobic
ponds are often referred to aSJio lishing or " terciary" poncjs. Deep ponds in which
----,--t-rt-t - )B>"m",~ __ Orga ni c acid s and
oth er reduced com pound s
oxygen is absen t except for a rel atIvely thm surface layer are called anaerobic o f C,N.P.S

ttl 1 ! 1
ponds. Anaerobic ponds ca n be u sed for partial treatrrient of a strong organic
' wastewater I?ut must be foll owed by some form of aerobic treatment to produce
acceptable end products. Under 'fav o rable conditions :&~,dtative ponds in which
both aerobic and anaerobic zones exist may be used as the to tal trea tment sys tem
for municipal wastewater. .
Lagoons are classified by the degree of mechanical mixing provided. When
sufficient energy is supplied to keep the entire contents, including the sewage solid s.
mixed and aerated , the reac tor is ca lled an aerobic lagoon. The effluent from an
aerobic lagoon requires solids remova l in order to meet suspend ed-so lid s effluent
standards. When only enough energy is supplied to mix the liquid porti o n of th e
lagoon, solids se~tie to the bo ttom in areas of low ve locity gradients and proceed
to degrade anaerobically. This facility is called a (l ClI tative ague and the pro,cess Im permeab le lining
differs from that in the facultative pond only in t e meth od by which oxygen is
Figure 5-21 G e neralized d iagram of facultati ve pond reaction.
supplied. I .

The majority of ponds a~d.Iagoons serving municipalities are of the fa cultative

type. The remainder of this discussion will relate to the facu ltati ve processes, the
interested reader being referred elsewhere for more information on the other
systems. See especially Refs. [5-6J and [5-36].
Facultative ponds and lagoo ns are assumed to 'be(ompletel y mixed reactors
without ~mass recychl R aw wastewa ter is tran sported into the reactor and is
released near the bottom. Was tewater so lids settle near th e influent while biological
solids and fl occu lated coll o ids fo rm a thin sludge blanket over the rest o f the
bottom. Outlets are located so as to minimize short circuiting.
System Biology
t
1- A generalized diagram of the processes that occur In facult a ti ve po nd s is sho wn
in Fig. 5-21. Aero hic cond iti o ns a re maintained in the upper po ri io ns of the pond
L
by oxygen ge nerated by algae, and , to a lesser extent by penetra tion o f atmospheric
oxygen. Stagnant cond itio ns in the sludge along the bottom prevent oxygen
transfer to that region and anaero bic condition s prevail there. The bo undar y
between the'aerob ic ar.i a naerobic zo nes is not stat io nary. Mixing by wind actio n
and penetration by sunlight may exte nd the aerobic area downward. Conversely,
ca lm wa ters a nd wea k lighting result in the anaerob ic la yer ri sing toward the
surface. Diurnal changes in li ght co ndition s ma y result in diurnal fluctuati ons in
th e aerobi c-a naerobi c int erface. Th e v 'Ow .ugh which the-pl'esence o f di s-
solved oxygen flu ctu ates is ca lled til /ilntilClti!;e~' ne because o rga nisms in thi s
Zo ne mu st be capable of adjusting t eir metabo lism to the change in oxygen
conditions.
Co nsid era hle int eracli o n ex ists between the zon es. Organic ac ids and gases.
prod ucts of deco mpos iti on inlhe an ae robic zo ne. a re released and become so lub le
 250 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 251

food fo r o rganisms in th e ae rob ic zo ne. Bi ologica l solius prod uced in the ~ I er o bic are removed by sedimentati on is not qu antifia ble. a mass balance for solids cannot
zo ne ult imate ly settle to the bo tt o m where they di e. pro viel in g fooel fo r th e anaero bic be wri tten . A mass balance for the solu ble food can be wri tten. because soluble food
benth ic organ isms. is assum ed to be uniformly distributed thro ugh o ut the reacto r by mixing of the
A specia l relat ionship exists be twee n the bac teria and algae In the aerob ic liquid. If the conversio n ra te is assumed to be firs t order in food concentration.
zo ne. Here the bacteria use ox ygen as an electro n acce pto r to oxidize the waste- then mass balance ca n be wri tt en as fo ll ows :
'- '
wa ter o rgan ics to stable end product s such as CO 2 , NO J . . and P0 4 .1 The
a lgae in turn use th ese compo un ds as a materi a l SO Llrce a nd. with sunligh t as BOD in = BOD ou l + BOD consumed
a n energy so urce, produce ox yge n as a n enu produ ct. Th e oxygen is th en used bv
QSo = QS + V(kS) (5-22)
the bacteria. Such mutuall y beneficial arrangemcnt s. callt:d Sl'IlIhi(} {i c rl!i(f{ i(lll.\hi f).~.
oft en occu r in nature.
Upon rearranging. Eq. (5-22) become s
The process is similar fo r th e faculta tive lagoo n. In thi s case. huwevc r. \)xyge n
is suppli ed primaril y by artificial ae ral ion , a nd the elreet o r al gae. exi sting here S I I
(5-23)
in co nsiderab ly lesser nu mbers than in pond s. is negligibl e. Th e aero bic- an<l ero bie So -1+ kV/ Q = I + kB
interface is mo re sta ble in th e lagoo n.
Climate plays a n impo rtant role in th e opera ti o n of bo th po nd s and 1:lg() o ns. whe re SISo = fracti o n of so luble BOD remaining
Within natura lly occurring temperature ranges. hl()I')glc:iI reacti o ns ro ughl y k = reac tio n ra te coe !1i cient. d - I
do uble fo r each IO"C increment in wa ter tempera lLi re Wh en wat er tcmpel'a ture Ii = hydraulic detenti on time, d
dr o ps to nea r free zin g. bi o log ica l acti vit y virtuall y ce:lses. k e C(l I'er creat es furth er V= rcactor vo lume. m J
problem s by blockin g o ut s un li g ht. a n Im po rt ant clem ent in po nd s. and IntCl'J'crin g Q = fl ow rate,m) /d
with surface ae ra to rs. In co ld cli mates. it is oft en necess ar y to pm vid c reac tor
vo lume sufficient to sto re th e entire wint er nO\\. If seve ral reactors a re arranged in series. the emuen t of o ne po nd beco mes
Becau se of the la rge Imld requirement and IIlCo lllpatihil,l y wi th mos t 1:J1ll1 the Infl uent to th e next. II substrat e ba la nce wri tten ac ross a se ries of n reac to rs
uses. the use of po nds a nd lagoo ns is genera lly restl'il't ed tll S ill a II comilluniti es with result s in the fo ll ow ing equa ti o n:
semirura ls ett ings. Wh ere th eir use is poss ible. cll nsidcrab1e s a\'i l l g~ in bllt" Glpital
cost a nd opera ting cost ca n be re~li zed . Ad diti o na ll y. th e large lo lume- to-infl o w (5-24)
rati o pro vides a mple d iluti on to minimize th e elTccts of highl y \ ar iable hydrauli c
and lJlga n ic load ing . typ ical' of s',nil i,i. li()riiog~'10ll'S 'C;)',il,ii Il lli l i'~; . Lit i Ie ;;l~~ ' ;l i ;) r'
ski ll is required to keep the sys tem o perating. When facultativ e ponds are used to treat municipal wastewa ter. it is common '-
.... Th e primary disadva nt age is the high suspend eJ -slllid s co ncentl'atioll s in prac tice to use a t least three po nds in series to minimize short circuiting. Marais
th e eAlo ent. Alth oug h prin cipa ll y bi o logica l in nature. tlll:SC s olid ~ oft en ex ceed th e [5-35J and M ara [ 5-34J dem o nstrated that maximum effic iency occurs when
I r C' secci nciary.- treatm ent standard s. Thi s problem h ~s' been I'e licled somewhat by ponds in seri es a re of th e sa me approxima te size. When this is the case. the firs t
, L. reevalu a ti o n of the disc harge sta ndard s by EPA tll ;111 0 \\ up to 75 mg ' L of b'i(\ logi ca l pond. ca lled th e primary pOlld. will ret a in most of the sewage so lids a nd will thu s
/' so lid s in the efflu ent fr o m po nds and lagoon s. ;\ n additi o na l disad vant age fo r
pond s may be od o r problems duri ng the s pr i n g ~ f pw\rl y trea tcd wastew:lt cr ha s
be the most heav ily loaded. It ma y be necessary to provide ae ration in the primary
pond to prevent complete anaerobic conditions w ith their a ttend ant odor prob-
bee n sto red du ri ng the wi nt er season. lems. The resu lt is one facultativ e lagoo n foll owed by two or mo re facultative ponds.
Altho ugh the above models are useful for visua lizi ng the pond and lagoon
processes, it is impractica l to expect in stantaneo us mixing of influent with such
large reac to r vo lumes. In 'prac tice, a wide range of dispersio n occurs becau se
Design of Ponds and Lagoons of reacto'\, sha pe and size. mi xing by wind ac tio n or aera tors. and influent and
Severa l approaches to th e des ign o r po nd s a nd lagoo ns ha lT hee n pro posed . . effluent ana ngemenls. Thirumurtlii [ 5-53J developed grap hical re la tionshi ps
The mode l most co mm o nl y assumed is th cOlllplet ely Illixeu reactl)r with o ut between food remova l and valu es for kB for dispersio n factors ranglllg from
so lid s r e c y~ . In th e case of facu lta tive system s. cllInplctc mixing is ass umed to IIlfinit y fo r co mpl etely mixed reac to rs to iero- fo? ug-ftow react09 These
-:lpp lv o nly to th e liquid po rtion of th e react o r. Waste\\at er so lids a nd hi o logi cal Ig. . -_2. ca n )e used for design . prov ided va lu es of k are
so lid s that fall to the bo tt o m a re no t res uspend ed. Ik C: llI sc th e rate at which so lid s
 252 WATER ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 253

Table 5-7 T ypical design parameters for facultative ponds and

lagoons

Parameter Fa cullative pond Fa cu ltative lagoon

Flow r.egirnc Mixed surrace layer

Pond si.ze: ha 1 -4 lIlultiples 1- 4 multiples
Operati o n* Series or par~lllci Ser ies o r para lIe l
Detention time , d* 7- 30 7-20
Depth. J11 l e2 1-2 .5
pH 6,59,0 6.5- 8.5
Temperature range, "e 0 -50 0-50
Optimum temperature, <':- C 20 20
BOD, loading , kg/ ha dt 15- 18 50-200
UOD s conver~ion 80- 95 80- 95
Princip;Ji cOll ve r si0!1 A Igae. CO,. C H.,. Algae. CO" C H 4
product s h<Jcteriai cell tissue bacte rial ce ll tissue
Alga l conccnlr~l1ioll, Ill g/ L 20 -XO 5 -20
Elllucnt slispended '(1 lids.
mg / L ~ 40 - 100 40 - hO

.. Oepcnd\ on climat iC cll IH.iilion s.

Pe rcen t remaining, 5 /S o
Figure 5-22 Graphi c relati on,hip between S ,So anti kll in Eg. (5-c4). (From Thinmlllnhi [5-53].)
i T ypIcal "alucs (much higher values have been applied at vario us locati o ns).
Load in g values are orte n specillcd by Slate IX)lIulion-con tr ni agenc ies.
! Includes algat.:'. microo rgani sms. and residual influent suspe nd ed so lid s.
\'a lucs arc hased on ;til ,"ilue" t so luble BOD, or 200 mg/ L and an influent
suspe nded-solid s concentration of 200 mg/ L .
SOllre': Frl' lll i\k"'ill r & Edel]. Inc. [5-36}

.. .. . .. .... ........... A.wi.de. range .of. Yal.tles. for A. is..~D,:;oJ.ln.t.ere.cl in .the..I.i.\e.r.aLLI!.c,.A.I.\\l(:ll!gh man y
variables relating to both the re:1c tor and W:1stewater a fTect f.: , wa ter temp~;",~;'L;r~
appears to be the most signifi cant. Equations of the fo rm
with the ene rgy diss ipated by the ae rat o r. and transfer ra tes ranging from 0. 3
to 2.0 kgj kW . h are common. More exact figures can be ob tained from the
equ ipment manufact urcts when o perati o n cond itions are kn own. The design of
facultative po ncl s ancllagoons is i-Ilu Sl ratecl by the following exa mple.

Example 5-4: Designing f~cult~ti"e ponds and lagoons W astewater Au,," from a small
com munit y averages JOOO m J ,d during the "inter and 500 0 m ) 'd Juring the summ~r. The
a\cragc lempera t ure o f the colde,t month is 'S' C. aqd th e average temperalure of t he
are commonly used . Values freq uentl y used for /.:20 range from abo ut 0.2 to 1.0.
\\:IIme s t m o nth is 25' (". Th e :twrage BOD , is 200-mg : L with 70 percent being so lub le.
while values of the temperature coefticient </> ma y range frol11 1.03 to 1.1 2. These
The reac ti o n coe ffi cien t k is 0.2 3 d - , at 20C. ;;net th e va lu e of 4' is 1.00. Prepare a pre limin-
va lu es must often be determin ed experimen tall y for a given pond sysle;11. Because
arv desig n ror a ra c ultat ive pond treatlllent sys te m for the comllluni ty to remove 90
oflhe complexity of accuratcly assessing th e f.: constant. des ign of ponds and lagoons
perce nt o f t he so lttbl e HOD.
IS often based on loadin g factors and ot her empiricall y deri ved parameters
Parameters and values frequ entl y used are given in Table 5-7.
Although so mc photosynthesis undoubt edl y occ urs In facultative lal!oons.
ox ygen requirement s are ass umed to bc met by aeration . Tv.;o kilograri1s 0f l~xygen (' ,'Illpttte the rate co tt stants ,,,I.lus ted rOt temperature.
should be sU'pphed for each kilogra m of BOD s in the inHu enl t'O ens urc'acl equai c Sununer' 1..: "' :::.: lL~3( I .06)1 5 2u
2
oxygen for the so luble BOD released from th e anaero bi c zo ne as we ll as fo r the
= 031 d "
BOD in the raw was tew a ter. The ra te of oxyge n tran sfer is a function of water
temperature. oxygen defi cit. and aerator characteristics. In co nditi o ns no rm ally /-, - ()~3(1.1)6/ : "
encountered in wastewater lagoons. the rate of oxyge n transfer cll rrel;lt es lI'e ll ~ 0,11 d '
L
L
254 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND D ISPOSA L 255

2. Fr o m F ig. 5-22, determine kO when S/So = 0. 10 and the dispersio n fa c tor is 0.5. Assume aera tors transfer 1 kg 02/kW . h

kO = 4.0 1d kWh
1640 kg 02/d x - x - -- = 68.3 kW
24 h 1 kg O 2
4.0
Summe r . (1 = - - . = 12. 9d
0. 3 1 Use three a erators at23kW eac~
4.0
Winter : = - - = 36.4 d
0. 1\ /"
5-13 ATTACHEI>-CULTURE SYSTEMS
Use lo nges t tim e. () = 36.4 d
3. Co mput e vo lume of p o nd s.
6 ttached-culture sys tems emplo y reactors in which wastewater is contacted ~th
v = IJQ = 36.4 d x 3 X 10 .1 m )/d = 109,200 m J .-microb ia l fi lm s att ac hed to surfaces. Surface area for biofilm g rowth is increased
Use three po nd s (as s ho wn in the acco mpan yin g sketc h). each 36,400 m ), () = 12 d . by PGCing a porous mediu m'Trlthe reactor. When random ly packed so lid medium
\ IS used. th e reactor IS called a fElCkrr~he a d vent o f m od ul ar sy nthetiC
( med ia o f high poroSIty a nd low we ight en ab les a vertIcal arrangement o f medium
~.
era tor \;;evera l meters hi g h , leading to the ' te rm ~ More recentl y, th e use of
' rotating disk s pa rtiall y submerged In wa stewa ter ha s led to the rotatina blO,

Innu ent
~ -~ iogJcal conlaCLQr (REe) process. A ltho ug h other attached-cu lture sys tems.
IIlcluding submerged filters (a n ae ro.QiE) a nd fluidized beds, may h ave app li cat io n
0 Po nd # 2
under certain condi ti o ns, th e discu ss ion here will b e lim ited to trick lin g filters.
0 Prim ary b io-t o wers, a nd RB Cs.
po nd I In the tri cklin g filter a nd bio-towe r, th e medium is stationary and ! he waste-
water is passed over th e biofi lm in intermitt ent doses. In th e RBC th e medium
+ mo ves th e biofi lm al te rn a te ly through wa ter a nd air. Because both sys tem s
ma intain a ero bic conditi o n s a t th e bi o tllm s uriac.e. bo th are classified a s aerobic
Po nd # 3
processes. .---
Emuent
- In addi ti on to th e bi o log ica l react Q.r. an attached-culture sys te m usually
ll1c1udes both primary and seco ndary- darification. The.pfimar.y. c1ar.itier . may. be ....
omitted in bi o- towe rs a nd RB C installation s where plugging o f the vo id spaces can
be av o ided by gri ndin g the solid s in th e wastew a ter to sufficientl y sma ll sizes
.j . Use d epth o f 1.5 01 fo r po nd s.
prio r tb applica ti on o n\ o th e medium.
36,400
Area = ' -
1.-5- = 24, 267 01 2
= 2. 4 h ~ l
System Biology
(N o te: l \dd I 01 depth for sludge sto rage in primary pond .).
Th e bi o lo gica l metab o li sm o f wastewa ter o rga nics in a tta ched-culture sys tem s
.". Ass umm g ph o tosy nth es is will not be s ufficient to meet ox ygen require me nt s in th e
is remarkab ly simi lar to th a t in suspended-culture sys tem s, the dissimilarities
primary p o nd thro ug ho ut th e year. size a era tion equipment.
in react o r characterist ics n otwi thsrand in g. The biological organ isms that att ac h
Fu r primary po nd s umme r conditions : them selves to th e so li d surfaces of th e medium come from essen ti a lly tb e sa me
V 36,400 m ' gro up s as th ose tn activated-sludge systems. Most are heterotrophi c o rga ni sm s.
IJ = - = ------c--. = 7 'l d
Q 5000m 2 / d .. witb facultative bacteri a bei ng predom inant. Fungi and protozoa are a lso abun-
dan t , a nd algae are present near th e s urfa~e where light is ava ilable. Anima ls such
klJ = 0.3 1 x 7.3 = 2.3 as ro tire rs , slud ge wo rm s, insect larva e , snails, etc. may a lso be fo und . Nitrifying
Fro m Fi g. 5-n with d = 0.5, S/k--O. I o rgani sms a re found In significant numbers o nl y wben th e ca rb o n content o f the
80 D rem oved = 0.82 x 200 = 164 mg/ L ... wastewater is low.
Ox yge n s upp lied = 2 x 0. 164 kg/ m ) x 50UO 111 3/d The o r ga ni sm s attach themselves to the medium a nd grow int o de nse films
= 1640 kg/ d
of a visco us. jell ylik e nature. W as tewater passes over thi s film in thin sheets wi th
 ENG INEERED SYSTHfS FOR WAST EWATE R T REA TM ENT AN D D ISP OSA L 257
256 WATER

dissolved organics pass ing j nto the biofilm due to~ncentrati~ra.9.ien~ wi.Lb.W fo r suspend ed -culture syst ems [ Eqs. (5 -5) a nd (5-7)]. Design equ atio ns fo r att ached-
growth sys tems have been deri ved la rge ly on an empirica l basis.
the film. SuspendeCfpai1iC les and colloids ma y be retained on the '~~!.ikf'
surfaces wheretheyareclec;omposedinto soluble products. Oxygen from the
._ ~rewater and from air in the void spaces of the medium provide oxygen for
ae.robic reactions at the biofilm surface. Waste product s from the metctbolic
('/' y,..... k p ~o[esses diffuse outward and are carried awa y by t he water Or air currents
moving through the void s of the medium . These processes are diagramed in The nam e tricklil1g fil ters is a pplied to a react o r in which randoml y packed solid
forms prov id e surface area fOI' bi o film growth. The system must contain equip-
Fig. 5-23. .
ment for distri b uting th e wastewa ter ove r the medium and for removing the
,~~ Growth of the biofilm is restricted .to one direction --.o utw ard from the solid
effluent. Th e term fi lt er fo r thi s process is mi sleading, since few of the ph ysical
./h,c:p rface. As the film grows thicker, conceniration gradients of both oxygen and
processcs assoc ia ted with filtrati o n thro ugh granular media function in trickli.ng
~ food deve.lop. Eventually. both anaerobic and end ogeneou s metaboli sm .occur
/7 at the blOfilm-medlum surface IIlterface. The attachment mechani sm is weak ened . filt ers. Jnstead. so rpt ion and su bseq uen t bi o logical oxid at ion a re t he primary

- I,"" and the shearing action of the wastewater flowing across the film pulls it from its
1 mooring and washes it away. Thi s process. known as sloughipg, is a funcli.on of
both the hydraulic and organic loading rate. Bi ofilm "itij uickly reestabli shed in
mea ns o f food rcmoval
lmQ.Q rta nt characteristics of th e medium includ e specific surface area and C)
porosity. The ~dic surface arem refer s to t he amount of surface area of the media / ~
that is a vailable for biofilm growth. Th e:J)orositr j) a measure of the void space
places cleared by sloughing.
ava ilab le fo r passage of th e was tewat er and air and fo r ve ntilatio n of produ
The rate of food removal in attached-growth systems depends on man y factors.
These include wft-l ewa ler flo w a te,_ Q!ganic. loadin g raLe. ~s' of difTusivit y gases.
In mosl cases th e medium in tricklin g filt ers is co mposed of crushed ston [ 4fV.pr<;r
of food and oxygen into the biofilm. and temperature. The depth of penetration
~ . :these materi a ls prov id e ha rd . durable. chemica ll y resist ant surfaces fo r....
of both oxygen and fo od is increa~d at higher loading rates. Oxygen diffu sivity
bi ofilm gro wth. Sizes I'an ging from iO to J00 mm (2 to 4 in) provide specific surface
is usually the limiting factor. Aerobic zones of the biofilm are usually limited to a
areas o f~ to 65 'Il 2/ m 3 (1 5 to 18 ft friO). with p o r o~ iti es of40 to 50 peJ"{;ent.
depth of 0.1 to 0.2 mm [5-10], with the remaining thickness being anaerobic.
Plastic med Jaof vario us shapes may be used in stead of th e sto ne or slag, with
The number of variables affecting the growth of biomass. and subsequently
the rate of su bstrate utilization , makes mathematical mod eling of attached-growth sizable ad vantages in ~ pecili c surface a rea and porosity. Areas up to 200 ~ /m 3 f,'r
systems d"ifficult: Biofilm growth . sloughing. and regrowth . and it s aei'o bic- (57 ft 2 / f(3 ) an d porosities of. 9) err.ent are a va ilable with loose- bulk packin g r fI (.11'
anaerobic nature. prevent application of equilibrium equation s similar to those mat eri a l The usc 0 [' modular medi a ma de J"rom wODden slat s or pla stic . sheet s is
, fil(,r' r;(' 1'. . ~ fl" r ' ..... r r ~ . r; . ' also'poss ible
. - ,",- -
~. \ I 0 \. r l. " '
The applicatio n of was tewa ter o nto th e medium is acco mplished by a ro tating
D distribution system as shown in Fi g. 5-24. Under a hydra ulic head of about 1.0 m.
Jet actio n through the nozz les is sufficient to power the rot o r. Thi s a rran gement
/ A i r spa ce . results in IIlt ermitt ent"d o.s in g. with o pportun ity for air circulati o n through the
pores betw ee n d osin g. Dispersion of the \\;astewater is accompli shed in the to p
few centimeters of rand o ml y packed medium. resultin g in uniform hydraulic
loading thr o ugh o ut t l~ e remaining depth. Electrical mot o rs may b<f necessary to
dri ve the ro to r where variabl e fl ows o r in sufficient head wo uld result in une ven
applicat ion.
The und erd rain syst em is designed to ca rr y awa y the treated wastewater a nd
the sl oughed bi o ma ss . Pro prieta ry mod ul es such as th ose sho wn in Fig . 5-25 are
oft en used . These a re designed to fl o w partial ly J"ullt o fac ilit a te the circulation of
air thro ugh th e mcdium . .
Seve ral operati onal modes are ava ilable for tri ckling filters. Sta nd ard -raie
filt ers have low hydr auli c loadin g a ncl el o not IIlclud e prov ision fo r recycling.
Anae ro bi c,
_Hi gh-rate filt ers ma intain high hydraul ic loading b y rec ircul a tin g porti o ns of the
endoge nous ac(ive cflluent. Fil ters pla ced in seri es inc;ease the effecti ve depth . thu s increas in g the
effiCien cy. i\ great number of poss ibiliti es ex ists I'or ~lin'e r e nt fl ()w reg imes.
Figure 5-23 Alia ched -c ullUre processes.
 ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSA L 259
258 WATER

Table 5-8 Typical design criteria for trickling filters

Ile m Lo w-ralC fi ller In lermedia te-ra te filter H ig h-r a te filter

H ydr aulic toad ing.

m .lj m ' d t- 4 4- t O 10- 40
O rga n ic loadin g.
kg/ m J . d 0.08 --0.32 0.24- 0.48 0.32- 1.0
Dept h . m \ .5- 3.0 1.25- 2.5 1.0- 2.0
Recirculat io n rati o o 0- \ \-3; 2 ~ 1
Filler m edi a R oc k , s la g, e lc. R ock , slag, etc. R ock, s lag. synthet1t
mat e ri a ls
Powe r requ ircm e n ts.
kWilO J m J 2-4 2- 8 6- 10
Filter fli es Many Int e rmediate Few, la rvae a re was hed
away
Fi g ure 5-24 R Olal ing a r m d is tri - I nrerrnitlenl . l~nterm itt enl Cont inu o us
Slo ughin g
butlf1g wastewat er ove r activa ted Not m o re than 5 min 15 to 60 s (co ntinu o u s) Not m o re than 15 s
Dosing in te r vals
bio tillc r (courtesroj lI'epl u/le M icro- (genera ll y inl e rmitt e nt ) (continuou s)
floc. fll c.) . Usua ll y rldl y nitrified Pa rt ia ll y n itrified Nilrified at low loadings
Effl uen t

h ~.fG
r Man y fa c tors affect the o peratio n of tricklin g tilt e rs .. the .mos t impo rt ant be in g
So urce: F ro m Met calf & Edd y. In c. [ 5-3 6]

J.:....! / ~ .I21 d r a':0c fl ow rates, and)emp.eLat.ULe.oJ t.he..~er.a lld ambien t a ir.

f\ high o rganic loading rate res ult s in,a rap id grow t h uf biomass. Excessive g ro wth
t .~rf~ Ill ay rcs ult l n plu gging o f pores a nd s ub~equent fl ood in g of po rt io ns o rth e medium.
~l, 'll' In crea sing ~ d a ul lLlmid~~c.rea s~s s l oll~I'in1!'"1iiiZJ he lps to kee p th e
'tC ~~. bed o pen. Ra nges o f hydraulic an o rg an ic loacli ng rate s for lrick lll1 g rllt e rs are
~')r~.(CfQ sho wn in Table 5-8. These load in g rat es limit th e d e plh n f conve nti o nal tri cklin g
tilters 10 abo ut 2 m becau se o f head loss th ro ll g h th e rando ml y packed medillm.
Th e bi o m ass-wa ter-a ir int erfaces mak e trickling filters extremely sensitive
to tempera tur e va riati o ns. Effluent qu a lity is thu s likel y to show dr astic seasonal
cha nges. du e primarily to c han ges in ambient air temper a ture. Re la tive tempera-
tures o f th e was tewa ter and th e a ir a lso determine the direction of air flow through
the medium. Cool wa ter a bso rb s heat from the air. and th e coo led air falls toward
the bo tto m o f the fi lt er in a cocu rren t fa shi o n with the water. Co n versely, warm
wa ter- he'ats the a ir, ca us ing it to ri se throu g h the underdrain and up through the
medium . At te mp era tur e differentials o f less than about 3 to 4C, rel a tivel y little
air move m e nt re sult s, and sta gnant co nditions preve nt good ventilation . Extreme
co ld may result in ic in g a nd d estru cti o n o f the bio film.
Histo rically, tr ick ling tilters have played a n impo rt a nt role in wastewater
treatment. The ir s implicity and low o perating cost have made them a I) aHracti've
optio n for sma ll co mmunities in wa rmer clim a tes. However, modern effluent
sta nd ards th a t d ema nd hi gh-qu a lit y e fflu enl b n a co ns istent basis m ak e the use of
the c lass ica l tri c kling fi lt er questionab le. Although multistage, hi gh-rate filters
can be des igned to meet m os t secondary e ffluent sta nd a rd s. recent adaptations of
th e bas ic pr ocess. d esc rihed in th e fo llo win g sections. have proven m o re economical
in the co nstru ct io n o f new faci lities.

Bio-Towers.
Bi o- towe rs are esse nti a ll y d ee~jn~ Lightw! ig ht,_ m od ul a r medi a
fo rm ed by wel din g co r ruga ted an d fl at ~HQe sheets to g..e ther Ifl a lte r-
n~ l ing palle[~i%id~t-y--for v_erlica l stackin with o ut the exces-
Fi g llTl' 5-25 'r ypical hlock ... u ... c-d in tri ckling filter uIH..h::rdrain :"'I~'-IL Ill (c Oll rlt'SY oj " 'O IN I'o/hlfioll Sive weig ht that wo uld res u lt fr o m s ton e o r slag med ia . Additio na ll y, th e po rosity
( '(l l/lfol F( ,t!/'I{/l/Ol/)
 260 WATER
ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREA TMEN T AND D ISPOSAL 261

and regular shapes provided by this medium overcome the head loss problem en- Tahle 5-9 Properties of trickling filter media
countered in randomly packed reactors. Modules of thi s medium similar to that
Specific
shown in Fig. 5-26b may be stacked to heights of up to 12 m to provide a large !\rIass/ urlll surface Void
volume in a relatively small containment structure. W ooden lathes in alternating volume. area, space.
patterns, as shown in Fig. 5-26c, are sometimes used instead of a plastic medium. Medium Nominal si7e. mill kg / m' m2jm 3 percent
The pertinent characteristics of these media are given in Table 5-9.
Application of wastewater may be by a rotating distributor similar to that used River rock
Small 2S 65 12'0- 14"0 55-70 40- 50
in a trickling filter if the surface configuration of the bio-tower is round. Most often, 800- 1000 40- 50 50- 60
Large 100- 120
application nozzles are stationary. with water being sprayed over the medium from Bl ast-furnace slag
a pipe grid as shown in Fig. 5-27. Underdrain systems are similar to those for Sl11all :5 0 ~O 90() 1200 55 ~ 70 40- 50
trickling filters but must be designed (or higher flow rates. Large 75 - 125 800 1000 45 - 60 50- 60
Pla st ic
COllvt:ntional 000 x 600 x 1200' :10 I OU 80- 100 94 - 97
High s pecific surface 600 x 600 x 1200' 3D-IOO 100- 200 94- 97
Redwood 12nO x 1200 x 500' 150- 175 40- 50 70- 80

* SlIt.: o f module uf medillm .

SOli,.,, Fn,,]] Metcalf & Ed,h. In t. [5.<6J

Inlluent

Eflluent
Secondary
clarifier
I Alternate recycle
I
............ ...... .... 1
Secondary sludge I
1--- ---------------""
1
1 Eflluent recycle
t
Sludge
disposal
(a)

-.
(b) (el
Figure 5-26 Biotower system: I l l) lliagr;trllmalic , ke tch: (I,) m od ule o f plastic mediu m (COUrlcS\" o(rhe
AlulIlers Corp.): Ie) wt)pd billtn('dia nhHllIlc ~ /t'f)lIffl'SY I~l.\('plll!le !\1icn~llof. Inc .). . .
 262 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TR EATMEN T AND DISPOSAL 263

Bio-towers a re operated in a fas hi o n s imilar to high-rate trickling filters. where Sa is the BOD s o f the mi xture o f raw and recycled mixture applied to the
The di s persion cha rac ter is tics o f the plas tic modul es are less effect ive than with medium
rand om packing, and the hydraulic flow rate must be mamtained at a hi g h le ve l to
ens ure that a ll s urfaces are wetted thro1ughout th e entire depth. Direct recirculation s = So + RSe (5-28)
a 1+R
of 1 to 3 tim es the inflow is com monly prac ti ced. The ,diluted substrat e res ults in
~nd ogenous respiration thLO.ugh.ou.t mo s t o f th e dept h o f th e tower. Ca r bon-
1nd R is ratio of the recycled fl o w to the influent flow .
aceous BOD is gener a ll y sa tisfied in the upper reaches of the medium. If th e
Th e design of bi o- lOwers is illu stra ted by the following example.
ca rb on co nte nt o f the wastewater falls below a bo ut 20 mg/ L, nitrifying bacteria
beco me compet iti ve a nd ammo nia is co n verted to nitr a te. A we ll -o perated bi o-
Example 5-5 : Designing a bio-to\Ver A bio-tower conipo'sedor a modular plastic medium

r
tower sh o uld be able to produce a nitrified effluent.
is to be used as the seco ndary-treatment co mpone nt in a municipa l wastewater trea tm en t
Bio- towers have several advantages over c lass ica l tricklin g filt ers. The poros it y . pl a nt. rl ow fr o m the primary cla rifi er is 20,000 m 3 j d with a BOD of 150 mgj L. Pil ot -plant
a nd nature o f the packing allow g reat er loadin g ra tes a nd \d rtuall y el iminat e a na lys is ha s es tabli shed a trea tabilit y.co nsta nt o f 0.055 min - 1 fo r the sys tem a t 20C,
'r' plugging prob lems. Increased ventilation m i{lim izes odor proble ms und er m ;st and th e n ractor ca n be ta ken as 0.5. Two towers a re to be used , each with a square s urrace
o perating cond iti o ns. The co mp ac t na ture ot the reac tor a llows for eco no mi ca l and sepa rated by 3 common w,i ll Th e medium is to have a d e pth o f 6.5 m , and the re-
h ousi ng fo r opera ti o n in severe climates. Disad vantages includ e a re la ti ve ly ci rculati o n ratio is to be 2 to 1 during average tlow periods. Determine the dim ens ions o f
hi gh pumping cost necess itated by the large recyc le requirement a nd th e head loss th e units required to pro du ce an efflu ent with a soluble BOD , or lO ~mg/ L. Minimum
thro ugh the deep bed. te mpe rature is expected to be 25C. r,....,
Design o f bio-towers is usually based on formu las deve lo ped for tric kling -----
filters, with allowances being made fo r medium characteristi cs. The most com m on ly SOL UTION
u sed fo rmul a was proposed by Eckenfelder [5-20J a nd is of the form
I. Th e Infiu e nt concentrat ion o j' BOD s is determined from Eq. (5-28).
Se = e - kD1Q" (5- 25)
So 150 + 2 x 10
S = ----- = 56.7 mg/ L
where Se = e fflu ent subst ra te concentration, BOD s, mg/ L " I + 2
So = influent s ubstrate concentrati o n, BOD s, m g/ L
2. Th e treatability co ns tant mu st be adj usted ror te mperature [Eq. (5-26)].
D = depth o f the medium, m .
Q = h ydra ulic loading rate, m 3 1m2 min k ,; = k,0( 1.035)25- 20
k = trea ta bilit y co n stant relatin g to th e wastewater and th e med ium
= 005 5(I03W
charac teris ti cs, min - 1
= 0.065 min - 1
n = coeffi cie nt relating to the medium c ha rac ter isti cs
Th e va lu es o f th e trea tability co n sta nt k range fr om 0.01 to 0.1. A ve ra ge va lu es 3. 10he loadi ng ral e is ro und by so lving Eq . (5 -27 ) ro r Q.
fo r municipal was te o n modular prasiic media are around 0.06 a t 20C. [ 5-23J 10 e-0065Xh.S/QO .,
Co rrecti o n fo r ot he r temperatures can be m a d e by adjus tin g th e treatabilit y fac to r 5'07 = (T+Rl=R;o 06~5~x~6~.S""/Q""o~.,
a s fo ll ows [ 5-19] I

(5-26) 10 10
c - (I + 2) = (' - 0.41!Q"' + __ (2)(' - 0.42/QO. ,
)67 56.7
Trea tab ilit y fact ors s ho uld be d etermined fr om pilot-pl a nt anal ys is o f was te-
water and se lected m edium. The coefficient n fo r ' m odu lar pla stiC media can be 0.53 = 1.35(' - 0 .4 2:QO '

ta k en as 0. 5 witho ut s ig nifi ca nt er ro r. [5-6J I

0.39 = ('- 0.4 2/ Q O. .'
Th e above fo rmula d oes not account for recirculation o f was tewater. Becau se
bi o- towers a lm ost uni ve rsally e mpl oy recirculati o n_ Eq. (5 -25) must be mo dified 094 = 042 /Qo ;
as fo ll ows :
(lo s = 045
Sc I' - kDI Q"
(5-27)
Sa (I + R) ~R~-:::kD/ Q" Q = 0.20 1ll
3
, m2 . mtn
 I;:"'JGINEER ED SYSTEMS FOR W ASTEW,\ TER rREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 265
264 WATER

Rotating biological con t actors

4. The surface area of eac h unit is determined as follows:
1d 3
20.000m 3 /d x . = 13.9m / min Inlluent Effluent
1440 m ill

13.9 m 3 / min
. = 34.8111'
2 x 0.2 m 3; m 2 . Illin
L _________ ~---------J
Each unit is square. so dimensions are
~
L= W = (34.8 m ') 1' 2 = 5.89 m. say 6 J11
Sludge
wask
Each unit is 6.0 J11 x 6.0 m x 6.5 m deep'. The system is shown schemalica ll y in Ihe
(a)
accompanying ske tch.

Effluent relurn

Bi o- tower
#1
o
~.

InOuent 6.0 m Effluen l

Bi o- towe r
#2
E
o
I
I
I
I
I
I I
L--------T--------J
I
-. +
Sludge
(b)

w~stc
F;gur c S-2l! Rotating biological conlactor ,ystc m . (0) diagram "r Ihe rotallng biological contactor
systenl: (h) multiple instalh1tion (n0l~ covers on units In hackgro llndJ (/"1010 ulllflesy 0/ IVolker
Proc /;'ssf,\: Corp.).

Rotating Biological Contactors

Th e rotating bi olog ical cont actor (RBC) reactor is a unique ad'U1tation of the
att ac hed-growth. pLOcess. Med ia in the form of large. flat disks mounted on a
~ mon shaft are ro tat ed thro ugh specially con toured tanks in which was te-
water flows on a con tinu ous basis. Th e system is shown in Fig. 5-28.
. The medium cons ists of plast ic sheets ranging from 2 4 m..:li diame ter and
up to ~O mm thi ck. Th in ner material-s can be used by sa nd wiching a corr uga ted
sheet between two tlat disks and welding them together as a unit. Spacing between
fl at disks is approximately 30 to 40 mm.-The disks aie mounted th rough th e ce nt er
on a steel shaft in widths L!J2. to g m. Ea;;h sha ftful or medi um . along with its t<ln ks
and rotat in g Jevice. becomes a reactor module. Several modu les ma y be arranged
in paralle l and / or in series to meet the tlow and treatment requirement s.
The disks are submerged in [he wastew<lter to abou t 40 pcrcent of[ il eir diameter
;Jnd are rotated by power supplied to the shaft. ApproxiITI<ltcly 95 percent of the
surface area is thus alt er nate ly immerscd in the was tewa ter anci th en exposed to
thc atmosphere abol'c the li quid. ){otational speed uf the unit r3n ges fio Ill I to
_2 r: min and must be sufticicntto prp" ide the hydraulicshcar nccessary f~r slo ugh-
in g ,mel tn mai ntain enough turhulence [ 0 keep [hl' su li lL; III suspe nsion as t.he
WastcIV;![.::r pa sses through the tank
M icro()rgan isms grow ing on th e med iUlll 'li rLlce: rcnlll le !" I()d from the \\<lste-
\Ia ter and oxygen from the air tn slI st<lin their Illetah,llic prncesses Growth and
sloughing or the biofilm occur o n : 1 cc> ntinul)[ls b~I'I' ,IS desc ribed c~lrl i e r . Thick-
ness or thc binlilm Illa) reach .2 :, 1 4 III Ill. depcndln~ 11I1 the \laSlel\atcl- strength
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR W ASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 267
266 WATER

and the r~nal speed of tbe dis k. Since the biofi lm is oxygena ted externally
from th e was tewat er. anaerobic co nd itions may deve lop in the liqu id . Prov isio n
for ilir inj ecti o n nea r th e bott om of the tank . is usuall y prov id ed when multiple
mod ules in series are used. 0.9
U nd er no rma l operating conditions. carbonaceous substra te is removed in
the initia l stages of th e RBC. Carbon co nvers ion m~l y be completed in the first 0
stage of a se ries of modules. with nitrificatlun being comp leted after the fifth
stage. [5-5 IJ As in the bio-to ~e r pmc:.ess. nitrifi e~ lti QI1 proceeds o nl y aft er carbon
"
~
c:
.9
0.8

U
concent ratio ns have been substantiall\" recluced. Mos t dcsi!!.ns of I{ HC svs tems wi ll ~ 0. 7
include a in illimun~or four o r fi\e mZJdules in se ries to oblain nitritic~;t io n of the C
u
wa stewater.
Th e RBC system is a rela ti vely new prllCess for was tewater treatme nt. and 0.6
expe ri ence with full -sca le app lication s is Illnitcd. The process appears to be we ll
Figure 5-30 Temperature correction
suited to the trea tment of mun ic ipal wastew ater. however. O ne modu le of 3.7 m in
O~...J--J__~~__ L--L__L--L~~ for toading curves in Fig. 5-29.
diamete r by 7.6 m lo ng con ta in s app roxilllatel y 10.000 m ' of surface area for bio- 35 40 45 50 55 60 Muttipty toading rate by co rrecti on
fi lm grow th. This large alllo unt of bioma ss permits short co ntact time. main ta ins a factors (courtesy oj Autotrol Corp .).
T empe rature, of
stable sys tem under variab le load ing. and sho ultl roduc lt meeting
seco ndary- trea tment standard s. Recircu lat ing el uent throu gh th e reactor is not
Disadvan tages of the system include a lack of documented o pera ting ex-
necessa ry. T he slo ughed bio mass I S relat ively den se and se t! ies we ll in t he second ary
perience. hi gh cap ital cost. a nd a sensi ti vity to temperature. Covers must be
c lar ifier. Ot her ad van tages in c lude low power requiremenl <Ind simp le ope ratin g
provided to protec t th e media fr o m da mage by the elements and from excessive
procedures. A 40-kW mo to r is sufficient tll turn the 3.7- by 7.6-m unit prev io usly
algal growth s. Adeq uate ho using also he lps to minimize temperature problems in
desc ribed . Powering th e system by compressed ai r is e\'en more economica l and
co ld er climates.
has th e added benefit of aerating the wa stewater. Design of a n RBC unit is based on hydraulic loading rates. Graphs showing
relati o nsh ips betwee n load ing rates and effic iency similar to th e graph shown in Fig.
tnflu e nl sut ubl e BOD , rng/ L 5-29 can be obtained from manufacturers for specific media and vario us was te-
wa ter strengths. Required surface area is then translated into the number and size
of the modules necessary. Temperature corrections can then be made using Fig.
5-30. The des ign of a n RBC system is illu strated in Example 5-6. It should be
50 ~ emphasized that final des ign of an RB C system sho uld be based on loading rates
j'
obtained fr o m pilo t-p lan t modeling as opposed to generalized figures such as
...J 40 ~, 20 30
E' those shown in Fi gs . 5-29 a nd 5-30.
""
E ci
0
isco 30 co
'~
15
25
Example 5-6: Designing a rotating biological contactor Dete rmine the surface area re~
:c quired for an RBC syslem to treat the wastewater described in Example 5-5.
-=:
s; to
;:: SOLUTION
~
c:
10 w.: .1. Enter Fig. 5.29 with:
Influent BOD = 150 mg/L
Effluent soluble !:lOD = to mg/L
o 0
240 320 360 The hydraulic loading rate is found to be 0.05 m3 /m2 . d.
2. Disk a rea is
fh drJutlc Il,,,dlllg rat e . I. d . m~

Fig ure 5-29 F.ftl c i~n cy and I O llJin ~ fat e relatI onshIp I"I..)J Bl() Surf medium trl.:allllg Illunicipal wa ste-
water (C O llrlt 'S)" o( Ali lOfro/ ( ()rp . '
 ENG I N EERED SYSTEMS FOR WAStEWATER TREATMENT AND D ISPOSA L 269
268 WA T ER

3. Ass umin g a 7.6-m s hafl for a 3.7-lll-dia meler d isk with a 10 lal s urface arca of I x 10
m 1 . 40 modu les in para ll el wi ll be req ui red to prov ide si ngle-stage treatmen t of the
4
o Clarified zone ~ ThiCkening zone

wastewa te r. For nit rifi cal ion. a maximum of five sla ges (200 modu les) will be requ ired.
R;il
. . '.'\. Uniform ~ compreSSion zone
L&J lone (C~seliCo)ling
5-1 4 SEC ON D A RY CLA RIF tOO

Th e bi o mass ge nerated by seco nd::ny trea tment represe nt s a substa nti a l o rga nic
load and m ust be removed to mee t acce pt a ble efflu ent sta nda rd s. In po nd s a nd
lagoo ns,. thi s remova l is accomp li shed by se ttlin g within the reac to r. In ac ti va ted-
75
slud ge a nd att ac hed -culture systems. so li ds are removed in seco nda ry clar ifie rs.
Beca use the cha rac ter istics of bio logical so lid s In suspend ed a nd a ttac hed c ultu re
sys tems a re significa ntl y different. the design and opera tion of secondary cla rifiers
in these systems a re a lso d iffere nt.
50

Activated-Slud ge Clarifiy s
Seco ndar y cla rifi ers fo r ac ti va ted sludge must acco mp lish two objectives. First.
t hey mu st prod uce an effl uent sutflc ien t Iy cla ri fied to mee t di scharge sta ndard s.
Seco nd ly. they mu st co nce ntra tc the bio logica l so lids to min im ize thc q uantity
o f slud ge that mu st be ha ndled. Because bo th fun ctio ns are criti ca l to s uccess ful
operatio n, seco nda ry cla rifi ers must be des igned as a n int egra l pa rt of a n ac ti va ted-
slud ge system. o
The bio logica l so lids in ac ti vated sludge are f"loccukn t in natu re and, a t con-
\ ~ .-'....,
cent ra tio ns less th a n abou t 1000 mg/ L. settle as a ty pe-2 suspensio n. Mos t bio- Time
log ica l reac tors. however. o pera te a t co ncen tra tio ns in excess o f" 1000 mg/ L. a nd
th ickening in the seco nd a ry c la rifier res ult s II I eve n grea ter co ncent ra tions. A Figure 5-3 1 Zone :-'ClliJllg .

.. . . . . .. .. . ' c-oncent rat ed'susfTPl1srOlr wm;' defi'ned ' jii S'ec: 4-4 as a suspensio n In whic h pa rt icles
are close en o ug h toge th er so th a t t he ir ve loc it y fie lds ove rl a p with th ose of ne igh-
bor in g pa rt icles a nc! a s ignifi can t upward disp lacement of wa ter occurs as pa rti cles
se tt le. In concentrat ed suspensio ns. these a nd o ther fac to rs ac t to preve nt in de-
pendent settli ng. Gro ups of pa rti cles se ttle a t th e sa me ra te. rega rdless of size
d ifle rences of t he indi vi du a l pa rt ic les. The co llecti ve \'e loc it y of pa rt ic les dc pends
o n severa l va riables, t he mos t obv io us of whic h is th e co ncentra ti on of th e sus-
pension. the ve loc it y be ing in verse ly pro poni o na lt o th e concentrati o n.
In second a ry c la rifiers. t he solid concent ra t ion must be in c reased fro m the
co ncentratio n of th e reac to r X to t he co ncent ra t io n of th e cla rifi er unde rfl ow Xu
Sett ling velocities cha nge corresponding ly. resul ting in zo nes wit h difle ren t se ttling
characteristics. T his phenomenon. known as zone s<, {{ling . ca n he Ill ustra ted by a
simp le ba tch ana lys is in a co lum n. a~ described below .
Ba tch ana lysis If a colum n IS fi lled with a.c~nce n t ratccl suspension and al lowed
to se ttle quiescentl y, the co nt ent s will soo n cii vid e,int o zo nes as show n in Fig. 5-3 1.
In zone B, t he in itia l concen trat lun Co is preser\"ecl a nd sc tt les a t a un ifo rm ve loc it y
cha rac teri sti c of that conce nt ra ti o n. Th:: resu lting clarificd zo ne. zo ne A, is
le ngt hened a t thi s sa me ve loc it y
Below th e uni fo rm ve loc ity zo ne. twO o ther Lt>nes deve lop_ As the parti cles a t
the bottolll come to rest o n the floo r of the cy linder. the pa rt ic les Immed ia te ly
above L:t1 1 on top of th em. form lll g'a zo ne In whi ch pm tic les a re m ec hanica ll y
supported frolil belml. T his zone. I:lbe lcd lOn.: D In F ig. 5-31. is ca lled th e CO /11-
press i;JI/ zOll e. and particles In thi~ zo nc halt: onl) a slight ve loci ty I'"csuiting from
consolidaiion. .
The a rea between zo ne [) and zo ne H cll ntain s a Cll tl Celltratiotl gradien t
ran gin g from slightly gl-e;lter- than Co .l ll St beloll Zll ne B tll sligh tly less than th e
concentration ;It the lup o f the com pl-essio n Zllnc. Co llectil'e \'cloc ities of particles
in Wile C. appropri a tel) ca lled th l' ,h{("k(,lIilI.lI :()II<" . llccre; l,e III pr,')portion to thi s
concentration gradient.
;\s time proglesses. the intcrLlces betlleen the zones mu\e re latil'e to eac h
other Rekr rlne a;lin tu Fil:. 5-3 1. th e C [) int erf;llT nlllyes upward as parti cles
frOlll ~l'nc C d;OI; Int(l zun: D. /\ s iLlng' ;IS the cll nccn t r; ltin n gradien t in zo ne C-
remains unchancd . the Width "I' tlw; Z(l il e Ilili st als" remain cllnqant. :lIld Sl' th e
H- C IIHcrface i ~ dISplaced lIpw;lrd <It the same Jeh,elt\ :IS thc C D interface.
I3cc<lll sc the !\ . 1\ Illtcrf;ICe 1l111ICS dml'nll;l rd :It the lInifmll1 se ttlin g I'eloci t)

l
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 271
270 WATER

Q,. X,

(Q + Q,) X,

c}
C2

L ____~==============_
Time
('I

Figure 5-32 Relationship between initial concentralion alld settling curves.

of particles in the initial concentration, zone B is eroded from both top and bottom
until itbecomes nonexistent (1 = I) in Fig. 5-3 I). After this time, the newly created
A- C interface settles at a decreasing rate as the interfacial solids concentration
increases successively from Co Uust at the disappearance of zone B) to the con-
centration of the top layer of the compression zone just as zone C also disappears
(1 = 15). The A-D interface thus formed will subside at a slow, uniform rate as
the solids consolidate under their own weight. releasing some of the interstitial
water to the clarified zone above.
All of the interfaces involving the clarified zone should be readily visible if the
container used in the analysis is transparent. Other interfaces (B-C, C- D) will not
oevisibJeoecai.ise coricentrilioli pClin is' ~lre' 'sfiglit' the' sei iiJiig'
clialiges at' t1-iese'
characteristics of activated sludge can be graphed by recording the visible inter-
facial height at succeeding time intervals. A plot of the interfacial height as a
function of time, similar to that superimposed on Fig. 5-31, can then be drawn.
The effect of varying the initial concentration of the activated sludge is illustrated
by the family of curves shown in Fig. 5-32.
Continuous-flow analysis The zone settling principles just described for batch
analysis are also applicable, within limits, to continuous-flow secondary clarifiers.
.An "idealized" secondary clarifier is shown in fig. 5-33, with the appropriate
zones labeled. If steady-state conditions are imposed with respect to flow rate and
suspended-solids concentration for both the influent and the undertlow, all of
the zone will be maintained at static levels. Because the A - B interface is stationary,
water in the clarified zone rises toward the overflow at a rate equal to the collective
settling velocity of the Co concentratio.n, thus satisfying the clarification function
of the secondary clarifier.
The thickening function is accomplished via the concentration gradient in the
thickening and compression zones and is more difficult to determine. The thicken-
ing function c<ln be found by uSing the solids nux method flrst proposed by Coe
Figure 5-33 Zone seltling in secondary clarifier. (AdapledJrom Vesilind [5-55].)
and Clevenger [5-12J and later modified by Yoshioka et a!. [5-56J, DiCk and
EWll1g [5-16], Dick [5-15], and Dick and Young [5-17]. Solids flux is defined as
the mass of solids per unit time passing through a unit area perpendicular to the
direction of flow. In secondary clarifiers, it is the product of tile solids conceritration
, (mass!volmne) times the velocity (length/time). The preferred units are kilograms
per cubic meter (kg/m3) times meter per hour (m/hr), or kilograms per square
meter per hour (kg/ m2 . h). .
The downward velocity of solids in a secondary clarifier has two components:
(I) the transport velocity due to the withdrawal of sludge, and (2) the gravity.
scttllllg of the solids relative to the water. The transport velocitv is a functiOn of
the underflow rate and the area of the tank. - .
(5-29)
and the resulting solids flux for a clarifier operating at a given underfl;w rate is a
linear function of the solids concentration.
G" = 1'"X i = (Q.,/A)Xi (5-30)
whereG u is the soiids flux at the particular depth where the solids concentration
IS Xi ThiS relationship is shown graphically in fig. 5-34.
The sobds nux due to gravity settling is defined by
(~-31)
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 273
272 WATER

where Vg is the settling velocity of solids at Xi concentrations. As the solids con-

centrations increase into the thickening zone, the gravity settling velocity decreases.
)nIl1ostconcentratedsuspensions, the concentration-velocity product will increase Gravity flux
initially, because the concentration increase is more rapid than the velocity de- '"
::l
A
crease in the upper part of the thickening zone. As the solids approach the com- ~
"0
pression zone, the gravity settling velocity becomes insignificant and the con- (/)

centration-velocity product approaches zero. The total solids flux is the su m o f the
underflow transport and 'gravity flux B
XL
(5-32)
So lid s concentration Solids concentration

and is limited by a minimum value resldting from p'rogressive gravity thickening. (a) (b)

't For a given underflow rate, the limiting gravity flux also determines the underflow
concentration Xu' as shown in Fig. 5-34.
Yoshioka et al. [5-56J showed that slight modifications to the graphical
~n approach of Fig. 5-34 give greater flexibility for matching underflow concentra-
1" u)
tions to their associated limiting flux rates. As shown in Fig. 5-350. a line beglI1ning
at the de s ired underflow concentration X" and drawn ta ngent to the gravity flux Cu
curve intersects the solids flux ordinate at the limiting flux rate. The Yoshioka ><
method is verified by comparing similar triangles in Fig. 5-35b. The absolute value ~
~

of the slope of the tangent line is the underflow velocity. while the abscissa value at ~
c
the point of tangency is the limiting gravity flux concentration. The ordinate value if) c Lt
corresponding to the point of tangency is the gravity solids flux , while the inter-
c~pt. GL - Gg , is the flux du e to the underflow transport. The relationship be-
tween underflow velocity. limiting solids concentration, .and limiting tlux rate is
readily demonstrated by this technique (Fig. 5-35c).

xu) Xu2
I
I
XL) Xl.2 XLI

Solids concenrration

..c c/. Underflow trallsport (e)

(p".X,)
Figure 5-35 Yoshioka's graphica l mel hod for jdelCrminillg solids flux. (a) Yoshioka's modification;
(b) verification of Yoshioka's modilicatioll. Notc ;si milarity of triangles ABO and ACO , (e) eITects
of underfiow ve loci ty 011 solids co ncentration. I

Secondary clarifier design Seco ndary clartfiers mtlst bc' de signed for effl uent
clarification and solids thickening, hoth of which re late directly to the surface area.
To determil1e the rcquired surface area. an underflow concen'tration i~ selected
and the overt-low rate alld limitin g solids flu x established or assumed for the
particular activated sludge under consideration. Batch analysis similar to that
SoliJ : : ,.:oncen tr atiollx" mg / L previollsly described can he used to provide overflow rates and thickening charac-
Figure 5-34 Solids nux a~ a fUllction \)1' :"t)lids COIlCelllralinll and uIlJert1o\\" vcloclt: . teristics, prmldcd arpn) prt~IIC ,amples Ill' activated sl ud ge arc available. A sing le
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 275
274 \VATER

te st at the ex pec ted concen tr ation Co is sufficien t to establish th e over fl o w rate.

The straight-lin e portion o f th e interface vs. time grap h es tab li s hes th e se ttlin g
ve locity o f the initial concentra ti o n a nd thu s es tabli shes th e overflow rat e. Beca use
it is not possible to d e termin e concentra ti o n -ve loci t y relat io nships in the thi c kenin g
zo ne , a serie s of tes ts, each a t different initial concen trati ons, is neccssar y to
esta bli sh the so lid s tlux curve. Onl y th e str a ight-l ine portion o f each curve is used
to obtain th e ve lo city Vi relating to each co ncen t ration X i' The res ultin g so lids
flux is ViX i
Obtainin g a ppropriate s lud ge sa mpl es for b;ttch ana lys is is o ft e n diHi cult and
so metimes impossible. In mo st cases the ac ti va ted-s lud ge reac tor that is to pro-
duce the suspension for the clarifier is also ju st be ing d es igned. Beca use any va ltd
m o del must dupli ca te bo th t he design a nd ope ra ti o n variables o f th e p ro p osed
reactor as well as the character istics o f th e was tewa te r, it is unlik e ly th a t an ".
exi stin g prototype will be readil y ava ilab le for o btaining the sus pen sio n. Pil ot-
plant stud ies o f the reactor. co upled with batch se ttlin g analysis, s ho uld Yie ld Figure 5-36 Secondary clarine r with r a pid-sludge -return sys tem (courtesy of FM C Co rporation,
usa ble data, provided all th e variables in the wa s tewa ter-reactor sys tem have bee n ,\tIofer ia! H.(~ndlin9 Syslerns Dil:ision).

modeled co rrec tl y.
Wh e re a n a lytical data are n o t a vai lab le. the engin ee r Illu s t re ly o n lit era ture
va lues for design data . Values w hi ch have proved successful in so me sys te ms are
presented in T a ble 5-10. It sho uld be emphas ized. h oweve r. th a t ca reful con-
s id erati o n of reactor a nd wastewate r c harac teris t ics sho uld he mad e before
selectin g ge ne ral empir ica l data fo r d es ig n. . ' . co nditi o ns, while normal underflow rates range from 20 to 40 percent o f the waste-
Becau se it is unlik e ly that anyone surfac e area wil l exact ly sa tI sfy both the
cl a rificat io n a nd thick enin g fun c tion s, bo th areas ar e cal c ulat ed and th e more
co nse r va tive o f th e two is used , Alth o u gh ne ither des ign inco rp o rate s d epth , th e
e ngineer should be awa re th aI ? ep th iSinlporl anISuffi.c ie.lll,clepth nlll sl .be av~ ilah.l e.
' f6j-"(emp6r~t'ry 's t'ciiage' o'f soliJ s due to norm a l fluctuatton s o ( flow and so lids
loading. Typic al d ep ths o f seco ndar y c larifiers ra nge fr o m 3 to 5 m.
The physical units used fo r seco nd ary c la rifi cation are quit e similar in appear-
ance to th ose used in pot ab le wa te r sys te ms (Sec. 4-5) and fo r prilll ~tr y c larifi ca ti o n
in wastewater tre a tment (Sec. 5-8). Din'erences in so lid s cha ra c te ri sti cs demand
so mewh a t different s lu dge~remova l mec hanis m s. Slu dge sh o uld be re moved as
ra pidly as poss ible to en sure th a t th e hi o log ic;ti so lid s are still viab le up o n th eir
return to the aeration unit. A rapi d sludge return also prevent s anaerobic con-
ditions from deve lop in g, with 's ubsequent slud ge fl otat ion due to the release of
gases. The s lud ge- rl~ turn sys tem mu st be capable of handling a wide ra nge of flow .
Underflow rat es may exceed 100 percent of the wastewater flow under upset
wa ter fl ow.
A typica l c irc ular-t a nk seco ndar y clarifier with rapid-sludge-return equipment
is show n in Fig. 5-36. The s lud ge enters the " V ".sections o f the sc ra per as it rotates
and is lifted ve rtically through the sludge-ret urn pipes to a co mm o n conduit
thr o ug h w hich it is remo ved fr o m the ta nk. Sludge is thu s rem oved from the entire
Ooo r o f the tank at each revolution o f the scraper.
Ear ly practice has tended towa rd the use o f circ ular tank s, although the advent
of ra pid -s lud ge-re mo val mechanis ms for rectangular tanks has resu lted in a n
increase in th e ir use. Ph ys ical parameters associated wi th th e design o f secondary
cbriliers a re g ive n in Tabl e 5- 10. The design of secondary c larifiers is illustrated in
Ex ampl e 5-7.

Table 5-10 Design data fo r clarifiers for activated-sludge systems [xample 5-7: Designing a secondar)' clarilier,for acti,.ated sludge !\ column ~naly s i s was
rUIl to deter mine the se tt ling c h ~racter i s tie s of an activated-sludge sll spension . The results
On:rtlo\\ IClIC. Loa ding . of the analysis a re show n in the lable be low.
Ill
J m- d kgem' h
------- D epl h,
T ype o r Irealmcnl A\"t!ragc Pca\.. ,\ \crage . I'eak m 5200 6500 8200
('one M LSS. mg! L 1400 2200 31)00 3700 4500
_ I

Sell ling fo ll owi ng ai r -ac ti vated 3. 0 1. 85 1.21 0. 76 0.4 5 0.28 0. 13 0.089-

slud ge (excluding ex te nded
16 - 3~ 40 -l X , I) 0.0 9.0 3.5 :-
aera li o n)
Sc.:t lling rl) lI owing cX l end~ d aerali01l ~ 16 2.) J~ 1.0 5.0 7. 0 1.5--5 3
T he influent co nce ntration of MLSS is 3000 mg/ L and the no", rate is 8000 m jd De ter-
mine the size of the clarifier th ai wi ll thi cken the so lid s to 10.000 mg ,L
Sour(,e : !\(bpteci [",m M el('olr & Eddy. I nc [5-.16]
Jlt ,
) ENG INEERED SYSTE~IS FOR \VASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 277
276 WATER

bl )
SOLUTION 5, Check clarification fun ction:

It \ 1, Calculate the solids flux from the above data:

G = MLSS(kg/ m 3 ) x velocity (m/ h)

'il.
,l1i;
'114
I
Cone mg/ L ' 1400 2200 3000 3700 4500 5200 6500 8200
At 3000 mg/ L the settlin g ve loc it y o f the interface is 1.21 m/ h .

333 111 3 :h
--------- = 275111-
,
1, 2 1 mi h
I{i

-
G kg/m2 , h 4,20 4,07 3.6 3 2.8 2,03 1.46 0,9 0,73
Beca use 275 m' < 416. 7 m' , th e thi ckening function govems the d es ign,

2, Plot solids flux vs, MLSS concentration as shown in 'the accompany in g figure, Draw

III a line from the desired underflow concentration, 10,000 mg/ L tangent to the curve
and intersecting the ordinate, The value of G at the intersectio~, 2.4 kg/ m ' 'h, is the
Attached-Culture Systems Clarifier
Design of seco ndary clarifiers for attached-cu lture systems is similar to that for
~11
limiting flux rate and governs the thickening function, .
primary clarifiers. The clarificati o n function is the important parameter becau se
sludge thickening is not a fa ctor In fa cL settling characteristics of the sloughed
Ilr, biofllm, o r hUrJ'IIIS as it IS often called, approach those of 'di screte particles.

,'l',[-,
4 Overflow rates from 25 to 33 m 3 / m 2 ,d ar~ co mmonly used, with a maximum of
50 m 3 j m 2 ,d, [ 5-50J No slud ge is recycled to the reactor, so the underflow is
negligible com pared to the overflow Solids are oft en pumped to the prim ary
- 'it'"" .c 3
cIa-riller where they are concentrated along with the raw wastewater solids for
;~
ultimate disposal.
)
The total quantity of solids generated by attached-culture systems is gener ally
2
less than that generated by suspended-culture processes becau se of the endo-
genous nature of the biomass near the media. So lid s production can be expected
. !li ' to range fr om 0,2 to 0.5 kg /kg BOD 5 removed from the liquid, Well-se ttled , , . .. . ,., ...
yi ...................... ............ sludges ran ge from 10 to 20 percent so lids, [5-50J Liquid recirculation through

~1i high-rate trickling tilters and bio-towers may increase the required size of the
secondary clarifier substantlall v, Thi S added volume may be avoided w.ith modular
plastic media by direct recircu'latiQn fro m the effluent of the reac tor p~ior to (he
ltt 2 4 6
Concentration, gi l
8 10 secondary dariticr.

til
I I

~
3, Determine total so lid s loading to the clarifier: 5-15 DlSINFECTlON OF EFFLUENTS
d 3.0 kg
8000 m 3 id x --- x 1000 kg/ h Th e disinfection of wastewa ter IS usually required where portions of the effluent
ltl.'
,r , 24 h m3
ma y co me in contact with human s, Thc processes a va ilable fo r disinfecting was te-
4, Determine the surface area of the clarifier. water etl1ucnt s are essen tiall y the same as those descr ibed in Chap, 4 for potable
f11 1000 kg/I]
-- ,-------- = 4167 m-
2.4 kg/ h " min 2 '
., Watel', The prese ncc of Illu ch gl:ea ter concentrations of suspend ed a nd disso lved
rr:aterial in the w~\s tcwat e r m:l)' result.in interferences not found in potable water.

~. Assuming a circular shape

Chemical oxid:t llt s are JCllcr:t1ly cons id ered the most effec ti ve disinfectant s, with
req uired dos:t!!.cs bein!!. mLich hit! leI" Jail t lOse used for c lea ner wa ter. Chlorine
~c Dia
/4
= \ ; 416 7
) 1, 2
= 23 III
is thc must C();llmnn disini'ecta ntC'i n usc_ even though it may co mbine with certain
constitucnts in th e wastc\\atci' {U producc haloi'orm compounds .

~1
-\
~ - -*~~-------
278 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FO R WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 279

Table 5-11 C hlorine dosa ges for va ri olls wastewaters 5-16 SLUDGE CHARACTERISTICS
Chlo rine dosage (mg/ Ll lo
yie ld 0.2 mgl L free resid ua l
Th e quantity and nature o f slud ge depends o n the characteristics of the waste-
W aslewa le r Iype after 15-min contac t time wat er and on the nature a ll d efficiencies of the trea tment processes. Prima r y
se ttling rem o ves the se ttleable fraction o f the raw was tewa ter solid s, usua lly
Raw: 40 to 60 percent o f the in flu en t so lids. The quantity o f these so lid s. on a dry mass
Fresh 10 slale 6- 12
bas is, can be determined by the following equation. [5-25]
Se p lic 12- 25
Se llied Mp= ~ x SS x Q (5-33)
Fresh 10 s lale 5- 10
Se pl ic 12- 40 where M p = ma ss of rrimary so lid s. kg/ d
Effl ue nl c he m ica l p rec ipl la li on .,-6 ~ = efficienc y of primary clarifier
Trickling fi ll er
SS = to ta l suspended so lid s in efflu ent, kg/ m )
N o rm a l 3-5
Poor 5 10 Q = flow rate, m} Id
ACliva led slud ge Primary sludge con tai ns in o rganic so lid s as well as the coa rse r fract ion
No r mal 2-4
o f the o rgan ic colloids. It c o ntain s a sizable fraction o f the influent BOD, will
Poo r 3- 8
Inl e rmill e nl s<lncl fill e r become a na erobic within a few ho urs, a nd must be isolated to preve nt nuisance
No r mal I 3 pro ble m s.
Poo r 35 So li d s escaping p rim ary settlin g are ei ther so lubilized o r beco me entrained in
th e bio mass duri ng seco nd a ry treatment. Additional so lids are generated b y
SUI/rcc Fro m Ec ke n felde r . [5-19]
co nversi o n of d issolved o rga ni cs into cellular material. Secondary slu dge is thu s
co mposed primarily of bio lo g ica l so lids, the qu a ntity o f which ca n be es timated
C hl o rin a ti o n o f was tewat er eftlu ent s is il cco mplis hed in mu ch th e sa me mann er by th e equa ti o n
a s is the c hl o rination of po tab le wa ter. Larger d osages are requir ed sin ce am- M, = Y' X BOD s x Q (5-34)
m o niun; a~t ~..bs l<lO c.e$..ir:l-w;,ts tewater ex e rt a c h lo rin e de mand
that m usf be m et be fo re a fr ee res idual is o btain ed. The exa c t amount o f c hl o r in e where iV/, = m ass of seco nd ary so lid s. kg/d .
........ . Y. =. biomass. conversion .f<lcto r. : Jr-act.io [1. of . food . (BOD,) m c-0f po rated ." ...... . ', .
necessa r y a lso-d epend s upo n wat e r te m er;lIure. co ntact tim e, a nd d eg ree o f kill
into bi o ma ss, kg/ k g
necessary. Ranges of c hl ori nc ad dit ion necessa ry 10 rrovid e th e neede ree
BODs = BOD s rem o ved by secondary treatment , kg/ m}
c hlorine in various was tewa te rs are give n in T ,Ihie 5- 11. Contac t tim es o f a bo ut
30 min at a ve rage Ao w, w ith a minimum o f 15 min fo r peak tlow. are Co mm o n. Q = tl o w rate. m}jd'
The use o r c hl orine for di s inrecti o n o r wa s tewa ter eHlue nt s has co me und er Th e valu e o f y ' is a func.ti o n o f bo th the bi o mass convers ion factor [Y in Eq.
cl ose sc ru tin y du e to th e hal o rorm-fol:mation pro ble m. It isquit e lik c iy 't hat 'o th er (5-5 )] a lld th e phase o f th e grow th c urve (Fig. 5- 14) a t which th e p a rti cula r system
di s infcc tant s wil l be req ui reI.j o r th a t di s in recti o n practices will b e linllted to s pec ia l ope rat es . More simply , it may be related to th e food-to-biomass ratio a s shown in
cascs in th e fli ture. Fi g. 5-37. [5-25] .
The con s istency o f was tewa ter s ludges varies with the source. -Enw a r y
slud ge is mo re g.rao!1 1nr in nalur.e../.haILsecondary s ludg.e-.and is gener.allY. illQre
Sludge Treatment and Dis posal co nce nt rated. C o nsi stency o f seco nd a ry sludge is dependent o n tre a tment processes
; llld is mo re vari a ble. So lid s rro m attached-gr o wth reactors a re particulate
Wastewa ter trea tm en t obj ecti ves are accomp li s hed by cO llcen tr a ti ng impur ities in natur e and conso lid a te better than the lig ht , f1 00c ul ent so lids from suspeifded-
int o so lid fo rm and th en sepa ra tin g t ese so lid s rruill the bulk liquid . This co n- culture systems. It is some tim es advantageous to mix primary .and secondary
ce ntnWillLci so lid s. re re rred to :1 S shl( . co ntai ns nl<ln y o bj ec ti o nabl e mat e rials slud ge to fa c ilitate further process i~g. The solids conten t o f va ri o us sludges an d
a nd mu s t be di s posed o f pro perl y. Slud ge ciis posa l racilities usua ll y rep rese nt 40 slu dge mixt u res is given in Table 5-1 2 on a mass-per-vo lume baSI S. With each
to 60 pe rcen t o r the co nstru c tion cos t o r was tc water-tn':,i1lllent r lan ts. acco un t fo r percent so lid s correspo nding to 10,000 mg/ L.
as mu c h as 50 pe rcent o f th e o perat ing cos t. an d <t IT ,tli e cau se o f a d ispro po rt io na te Th e o rga ni c co nten t of b o t h primary and secondary sludge is ab o ut 70 percent.
s ha re o r o pe rat ing d iffic ulti es. Si nct: th c spcci fic gra vity o r th ese o rganics is o nl y sli ghtl y g reat e r th a n I. the uni t
 280 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTDIS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DtSPOSAL 281

95 For a given solids-product ion rate. the volume of sludge varies inversely wi th
Ul
Ul
-l
o4 V Conventional
the solid s content as shown in Eq. (5-35). Within the concentration range of waste-
waler sludges. increasing the solid s content by only a minimum percentage resu lts
.... ~
, '"
j;
'--'-
"0
C o. 3 J and
step aeration in drastic reductions in th e s ludge v9 lume. Because the size, and therefore cost, of

I
:l
o processes sludge-disposal facilities is a function of the volume of sludge to be hand led,
0.
....
<1) considerable savings can be attained by volume reduction.
0.

o2
~
"0
II
~ 0.1 5
Cl
~
0.10 / Extended
aeration
and
5-17 SLUDGE THICKENING

0.07 II biological
riltration
Sc\eral techniques are ,wailable for volume reduction. Mechanical methods such
as vac uum fiitGulOp and centrifugatic)n may be used where the s ludge is subse-
quently to be handled in a scmisolid state. These methods are commonly used
1
.-1.1_ precedtng s lud ge incineratton. Where furth e r biological treatment is int ended.
0.05
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 volume reduction by gr,l\itv lhickening a ~ flotation is common ractice.
In both case::. th e sludge rcm:lIns in a liquid state.
Fraction or BOD converted to excess solids
I:.!vity thicker ' arc \'cry similar in design and operation to the secondary
Figure 5-37 Generalized diagram or excess sludge production (Y' in Eq. 5-34) as a runction of roodto- clarifiers use( in suspe nd eJ-gro\\'lh sys tems The thickening function is the majo r
bIOmass ratlO. Actual quantities would vary rrom plant 10 plant. (From Ham~'ler [5-25].)
design parameler. and tank s are gener7tll y deeper than secondary clarifiers to
p;-(wicle greater thickening capacity. A typical gravity thickener is shown in Fig.
mass of sludge containing less than about 10 percent solids can be assumed to be 5-38. The vert ical ,. picket s" on the scrape r cause a horizontal agitation which helps
equal to that of water without introducing significant error. The volume of wet to release water uapped in the Ilocculent str ucture of the sludge. and are commo n ly
sludge can therefore be approximated by the following equation:
used when suspe nded-culture syslem sludges are to be thickened.
v= M/ IOOO S ( 5-35) A we ll-d eS ign ed , well-operated gravity thickener should be able to, at lea st,
double the so lid s cnntent or the sludge. thereby eliminating half the volume
where V = volume of sludge produced. m 3
j d....
"So!idscoriieliii;fl)riiiick(;nedsILldges:iiICiiig \vifli'c6Jl1monly used loading ra tes
i\.J = mass of dry solids. kg/d
for gravity thick eners. are includ ed as part of Table 5-12. It should be no ted
S = solids content expressed as a decimal fraction that the design of gravity thick e ne rs should be based on the results of pilot-plant
1000 = density of water, kg/m3 analysis wherev'er possible. since successful loading rates are highly dependent on
th e nature o r the sludge.
Table 5-12 Typical solids conten'( of sludges

Sludge Solids loading

concentration, 0" ror grayity
thickeners,
Type or sludge Un thickened Thickened kg/ m 1 d

Separate
Primary sludge 2.5-5.5 8 - 10 100 150
Trickling-tilter sludge 4-7 7- 9 40- 50
Actiyated sludge 0.5- 1.2 2.5 - 3"3 20-40
Pure-oxygen slucfc 0.8-3.0 2.5- 9 25 SO
Combined
Primary and trll'kilng-tllief sludge 3- 6 79 (,(j . IOU
Primary and n1l.)oitlcd-ilcralion ~ILldgt' 3-4 K. 3- I 1.6 60 100
Primary and air-aCli\"atcd sludge 2.o-4R 4 (, \I .n 40~O

Fi~UTl' 5-38 T~rjcal g l;l VII) th i. . "!.:L"IH: r ( ( "t/llr1I ' \T of F"\/C Corporalion. !\/o,er/a! Handlin!! Syst e m s
Sui;rn-" Ffl)Jn ~I l'Il'"lr ~'< Elid\ In ,' [5-36J D/ ruio ll " )
 282 W ATER ENG INEE R ED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 283

T h icke ned
-
Skimm er mec han isJll
100 0 mL

750 mL .~
-'

Inn uent 500 mL

J; . .
_ fe_e_d_l_in_e--r-.... -r----i

Recycled 250 mL
Mix ing
BOI tom sludge co ll ec lor suullatan t
Chem icals
Pr ess u re (a) (b) (e ) \
Air '-'"
cO il lro l Se il led
va lve No w suppose tha t a ll o f the so li d s are a llo wed to settle (b in fi gure) a nd tha t the liquid is
so lid s
drawo ff decan ted (c in fig ure) unt il th e lo ta l vo lume is SOD mL. The new so li ds fr action is
Che mica l Chemical
Pressurt: S = IHfl OOOV
mix tan k fee d Aux ili ary recycl e = 0.0 1 kg/ 1000 kg/m 3 x O.OOOS m
3
_. --.)
la nk Prt' ssur i/in g
pu mp co nn ec ti o n
r um p ( primary lank or = 0.02
plal1 l efn ue nl) Thu s, increas ing the so lids co nt ent by a fac tor o f 2 (in this ca se o nl y I percen t) d ecrea ses
Fi gure 5-39 Typical di sso lved-a ir fl otat io l1 sys lem for thicke ning activated sludge . (F,.olll M etcalf & th e total vo lume by a fa c to r o f 2.
Eddl', Inc. [5-36].l
Exam pl e 5-9 : Reducing the volume by sludge thickeni ng A was tewa ter-trea tm ent pl a nt
con s ists o f pri ma ry trea tm e'nt unit s fo ll owed by a n acti vated-slud ge seco ndary sys te m .
As can be seen in T ab le 5- 12. waste act lva tec! slu dge d ocs no t thi cke n we ll T he p rim ary a nd seco nda ry slud ges a re mixed , th ickened in a gra vit y thickener , and se nt
IT1 gra vit y thicke ners a nd loadi ng ra tes are s i ~ nifi c a n tl y lowc r th a n fo r o ther to fu rthe r treat m ent. A 'schematic o f the system is show n belo w .
sl ud ge. Also. th e effec t ive ness of gra vity thic keners fo r prima ry s lud ge is cI im in ished - -)

con siderab ly by mi xin g wi th acti vat ed slud ge . T he light. fl occule nt na ture of Efnu ent
Innu en t
ac tiva ted slu dge lend s it se lf q uite \\cll to th ic kenin g by di sso lved air fl o tati o n.
howeve r. a nd the use bf the process ha s been inc reasing in rece nt yea rs
'In' dissolved 'air' flo ta tion : '3 's ma ll 'qu a ntit yo f\,'ii rei': Us'll ;t t1y 'seco nda ry eftlu en t.
is subj ect ed to ae rati o n under a pressure of abhu t 40() k Pa (5R Ib/ in 2 ). Th is super-
sa turated liqui d is then re leased near the bo tt om of a ta nk thro ugh whic h the
slud ge is passed a t a tmospher ic press ure. T he ai r is re leased in th e fo rm of ve ry
sma ll bubbles th a t a tt ac h themsel ves to. o r beco me entra pped in. th e slu dge so lids,
fl oa tin g the so li ds to th e surface. Th e thi c ken ed s lud ge is skimm ed o fT a t the to p of
the ta nk while th e liquid is re moved near the bo tt o m a nJ is ret urn ed to t he aera to r. L _ ._ Thicken ed sludge to
- -- sludge -disposa l fa cilities
A d iagra m of th e sys tem is show n in F ig. 5-39.
Th e capital a nd o pera tin g costs of s ludge t h ic kcners a re just ified when sludge
d igestio n is prac ti ced. The ex tent of vo lu me red ucti o n by s lu dge th ic ke nin g is
illu strated by the fo ll owin g exa mples.
W a s tewa ter, trea tme nt p la nt , a nd sludge cha ra cte risti cs a rc as fo ll ows:

Exa mple 5-8 : S lud ge vo lum e and so lid sTontent rr hitionship Suppose Ihe I- L graduated Sludge
\V as tewater Trealme nl pl an l
cylin de r in the fi g u re be low' co nt a in s a slltdge l) f I pci cen l so lid s. -Fro ll1 Elf . (5 - ~5 ) th e
dry ma ss o f th e so lid s is InflueIH S5 Prima ry clarifier di ameler 25 111 Prim ary 5.0\ so lids
200 mg/ L
I"fl uent BOD 225 mg/ L Ae ralor vo lume 2900 m 3 Seco nda ry o 75 ~~ so li ds
M = 10001 ' S Eftluenl BOD 20 rn gf L M LSS in aeralor 3500 mg/ L T hic kened 4 . 0 ~~ sot ids
1000 kg, m -' x DOO I 11)'\ x CUl l Fl o w 19.000 m' /J
= 0.0 1 kg -------------------------------------
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEW ATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 285
284 WATER

Determine (a) th e solids loading (in kilgram s per day) to the slud ge disposal facilities h. Fr o m Fig. 5-37, the biomass conversio n fact o r is 0.35.
and (b) the percent volume reduction by the thickener. c. Th e mass of the seco nd ary solids is found by Eq . (5-34).
/1'1, = Y' x BODs x Q
0.133 kg/m J x 19,000m / d
SOLUTION J
= 035 X

I. Determine the ma ss of the primary so lids and the vo lum e o f the primary s lud ge. = 884 kgi d
(I. The area of t he primary c larifi er is
d. The vo lu me of Ihe second ary s ludge 'is
A = rrd' /4
v = _ M."..._
25 m' 1000 x S
= rr x ~---
4 884 kgj d
1000 kg/ mJ x 0.0075

h. The overflow ra te IS II R m 3 /d

19,000 m -',!d . . 3. Delermine Ih e 10lal Ill"SS o f so lIds and Ihe IOla l vo lume of sl udge 10 the thickener.
- - - - ... - = 387 m/ d
491 m' . II M I = /.1 p + M ., = n04 + tlX4 C~ 3088 kgjcl
3
h. V, = J.'" + V, = 4U + II R = 162. 1 m ;d
c. From Fig . 5- I 3 th e etliciency of th t.' clarifier is
-1. Del er mine IhelolJIIl1<ISS "rs(lli<is anc1lhc IOlal \olume o f sl ud ge discharged fromlhe
SS = 58;;: I hickencr te) the s lud ge dispmal Llcililies.
II. Assumi ng negligible ",lids ill Ihe Ihic ker supernata nt. th e tOlal mass of sol ids in Ihe
BOD = 32 ~.~
Ihickened slud ge is 30RR kg/(I
d. The mass of primary solids removed is found by Eq . (5-33) h. Th e lotal vo lume l,f th e Ihi c ken ed sl udge is
i\l p = .: x SS x Q 30~8 kgi d
= 0.58 x 0.200 kg/ m ' x 19.000 m J/ d 1,1"" = IOr)() kg:;; I -;;-004
= 2204 kg id = 77.2 m' Id
and the vo lum e o r the primary s ludge is given by Eq . (5-35). 5. Delermine the percenl of volume reducli o ll ac hie ved by th e thicken er.
v = _ .. Mp _ _ 162. 1 - 77.2 ,
p 1000 5 x 100 = 52;{,
1(,2.1
2204 kg/ d
= 1000 kg/ m 3 x-50s
5-18 SLUDGE DIGESTION
= 44.1 m 3/ d
2. Determine the mass of the second a ry so lid s and the vo lum e o f the secondary s lud ge. 'o ncentratecJ wastewater s lucJl!,cs. represent a considerab le hazard to the en-
{/. Find the food-bioma ss ra ti o: ~ ronment a ncJm ust- be re nd e?ecJincrt prior to di31osa l. The mos t com mo n
(I) The food cons umed in th e aerator is: 'ille'ai1s (Tr it l:iilizing is by bio luglcri dcgrad at ion. Becel uset h is process is in rerrded
_.... :..
15] mgi L to conve l , cllcls "()lJKc lular end roctucts. the term digesliol1 is commo )ly
BOD in = ( 1.0 - 0.32)22 5 mgi L
app li ed to this process. Sludge cJigestlon sen es bo th to re uce the vo lume o f th e
20 mgj L
BOD OU I = e muent BOD thic!u:ncd slud ge still ['urther ~lIld to render the rem:J.ining so lid s inert and re latively
BOD. consumed in Ihe aerator 133 mg/ L ge n-frec. These goals c<In he ~Icc()mplished by either anaerobic or aerobic
0. 133 kg im 3 x 19,000 m 3 /d = 2527 kg/d digestion . ____

(2) The bioma ss in th e reac lor is 3.5 kg/mJ x 2900 m ' = 10,1 50 k );
(]) Th e fnod -bio mass r:ltio is
Ana erobic Digestion

2527 kg:d _I Anaerobic di g,es ti oll is h:- f:lr the 1ll<)S I COIll Ill O Il process for dealing with waste-
.----.---- = 0.25 d
IO,ISO kg
\~' a t e r slud!.!cs cnnt;rinlll g primary sludge . Primary slu dge con ta ins large a mou nts

~ bCQuP Cord6JtJt~ ~;;Cj

 286 WATER
ENGI NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 287

of readily available organics that would .incLuce a rapid growth of biomass if tJeated Typically. about 50 to (i0 percent of the organics are metabolized, with less than 10
aerobically. An.~ b~ decomposition produces co~iderably less biom ~lSS than percent being converted to biomass.
'" If'. t \raerobicp.rocesses. The principal function of anaerobic digestion. therefore, is to Reactors for anaerobic digesters consist of closed tanks with airtight covers.
~ as much of the sludge as possible to end products such as liquids and gases.

-
II) U\
cl)f'r, while producing as little residual biomass as possible. -
Wastewater sludge contains a wide variety of organisms, and thus requires
a wide variety of organisms for itsdecomposiiion. The literature relating to
anaerobic sludge digestion often divides the organisms into broad groups. the
'lcid formers and the methane formers: The 2.fidformers consist of flcultative and
anaerobic bacteria and include organisms that solubIlize l~e organic solids through
hydrolysis. The soluble products are then fermented to acids and alcohols of low
molecular weight. The meJhane formers consist of strict anaerobic bacteria that
convert the acids and alcohols , along with hydrogen and carbon dioxide, to
methane. Specific products in the metabolic process are shown in Fig. S-40.
cAC('d -foOrt-~)...:~J>Q.(c#&('
The completely mixed. continllolls-flow model without solids recycle is usually
assumed, although the flrst tWQ.condjtions wjll seldom be mel exactly. Although
most larger installations utilize high-rate digestion, treatment . plants processing
less than 4000 m 3 /day of wastewater often use standard-rate digestion for eco-
-
nomic reasons or simplicity of operation.
A lypical, standard-rate anaerobic digester consisting of a single-stage
operation is shown in Fig. 5-41. The conical bottom facilitates sludge withdrawal
while the" floating" cover accommodates volume changes due to sludge additions
and withdrawals. The sludge separates in the reactor as shown, although some
mixing oC~lrs in the zOIie oGctive '~n and in the supernatant because of
the withdrawal and return of heated sludge. Sludge is fed into the digester on an
intermittent basis and the supernatant is withdrawn and returned to the
secondary treatment uni!. The digested sludge accumulates in the bottom, its

Complex
-r
waste C{Y'Cl~(
100'/;- r"~Rf<orN :- ~r; fJ(tJ
COD
15% 65 %

20O/C
Gas
Ach'tf2 slorage
I ,r:M...' . ............... . ".
..d{f~"' 9f ' . Supernatant
_ out

~ .

Sludge
heater

Digested
sludge
out
Figure 5-40 Paltlw ays and pro duc ts or anae ro bic di gt: stiprl of \\a \ !ewtlf er slllo gt. (Frum AJ eCarl),
[ 5-31)' )
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS !-OR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 289
288 WATER

Table 5-13 Design parameters for anaerobic digesters Digested s lud ge acc umu lation rate:

Parameter Standard-rate High-rate

Solids retention time, d 30- 90 10- 20

2. Determine the d iges te r vo lum e from Eq. (5-36).
Volatile so li ds loadi ng, kg/ m' /d 05 - 1.6 1.6-64
Di gested solids concentrat ion, % 4-6 4- 6 . V, + V,
Vola tile solids reduction, % 35-50 45- 55 V = - ...- - [, + V'[2
0.5-0. 55 0.6-0.65 2
(}as production (m'/ kg VSS added)
Methane con tent, % 65 65

= 49 17 m"
rem oval o ft en being de termined by s u bsequ en t sludge d isposal fac ilit ies rather than
b y o p era ti o n a l n eeds o f the di ges ter. H igh-rate cii[!es ters arc mure dlicie nt and ofte n req u ire less vo lume than
T h e standard-rate di ges ter vol u ine is d e termi ned by loading rat es, di ges tion sin gle-;tage dige ; ter s Th e contents are mechanically mi xed to ensure better
p er iod , soli d s~\Jc t iQ!l,_a nd siud&e s torage. T hese a re re la ted by th e fo llowi ng co ntact between th e o rganics and the microorganism s and the unit is heated to
eq u a ti o n s. - increase th e metab o lic r;te o f the microorga ni sm s, thu s speeding up th e digestion
process. Optimum temper;llure is aroun d 35C (95 F).
V - VI +
2
2 V II + V2 2 (5-36) Because no dewatcrinl! occurs in th e hi gh-rat e sys tem, th e vo lume o f s ludge
is essentia ll y un ch a nged. ;~I th o u g h the so lids contc:nt is reduced. Dewa ter ing o f
w here V = vo lume of the diges ter, m 3 the slu dge is necessary and m~l y bc acco mplished by any of th e mechanical
VI = raw s ludge load ing rate, mj/ ct dewa terin g ope ra ti ons d.:sc ribed In Sec. 5- 19. An alternative d ewa terin g syste m
V2 = d iges ted s ludge acc um ul a tio n ra te. m 3 /d is a seco nd-sta ge diges ter s imilar to that uscd in standard-ra te operations. A
1 1 = digesti o n peri od , d high -ril te two -stage sys tem is s hown in Fig. 5-42 .. Lit tl e gas is generated in th e
12 = d iges ted s lud ge sto rage period, d seco nd stage, but the 1Illlll e nt is su persa turated with gases that are re leasedm th e
seco nd -s tage react o r. Con sequently_ th e second-stage reactor is usua ll y covered
D esign pa ramete rs for sta ndard -ra te diges ters are listed in Table 5-13. The des ign
and is equipped fo r gas recovery. The seco nd-stage reacto r is n ot heated. Des ign
p roced ure is illus trated in the fo llowing examp le.
..of. Y9.i. ume. .r.e ql.lirCflWllls. .fm. bigi)-rate. tlVo-stage d igeste rs is illustr ated in th e
Example 5-10 : DesighIhg ':j 'sfa'ridaril~raie' iinaeroblc'di"ge'ste'r' i'h~ 't ili ~k~I; ~ d ~ i~ldg~ r;~~' foll owing examp le.
Exampl e 5-9 is to be di ges ted a naerobical ly in a standard -ra te d igester. Th c sludge is
known to be about 70 pe rcen t organ ic and 30 percent inorganic in nature. App rox imat ely
60 percent of the organic fracti on is converted to liqu id and gaseo us end produ cts after
Fixed cov~ r
t
D'gesle r gas outlel Floa t ing cove r
a 30-d period. The digested sl udge has a so lid s con ten t of 5. 0 percent a nd mu s t be stored
fo r periods of up to 90 d . Determine the vo lume req u irement for a standard ra te. si ngl e- Gas slO rage
stage digester.

SOLUTI ON Suptrnata n
outlets
I. Determine the raw sludge loading rate and the digested sludge accumulation rate.
a. From Ex a mple 5-9 the raw s ludge loading rate is Sludge
ou tl ets
V, = 77.2 m Old

b. The digested s ludge consists of so li d s no t converted to liquid s and gases.

Tota l mass of so lids = 3088 kg/ d
Flfsl,tat c Second stage
Organic fraction = 3088 x 0.7 = 2162 kgjd (complelely mixed) (stratified)
Organic fraction remaining = 2162 x 0.4 = 864.8 kg/ d
In organic fracti o n rema ining = 3088 x 0.3 = 926.4 kg/d Fj~ur e 5-l2 J)j<.tgram (If hlgh -rale, 1\\"lI-stagc all iH.: robic sl ud ge digeste r . (Frum Linsley and Frwlz/JII
Tota l mass remain ing = 864.8 + 926.4 = 1791.2 kg!d [530))
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 291
290 WATER

Examp le 5- 11 : Designing a hi gh-ra te, two-stage anaerobic digester A high-rate , two-stage Table 5-14 Composition of typical supernatant from anaerobic digesters
digester is to be designed for the sludge described in Example 5- 10 . A digestion time o f 10 d
Primary ptanl s, Trickling filters, Activated-studge plan IS,
in the first s tage results in the dest ructi on of approximately 60 percent of the o rga nics.
mgJL mg/ L mg/ L
Dewatering in the second s tage occurs within 3 d with the stored sludge ha ving a so lid s
content of about 5. 0 percen t so li ds. De termine th e vol ume of the first- and seco nd -stage Suspended so li ds 200- 1000 500-5000 5000- 15.000
digesters a nd compare th e to ta l vo lume to tha t o f the single-stage digeste r in Exampl e 5- 10. BOD , 500- 3000 500-5000 1000- tO,OOO
COD 1000- 5000 2000- 10,000 3000-30,000
SO LUTI OI' Ammonia as NH , 300- 400 400-600 500- tOOO
TOla l phosp horu s as P 50- 200 100-300 300- 1000
I. Th e \'l) lume of the first-stage digester is
SOl/fee: Fr om Benefie ld and Randall. [ 5-6]
v= V,I ,
= 77.2 m 3 /dx 10d
J
I m 3 of gas is produced per ki logram of so lids digested. The heat content of the
= 772 m
me thane isapprox imately 36,000 kJ/ m 3 (970 BTU/ f( 3 ). The digester gas is usually
2. Th e volume o f th e second -stage digester is com bu sted to pro vide space heating in the treatment plant buildings, to heat-water
for laboratory use. and to heat the digester if a two-stage system is used. These
I
. = V, + V,
--2 - 1, + V 2 1, uses often consume less than o ne-half of th e methane . The remainder cou ld be
used to drive an electrical ge nerator and the resulting power used within the plant.
77.2 + 35.S J Ba nerji and O 'Conn o r [ 5-5J report that a significant portion of the ene rgy
= - - - - - - m It! x 3d + 35.81ll J /d x 'lOd
2 necessary to ope rat e a wa stewat er-treatment plant can be derived from the methane
J produced by anaerobic digesters. The conversion process requires expens ive
= 3392 I11
eq uipment an d is a cos tly ope ration and ma intenance item , however. Most plan ts
3. Com pare IOta l vo lume to sin gle-sta ge vo lume . simply narc the excess methane.
Volume o f si ng le-stage (fro l11 Example 5- 10) = 4917 m ' The .supernatant withdraw n from th e digester con tain s large amount s o f
T ota l vo lume of two-s tage = 772 + 3392 = 4164 m "
<;ol ubilized o rganics' and so lid s. as show n in Table 5- 14. Thi s materia l mu st be
circulated back thr o ugh the plant for further treatment. Solids withdraw~ fro'm th e
J
Differe nce = 753 Ill
bottom o f the digester should be re la ti vely inert. Proced ures for disposing o f this
materia l are discussed in a fo ll ow ing section .
Opera ti o n o f anaerobic digesters is complicated by the delica te nature o f the
methane for mers. Th ese o rganisms are stri ct <tnaerobics and fun cti o n within a
na rrow pH ra nge o f fl;'p m 65107.5 p H unit s. Th ese orga nisms a re also se nsitive Aerobic Digestion

~
to sudd en c hanges in o ther environmental factor s such as tempe rature. food
Sludge can a~o be s tabili zed by aerobic-diwti on. GelK@ lI y restricted to' bio-
~V "::':'Ipply. etc. Shock loading (addition o f large <tnJllunts of raw slud ge within a
16giqLs.l.~ldge5- in the absence o f primary sludge. this process js essential ly a -con-
shor t tim e period) can be di sastrou s to anaerobic di ges ters The acid fo rmers
tinu ati o n o!..the aeration process. w ith the volume being reduced by thi ckening
respond qui c kl y to the increased fo od suppl y 'IHLl produce increased amount s of
tn the secondary c1ariner and slud ge thickener. The most co mmon applicat io n o f
acids. Th e methane fo rm ers cann o t res po nd as quickly ~.II1d the acid accumu lates.
., obic di ges ti o n involves stabili zing slud ge wasted from ex.tendecl~on sys t~ms~
lowering th~p.H-oL.the4'ligester. Once the lower pH -to lerance leve l o f th e methane
nce an ex ternal food so urce is no t ~I?I? li ed, aerobic digestion is an endl)genous
foriller s is reached. methane production ceases ancl th e pH can be lowered to the
::.spirat i.!l process in_ which the organi SJllS are [mce.d to ID~bQlize th ei r own
to xic leve l o f ac icl formers unless the situati on is rec tified qui ck ly. The buffering
protop lasm, Th e resu lt is a minerali zed slu dge in wh ich any remaining organics a re
capaci ty o f the di ges ter is therefore ve ry importanLFo rtuna tely. th e alkalinity of
the diges.tlilgs ludg~ is naturali high becau se f I eso ubili za ti rod :1 :.d
incipally ce ll walls and o th er ce ll fragm ent s not readi ly biodegradable.
Aero bic digestion is not as sensiti ve to environmenlal factors as is it s a naerobic
by t e . 10 l~ roce_sses. and it s subsel'luent conve rsilln to HeO J . A sudden
co unterpart and is not as subject to upsets. Unlike tile anaerobic process,
i'ClluCfion in alkal init y he rald s a pH drop_ and mor e :tlkalinit y. usua ll y in the fo rm
ae ro bic digestion is energy-co nsumptive. The digested s ludge is relative ly in ert but
(,f lim e. mu st be ad d ed tll maintain th e bulTe ri ng capaci ty.
cI ewa . RQQ1l.y. It is o ften necessa rv to dispose of theentire volume of sludge in a
Product gases fr o m...ilJ4i~ bi cdiges ti () 1l tvpica ll y CO llt
rather dilut e state . - ~.
meth ane.:2." to 30 perce nt C:O-; ,'n nd tr:lce :11l10unt s o f other !,;ases.
'--------------.----------~~
292 WATER
ENGIN[ERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND D ISPOSAL 293

Table 5-15 Typical design parameters for

aerobic digestion

Pa ra meter Value

Retenti on time, Oc
Acti vat ed slud ge on ly 15-20 d
Activated sludge plus .
primary 20- 25 d
Ai r required (diffused air)
. Ac tivat ed slud ge o ill y
Activated slu dge plus
primary 55 - 6SL! min . m-'
Powe r requi red (surface air) 0.02-0.03 kW /m 3
So lid s loading 1. 6- 3.2 kg VSS/ m .l d

Source: From Slee le and .M cGhee. [5-50J

Design criter ia for aerob ic diges ti o n a re give n in Table 5- 15. The desig n
approach is essentially the sa me as for ac ti va ted-s lud ge reactors.
Fi gun' 5- 43 I njection of \\(lstcwatt.:r sludge benc,alh grass land s. Not~ nllnimal dl'ilU rba l1ce o f so d
( CO II"'( 'S I ' of Rickel ,\I/Of7l1j(l('{ lIrtn/J Cump{IfIY)
5-19 SLUDGE DISPOSAL
lllech"nicallllc; ln ~ such as cc nt rifuga tion. \;t c uum tiltlati o n. fil ter press ing. r by
Several o ption s a re ava ilab le for th e ultim ate disposa l of wastewa ter slud ges.
air drying. Sl) li ds co nt e nt achievable by va riull s dew3 tet"ing techniques is show il in
These in clud e incinerati on. JlacemeJ1.Lio_G s3n.iuu:.y la.ndfiIL and incor orat io n
Tahl e )- 16.
into sojls as a feUilizf:.WlWoiLco.ocii..t io ner - ,\Ir d lv tn g l)f digested s llld!!cs IS poss ible in clima tes with sig nitican t evapo ra-
Raw (undigested) sludges can be in cine rated. provided the wa ter conten t
tlnn putcntial. SlllCC ~I \\'cl l -c1 i~ cs t cd~hlde.e i~esse ntillll-v iner-t .. itcftn behand led
is suffic ient ly redu ced. Supp leme nt a l fu el is necessa ry to initi a te ;n d maintain
ilnd sto red in th e ope n air ~\i tllllu t cr~a tln g nui san~e condi tio ns. Ai r-dryi ng
combusti on and Illunic ipal so lid wa ste may be used fo r thi s purpose. Ra w or
faci litl cs In clu de drying heds slllIilar tll th ose shown in F ig. 5-44. Th e sand a nd
digested slud ge ca n a lso be disposed of in sa nitary landfills. prov ided a ppro prtate
unde rdr~ tin sys lem mar he o mitt ed in d ry c liT1l ~ lt es whe re evapo rat io n from th e
measures are ta ken to co nt ain leachat e a nd to iso la te the slu dge from th e enviro n-
surface is ~ ulJi cient to di spose nf the liLJuid. Dried s ludge is removed in cake form
ment. These subj ects are covered more full y in a later chap ter o n so lid-waste
hy so lids- hand lin g equipm ell t .
d isposa l. Another. popular form of dewalering llr digested sludge is the sludge pond.
La nd applica tion of wa stcwater slu dges has been practiced for man-y years.
Not tll he confu sed \\ii th oXldatlt)t] ponds used in secondary trea tment processes .
modern applica ti ons being limited to digested sludge. Th e nutrient value of the
slu dge .is ben efi c ia l to vegetati o n, and it s gra nular nature may se rve a s a soi l
conditioner. It s a pplicatio n ha s bee n Itmit ed to gro und used for forage croris for Table 5- \6 So lids cont ent of de-
nonhuman consumption , a lthough th e poss ibilit y of it s use o n ground used to grow wate rcd sludge
edible produce is still being invest iga ted. Metal tox icity 111 plants and water po llu-
ApprOX1J1l;11L' ... nlll.h
ti9n fr o m ex cess nitra tes appear to be th e li mitin g fact o rs in la nd app licati on of lf)[l\ Clll. ""
sludges. Sludges may be applied in a liquid stat e by spra yin g. ridge a nd furrow , or
by direct injec tion ben ea th th e soil. Injection under gra ss land s is illu stra ted in \',I (lIllrll fill r~llllln 211 .10.
Fig. 5-43. Dewa tered sludge Illay be spread o n the la nd a nd cuiti vateci int n the CClllnrUk!C 20 25
F illl'r rr~~.\ J() ~5
soi l by co nve nti o na l ag ri cultura l eq uipment.
l)rvln\:thcd, 40
With the except ion of irr igation pract ices. sludge disposa l is g rea tl y facilitat ed Pv~,d,:" . l()
by vo lu me redu ction thro ugh dewateri ng. Dewa terin g ma y be acco mp lished by
294 WATER
Figure 5-44 T ypica l opell-air sludge dr yi ng bed. (Photo court esy of R. L. Sanks .)
sludge po nd s function as settlin g basins w ith long retention times. The so lids
consolidate in the bo tt om whi le th e s upe rnatant ' ,s pe riodi ca ll y remo ved fr o m the
top <1nci recyc led for re trea tment. When th e so lid s ha ve accumulated to a pre-
se lec ted depth. the pond is t<1k en out o f se r vice an d all o wed to dry out. The dried
slu dge is th e n removed fo r final di s posal.
Advanced Wastewater Treatment
The qual it y uf e Alu en t pro vid ed by seco nd ary t rea t me n t ma y no t a Iwa ys be s u ftI c ie n t
to m eet di sc harge l equirement s. Th is is o ft e n th e case when large quantities o f .
e lllu c nt arc di sc h<lr ge d int o s mall s treams or whe n de li ca te eCl1system s are en-
co u n tcred. In th ese in stances: additional treatm ent to po li sh th e e fflu ent Tr o)1l
second M), sy st e ms wi ll he requi red , o r an <I lt ernall ve m et hod o f was tewate r
di s pusal Illu st he fOlind .
.A dditi o nal tr e~ltment. usuall y referred t o a s..!.::'rl iurr Ir<'Iillyg! I. o ft en in vo lves
th e re lll\)\ ~Ji of nitrogen a nd s horus com po u nd s. 1211n l nu t r ient s assocW.l.e d
with CUtl'O ~~ rlh e r treatmcnt may e requir ed to re m ovc additional
s~ l spc~e d so lld s . .fl i s~o l ve d i]1Qrga nl c. salt s. and l'cI'r;lc t(lI Y (\rg ani cs . Combina-
tion s (lr t he aho \e p rocesses can be used to resto re W~ l s t elV atcr to po tabl e qua lit y.
a lthou gll at co ns lli'era ble c xpen se. Referred tn , IS !:,L'c/W lIllli,J/I. thi s comp lete trea t-
m e 1\ I or \\,1' Ic\\;!t e r ca n se ld om be J u ~ t di ed exce pl in wa t L'r-se a rcc ,I rea s w he re so me
f()rm o r reu se IS m'lndated .
Th e ter lll iIilml1CCiI Ir m ll/ WIII is fr equ en til used to e nco mpa ss all Y or a ll of
Iltc "b()\c II'e <l l mcn t tec hniqu es. and thi s Icr lll would scem t(llmpl y that advanced
tre,l tlll Cn! r(>lI,,\\' s conve nti o na l seco nd al'Y treatm ent. ThiS IS lI o t ;J1wa ys tlt c c ase,
, IS S(l lll C uni t o pc l',lti ol1s or unit pl'occsscs In scco lllLlr v ur eve n prim ,lI'Y tr eatm ent
ENG IN EERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSA L 295
ma y be replaced by advanced-treatment sys tem s. Advanced-treatment processes
and operations are d esc rihed in the following secti o n of this chapter. Because
trea t ment sys tem s a re selec ted to meet discharge or reu se criteria with respect to
specific parameters. th e di sc u ss ion is arranged acco rdin g to tre a tment objectives.
5-20 NUTRIENT REMOVAL
The ro le of excess nutrients in entrophica tion was discussed in Ch ap. 3. Although
th e q uantiti es of nutrient s co ntribut ed by wastewa ter discharges may be less than
tho se contributed by agr icult ural runoff and o th er sources, the point-source
nature of wastewate r.disc harges makes them more amenable to control techniques.
Thus, wa stewat e r-trea tm ent plants th a t discharge to water bodies that are deli-
cately bala nced wi t h respect to' nutrient lo ads may ha ve nutrient limitations
imposed o n their etflue nt s. The nutrients n of interest are nitrogen and
phosph orous compounds. Processes for removing the se nutnen s ro
wa ter are discu ssed in the fo ll o wing paragraphs.
Nitrogen Removal
In domestic wastewater. nitrogen compounds res ult from the biological de-
composition of proteins a nd from urea di scha rged in body waste. This nitrogen
ma y be bo und in comp lex organ ic molecules and is referred to simply as organic
lIi~el1 rather than b y s pecific co mpound. Organic nitrogen may be biol6gkally
converted to free ammon ia (NH)o) or to the ammonium ion (NH4 +) by one of
.. .~ ey.eral. different m etabolic pathways,These.two species,. together termed ammonia
lIil/'{}!1ll. exist in equilibrium accord ing to the following relationship: c
(5-37)
Amm o nia nitroge n. the most redu ced nitrogen co mpound found in waste-
wa te r. w ill he b io log ically oxid ized to nitrate as follows if molecular oxyge n is
present.
Nf-J 4 ; + ~ 0 2 ---> N0 1 - + 2H + + H2 0 (5-38)
N0 2 - + ~O ---> NO ) - (5-39)
These reac ti o ns res ult in th e utili za tion of ab o ut 4.6 m g o f O 2 per each mg of
Nf-J ; --N ox idized , wi th a b o ut 7. 1 mg of a lk a linit y 'needed to neutra li ze the acid
(1-1 t ) produ ced. '. . .'
In raw w<1s tewater, th e predo niinant fOrJ~ s of nit rogen are-o rganic nitrogen a nd
am lll onia. Bi o logica l tr ea tment may result in conve rsion io nitrate. provided the
processess are aerob ic and pro vid ed th e treatment peri o ds are lo ng en oug h.
Co ntact tim es in Illost seco ndar y treatment sys te m s. though sufficient to comp lete
th e co n version from organic nitrogen to <1mmo ni a. may n o t be s ufficient for
signiftcant nitlltic a t iun. Becau se of oxyge n ci e mand exer ted by amm o nia and
 HH; INEE REn SYSTH IS FO R WAST EWA T ER T REA TM EN T AN D DI SPOSA L 297
296 WA TER

excess O H - io ns fo r pH adj u stm e n t A n a m o u n t equ iva le n t to t he a lk ali n ity p lus

beca u se of o ther e n v ir o nment a l fac tors. re m ova l o f a mm o ni a m a y be requi red . T he
J.5 mequ iv/ L is u sua ll y su ffi c ie n t to brin g th e p H to app roxima tely I I. S.
m os t co mmo n p roces ses fo r rem ovin g a mmo ni a from was tewa ter a re (l ) s t ripp ing
Once t he co n ve rs io ll to am m o ni a has been co m p leted . s tripping, o r de-
with a ir and (2) bi o logica l nit r ifica ti o n-d en itri fica ti o n
-.-- -
Air st ripping Air stripping o pera tion s co n sist o f co nve rt ing amm o n ium to th e
'
gasificat io n . ca n p roceed . T he m os t e ffi c ien t reac to r h a s been fo u nd to be a co unt er-
cur re nt sp ray t owe r s imi la r to th e o ne show n in Fi g. 5-46. Large quantiti es o f a ir
ar e req u ired. a nd a fan m u s t be.inc lud ed to draw a ir thr o ug h th e tower. P a cki n g
ga seo us phase and th e n di spersin g the liquid in a ir, thu s a ll o win g tr ans fe r o f th e
is usua ll y pro vi d ed to mi n imi ze 111m res istan ce to gas t ra nsfer by co ntinu o usly
amm o nia fr o m th e wastewa ter to lhe a ir acco rdin g to th e pri nc ip les o ut lined in
Sec . 3-4. The ga seous phase NH 3 and th e a qu eo us ph a se NH 4 + ex ist to ge th er' in form in g. sp lash in g. a nd refo rm in g d fOp S /
D esig n p a ram ete rs fo r amm o nia -.(r rippi ng reac to rs in clu d e a ir-t o -li q uid
equilibr ium as indi ca ted in Eq . .cS ~ 3 7) . The re la ti ve a bun da nce of t he p h a ses
ra t ios. to we r d e p th. and lo adi ng ra tes. C o mm o n d es ig n prac ti ce is to use a ir-to -
de p e nd s u p o n bo th t he pH a nd th e ' te m pe ra ture o f the wa stewa ter. A s see n In J
was tewa te r ra ti os ra n gi ng fr o m ab o ut 2000 to 6000 m o f a ir per c u bic me te r o f
Fi g . 5-4 5, th e p H mu st be in excess of II fo r co m p lete co nve rs io n to N H 3 Slilce
wa stewa ter. wit h m o re a ir be in g I-eq ui red a t lowe r te m pe ra tures. T o we r d e pt hs
thi s is well ab ove t he n o rm a l pH fo r wa stewate r, p H adjustm e nt is f) ecessa r y p ri or
a re se ld o m less than 7.S 111. a nd hydr a ul ic load in g ra te s va ry fr o m a bo u t 40 to 46
!o ai r s t np p ll1 ~F 6 r eco nom ic reaso ns, lime is th e most comm o n m ean s of rai sin g
th e pH . A n un avo id a ble co n sequ e nce o f lim e a dditi o n is th e so ft e nin g o f th e L/ min per sq u a re m e ter o f towe r. [ S- 14J
Air strippin g. is o ne o f th e Ill Os t eco n o mi ca l m e an s o f nitroge n re m ova l.
wa stewa te r. E no ugh lime mu s t be a dd ed to prec ipita te th e a lka linit y a nd t o a dd th e
pa nicu la rl y if li m e prec ip itat io n " f ph os ph a te is a lso req ui red . beca use c hem ica l
c(l nui t io n in can be co nc urr en t. Th ere ::ne se ri o us limitati o ns to th e process .
100 o

l'lV
howeve r. A; 3 i r te mp era t LI re a pp rn ac hes fr eez i ng.. a d ra st ic red uc t io n 111 e ffi c ie ncy
i, obse r ve d . a nd p re hea t ing o f th e :Ii r is n() t prac ti ca l becau se o f th e la rge vo lum e
90 10 requ ired . Funherill o re . towers c ann o t o pe ra te in s ub freez ing we a th er beca use o f

80
VI 20
icing. In co ld c lim a tes. a lt e rn a ti ve m eth o d s of n itroge n re m ov a l illust be p rovided
durin g w ill ter.
Othe r proh lem s a ssoc iat ed w ith ~lm m Oll l a str ip p ing in c lud e no ise and a ir

/ / po llut io n a nd sca lin g o f th e pac kin g med ia . N o ise a nd od o r pro blem s ca used by

II JO
70 th e roa r o f t he fa n s a nd t he d is persio n o f a Illm Olll Cl ga s c a n be III in illl izecl by Idca t ing'
lhe fac il itv a way fro lll th e p o pul a ted a rea. Prec ipi tatio n o f ca lc iulll ca rb ona te sca le
V
....6. 0 . ... . . .... . . . .. "4 0'" .

II
'

I
40C
"J:.r'I 5 0 50 '-J:
z
IH 20C
z
il r! I"t

7:/ I
40 60 e l;lllillat or~

30 70 --
Wate r
J) "lrlQutlon
"y\lL'J1l

// / 00C
8o
inle l

20

10 /
Jj / 9 o
:::::==: F il l

6
.-/
7
?~ 8 9 10 i 1
100
Fi gur e' 5--l 6 DIagram of counlc.:r-
pH
current towt:r for amm OIlI<-J
Figure 5 45 EfTcCIS o rp H a lld tem pl'rill ll r~ on ci is lnbuli oll o f amm on ia and am moni um ion III \.\' a lc:f . Slnrping . ( Frolll E['.I [5-431 .1
(From FPA [5-43].)
 29ll WATER
o n th e pac k mg m edia as a result o f w as tew a te r so ft e nin g ca :l be min im ized by th e
use o f s m oo th- s urface p o lyv in yl c hl m id e (PV C ) pi pe a s pack ing ma te ri a l, t ho ug h
occas io nal clea nin g o f th e packin g m edi a is still req uir ed .
Nitrification-denitr ' 'on Amm o nia nit roge n ca n be co n verted to gaseo us
Ilit roge n. N 2 b y bi o log ical pro cesses. In thi s fo rm . nitr ogen is essent ia ll y inert
and d oes no t reac t w ith th e was tew ate r itse lf o r w ith o th e r cons t itue n ts o f th e
wa s tewaters . S in ce N2 is the pri nc ipa l co n st itu e nt o f a ir.. trea ted was tewa ter is
like ly to be a lrea d y satura ted w ith m o lecul a r nitroge n a nd the a d d iti o na l N2 is
si mpl y re leased to t he atm os phe re.
Bi o log ica l co n vers io n o f a mm o ni a to nitr ogen g a s is no t a direc t process but
co n s is ts o f t'.vo se p a rat e s teps.Th e amm onia mu stflrs t be ox id ized to nitr a te a nd
th en red u ced t o m olecular nItro ge n. These rea cti o ns reqlllfe cldfe rent en Vlro n c
{ m ent a l co nd iti o ns and mus t be ca rri ed o ut in se p a rate reac to rs.
Th e orga ni sm s respo n sible fo r n itr ifica ti o n a re t he autotrop h ic bac te ri a,
nit roS0 Il1 11naS a nd nitr o b ac ter. Equ at io ns (5-38) a nd (5-39) rep resen t ca tabo lic
reac t io ns t hat s up p ly en e rgy. An abo lic reac t io ns use ca rbo ll d iox id e a nd / o r
bi ca d,ona te as a carbo n so urce a nd may be re p rese n ted by th e fo ll ow in g eq uat io n.
[ 5- 32J
(5-40)
A lt ho u g h some a mm o ni a is co n ve rt ed to b iomass by thi s reac t io n. th e ca tab o li c
reac ti ons are t he prin cipa l a mm o ni a co n ve rs io n p rocesses.
Nil rifica ti o ll ca n be accompli s hed in b o th susp en d ed-c ultur e a nd a tt ac hed-
cLifiLlre reiiciors. Ulld er fa vo ra ble c ircu ll1sta n ces. nit ri fi ca ti o ;) ca n be a ccom plis hed
a lo n g w ith ca r bo naceo us !iDD re m ova l In seco nd ary trea tm ent sys tems... In
o th e r cases it is mo re e ffici ent to sepa ra te th e processes a nd fo ll ow c arb o naceo us
BOD re m ova l w ith' a sep a ra te reac tor fo r nitrifi ca ti o n Opera ti on~li p a rame ters
o f imp o rt a nce inc lude pH , DO , ae ra ti o n pe ri o d s. me an cell; res id c n ce time, a nd
car bo n -to- ni troge n ra ti os. T empq;tt1:lre is an over rid ing var ia bl e th a t a ffec ts
o ptimu m ranges o f all t he ab ove va riab les. Co m b in ed ca rbo n ox idati o n an d nit r i- .
fi ea ti o n ope ra t io ns are p oss ible a t wa r me r te m pe ra tu res. whil e co lcl e r was tewa ters
will requ ire se p ara te treatm ent sys te m s in m os t cases.
In t he de nit l'ifica ti o n process. nitra te is reduced to !l i ~t h eJill!Il.e
fac ult m;:;e. ~ero trop hi c bac teri a in vo lved in--.th e oxid at io n o f ca r bo n aceo us
m a1.er iaL F or red ue t io n to OCC lll . t he cI isso lved oxyge n leve l mu st be at or near
zero . and a car bon s u p pl y'm ti st be ava ibb le to the bac telia. Because a low carbo n
con te n t is req u ired for th e p rev io us n itr ifica tion step,sarbo n mus t be adclecL.WG-re
d~.oJ t rifjca li ()Il t:.:.lJJ-J.lwccecl . A smal l amou n t o r primary efilu ent. by p ass~~J~d
seco.Di@0 :lIlci ni tri fi ca ti o n reac tors . c a ll be usccL ) SUllp l~lit::.\J.!l:m )JL H UlVcve r.
th e u n nitr~ co mp o un ci s in this wa ter wi ll he u nafTectcd by the d cnitrihca tion
process ~I n d \\'i ll appear in th e e fll ue nt. W he n esse nti a lly complete lI itl'ogen re-
lll11y.ri is reqUired . an ex terna l so urce of calbon containing no nilmgen will be
ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR W ASTE WA TER TREATMENT A ND D ISPOSA L 299
required . The m os t co mm o nl y used external carbo n s ource is meth a n o L CH ) OH.
Wh en m eth ano l is a dd ed , the de nitrifica ti o n rea ction is
Theo reti call y. eac h milli gram per liter o f nitra te sho uld require 1.9 mg/ L of
meth a nol. Und e r treatment plant co nditions, ho wever , about 3.0 mg/ L of met hanoi
is required for each milligram per liter o f nitr a te. ma k in g this process an expensive
one. Th e inte res ted rea d e r is refer red to M et ca lf & Eddy , Inc. [ 5-36J a nd EPA
litera ture [ 5-4 3J fo r des ign criteria.
Phosphorus Removal
Ph os ph o ru s is a u b iquit o us constituent o f munic ipa l wastewa ter. a ve ra g in g ar o und
10 mg/ L in mo st c ases. The principal fo rm s are w ganicall y l2.o und p h osph o ru s.
polyphos ph a tes. a n d o rth o ph os ph a tes . Organically ~~J:illo.ws o rigiiiares
fro m 5 0dy an d food was te and . up o n bi o lo ica l d ecompositio o f th~s e ~Q lid s , is
re,lea~ed as o rth o ph ospha tes Qlypl~ 7{tes ~sed--eX'lens i vely in ~tic
det ergents and o f~bute lip to o ri e-h a lf the phosph o ru s 111' was tew a ter.
P oly~ h a tes can be hydro lyzed to o rth o phosph a tes. Thus th e prin c ipa l fo rm.
of phosph o ru s 111 wastewa ter is assum ed to be o rth o phosph a tes. alth o u g h the "-
other tw o fo rm s m ay coexis t.
Q!:ili0 pl1ospha tes co ns ist of the negative radi cals P0 4 ) - . HPO / -, and
H Z P0 4 - and m ay fo rm ch emical co mbin a ti o n s with cations or POS ItI ve ra Oicals.
Tn mos t cases th e co mp o und s are quit e so luble, a nd phosphate rem ova l in co n-
ventio na l prima ry trea tment is neg lig ible . Because phosphoru s is a co mp o nent
of micro bi a l cells, so me ph os phat e may be rem o ved in th e biom ass in seco ndar y
treatment processes. Ho\vever. microorganisms need relative"ly 'littte pnospncfrbs _....
as compared w ith car b o n a nd nitr ogen. a nd less th a n 3 mg/L of ph osph o ru s is
usu ally rem oved in co nventi o nal seco nd a ry trea tment. When effluent requirement
necessitates grea ter rem oval dfici encies, additional treatment must be pro vided .
The principa l mean s of phosphorus remo va f is chemical precipitatio n. At
....sli g!ltly a ~ i c p~. o rt ho ph os ph a tes co mbin e with tri valent aluminum o r iron
.
cati ons to fo rm a prec Ipitate. . .
riA. _I. ('
lRU.()'J r"'~;:J
. AI J + (H " P0 4 y .l-n) - ( 5-42)
Fe3 + + ( H" P0 4 y.l - n) - (5 -43)
Beca use d o mes tic was tewa te r usu a ll Y co nt a in s o nl y trace a mo unt s o f iro n and
aluminu m. th e addi tio n o f these mat ~rials i's necessary. Salts o f th ese meta ls. such
as th ose d iscussed in Sec. 4-6. can be add ed fo r thi s purpose.
At h igher pH valu es. c a lcium fo rm s an insoluble com ple x With ph os pha te.
The add it io n of lilll e can prov id e bo th the ca lcium a nd th e pH a dju stm e nt neces-
sary.
5Ca(OH )2 + 3( H " Po).,)"' - nl -
C a ,(O H )(P0 4 M + I1 H 2 0 + (9 - I/)O H - (:' -44)
300 WATER
ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 301

This re'a ction requires a pH o f at least 9.0 for significant ph osphoru s removaL system is often th e process o f cho ice. while hi g h pH precipitati o n b y lime in a
Higher pH values generally increase removal efficiencies. H owever. recarbonation te rtiary unit is req uired to o bt a in ve ry low le ve ls o f effluent phosph o ru s. Wh ere
may be necessary to lower the pH after.the. precipitation process . has removed the nitroge n rem ova l b y ammonia stripping is also pract iced. terti ary lime precipita-
phosphorus. ti o n at a pH of 11 .5 serves in both processes.
Chemical requirements for phosphate precipitation exceed the stoichiometric
requirements indicated in Eqs. (5-42) through (5-44). Aluminum and iron sa lts
react with alkalinity in the wastewater to produce me ta llic hydroxide Aoes 5-21 SOLIDS REMOVAL
[Al(OHh and Fe(OHhJ and may increase the required d osages by up to a fa c tor
of 3. Fortunately. this increase is not totally wasted. as th e m eta llic hydroxides . Remova l .s f..,suspended ::9 lid s. an ~Ole tim es di sso lved so~s.~y be necessa ry
assist in the flocculati on and removal of the metallic-phos phat e precipitate. along ill advanced was temter- trea tm cnt sys tem s. Th e so lid s rem ova l processes em-
with other su spended and colloidal so lid s in the wastewater. a nd a re thu s useful Ployed in ad van ced was tewa te r tr ea tm e nt ~ re esse nti a ll y th e same a s tho se used
in the treatment process. At high pH values calcium reac ts co mpl e te ly w ith waste- in the treatment o f potah le w::l te r. a lth o ugh application is mad e m o re difficu lt b y
water alkalinity to form ca lcium carbonate. Lime addit ions equivalent to the th e overa ll poorer quality o f th e was tewa ter.
alkalinity plus that required for phosphate precipita ti o n a nd pH adju stment are
required.
Suspended Solids Removal
Phosphorus removal can be incorporated into primary or seco ndary treat-
ment or may be added as a tertiary process. Selection of th e point of application As an advanced Ueatment process. suspend ed -so lid s rem o val impli es the remov a l
depends on efficiency requirements. wastewater characterist ics. and the type of o f partic les and fl ocs tCio small 0 [' too li ghtwe ig ht to be remov ed in gravity settling
secondary treatment employed . The advantages and di sadvantages of each ope rat ions. Th ese so lid s ma y be carried over fr o m th e secondar y c Ia rine r or fr o m
system are summarized in Table 5-17. Where effluent ph osph o ru s concentrat io ns terti a ry sys tem s In ivhlch so lid s were prec ipitat ed .
of up to 1.0 mgj L are accep table. the use of iron or alum inum salts in t he secondary Severa l met hods ::Ire ::Ivailable for re m ov ing ['esidual suspend ed so lid s fr o m
\\astewater. Re mova l hy ce ntrifu gat io n. air !l o ta ti o n. mech ani cal microscreening.
anel granula r-m ed ia filt ra ti o n have a ll been used s uccessfull y. In c urrent practice.
Table 5-17 Comparison of point of application for phosphorus removal systems
l!ra nul a r- media filtration is th e most com m o n Iv used process. Bas ica ll y. th e same
Primary Secondary T e rtiar y ~) rinc ipl es th a t a ppl y to liltra tl on of particles' fr o m pot a ble wa ter appl y to th e
remova l of residua l so lids in wastewa ter These princ iples we re di sc ussed in Sec.
Advantages
4-8, and that di sc ll'ss i'clIi ~v';l1 iib"tbe repeate"dhere. Ditrerencesinoperational modes
Applicable to all plants
for application o f these prin ci ples to wastewat e r fil tration vs. potable water
Lowes t capital Lowes t ph os ph o rus in effiuent
iiltration may ran ge fr o m s li ghi to drastic. however . and the most commonly
Increased BOD and Lowe r chemical dosage than M ost e ffi c ie nt me tal use used wastewater filtrati o n tech r1lq ues are discu ssed be low.
suspended solids removal primary Sand filters ha ve bee n used to poli sh effluents fr o m se ptic ta nk s. lmhoff tank s.
Lowest degree of m eta l Im prgved stabilIt y of activated Lime recovery poss ibk and other anaerobic trea tm ent unit s for decad es. Beca use the y are alterna tely
leakage slud ge dosed a nd allowed to dry. th e ter m il11erlllifll.'l1l sa nd .fillers has been applied to
Polyme r not required Separatio n of o rganic and thi s type of unit. The process is essen tiall y th e s low sand filt er described in Sec.
inorga ni e slud ge
4-8. More recen t Iy. thi s type o f filt e r has bee n appli ed to the effluent fr o m oxidation
Disadvantages po nds with cl) ns iderab le success. Effluent co ncentrat ions o f less than 10 mgj L
of BOD and suspe nd ed su lids ha ve been reported a t filtering ra tes of 0.37 to 0. 56
Least etficient utili zation of Ca re ful pH control to get H ig hest capita l cost m 3 i m 2 . d. Filt er run s in excess of I month are possible. [5-26J
me tal ph ospho rus < I mg! L Use of intermitt ent sand filt et's in ta ndem with co nventional seco ndar y treat-
Polymer re quired for O ve rd ose o f mctalmay cau se Hi g hes t met al Jc:l kage ment has not bee n .I'erv successful. [5-141 Th e natur e of th e so lid s from these
Aocculation low pH tox icity
processes res ult s in rar id plu gg ll1 g at th'e S~ltlJ s urf~l ce. necess it a tin g frequent
Sludge more ditfi cu lt to Can no t use lime bec:lU se of clean ing a III I thu s high maint enanc e cos ts. Th e li se of inl ermitl enlfi lt e rs for te rti ary
dewattr than primar y excess i ve pH
trca tmcnt IS usua ll y res t ricted ttl plants with sma ll fl ows.
sludge
Gra nul ar-media flltrat[un is us ually th e prnccss of choice in I3rger seconda ry
Source: Adapt ed fr om Ku gel ma n . ( 5-28] systems. Du al or tll ultltnelkt hed s preve nt sur fa ce plugging problems and allow
302 WATER
fo r lo nger filter runs. Loadin g rates depend o n both the co ncen trati o n and nature
o f so lid s in the wastewa ter. Filtering ra tes ran g ing from 12 to 30 m 3 / m 2 dav have
been used w ith filter run s o f up to I d. M o re det a il ed info rm ation o n the d e; ign o f
hi g h-rate filt e rs for a dvan ced was tewat e r sys tems can be fo und in C ul p e t a l.
[ 5-14J and M etca lf & Eddy. [5-36J
Othe r recen t inn ova ti o ns in filtrati on practices h o ld promi se fo r advanced
wastewa ter tr ea tm ent. iI/l oving hed ji/lers have been devel oped which are con-
tinuou s ly cleaned , and t he ra te o f clea nin g ca n be adju sted to match th e so lids
lo ading ra te. Anoth er m od ifica ti o n ca lleel th e l'u/s{'d-hed ji/ler. uses compressed
air to pe ri odicall y bre a k up th e s urface mat d ep os it ed o n a thin bed of fine filt er
media . Onl y a fter a thi c k s uspe ns io n o f so lid s has accumulated o n th e bed, re-
quiring frequen t puls in g, is the filter backwas hed .
Both th e m ov in g bed and the pul sed-bed filt ers ha ve t he capabi lity o f filter ing
ra w was tewater. A mu c h h ig her percentage o f so lid s C,tn be I-e moved by fi ltra ti o n
than can be removed in pr imary se ttlin g_ Thc fil te r et-flu e nt. co nt a inin g lowe r
leve ls o f mos tly di sso lve d o rga ni cs. res pond s very we ll to co n ve ntiona l seco ndary
treatme nt. The filt ered so lid s ca n be thi cke ned and trea ted by ana ero bic di ges ti o n.
Wit h a res ultant increase in overa ll meth ane pro duc ti o n, a poss ible so urce of energy
for use wi thin th e plant.
Dissolved Solids Removal
Bo t h seco ndar y trea t ment (Secs. 5-9 to 5- 12) a nd nuui e n t remova l (Sec. 5- 19)
d ec rease the di sso lved- o rgililic-so li d s co nt ent o f was tewater. Ne ither p rocess.
howe\er.- co mp le tel y re m o \'es all disso lved organic con s tit uents, and neither
process rem oves s ig nifi ca nt amo unt s o f in o rganic di sso lved so lid s. Further t reat-
men t ,v iii be required_whe l-e. su bs tanli a l. reducti oDs. in. the .t ota l. di sso lved .solids or.
W~l s t e\\' at e r mu s t be made.
Io n exc han ge. mi croporolls membrane filtr a tion. adsorpti o n. and che mi ca l
ux idatit>n ca n be lI sed to decrease th e di sso lved so lid s co nt e nt of wa ter. Th ese
pro.ce:sse~. de scr ibed in Chap. 4 (Sec. 4-10), we re dcvel o peel to prepare po table'
wa ter fr o m a p oo r-qualit y raw wa ter. Their use ca n be adopted to adva nced
was tewa ter treatm e nt ir a hi g h leve l of pretreatment is provided . Th e remova l of
s uspe nded so lid s is necessa ry prior to a ny o f t hc processes d escr ibed in Sec. 4- 10.
Remo\al of the d isso lved o rgani c material (by ac ti v;:lt ed carbon a d so rpti o n) is
necessarv prior to mi croporo lls m embra ne filtratiun to preve nt the larger o rga nic
molecules rrom pl ugg ing the micro pores.
Advanced wa stewater trea tm e nt for disso lved so lid s remova l is complica ted
:J nL! e .~p e n s i ve. Treatment o f municipa l wastewa ter by th ese processes ca n be
justified o nly when reu se o f th e wa stewa ter is anticipa tcd.
Wastewater Disposal and Reuse
II1 s ig nilicant vo lum e u rth e inll uent wastewa te l- aCC(l ll1panies s ludges and o th er
.'\11
materia ls d isposed of durin ~ \\'aste\\atcr- tre:ltrnent l'r l1ccsscs. Til e hulk o f th e
ENG IN EERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 303
wa stewater re main s to be disposed o f a ft e r the treatment processes h ave been
completed. Ult imate receptors o f tre a ted wastewaters include surface water and
gro undwat e r bodies, land surfaces, a nd , in some instances, th e atmosphere. Recog-
niti o n o f th e va lu e o f was tewa ter as a water reso urce has result ed in an increase in
th e reuse of tre a ted e ffluent s. particul a rl y in water-scarce regi o n s. Portions of th e
reused was tewater may appear as effluent for di sposal after reuse.
Disp osa l s ites o r reuse facil iti es mu st be fou nd w ithin a r~as o n a ble dist a nce
of th e wastewater-trea tm ent plant because o f th e cos t of trans p o rting the effluent
over long di sta nces. Beca use o f th e p ossibi lity .th a t was tewa ter m ay contain a few
viab le p a th oge n s eve n after ex tensive t reatment. both disposal a nd reuse must be
acco mplis hed w ith d u e ca ution .
5-22 W ASTEW ATER DISPOSAL
Th e most co mm o n m eth o d o f wastewate r d isp osa l is by dilution in surface waters .
The resp o nse of rece iving stre a m s to wastewa ter di sc~arges was discussed in
Chap. 3. a nd th e effec ts a re re lated to th e dilution factor and to th e quality of the
effluen t. In mos t cases, seco nd ary treat ment is sufficient to prevent pro blems .
Howeve r. w he re adequate dilution is n o t availab le. or where discharge is to a
deli ca te ecosys te m . adva nced wastew a te r trea tmen t may be requi red. Advanced
trea tment pri o r to di sposa l in s urface wa ters m os t often in vo lves the removal of
nutrient s. In a few Instances. a d va nc ed treatment may b e necessa ry to rem ove
co ll o idal so lid s.
In climates whe re evaporatio n fr o m wa ter surfaces exceed s precipitation.
it may be poss ib le to dispo se of wastewater by clisch a rge to th e a tm osp here in
-.. va por' form. ' Evapo ratton systems. a re essen ti a ll y ox id a tion ponel s. wi th surface
areas being designed 1'01' to ta l influ en t evap o ration. Except for ar id a reas where
th e net evaporat io n is significant. la rge surface areas are required, thu s limitin g _
evapo rati o n sys tems to small fl ows in rura l se ttings.
Fo r c ities in coas ta l areas. ocean d isp osa l o ffer s an economically attracti ve
form o f di sp osa l. The e ffluent is tran sp o rt ed o ut to sea by pipelines a long the ocea n
noo r and discharged at multiple points through a manifold. The leng th of the pipe-
line wi ll depen d primarily o n ocean currents and th e quantity of waste in vo lved.
Alth o ug h raw wastewa ter has been di sposed o f in this fa shi o n without caus ing
app reciab le pro b lem s. it is desira ble to e limin ate fl oa ting debris, o il s a nd greases,
~nd recognizab le objects from the wastewater prio r to di sposa l. It is essential to
remove large objec ts which cou ld plug the pipeline o r the m a nifold orifices.
La nd app lica ti o n o f wastewater may. b~ co ns idered a disposa l techniqu e, a
form o f waStewa ter reuse. or both. The m o's t common fo rm s of land a pplicatio n
are irrigatio n' a nd rap idinfiltra ti o n. Wastew a ter m ay be u sed to su ppl y both th e
Water and nutrient needs of plant s. Use for this purpose may be pro mpted by
eco no mics re lat in g t o ei th er th e agr ic ultural as pects o r to th e was tewa ter disposa l
as pec ts. l n e ith e l~ case. direct disc harge to s urface streams is avo id ed. R a pid
infiltra t ion res ult s ill the d isc harge of the wastewa ters to gro undwater b od ies
304 WATER
rather than to surface waters. In addition to wastewa ter di spos al. o bj ectives ma y
include gro undwate r recharge as described in a later sec ti o n of thi s cha pter. -
Irrigation
Wastewater may be a pplied to la nd surfaces to prov ide bo th water a nd nutrient s
to enhance plant growth. Ait hough so me of the efflu ent may be los t t o evaporatio n
or to perco lation beyond the reach of pl ant roots, most of the wa ter is in corpo ra ted
into plant- tissue o r is tran spired to th e atm osphere.Was tewa ter efflu ents have heen
used successfully in both argiculture and sil viculture a nd have been lIsed to
maintain vegetatio n in park s, o n golf co urses, and alo ng freeways and a irport run -
(a )
Comple tely flooded
(r)
Figurf 5-47 Irri ga tio ll I ~c hniqu es usi ll g municipal was tewaler ' (II) srrillklillg:
,"HJ -I"urrow tcc hn iq ucs . (From POI/lids ond Criles [5-4/ ]. )
ENG IN EERED SYSTE ~ t S FO R W ASTEW AT ER TREATMENT AND D ISPOS AL 305
ways. Land app li ca tio n has beco me com monpl ace in semia rid areas where irriga-
tio n IS necessa ry to sustain des ira ble vege ta ti o n.
La nd applic ati o n of wastewa ter can be by sprinkling, fl ooding, o r ridge-and-
furr ow techniqu es, as show n in Fig. 5-47. Spr inkle irrigation is the most co mmo n
me th od, wi th a pplica tio n ra tes vary ing fr o m 2. 5 to 10 em per week , depend ing o n
climate, so il c hara cteri stics. and the wa ter and nutrient requirement of th e plant s.
T he deg ree of pretreatment prior to land application va ries with the nature
of the crop to be grown. Crops grown for a nimal consumpti on o r fo r seed produ cti o n
ca n genera ll y acce pt lowe r-q ual ity eftlu ent than cro ps grown for human co nsump-
ti o n. In most cases, seco ndar y tn:atm cnt is requ ired. Wa stewa ter should not be
used to irri ga te vege tables tha t are eat en raw.
Was tewa ter irr iga tio n systems may be ow ned by the mincip alit y, o r co n-
tractu al arrangement s can be made with loca l farm ers for effluent utilizatio n. In
either case, it is oft en poss ible to I'ecover part of th e cost of pretreatm ent of th e
wastewa ter fr om th e cas h cro p or fro m sa le of the effluent. When was tewat er is
reused for la nd scape irri ga tion of pu bli c property, sav ings of potable wa ter supplies
may be a sig nifica nt ad va nt age.
T he l'e are, ho weve r. seve ra I d isad va n tages tII t he use of wastewa ter efflu en t
fo r irriga tio n pur poses. Th e seaso na l na ture of irri.ga tion wa ter needs may result
Ii1 la rge sto rage req ui re ment s. If th e syste m is to be o perated by the municipalit y,
land and equipment mu st be purchased at con siderable expense, Wh ere large,
high- press ure sprinklers are used, ae roso ls can be formed which may transport
viral path ogens, Large-sca le irrigation systems mu st be loca ted away fr om hea vily
populated areas, and the cost of conveyance sys tems to the site is often significant.
Distributi o n syst ems for irriga ti on of pa rk s, greenbelt s, a'nd other publicly owned
areas ca n be ex pensive if suc h a reas are widel y di spersed a nd if th e transpo rt
system mu st be co nst ru cted thro ugh deve lo ped a reas.
Rapid Infiltration
Thc ra pi d Iflfiltrati oll process in\'olvcs spreadlfl g wastewat er in shallow, unlined
earthen baS in s a nd all owin g th e liqui d to pass tl~ r o ugh th e po ro us bot tom and
pe rcola te towa rd the gro und wat er, ~l S show n in Fi g. 5-48. Was tew ater is a pplied
at the max imum rate a t which th e soi l ca n ca rr y It away. Int ermitt ent " res ting"
peri ods mu st be prov id ed In whi ch th e soil is all owed to dry and 'reestabl is h
ae robic co nci it io ns. A ppli ca ti o n cyc les 01' I() to 20 d with 1- to 2-week res t ing periods
are commo n. Th e bo tt om surface may be rak ed o r disked prio r,t o each ap plica ti o n
cyc le to d ispe rse so lid s a nd preve nt ~1I1 im permea ble la yer fr om fo rm ing.
Ma ny of th e ra pid infiltra ti o n systems in current use were des igned pI'im aril y
to dispose of un wa nt ed was tewat e r. Mo re recc ntl y th e process has been used as a
means of aquifer rec ha rgc or as an alh 'anced wastewat er treatment. wit h the'
pe rcola te be ing collected fOI' reu,e Co ll ec tio n may be by ho ri zo nt al Ao\\' to
(h) n'h"lillg. (e) ridge,
surrace strea ms, or by we lls or dr ~ liIl til cs IIl stalled for thi s purpose. T he so il acts
essentia ll y as a filt er rll r tertiary treatmen t
306 WATER ENG tNEE RED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TR EATMENT AND DISPOSAL 307

o !, ,"'"'"'"
Applied reused for several purposes, which include creation or enhancement of recreational
was tew3 ter facilities. industrial water sup p lies. g roundwa ter recharge. a nd direct reu se in
potable s uppli es.

f
~,'-,-----
Recreational Facilities
Water-qu a lit y requirements for recreati o nal uses are quite strin gent. and some
form o f advanced wastewater-treatment techniq ues will a lmos t invari a bl y be
required prior to wastewater reuse for th is purpose. Indeed. where body-contac t
(a)
ac tivities suc h as s~i mmin g and wa ter skiin g are included. th e qu a lit y of th e water
reso urce mu st approac h that o f d rinkin g wa ter w ith respec t to most parameters.
Flooding basins
Recrea ti o nal wa ter shou ld be aes th e tica ll y pleasi ng and essentially free o f toxi-
ca nts a nd pa th oge nic o rga nis ms. Recrea tiona l wa ters composed chiefly o r
entire ly of was tewa ter effluents are possible. provided a sufficie nt degree o f treat-
ment is provided.
T wo examples o f wastewa ter re use in recre a tion a l faciliti es o ften c ited in th e
(unsaturated zone)
ittera ture are th e San tee projec t a nd the Indian C reek Reservo ir. bo th in California .
. BOlh fa ci lities p rovide a high quality o f recreationa l water. but by different treat-
(~r olln dwa[ ~ r
men t processes.
(h)
At th e San tee faci lit y seco nd a ry efflue nt is fir st polished in a ter ti ary ox id a ti o n
po nd and th en pumped int o a ca nyo n and a ll owed to fl ow horizo nt a ll y th ro u g h
t approx imate ly 1000 m o f sa nd a nd gra ve l m a te ri a l before bei ng recove red. The
recove red wa ter is then routed thr o ugh a series o f three lakes su rro unded by a
R l'Lt.)vt:r~J
t public park. Fi shing a nd boat ing a re a ll owed on the firs t two lakes. Th e third
wa.ter
lake is ch lo rin a ted and used as a sw imming fac ility. The rec la imed wa ter is o f
We ll s
sufficient qua lit y to meet Ca lifo rni a standards fo r body-co nt ac t recreati o n.
[5- 14J .. .. .. . . .. . . ... . ........ . .... ..' . . . . . . .

- -
Pe r co lation
(unsa t urated zone)
Fi gure 5-48 Rapid infiltration o f was tewater. (a) Pe rcolatIon 10 gro und""" er: (b) recover y by under
drain tiles: (e) recovery by wells. (From US. EPA [54:'].)
5-23 W ASTEW ATER REUSE
Re u se o f treated was teW:l te r may be dictated by any lIf seve ra l circ um stan ces ..
In water-scarce a reas. was tewater ma y co nstitut e a maj or portion uf the availab le
reso urce. Where de licate ecosys tems necessitate ~ trin ge nt etnuent tequirements.
r'euse of th e was tewa te r ma y help to offset the co~t of alhan ccd wastewa te r trea t-
ment. or a reu se th a t wi ll ~r ccep"t a lower I c\~ 1 01" treattllen t may o bviate the need
I"o r the expense o f te rtiar y treatment pri or tll dr sch:.lrgc W;ls tew;lte r ha s bee n
Ind ian C reek Reservo ir rece ives trea tment e ffluent from th e So uth Tahoe
Public Utilities District advanced wastewa ter-treatment pla nt The fir s t full-~ca le
advanced wastewa te r-t reatm ent plant to be built in the' United States. the T a hoe
fa cil ity includes nutrient rem oval. fil tra ti o n. and activated ca rbo n adsorption.
The reservoir co ntains about 27 x 10 6 m 3 o f wa ter. essenti a ll y a ll tre a ted effl uent .
and provides ,i varie ty o f wa te r-ba sed ac t ivi ti es, includin g sw imm in g and wa ter
skiing. The impoundment a lso suppo rt s excellent tro ut fi s hin g. [ 5-13J
Surplus wa ters fr o m both the Santee and Tahoe faci liti es are used for irrigation
purposes. Inspired by the success o f th ese two projects. other municipalities are
plan nin g rec rea ti ona l use as one step in the reu se o f wastewater. The city ofOenve r
has an ambit io us p lan fo r was tewa ter recycling. a porti o n of whic h includes
rec rea ti o na l f'ac ilit ies. [ 5-24 J The Fairfax Cou nt y Water Author it y has included an
inter media te rese rvo ir hetween its advanced was tewa ter-t rea t ment plant a nd the
Occoq uan Rese r voir. which form s a part of the W as hingt on, D.C.. water suppl y.
Rt:crcationa l activities :1I"e included as a heneficia l use. [ 5-1 3J
Advanced t rt:at ment of wastewater so le lv for the purpose of crea tin g a recrea-
ti o na l reso urce cuu ld se ld o m be jus tifi ed 01;a n eco n om ic bas is. H oweve r. w hen
adva nced w;t s tewat e r trea tm e nt is req uired for ot her rea so ns. int ermed ia te use o f
308 WATER ENGINEERED SYST EM S FO R WASTEWATER T REATMENT AND D ISPOSAL 309

reclaimed water for recrea tion ca n pro ve to be a viable sc heme and ma y improve In coasta l a reas, salt wa ter from t he ocean ma y wedge undern ea th th e fr esh-
public acceptance of waStewater reuse in genera l. wa ter aq uifer because of its great er density. Drawdown fr o m wells exacerbates the
prob lem a nd ca n res ult in sa lt wate r co nt a minati o n at th e well. Inj ect ion o f was te-
Industrial Water Supply water between th e pumpin g we ll and th e so urce of th e salt water may serve to
crea te a hydrostatic barrier th a t wi ll pu s h th e sa lt water backward. This process is
In terms of total volume, industrial water use o utranks all o th e r wa ter-use categories
show n in Fig. 5-49.
in the United States. Additionally, industrial wa ter require ment s are growing
more rapidly than are municipal or agricultural requirements'. An increase in th e Land surface
use of wastewater effluents for industrial water supplies pa ra lle ls this growth.
The quality of water required for various industrial processes va ries greatl y.
Cooling water generally has the lowest quality constraints. while boiler wa ter
G roundwater table
has the highest. The degree of treatment given wastewaters wil l o bviously be
dictated by the intended industrial use. Cooling processes, which co nstitute the
largest water requirement in most industries, may be able to usc second a ry
effluent directly, although additional solids removal is desirab le and additiona l Fresh water
treatment with biocides may be necessary to prevent biofo uling of surfaces.
Advanced wastewater treatment may be provided by the wastewater auth o rit y
prior to delivery to the industry, or industry m ay rec eive seco ndar y effluent a nd (a)
provide treatment processes designed to meet their particular need s.
A wide variety of industries make use of municipal effluents, the most common
being the power-generating industry and petrochemical plants. In Concord.
California, an industrial complex consisting of Phillips Pe tro le um , Shel l Oil ,
Stauffer Chemical, Monsanto Chemical, and Pacific Gas a nd Electr ic receives
'0
effluent from the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District. The advanced was te- ---------- ~
water-treatment plant provides about 64.000 m 3 / d of high-quality effluent to th e
industries. In Odessa, Texas, a petrochemical industry receives secon dary e ffluent
from the city's wastewater plant and pro vides additional treatm ent as necessary. Ocean
After use in the industry, the wastewater is reu sed fo r secondar y recovery oper-
ations in the oil fields. '[5-3J water
tb)

Groundwater Recharge Wa stewater

injcl"'ion
Wastew<\ter can become a part of groundwater as an in advertent consequence of well
land applica!i6n for irrigation or from rapid in filtration systems d es ig ned fOl'
wastewater disposa l. As discussed in this section, ho weve r. gro und wat e r recharge
will be considered a planned activit y with we ll-defin ed o bj ec ti ves. These o bjec ti ves
may i'nclude stabilizin g the groundwater table, creating hyd ros tatic ba rri ers to

-
prevent saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers, and stor ing wa ter for futur e
use.
In areas where groundwater is used extensively for ag l'ic ultural. indu strial.
a nd municipal purposes. water maybe withdrawn from an aquifer Illore rapi d ly
Fresh
than it can be repleni shed by natural me,!ns. In additi o n to. th e dep let ion o f th e watf?r
resource, the drop in the water table may res ult in s ub s id e nce o f th e area as the
pores in the drain ed part of th e aquifer collapse. Should thi S occur. thc sto rage a nd (cl

hydraulic conductivity o f the acquifer may be altered. This rrocess call be s lulAcd. Fi~ur c 5-4 9 I.'se oil rCd led W;)qCW;) lCf l<l bll)ck ,,11111:1 In jrllr)),j(lil . ((/) Nd Iura I C<lllt! jlion, (/1) S:I Ii w:Hcr
stop ped , or even rcvcrsed by rec hargc wit h reclaimed was tewa ter. ,'5-4 J llllllt;-'\.Hl fr\ill1 ('\'crpu mpiJl ~: (j) v..astC\\"alc! n;lrriL'1
 310 WATER ENG INEERED SYST EMS FO R W ASTEW ATER T REAT MENT AND DISPOSAL 311

S to rage of was tewa te r in th e aq uife r is inc id en ta l to bo th of th e above pro- was tewa ter-trea tm ent system is piped directly t o the influent of the wa ter-treatment
cesses, but grou n dwa te r rec ha rge sys tems may also be des ig ned w ith wa ter pl ant. I ndirecl reuse in vo lves sto r age o f tre ated effluent in natural.or artificial .
storage as t he ir pr ima ry fun c ti o n. T hi s sto r age may fu nct io n m uc h t he same as wa ter bodies fo r a peri od o f tim e pri o r to withdra w a l and Inco rpo r a tIon mt.o th.e...
storage in su rface reservo irs, th e wa ter ta b le fa iling d u r in g pe r iods of h igh pu mpin g wate r suppl y. Indi rect re use is th e m o re accepta ble p ractice at the present time.
a nd r is in g d uri ng pe ri o d s of low w ithd ra wa l. When ;I LJui fer c ha racte r is ti cs a re Di rect reu se o f w astew a ter h as been practiced a t Windhoek, Southwest
favo rab le to st orage. thi s meth od has severa l adva nt ages ove r surface storage Afr ica, s ince 1969. After second a ry treatment, wastew a ter is stored in m a turation
rese rvoi rs. E xtensive co nstru c t io n is avoided. surface use is not disturbed or (h o ld ing) p o nd s a nd the n trea ted as shown in Fig. 5 -5~. !his system is op~rated
res t r ic ted. eva p ora ti o n losses are m in imi zed, and t hc wa ter is iso la ted from most at hig h-u se perio d s o f the year and d uring drou g ht co ndItIOns a nd .h a s constItuted
sources o f con tam ina nt s. as m u ch as 50 perce nt o f the p o ta ble supply. [5-54]
L iabiliti es assoc ia ted w iih i he use of rec laimed was tewa ter for gro u ndwa ter
rec ha rge re la te m os tl y to wa ter qu a lit y. Lik e surface wa te r b odi es, ac qu ife rs have
self-c lea nin g m ec h a ni sm s. H oweve r. th ese m echanisms may wo rk ve ry s low ly, Sru d ge diges tion
a n d disposal
a nd ce rt a in co nt a min a nt s ma y rem a in in t he groundwate r for yea rs. Because lit t le
can he do ne t o speed th e self-pur ifi ca t io n process. ex t reme care mu st be exe rcised
to avoid aq u ife r co nt am in a ti o n . Wh e re part of an aqui fer is used for drinki n g-water
supp lies. t he rec h a rge wa ter mu st be o f essen ti a ll y potab le LJua li ty.
Mu nici pa l
M eth od s o f aq uife r recharge in c lud e land s p rea d ing a nd subsequ ent perco la- wHslewater
tiQn (esse ntiall y t he same pro cess as rapi d intiitratiu ll dcsc ri bed ear li er ) a nd di rec t
inject io n Di rec t inj ec ti c n is t he reverse o f w idtiidrawa l by a we ll and pum p
syste m . as sh ow n in Fig. 5-49c. Land s p reading is usu~d l y the p referred met hod
s in ce ad d itio na l a erobic treatme nt is p rov id ed in t he aer~ l ted so il ahove t he aq uifer.
S usp end ed so li ds a re re mo ved ncar tli e s urfa ce \vhere th e p lugged area ca n be
res tored mu c h m o re ea s il y than a plu gged a q u ikl' ~ect i o n With th e exce ptio n of
Algae scum
la nd acq ui si t Io n. t he ca pit a l cos ts o f la nd spread Ing systems are lower than t hose of
to disposal
injec ti o n we ll s . a nd ope ra tin g cos ts arc a lso lower. r5-45] D irec t injec ti on may be
necess iated b y im permea ble st ra ta be twee n the surface and th e aquife r, or may
. p rQ.v: i.d e.ID.Q (C a CC UI.a te. placeJnellLiLLhe recl a imed .water is Hsed fo r baniers aga inst
sa lt wat e r intru s io ll . A hi g he r qu a lit y o f wa ter. p a rt ic ularl y \y ith res pec t to s us pend ed
so li ds. is required fo r direc t inject io n.
Collapsed
foam to
Reuse in Potabl e Water Systems disposal
In co r porati o n o f was tewater info po t a ble water suppli es has a lways hee n a n
in adve rt e nt co nseq ue nce o f e mu ent di sc ha rge Int ll \V a te rco u rscs. Most m aj o r
st reams co n ta in a s ign ific ant pe l'Cen tage () f \V~lter that was p re\' io us ly used an d
d iscarded to be d ilu ted w ith th e na tur a l fl uw "tIlel 1; ltcr wi thd rawn ~IS raw wa ter
for a second or thi rd use. As wa ter dema nd s II1crcasc. t hc re use fac tN alsu increases.
Goreanga b
This sys te m has bee n co ns id ered sa t isfac tory in coun trics where adeq uate wa te r- rese rvoir - - - ' - - - 1
t reatme nt fac iliti es a re avail a ble. a lth o ug h in recent years th e a ppea ran ce of w a te r
c he m ica l s u bs ta nces tha t a re d ifficu lt to id e nt ify allL! d il lic ult to remove has ca used
c'onside rab le concern to t he water.i nd us tr y.
T he int en tiona l LIse o f \\'as tewater as a p~lrt of the potahle sLIp p ly is a more
Municipa l wate r su ppty
recen t occurrence. This re use i..,> us ua ll y l1 eces~it;Itcd hy ~ I s lHl rt age uf n ~lt ur al
wa ter Re use may be direc t o r ind irect. /)/r('o rCllse is LIsu; I1 ly Icrerred to as closeJ Figure 5-50 Schemalic or waslewaler.lreatme nl pla tH incorpo raling di rect reuse. (From Clay/Oil and
ilJup or pipe-Io-pipe r ('crci ill g. w hi ch ind icates t hat t li e t rea ted d ilu e nt fr u m th e Proll.\" [5-11].)
 f jJ j
312 WATER
I }j' ! i
'/ J

Indirect reuse separates the wastewater-treatment plant from the water- t'I I"
. II'
purification plant by a carefully controlled natural link. The most common
approach is by storage in surface reservoirs or in aquifers for varying periods
of time. In surface reservoirs , the wastewater is subjected to sunlight, aeration,
biological action, and other processes that reduce the chance of transmission of
pathogens. [5-13J Dilution by runoff water mayor may not be desirable, depend-
ing on its quality. Water stored in aquifers is subjected to filtration through the
soil material, biological action , and adsorption and ion-excha nge processes.
Wastewater stored in aquifers is less likely to become recontaminated than is
surface water. ~>- I
Indirect reuse of wastewater is -practiced at several places in the United ~ I
States. An example is the Occoquan system near Washington, D.C. An advanced
wastewater-treatment plant has replaced several smaller secondary systems and
'rl
provides treatment as shown in Fig. 5-51. The terminal reservoir provides a I
safety factor against perturbation s in effluent quality. From the treatment plant, I
the treated wastewater flows through Bull Run Creek for abou t 12 km to the
__ ...JI
Occoquan Reservoir. This surface reservoir is a source of raw water for a water-
purification plant providing potable water to the surrounding area.
The benefits and liabilities of using groundwater reservoirs as the natural
link between wastewater and potable water are not so well defined. Although
limited use of wastewater for aquifer recharge is practiced throughout the world. r-
no large-scale use of this reclaimed water for potable supplies'is currently practiced.
In southern California. where wastewater is used extensively for groundwater
j I
I
recharge, future reuse in potable supplies is planned, provided current research t:
.2 I
confirms the absence of health problems. [5-4J
-"v I
--
'-' 0
0.0- -
~

::J
- no
(/)-
v.
'-' ~I
'D C>:I
Planning for Wastewater Reuse
L__
Many areas of the world are present ly experiencing water shortages or expect to I
experience them in the foreseeable future. In these areas, wastewaters must be 1
considered a valuable resource and integrated into the available water supply. I t---:- .
The principal concerns involving the reuse of wastewater are public health L __ -1
and public acceptance. It is known that pathogen s are present in wastewaters, I

and the total remova l by even advanced wastewater treatment cannot be assured i
at all times. Additionally. some fraction of refract ory organics remains in waste-
c
water, regardless of the extent of treatment. There may be chemical compounds g ;::~
present in wastewater that have not been discovered and for which there is present ly E c
co
no method of measurement. Thus. human contact with wastewater. .even in non- 2
c:'"
potable uses. carries a risk factor \vl]ich is largely unknown. It is hoped th at :; if
!;:J la ,,
research currently in progr'ess will help to' quantify those risks.
'i Hi r I!: : I

!
Public acceptance is a necessary factor in w'as tewater reuse. Experience at I '
:~:~u~! I Ii I
H~
"1,1
the Santee project in California indicates that public acceptance is greatly en- I
J
~ , ,, " I
hanced by informing and involvin g the public at all stages of planning ane! imple-
:
, Ii
I
mentation of wastewater reuse. Following thi s lead . the City of Denver has
313
 314 WATER ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 315

launched a mass ive drive for public acceptance of wastewater recyclin g. [5-24J Industry
tndustr y
Nonpotable reuse of effluent from a demo.n s t~ ':lt\W\Jillant !.~ 'p'lpnl]t;d. wit,h extens ive 0 n lim' o ff-lin e
research on health and toxicological s tudies h e ing performed . Co ncurre ntly. a
public edu ca ti o n program has been designed to g ain public accept a nce o f eventual Flo w, m ' / d t X,750 13 ,275
BOD " mg/ L 300 215
reuse in the pot a ble sys tem , should the health s tuclies sllo'w thi s to be practical.
SS , mg/ L 420 240
These programs are to con tinue fo r 10 t o 15 yea rs a nd ~ if s uccess ful. will result
Ammonia. mg/ L 64 t5
in the construction of a full-scale plant fr om which re use will include direc t recycle Ch lo ride , m g/ L 29 41
t o the potable sys tem . The City of San Diego. C a lifornia , is prese ntl y embarking o n Alkalinity , mg/ L 57 t25
a s imilar projec t. [5-2J .
Other projects have ch ose n to limit the utilization of rec laim eu was tewat er
t o n o npotable u ses fo r the present tim e . In Ca lifo rni a. Lo s Ange les and Oran ge 5-5 What is an effiuent- lim ited stream ? A water-quality-limited stream?
counties conducted ar: extens ive : 11\1<trr~t i ' <ir:;al ~$\~ and . identified a lo n g- term 5-6 Differentiate between unit operations and unit processes.
n o npotable reu s e potential of d S:
x~ i 0 ol 1 jb J(d
oC: l(ea ted;' wa s tewater. These u ses 5-7 Define and desc ribe th e co mponents of (a) primary treatment. (b) secondary treatment, and
in clude irri ga tion of public prope~t r v: hUo~s iIld~istrial !\ t~es. and groundwater . (e) tertiary treatment.
recharge. The u ses require varyi n g levelS': <i:{ tre::j:tm e nt , 'and thu s varyi n g costs 5-8 What are the co mm on engin ee red method s of removing so lids from wastewater? Describe
depending upon the water quality accept ~;bre to ea ch u ser. At tli e proJ ec t 's initia- and define eac h o f these method s.
ti on, a combination of use rs th a t optimized t he cos t or treatm en t ami deli ve ry o f th e 5-9 What are th e maior types and S9 urces of gri t in municipal wastewaters ? Describe treat-
wastewater was selected. [5-27J This type of ap pr o~;ch ha s cu n s id e rable merit ment meth ods used to remove gr it.
when the dem a nd for trea ted wastewater exceeds th e s uppl y. 5-10 A channel-type grit chamber luis a flow- through velocity of 0.29 m/s. a depth of 0.8 m,
As demand for water increases. m o re co n s ideration will nece ssa ril y be g ive n and a length of to m. For inorgani c particles with specific gravity of2.5, determine the largest-
to fitting the qualit y of the, ~a\tr ,to; t1h e,lij],el). d.e~ p ~e. Curr~f1t l y. a ll water di s tri - rliameter particle that can be removed with 100 percent effic iency. ,:
buted through pu bhc . sys~~ l:n s '+IOf ' P~ ~ltb:~~ :qual!ty , alt h 6 ugh less th a n o ne- 5-11 A channel-type grit chamber is to be installed in a wastewater-treatment plant processing
half the water di s tribut ed : throu,gb tllcSC;!::sys te ms :i's ' us~:d in a mann e r neces- 8550 m 3 /d. The How- through velocity is to be controlled at 0.33 m/s by a downstream pro-
s itatin g p o table water quclIltY' 11i~~1 ~h~ : cr~p~ rt'ftjjjt y for :' ihe , ~ se o f water o f po rtioni~g weir. Determine the chann el dimension s for a depth to width ratio of I : 1.5.
less-than-potable qualIty tS a bup{faii.t, a))c! j" rec lallned wastew'~t'ler cou ld con- 5~12 Determine the appropriate dimensions for an aerated gri t chamber processing 23.500
ceivably be u sed in man y instances where potable wa te r is n o w b e ing used. Such m' /d of municipa l wastewater. Also calc ulate the total air fl ow. " .. .. ... .. .............. .. ........ ..
use would be in keeping with the 1958 rec o mmendation of the U.N. Economic 5-13 What ar~ ;h~ ~o~; '~~;11~~'~ d~~;~~~' ;ts'~d 'f~;~~~~'~;i~'i flov.; s in it wastewater-trea tment
and Social Council [5-39J: "No higher qua lit y water, unless th ere is a s urplu s o f it, plant ?
should be u sed f o r a purpose that can to lerate a lower gra de ." C urre ntl y. thi s 5-14 Descr ibe unit o pera ti ons used in primary sedimentation.
3
philosophy is o ften quoted , ye t se ld o m applied. . 5-15 A municipa t wastewater-trea tm en t plant processes an average flow of 14,000 m j d.
Tbe peak fl ow is 1. 75 times the average . The wastewater contains 190 mg/ L BODs and 2IO
mg/L suspended so lids at average flow and 225 mg/ L BODs and 365 mg/L suspended so lIds
at peak fl ow. Determine the foll ow ing for a primary clarifier with a 20-m diameter.
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS (u) Surface overfl ow rate and the approximate rem ova l efficiency for BOD s and sus-
pended solids at average flow
(h) Surt'ace overHow rate a nd the approximate remova l efficiency for BODs and sus-
5-1 Name and characterize ihe three most signifi ca nt c()mp onent s of Illuni cipal wa stewater. pend ed so lids at peak now
5-2 A mun ic ipa l wastewa ter treatment pl ant rece ives an ave rage fl ow of 11 .500 rn 3: d . Estimate (e) Mass of so lids (k il og rams per day) that is rem oved as sludge for average and peak flow
the quantities (kil ogram s per day) of BOD and suspend ed so lids in the influ cnt if the waste, co nditi ons.
3
water is cons id ered to be (a) strong. (b) medium. and (c) weak . 5-16 A wastewater:treatmcnt plant mu st process an average fl ow of 24.500 m /d , with peak
5-3 A co mmunity produces an average wastewa ter fl ow of (,550 mJ;U Estim atc the nitrogen Rows of up to 40.000 m 3 /d. Design criteria for surface overflow rates have been se t by the sta te
and phosph o ru s loa ding to the treatm ent plant if th e wastcwatcr is tvpiC<l'lI y (0) weak. (h ) strong, reg Ulatory agency at a ma ximum of 40 mid for average conditions and 100 mid fo r maximum
and (c) medium. . co nditi ons. Determine th e d imensio ns of the primary clarifier if it is a
5-4 A muni cipal wastewa ter-trea tment plant receives a seasonal discharge fr olll a fruit- (a) Circu lar basin
process ing pla nt. Influ en t fl ows and strengths of the ~' a S l ewa te r when th e industry is bo th on- (h) Long-rectan gu lar basin (1. = 3 W)
and ofT- lin e are show n below. Determin e th e co ntribllli ()11 o f each cons tituent hy the industry. te) Square cross-flow tank
 316 WATER ENG IN FERI, f) SYSTE MS FO R WASTEW ATER TR EAHIENT AND DISPOSAL 317

If the influent suspended solids is 200 mg/L at average flow and 230 mg/ L at peak flow. de- at a con centrati on of 3000 mg/ L MLSS, and th e secondary c larifi er is designed to thicken
termine the mass of solids (kilograms per day) removed by the primary clarifier. the slud ge to 12.000 mg/ L. For a mean cell -res id ence .t ime of R d. determine
. 5~)7i\Iaq~e .w<lstewater~treatment plant processes 200.000 m 3 j d of municipal wastewater. (0) Th e vo lume of th e reacto r
The design overflow rate is 50 mid. and four units in parallel a re to be constructed . Con crete (h) Th e ma ss of the so lid s and the wet vo lum e o f sludge wasted each da y
tanks are to be used and the cost of pouring circular sidewalls is 1.2 times the cost of pouring (c ) The slu dge recycl e rati o
straight sidewalls. Determine the percent savings in construction costs in each in stance if '2.. 5-28 ;\ compl etely mixed activat ed-s ludge planl is to treat 10',000 m.l/d of indu strial wa ste
(a) long-rectangular tanks (L = 4 W) or (h) square cross-flow tank s are used (with common . / waler. The wa stewater ha s a BOD , 01 1200 mg/ L that must be reduced to 200 mg/ L prl o l to
walls) instead of circular tanks . . . discharge to a municipa l sewe r. Pilot-plant an a lys is indi cates that a mean cell-resid ence time
5-18 Determine the weir-loading rates in Prob. 5.16 if a simpl e weir is used at the periphery of of 5d maintainin g M LSS co ncentra tion of 5000 mg/ L produ ces th e desired res ult s. The
the circular tank. at the 'e nd of the long-recta ngular tank . and 'along one sid e of the square valuef~r Y i~ d e t e rmined to be 0.7 kg/kg and th e va lu e of kJ is fo und to be 0.03 d - '. Determine
tank. (a ) Th e vo lume of th e rC; lct,,, (5) -;0 1 Y;; :-;".,
5-19 Define: (a) biomass. (b) lag phase. (e) log-growth phas'e; (d) stationary phase. (f) endo (h) Th e ma ss ancl vo lulll e of solids wa sted each da y ( -
genous phase, (f) suspended cultures. (II) attached cultures. and (h) flocs. (c) Th e sludge recirculati o n r;Jtio
5-29 Th e ac ti vat ed-slud ge sys tem shown in the skelch belln" 15 o perating at equrlibrium.
5-20 Name, define, and describe the most common metilod of quantifying biomass.
Determ ine the vo lume of slu dge thai mU SI he w;J sted each day if "';J Slage is acco mplished fr om
5-21 What external factors ma y alTectthe rate of biomass producti on and food utili za tion')
(a ) POlnt ;\ an d (b) POlnt B.
5-22 Explain the basic concept of the ui vated -s ludge process and indi cate tile advantages ::lI1d
disadvantages of the two major kinds of activated-sludge react o rs.
5-23 A tapered aeration syst; m similar 10 that sho wn in Fig. 5. 17h is used to treat 12.500 m'/d B
of municipal wastewater. The wa stewater ha s rece ived primary treatment and has a 1300, A erat o r

of 140 mgj L and a suspend ed solids of 125 mg /L. The system is to be o perated in the foll owing
way.
Soluble BOD 5 in eltluent $ 5 mg: L 8 e = lOci
Q = 12,000 mi d Second ary
Average solids concentration in the react o r = 2000 mg/ L , =4 .000 Jll )
clar ifl er
Mean cell-retention time = 10 d X = ~ . O OO mg/ L
The'biological constants have been determin ed by pilot-plant analysis and are :
I
kg biomass
} = 0.55 ---:.: _--.. -_ .. - .. t . .... .1.
kg BOD utili zed I .
ko = 0.05 d 1 , X, = I (J.OOO mg!1- JI
'" .-L------------:-
' ,
(a) Determine the length of the reaClor if it is 5 m wide and 5 m deep.
(h) Assume an effluent suspended-so lid s concentrati on o r 30 mg/ L: the BOD; of the /'" Qk''"
A~
. solids is 0.65 mg BOD/ LO mg 55. Determine the' total BOo' in' the effluent.
~-24 Determine the average biomass co ncemra!ion in .a co nventional acti vated -s ludge
V reactor similar to t~lat shown in Fig. ~d e r th.e fo llowing conditions. 5-30 Wh y ; 11T ;J cr;lIion devices a' 11 ; 11 pMt pf hiolnglcal rea ctor s" Name and desc ribe Ih e two
Flow = 18.300 m 3 fd major "er"ti o n tcchnlC)u es. imliuling the kind s ,)f biological reactors in which they a re 1I10st
Influent BQD = 160 mg/ L often used.
Eltluent BOD = 5 mg! L 5-31 Wh a t oth er suspenckd-c ulture bi o logica l systems are ava ilahl e fo r trea tin g was tewa ter
kg biomass besid es the ;Ictiva ted-slu dge proccsses"
Cell yield coefficient Y = - .-- ------ .. -
kg BOD utilized 5-32 An ox itia tlo n-ci itch ac ti v;Jt ed -s lu d ~e svS lem rece ives 7500 m "'d o f Ill unic ipal ,,"aste-
water. Th e BO D in th e wa Slcw"l", is 21() Ill'gi l a nd no pr'im;1r1 t reatment is p rovid ed . The
Endogeneous decay coefficient = 0.04 d J
oxidali on dit ch is 3 llllie ep. 7 III \\' id e. ami 400 111 I,)ng. The reacto r is .o peral ed at .1 800 mg/ L
Tank volume ='6100 m J
MLSS and tlie bi o log ical co nslant s arc )' = 0.5 kg/ kg and k" = 0.06 d - ' . D etermine th e

~
M\!an cell-residence time = 9 d . .
- Determine the volumetric loading rat e ,'f the system desc ri bed ill Prob. 5-21
s"ur1)etermine the food-ma ss ratio of the systcm desc ribed in P ro h. 5-24.
\ 5- A wastewater flow having the c1wract cri sti cs of that in Pr o b. 5-24 is to be tre,lted in a
completely mixed activated-s ludge system slnJii:l r tLI t ha t of Fig. S-16i1. The reactor is to operate
lIlean ce ll -res id ence time for 90 perce nl ROI) rClllov;I1 .
/~-33 A W;lS tcwatc r !l ow of SOO() 111 ',\1 lS trea led in;l fac ult a li' e oxid;lt lo n pL1 nd that is 2.0 m
J
decp wi: h a sur face ;Hca of 20 li a. T he \\,a SIC\\"tc r h;JS a so luble BOD ; of I SO Ill g 'l a nci a reac-
li on r;ll<: coellicie nl olI U () d ' . I)etl'rmin c Ih e sll lu bic BOD ,' f tll C ctlluent. (t\ss um e a cum
plet el\" mi \ed reac tor \\ lll )(l ut s,did s lCL"lCie )
 31H WATER ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 319

5-34 Rework h ob. 5-33 with the 20- ha surface area bei ng equally divided be twee n three 5-49 A settling analysis is run on the contents of an activated-sludge reactor with the following
po nd s. result s:
5-35 !\ wa stewa ter' How o f 3550 m "d is to be trea ted in a facu ltat r\ e Iwml system. Th e re:Jction
rate coe llicrent at the average operating temperature is 0.35 rJ I Th e pond is ex pected to
Co nce rllratloll, mg/ L 1200 2200 3800 6 t 00 8200 11,000
operate at a di spersio n fa ctor of 0,5. Deter-min e th e surface are;1 required fo r X5 perce nt re-
moval of so lubl e BOD for a pond depth o f 2 m \V ith (a) a single -ce ll pond and (h) a four -cell 0.4 0 ,09
Veloci ty, m /h 5,8 3.2 1. 6 0.6
sys tem .
-1 5-36 Waste\Va ter from a poullry- processing piant averages IODO rn J/d wi th ;1 $ll luhle UOD s
--r- of 1000 mgj L. This waste is to be treated In :1 three-ce ll fac ultatl\'c rond sys tem in whic h the Gi ve n the foll owing informat ion. determine the concentration of so lids and the flo w rate of the
20"C rc'actlOfJ rate co nstilnt k ha, been found ,t u he D.5 d ' I The co ld es t month ly :Iverage seco ndar y clarifier underfl ow. .
temperature IS expec ted to be Iwe For a di ~ persion celdliciellt .uf IU S. deter m ine the (a) Flow fr om the rea ctor is 9500 m 3/d with a so lids con tent of 3000 mg/L.
surfa ce area required to meet an e.(fluent sta nd a rd of 50 mg/ L solu ble !lOD. (h) The secondary clarifier ha s a d ia meter of 17 m.
b 5-37 Rewo rk Pr ob. 5- 35h with surface :Jerato r, beIng placed in the prrrn ar y rond , Determine 5-50 '\ se ttlinganal ysis is run o n sludge from a n extended aera tion activated-sludge reactor
th e power requirement for th e aerators if the oxyge n t ransfer rate is 0.9 kg O ,/kW . h. with the fo ll ow ing resu lt s:
~-3H Rework Prob. 5-36 with surface aerators be in g pl aced in the primary p()nd Deter mine the
power requirement for the aerators if th c oxyge n tran sfer rat e is I.OS kg 0 2/kW h.
5-39 What auvant:lge s uo bi o-IO\\C rS have over classrc:Jltrickling filter ," C":!ce ntralr o,, , mg/ L tOOO 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
3
5-40 A municipal wastewater with a fl ow of 17,55D m / u and :1 UOD , of 150 IIlg/ L IS to be 04 0,2 0. 1 0.06
Sl'lIli ll g vcloctly. m/h 2.S 14
treated in a bi o- tower wit h pla str c mod ular medium . l' i1ut'p l:lIl t :J1l;Ji ys is h:" est; lhli shed a
treatabilit v co nstant o f (l.OS min r for th e sys tcm at 20 C. The maximum tClllperature
expec ted is 23 'c. and the minimum tcmpe ra ture is 13"C. 1'0 1' a ~ ' I recycle ra tio :lI1d a Under equ ilibrium conditions. flow to the secondary clarifier is 4200 m 3/d with so lids content of
7,0-m depth . determine the area of th e to\\'er required to produ ce a 20 Illg -L HOD , dlluent. 2000 mg/ L. For a preselected so lids flux rate of 2,5 kg/ m 2 . h. determine the required diameter
5-4 1 Ass ulll e that the minimum fl elW is 0.6 times th e average and th;lt the maximum flow is of the clarifier.
2 tim es th e ~Iverage. From th e data give n in Proh . SAO. ciete rmine th e rern o v ~ Ji cllicic ncy for 5-5 1 A secondary clarifier processes a lotal flow of 10,000 m 3 /d from a conventional activated-
minimum and maxim um fl ow ra te with th e h)dra uli c fl o\\ r~ lI e Q heJd con stant h) adjus ting th e slu dge reac tor. The concentration o f so lids in the flow from the reactor is 2600 mg/ L. The
recyc le ratil' Q,. result s of a settling anal ys is o n th e sludge is given below.
5-42 Repeat Prob. 5-4 1. bUl maintain th e 2 : I recyc le ratio of I'roh. 5"lbn d a 11 0\\ the hyd rauli c
.. ll o\(' r:i icQ()\;,iry'acco raingli .. .... ' .. , ........ , , . " .' .. .... .
5-43 DeSC ribe a ro tat in g bi ologic al co ntactOf' reactor. What a rc th e adIClIlt;lges and dis- Concc lllr:!l io n. mg/ L 1490 2600 3940 5425 6930 9 100' 12,000
advanta ges of such a reac tor"
SCllling velDcilY . m / h 5.5ll 3.23 1.95 1.010,550.260, 14
5-44 A wastewater with the charact eri stics gl\c n in Pr ob. 5--10 is to he tl e,lIcel uSI ng a rllia ting
biologiciJi C\"ltaCtll r sys tem Ass ume that th e informati o n in Figs. 5 2<) a nd 5- , I) app lies to the
se lec ted medium . The mediulll is' mallufactured in X-m shaft lengths, WIth 1';lc h sh; d't con taining Fur equilibrium conditions and a so lid flux rate of 6 kg/ ril 2 . b, determine the underflow rate,
1. 2 x 10" In l of surfac e area , Determine th e Ilumber of modules fu r Cll ll lpietl' nllrilicatioll of
th e underflow solids concentration. and the overllow rate . .
I he was(ew,-I fer.
5-52 Wh en is disinfection o f wa stewater effluents required? Why has the wisdom of using
5-45 1\ \\,;rstewater with the c hara cter istIcs Ill' thai gllen III Proh. :'- 2.1 " tll he treated hyall ch lorine for disinfecti on of wastewate r co me under question?
RBC sys tem . .'\ ssu me a minimum tempe ratu re of 10 C and the RBC ' cir;rrae'tclr stics of Pwb.
5-53 What is the organic co ntent of primary and secondary sludge ?
5.44. I)ctermine the number ll f required ull it s for <)1)" " BOD rClllll \ ;d.
5-54 Name and describe t he mos t co mm on method s available ror volume reduction of sludge,
5-46 Wh ~ lt <Ire t he two objec ti vcs th at shou ld bl.' met b), seconda l )' ca rd icrs fo r act i\ ;Itcd sludge')
5-55 i\ wa stewa ter-tre:ltmcnt plant consists of primary tre a tment fo llowed by an aet iva ted-
5-47 USlllg th e Infnrm:ltio n ill Tabl e 5- 10. dc termin e the 'Ill' "I' a "ccIli!d ;lr) l ' J;1I ifi,1 to r" lIow a SlUd ge secondary sysle m, Sl ud ges fr o m the primary clarifier and waste-a ctivated sludge rrom
celnventillllili <Il'ti\'<Itedslud)!e rcactn f'. Th e influe nt flo\\ " 13.~'O Ill J d :1I1d the rccvck ratiO the und erfl ow are mixed a nd thi ckened in a gravit y thickenerc The primary sludge contams
\2,/ Q is 05. Th e'so lid s co ncentrati oll ill the erllu cnt from thl' rl'al'lor IS 25()() Illg L. 1250 kg of dry so lids per d ay with a .. percent so lids content. The waste-activated sludge
S-4S :\ scc o ll d:u!, c l,lrIfier is to be designed tel rem()\'c the hJ(llll ;ISS Irlllll ;1 e',)fllpicICiv mixed COntains 525 kg of dry so lid s per day and has a solids co nten t of 1,2 percent. After thlckenll1g.
ac ti\a ted -silldgc re;lct o r', Average ilow co nditi o ll s (iniluellt pillS rl.'c)clc) IS II. ~ t lO Ill J d. the the mi xture has a so lids co nt ent or 3.0 percent.
1l1inllllUm l1 e)\\' is \) ne-halfthis amount. a ll d th e peak Ilo\\ i, 2 I tlllle, thl' ;J\ e ra !!l'. l ts ing Table Calcu lat e (0) the vo lum e of sludge th at mu st be processed after thi cken in g and (h) the
~ - It) . deSl!l1l a sccnllciarv c larifi er tIl mcct these ce lllditiun s percent vo lume reciuctio n in th e thi ckener.
 320 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 321

3
5-56 A high-rate aeration system produces 1140 m 3 /d of waste sludge. The sludge is wasted Determine (a) the required reactor volume. (b) the volatile solids loading rate (kg/ m . d).
directly from the aerator and has a solids content of 3300 mg/ L. This sludge is thickened by a and (e) the gas production (m 3/day).
dissolved air flotation unit to 3.0 percent solids. Determine the volume of the thickened sludge. 5-60 Rewo rk Prob. 5c58 for a high-rate two-stage system employing a mixed, heated first
5-57 What is sludge digestion? What are the two basic types of sludge digestion units? stage with a digestion period of 10 d and a second stage with a thickening period of 4 d.
5-58 A wastewater-treatment plant consists of primary treatment followed by a completely 5-61 A wastewater-treatment plant consists of primary treatment plus secondary treatment in
mixed activated-sludge secondary system. The primary and secondary sludges are mixed. a bio-tower. The underflow frolll the secon dary clarifier is returned to the influent of the primary
thickened. and treated by anaerobic digestion. The system is shown schematicallv in the clarifier where it assists in removing the raw solids by adsorption and settl ing. The waste-
accompanying figure. The wastewater. tr~atment plant.- and sludge characteristics interest of water flow is 22.500 m 3 /d with 250 mg/ Lof suspended solids. The secondary underflow con -
are given below. tains 1180 kg/d of biological solids. Virtually all of the secondary solid s plus 60 percent of the
raw so lids is remo ved. The und erflow from the pl'imary clarifier has a so lid s content of 5
percellt. These solids a re to be furth er treated in a high-rate anaerobic digester. The first
stage is heated and mixed and requires 15 d for complete digestion. The sludge is dewatered
Wastewater to 35 percent so lid s by a filter press before final disposal. Assuming an organic content of 70
Treatment plant Sludges
percent and digestion of 50 percent of the organics, determine the vo lume of the reactor and
Influent SS = 240 mg / L Dia. of primary Primary the volume of the dewaterecl so lid s.
Influent BOD = 210 mg; L clarifier = 25 m sludge = 3.8~ ; solids 5-62 Name and descrihe the mos t common methods of sludge disposal.
Effluent BOD = 10 mgj L Aeration basin Waste secondary
5-63 Name anel describe the most cornman methods for I'emoval of nutrients dur ing tertiary
Flow = 14.350 m'ld volume = 3600 m' sludge = O. 95 ~" solids
MLSS ill Thi ckened treatment of municipal wastewater
aerallon = 2800 mg/L sludge = 2.6"" solids 5-64 Draw a tl ow diagram in schematic for~ of a wastewater-treatment plant that includes
priinary (including prelimill~lry ) treatment. secondary treatment by conventional activated
sludge. and nitrogen removal by air stripping. Sludge treatment is by two-stage anaerobic
digestion. Identlfy each unit In the system and brietly state ilS purpose, State the destination of
all materia ls leaVing the plant Identify all points of chemical addition and name the chemical.
5-65 Repeat Prob. 5,64 for the followi ng treatment system:
Influent Effluent (a) Primary treatment (including prel imin ary)
(1)) Seconda ry treatment by rotating hiological contactors
(1') Nitrogen removal bv nitrification-denitrification
5-66 Name and describe the primary methods of removing suspended and dissolved solids
I I I during tertiarytreatment of municipal wastewater.
L __ , __ --L _____ .-J 5-67 Repeat Prob. 5-64 for the following treatment system
(a) Primary (including preliminary)

__ l (b) Com pl etely mixed acti va ted-sludge secondary

(J') Nitrogen and phosphorus remoVJI
I
/ '" \ ,(d) Advanced solids removal by granular-medium filtr:ttlon
. .- - - - - - - ; Thickener \-- - - ~ To sludge digestion k) Refractory orga nic removal by acti\ated carbon
\ J 5-68 Name and describe th e comJllon methods of di sposi ng of wastewater effluent from treat-
"'----/ mcnt plants.
5-69 i\ municipa l wastewater is to be treated and dischargecilntn a stream that empties into a
pristine mounta'in lake t ha t is used for recreational purposes. Draw il schematic now diagram
Determine (0). the solids Joading to the digeste~s '(kg/d and m 3/d). (h) the percent volume of a treatment plant to prep;lre the w;lStewater fo r discharge.
requction in the, thickener, and (el the vo lum e of supernatan t returned from the thickener 5-70 Treat ed Illuni cip;ll waste\\";lter is to be injected into an aquifer to form a hydrostati c
to the primary clarifier. . barrier ;Igainst ,;tltwater intrusion. Withdrawal uf the Inje):ted wat er for domestic use is not
5-59 The thickened sludge in Prob. 5-56 is processed in a standard-rate anaerobic digester anticipated. Dr;l\i a schematic dia~ralll of a trea tment plant to pl'epare the wastewater for
this purpose. "
The digestion period is 30 d and t he sludge must be stored for 3 mo between final disposal even ts.
Organic content of the slud ge is 75 percent and 55 percent of the organics is converted to 5-71 Disc li ss the advantage.'; :.Illd disad\antagcs nf\\,aste",;tter-treatl11ent facilit ies d eS igned to
gaseous or liquid end products. The solids content of the digested slud ge is 6 percent. tllrn waste discharllcs into potahle water
322 WATER
REFERENCES
5-1 American Society of Civi l Engineers and Water Polluti o n Control Federati o n : Wastel"oter Treat-
ment Plant Design .ASCE. New York , 197.7.
5-2 American Wat e r Works Association : .. Recycl e and San Diego:' MuniciplIl WII Hell'OIer Reuse
Nelvs. A WWA Research F ound ation , Denver. Augu st 19RO.
5-3 American Water Works Association: "Reuse of Municipal Wastewater In Indu stry," Mlilliclj)(J1
Wast elt'ater Reuse News, A WWA Research Foundati on. Denver , November 1980.
5-4 Asano, T .. and K . L. Wassermann : "Groundwater Recha rge Op~ration s in Cali fornia,"'! A WWA.
. 72(7): 380 (July 1980).
5-5 Banerji. S. K . and J . T . O'Conn or' .. Designing M o re Energy Effici eTit Wa stewater Treatment
Plant s." Cit Eng. 47( 7):76 (September 1977).
5-6 !:lenefield, L. D., and C. W. Randall : Biological Process Desiqllfor Wa.\NII-ater Tre(l{mcnl. Prentice-
H all. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980.
5-7 Be sselievre, E . B.' The Trealmenl of Induslrial WasIl's. McGraw-Hili. New York. 1969 .
)8 Bo uwer. Herman ' "Renovating Municipal Wastewater by H igh-Ra te In fil tr.,t i;) n fo r Gro und-
water Re charge," J AWWA, 66( 3): 159 (March 19 74) .
5-9 - -- . R. C. Rice , J. C. Lance , and R. G. Gilbert .. Rapid InfiltratI o n Resea rch at Flushing
Meadows Project. Arizona," J WPCF, 52(10):24 57 (Octo be r 1980)
5-10 Cla rk , J . W., W arren Viessman, Jr., aTid M. J. H ammer Willa SUfiply IIl1d Poilu I IOn CO/llrol,
3d cd ., H arper & Row. New York , 1977
5-1 1 Clayton. A . .I ., aTid P. J . P ybus: "Windhoek Re claiming Sewage for Drrnkln g Water , " Cit EII!J,
42 ' 103 (Septem ber 1972).
5- 12 Cal', H : S., and G . H . Clevenger ." Determining Thi c kener Un it ,\roa,," hllllS AIME, 55( 3).356
(1916)
5-13 Cu lp. G. L. , R . L. C ulp. and C. L. H amann:" Wat er Re so ur ce Preser va t ion hv Planned Rec ycling
o f Treated Wa s tewa ter," J AWWA, 65(10) :641 (October Inl)
5- 14 - - . Wes ner , G . M ., and G . L. Culp: Handbook oj Adnll1ced lVII.\I('Irol('Y Trcolnrenl , Van
Nostrand Reinho ld, New York , 19 78 .
5- 15 Dick. R. l. "Role of Activated Sludge Final Settirn g Tank s." J SIII1 Enq Oie. A .'iCE , 96 : 423
( 1970).
516 ---- and B. B. Ewing ... Evaluati on "I' Activat ed Sludge Thickenin g The o ric s." j SOli Elly
Di, . ASCE, 93(SA4):9 (196 7).
5-17 - . .- ancl K . W . Young. "Analysis o f Thick ening Perronnanec Dr hnal SettlIng Tank s, "
Pro c 27lh Ind. WasIl' Conference. P urdue Universit y. 19 72. p. 33..
5-18 Eckcnfelder. W . W .. Jr. : In duSlrial WilIer PO//lllion COlllrol. McGra,,-Hili. New Yu rR. 1966.
5 19 .-.- -- . Principles oj Waler Qualily l'vI anagemelll, C BI Publi sh ing, Boston, Ino .
5-20 "Trickling Filter Design and Performance," J. Sim Elly Di/:. ASCE. 87(SA6).X7 ( 196 1).
5-2 1 Finer. S. E... Tire Life lIlId l1mes of Edwin Chlldwick , Methuen. London; 1') 52 .
5-22 Gaudy , A. F ., and E. T. Gaudy : lvlicrobiology for t;lIc-irollmentlll SnenliSls lIlId Engilleers,
McGraw-Hili. New York, 1980.
5-23 GermaJn. J . E. ' .. Economical Treatment of Domes tie Wa s te by Pla stIc-Media Trr c kling Filters."
J WPCF. 38(2) 192 (1966).
5 24 Hadeed . S. J .' .. Potable Water from Wa s tewater - D envers Program. " J IVI'CF, 49(X) 175 7
(Augus t 1977).
5-25 Ha mmCl, M . J . W{Jler lind WaSlell'IllCr Tcchnolo[!l' , Wil ey, New York. 19 75
5-2 6 H am s. S. E. J . H . R ey nolds, D . W . Hill , D. S. Filip . and [ J. Middlehrooks: " Intermittent
Sancl FiltratIon fur Upgrading Wa ste Stabili,atJon Po nd Fmuen ts. '.1 W/'CF. 4'1( I ) K3 (January
19 77 ).
5-27 H nrnc. F . W. , R. L. Anderton. and F . ,\ . Grant .. Water R e use' I'r (}Jectlll~ Ma r ket s and Costs,"
.J;I WW;I. 73(2) . 66 (Feb r uar y 1981).
s-n Kugelman. I. J .: "Sta tus of Advanced Wa ste Treatment." ill H . W . (ichllJ and .I . I. Bregman
(ell:::,.). /-lane/ho ok nJ I,Vofer R eso ur ces and Po/luriotl COfllrul. Van Noslrand . New Y o rk. 19 7() ,
ENGINEE RED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 323
5-29 Lawrence , A . W ., and McCarty, P. L. : "Unified Basis for Biological Treatment Design and
Operation ," J Still Eng Dit', A5(,E. 96(SA 3): 757 1970.
5-30 Lin sley, R . K., and Franzini, J . B.: Waler Resol/rces Engineering, 3d ed" McGraw-HilL New
Yurk . 197Q .
5-3 1 McCarty, P. L. : "Anaerobic Waste Treatment Fundamenta ls." Puhlic Works , 95: 107 (Septem-
ber 1964) .
5-32 ._ _ : " Bio logica l Proce%cs for Nitrogen Rem oyal: Theo r y and Applica ti o n s," Proc Tlreljih
S{Jnilary En!Jineerin!J Conference, University of Illi nois. Urbana, 1970.
5-33 McKinney, R. E.: Microbiology for S anilary Engineers, McGraw-Hili, New York. 1962 .
5-34 Mara, D . D. : Sewage Trealmelll in Hot C/imales, Wiley , New York. 1976.
5-35 Marais , G. V. R .: "Faecal Bacteria l Kinetics in Stabilization Pond s," J Em' Eng Dir. ASCE.
100 : 119 ( 19 74) .
5.36 Metcalf & Ecldy, Inc .. Waslell'aler Ellgineering: Trealmenl, Disposal, Rel/se. 2d cd., McGra,,:- Hili .
New York, 1979 .
5-37 Monod, J .: "The Growth of Ba cterial Cultu r es," Ann ReI' Microhiology, voL 3, 1949.
5-38 Neme ro, N. L. , Liquid WaSles oIInduslry. Theories, Praclices, {Jnd Trealmelll. Addison-Wesley.
Readi ng. Ma ss., 197 1.
5-39 Okun. D . /\ . "Planning for Water Reu se. " J;I WIVA, 65(10):6 17 (October 1973).
5-40 Parker, H . W . Waslelmter Systems Engineering, Pre ntice-Hall, Englewood C liffs, N .J ., 1975.
5-4 1 Pounds, C. E ., and R. W. Crit es: WaSI",.-aler Trealmenl {Jnd Reuse hy Land Applicalion. U.S.
EPA. Cincinnati. Ohio, 1973 .
5-42 Process Design lvlanllal for Land Treatment of Municiplli W{JSlell'aler, u.s. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Technology Transfer. October 1977.
5-43 Process Design r\lalllwifor Nilroqen Cvnlrol . U.S . Environmental Proteciion Agency. T echno logy
Transfer. Oct l, ber 19 77 .
.\- 44 Process Design Manual jiJr Swpended Solids Remoral, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Technology Transfer, Januar y 1975.
5-45 Roberts, P . V.: " Water Reu se for Recharge: An Overview." J AWWA, 72(7):375 (Ju ly 1980) .
5-46 Sawyer. C. N .. and McCarty. P. L. ' ChenriSlry./or Enrironmenral En"in eerin.'!. McGraw-Hili.
New York, 1978.
5-47 Schroede r, E. D . : Walei' and WaSl el""ler Treatmenl , McGraw-Hill. New York , 1977.
. .5.-48. Simo n,.A. L,:-Pru<'li('al H ydruuliCJ;2d ed:,Wiley; New York; 19-7<>. .. .. .... .......... .
5-49 Steel, E. W . Wal'" Supply and ,",ell'era9(', McGraw-Hili, New York , 1960.
5.50 _ _ and J . J . McGhee' Waler Supply and Sell'era.lJe. 5th ed .. McGraw-Hili . New York. 1979.
5-5 1 Stover, E. L., a nd D . F. Kincann on: "One-Step N it rificat ion and Carbon Removal." Wale I' and
Se wage Wnrk s, 66 . J une 1975 .
5.52 Sunderstron , D . W .. and H . E. Klei : W{JSlelValel' Trealment , Prentice-Hall. Englewood C lilTs,
N.J. , 1979.
5-53 Thirumurthi, D .: " Design Pri'ncip les of Waste Stabiliza ti o n Pon d s." J San Eng DiI. . ASCE.
95 311 (1969).
5-54 van Vuure n , L. R . J .. A. J . Clayton, and D . C. van der Post: "Curren t Status o f Wat e r R eclama-
tion at Windhoek ,".1 WPCF, 52(4) : 661 (April 1980).
5-55 VesiJind. P . A. : Treatmenl alld Disposal of WaSI('lml er Sludges, 2d cd .. An n A rb o r Science ,
Woburn, Ma ss .. 1979.
5-56 Yoshioka, N .. et 31. ' "Contin uous T hickening of H omoge neous Flocculated S lurries" (Eng li s h
abstrac t), Cheln En.'!. 21, T o ky o. 1957.
5 57 Wong.Ch ong. G . M .. and R . C. Loehr: " The Kinetics o f Microbial Nitritication ... . fVIIII.'Y
Research. 9 : 1099 (1975).
 ,
!"
ENVIRON~1 ENT Al ENGINHR ING HYD RAU LI CS DESIGN 325

Total e nergy
CHAPTER
SIX
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
HYDRAULICS DESIGN
(a)

T otal. ene rgy

(6)

Issues related to water and wastewater quality and treatment h ave been examined T o ta l energy

in Chaps 2 through 5. It is the purpose of this chapter to introduce the reader to

the physical facilities needed to meet water-supply and wastewa ter-management
objectives. To do this the' chapter is o rganized into fo ur maj o r section s dealin g
with water distribution systems. wastewater collection systems. pumps and pump-
ing stations, and treatment plant hydraulics: .......... . . .. .. .. .... ... .......... .. .. .. . .. .. ....... .

. Water Distribution Systems

To deliver water to indi~idu a l cons um e rs with app ro pria te qualit y: qu a ntit y.

- '. and pressure in a community setting requires an ex tensive syste m of pipes, sto rage
reservoirs, pumps, a nd related appurten a nces. The term d istribution syst em is (c)
used to describe co llectively th e facilit ies used to suppl y wat er fr o m its so urce to
Figure 6-1 T yp ica l di str ihu tion sys te ms ' ( a) gra vil),. (hi pumped. a nd (t) co mbined .
the point of usage. .

Gravity S upply
6-1 METHODS OF DISTRIBUTING WATER
Wh ere the so urce of suppl y is a t' a 's llfTicieni elcva t ion a b~)Ve th e cons umer so th at
Depending on the t0 p.0graphic rela t io ns hip between th e so urce o f s uppl y a nd th e
the desired press ure can be ma int a in ed , a grav it y s uppl y can be usee! . In grav it y
consumer, wa ter can be transported by ca nals. f1um es. tunn els, a nd pipelines.
sys te ms, it is oft e n poss ible to suppl y wate r to o ne o r m o re sto rage rese rvoi rs
Gravity. pumping. o r a co mbinati o n of b o th may be used to suppl y wate r to th e
wil hin th e system. Wh ere a grav ity sup ply ca n be used. it has proven to be quit e
consumers (see Fig. 6-1) with adequ a te press ure.
eco no mica l.
324
326 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 327

Pumped Supply Total energy delivered by pump

In a pumped s upp ly, pumps are used t o develop the necessary head (pressure) hit .. . . . . . Elevated
t o distribute wa ter to th e co n sume r a nd sto ra ge reservoirs. storage reservoir hfl

Pumped-Storage Supply
In a pumped-storage suppl y sys tem , storage reservoirs Me used to main ta in ad- _Q3
e quate pressure d urin g p erio d s o f h igh co n su m er demand and under emergency Pump
co nditi o ns s uch as fires o r power failure s. During periods of low wa ter con sump-
tion, excess water is pumped a nd s tored in th e sto ra ge rese r vo irs. B eca u se the
s t o rage reservoirs are used to provide wa ter during periods of hi gh or peak de-
mand . t he pumps can be ope ra ted at th eir rated capaci ty.

2. Define the three conditions of flo w that can ex ist.

6-2 DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS
Resenllirs a re used in distribution sys tems to e qu a li ze till: rate of fl ow. to maintain
pressurt.:. and for emergencies. To ortimize the ir intended use. reservoirs sho uld be
loca ted as c fose to th e ce nt er o f d e mand as p o ss ibl e. In large c iti es. di s tr ibuti o n
reservoirs ma y be u sed at severa l loca ti o n s within th e sys tem. Re gardl ess of the
location. t he wa ter le ve l in th e reservo ir must be a t a s uffi~Fnt elevat iDn to permit
grav ity tl ow at an adequate press ur e. Storage reservo irs are a lso used to reduce
pressure varia ti ons within th e distribution sys tem. The a nal ys is reqlllred to de-
le rrnill e th e orera ti o h of an elevated reservoir is illu s trat e d III Exa mple 0-1.
Ii. When lhe municipal demand is low, the disc harge from the pump will supply the
mUtllclpal demand ; the excess pump discharge will be diverted to the storage
reservo ir.
b. When th e municipal demand is high. di sc harge from both the pump and the storage
reservoir will be used to meet the dem and.
c. At so me point of operation. the pump discharge will just equal the municipal
demand and there will be no fl ow fr om the elevated storage reservoir.
3. Write equations that can be used to solve the three flow conditions defined in step 2.
Q. Low demand: ' .

h. Hi gh demand:
Example 6-1; Anal~' zing the operation of an ele"ated resc rYoir I )erlVe eq uation s Ihat ca n
he used to ddine th e hyd rau li c operation of an etevated s lOr~ l ge reservoir such as shown Q, +Q)=Qo
in hg. 6-11>.
"' + Ep = z, + E) + hf )

Z3 = Z2. + 3 + hJ4

c. No fl ow from storage res~rvo ir :

Prep~lrc a definition sketch for the ana lysis of the reservoir ()pcr~ lti ()n . Such a sketch
Q, = Qo
is shown be low. The lerms in the sketch are delined as fo llo ws

\2, = pump disch;lrge. rn 3 ;"s

\2,(Q .,1 ~ discllilrge to (from) reser vuir. rn'i s
COMMENT To sol ve the equations developed in step 3 for a high-demand situation, a trial
\2/! = rnunicipal di scharge (demand). Ill -'; s ~.alue of E3 is assum ed and the computed val ues of d ischarge are compared to the demand.
r,. f, = energy load cent er lH1~ler variou s cPlldiIIOIlS' "I' "pcralion (inc ili cles
';1 I he computation is repeated ulltil the equation of co ntinuity (Qt + Q) = Qo) is sa ti sfied.
pn:ssure and \'c tocity head). m In the approac h described above. it was assumed that z) remains conSlant. In actu al
practice . ") will vary with time. To so lve the problem with a varying value of z) it is
II ,,' h,: . etc. = head loss due to fr ictio n. m necessary to develop a relationship be tween the sto rage volume and the water surface
etevat ion.
:, . : .. ~ elevati ons ahlll'e a refcrence datuill. 111
 ~.

ENVJ\{ON~IENTAL ENG INEER ING HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 329

Types of Reservoirs
Depending on the topograph y and local envi ronme nta l conditions. storage rese r-
voirs may be located above. on. o r be low the ground su rface . Unde rground
reservo irs are usua ll y const ru cted of reinforced concrete. Smal l ground-leve l
reservo irs are usua ll y earth- lin ed with gunite. asph~11 1. or some sy nth et ic membrane.
Large surface rese rvo irs arc concre te-lined. Most large surface rese rvo irs a l-e
cove red to prevent contamination by birds. animals. and humans. Open distri -
bution reservoirs should be fenced to keep out trespassers.
To obt-ain the necessiHY' hec1d within the distribution sys tem, wa ter towe rs
and elevated reservoirs arc often used. Wate r t(lwers, loca ted at ground le ve l.
(a) (b) can be cons tructed of prestressed concret(l 01- steel. Elevated water-storage reser-
vo irs are usuall y constructed of steel. Commo11 sha pes for eleva ted storage tanr s
are illustrated in Fig. 6-2.

Capacity of S tora ge Rese rvoirs

Th e capaci ty of StOl'age rcser\"() lrs C~lIl be determined an,t!ytically or gra phi ra ll y.
In either case a mass balance i~ th e ba;;i s of the analysis. Both methods of analysis
are illus trated in Examp le 6-2.

Example 0-2: f)et e rJ1linin ~ reservo ir storage capacity Determine the capacity ora storage
reservoir reqtmed 10 malnlaln a conS lant \\'~Ier ,LIppi,. ldr"ft) or 2 x 10 m' /m given
6

Ihe following monlh " mean-runotr "alues:

Run off Rune,fr

(e) QR 10" Ill' QR Ill" Ill'

YO III o.~

II (t ,
IO.R
-I C I:: ()'l

c.8 I., t I
I 2 1-1 ~.O

I I I'
ll.') If, t D. ~
U5 I'
') {J.(, I~
-------

SOLI ; t 10"

I. SCI up :, wbk 1',11' Ihe compU lall on, I'c'r 111.: f!raphical and numerical Solu li on or Ihe
prohkm. Th e requIred compllialirll'> :tre sho\\1l In Ihe accompal.1\"tng I~hle . The eiliries
in the. c"lumns arc as fc,lIll\\',
(e) (j)
C/. Thc monlh and Ihe c()~respc)ndlng rllllntT are cnlcred III cc)IUllllb I ,md 2. rcspec

Figure 6-2 Typical shape!> Dr elevated waler-storage tanks. (Photo or SI. Josep h, M I Slorage tank. Il\c ly.
COl/i'lL'S.\' CUI/sol'r T()\\'I]Jl'lIc1 ,~ .-Js.wl'itlfl'S. 11Il'.) h. Th e cumulall'c rlllwil "cOlllfH1Ic'd :tnd cntelCcl In cllllllllll :;
The \\':lIer slIpp lv drafl I, cnlered In colllilln .j
J2X
330 WATER ENV J!WNMENTA L ENG INEER ING HYD RAU

d. The deficit (run off - water supply draft) is compu ted and ente red in co lu mn 5. A Computation of required storage
minus sign means that the water supply draft exceeds th c runofTand a deficit exis ts.
Cum ulative
e. The cumulat ive deficit is comp ut ed a nd en tered in column 6. The numbers in
Water Detici t defic il ,
parentheses represen t th e cumu lative surplus. The maximum c umulati ve deficit
Run olT, Cumulati ve suppl y, (QR - Q,) L(QR - Q,)
re p resent s the required reservoir capacity. 10. m J
Mo nt h QR 10 m J runolT Q, 10. m J 10 m J
2 Prepare a gra ph ica l analysis of the problem . The required graphica l solution is shown
111 the figure below . Key points in the constru ction o f the graphica l so lution are
9.0 9.0 2.0 7.0 0.0(7.0)
as follows 10.8 19.8 2.0 8.8 bO(ls.S)
iI . first. th e c umulative run o ll data fr o ll1 co lum n 3 in the table are used to plot the 4.2 2411 2.2 O.O(lS.O)
2.0
run o fr curve. 4 2.8 26.8 2.0 0.8 OO( 18.8)*
h. Next. a line is drawn fr o m th e o rig inat a slope equa l to the monthly water supply 1.2 2R .il 2.0 - 0.8 -0.8
d ra ft 6 I I 29.1 2.0 - 0.9 - 1.7
t T o determine th e req u ired capacity of the storage rese rvoi r a lin e is drawn parallel 7 0.9 30.0 2.0 - I I - 2.8
to the water s upply draft line , but sta rtin g at the point o f tan gency at the beginning 8 0.5 30 .5 2.0 -1.5 - 4.3
9 0.6 31 I 2.0 - 14 - 5.7
o f thc d ry period. The maximum distance betwee n the draft line from the point of
10 0.4 31.5 2.0 - 1.6 -7.3
tangency and cumula t ive run o ff represe nt s th e required capacity o f the storage
II 0.5 32 .0 2.0 - 1.5 - 3.8
rese rvoir. As show n In the figure, th e ca paci ty valuc is IO.S x 10' II1J . which is the 12 - 1.1 - 9.9
0.9 32.9 2.0
sam e as thc valu e give n in .he tabl e. 13 I I 340 2.0 - 0.9 - 10gt
14 2.0 36.0 2.0 00 - 10 .8
COM~ IE N 'I Th e graphical meth od I'or reservo'ir sizin g illu strated in th e figure wa s de - 15 3.5 - 7.3
5.5 41 .5 2.0
veloped by W. Ripple som e tim e bc f'ol<-: 188 3 when he publi s hed th e me thod . [n- 12] 16 10. 5 52.0 20 8.5 OO( 1 .2 )~
17 3.5 5~ .5 2.0 1.5 0.0(27)
70r--------------------------------------------------------------. 18 2.5 58.0 2.0 0.5 0.0(32)
Period dUring whI ch

~
Re servoir is full at beginning of dry period .
rese rvoir IS no t full Repleni shm ent
or slora ge t Maximum deficit at or nea r Ihe end or the d r y pcriod. Th e cumu lalive maximum
60 deficit represents the requi red rese rvoi r storage capacity.
Depl etIon
of ---------4____-2~~ t Re se rvoir is retilled during Ihe 161h month .
sto ra ge

50 Required capacity
E of st o rage reservoir ,
a Vs = 10.RX 10 6 Ill ) 6-3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
o f tangen c y ;..It
'" Curve drawn parall el 'tart 01' elr y
()l 40
to re quir e d wat e r. peri od mu st
Th e ser ies of interconnected pipes used to su pp-J-y- wa ter to the consu,_
'-'1
supply curve Interse ct flillUfr as.a dislriblllion network. Severa l netwo rk configurati ons have b .
'3c ClH"Ve if reservoir of these is described below.
Sl art o r
;: is to fiJI
ury peri od
<U ]0
:0 at point 0 1
End or elry
'" tan ge ncy Branching System
::J PL'f io d ~II
E point 01
C 20 curve tange n c y The branch in g type of water di stributi o n network is shown in Fig. -
the stru cture of such a sYs tem is similar to a tree. The trunk line is tl,
CUlllulativt.: or wa ter suppl y. Se r v i c~ mains are co nnected to th e trunk line, aru
required lVater supply connected to the service mains. In lu rn, building (;on nect iol1s
10 Q s. : X 10 6 mJ/ Jll o nlh
service to ind ivid ual residences and buildings are con nected to the /
Curve fr u m po in! o f L..l ll gen cy (It e nd 0 1' dr y per io d mu st int ef secl
Alth ough such a svs tem is simpl e to design and build , it is not [-
rLlnotl c urv e jf res t.:rv o ir is to be f u ll :Jt " t;ln u f dry peri o d
ern wa terwor ks pract i ~e for the fo ll ow ing reaso ns: (I) bacterial gr
5 10 15 mentation may occu r in the branch ends due to stag nati on : (2) .
Monlh maintain" ch lor in e residual al the dead end s of th e pipe: (3) whet.,_ .!,Q
' ''~'!J~
 ENV IRO NMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 333
332 WATER

tion of wa ter. Loops are usua ll y added to serve business districts and o ther high-
Main supply line
risk areas. The lo ops may be constructed with separate pipes or by enlarging some
of the pipes in the existing grid. The main advantage of the du a l-main system
(F ig. 6-3(1) is that brea k s in mains do no t limit the u sefulness of fire hydrants.
To he lp protect against freezing , pipes are usually placed on the north and east
sides of streets in th e northern hemisphere. In the so uthern hemisphere water
pipes are normally placed on the so uth and east 'sides of the streets. In all cases,
pipes should be buried below the frost line.

6-4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

(a) (b) The princ ipal components of the distribution network are pipes, valves. fire
hydrant s, and se r vice (building) connections. Storage rese rvoirs and pumps are
conside red separately T yp icall y, the req uiremen ts for sizes a nd placement are
specified by local code. Repre se ntative values and data are reported in Table 6-1.

Pipes

I A variety of matertals has been lIsed for th e pipes in water distribution networks.
The mo st common materials are steel. cast iron. and reinforced concrete. The type
-
I
Table 6-1 Representative data of distribution system
components
.---.-.---.~----- - --.--------

Ilem Valu e
(e) (d)
Figure 6-3 Water distr;but{on s):ste~~ .(~) 'b~~r~~hing ';"i;h d'~~d 'e'{1'ci;;' (b)'~rici ~a~;e'r'~;' (;.) '~;id pa;tcrn Pipt: ~
with loops ; (d) grid pattern with dual main s. Smallc:-.1 plpC ~ In grid 150 111m (6 in)
Smallest brallchlng pipes (dead cnd :-) 200 mm (1< In)
Llrgl::';\ :-'IX1Clllg ur 150- Jl1m ((l-ln) gl'ld
[2110.111111 (X-Ill) pire used be yon d Ihis \'aluc] I gO m (600 I't)
,?e.ma.de to an individual line. service connections beyond the point of repair will
Smallest pipes In high-value district 200 mill i8 In)
be without water until the repairs are made; and (4) the pressure at the end of the
SII"Lalks l pirc~ on principal stree ts III cClllr~iI
line may become undesirably low as additional extensions are made. The latter :;00 IllI1l (t 2 in)
di~lncl
problem is common in many less-developed countries. Larg.est spa cin g of sup ply lTlaiJl~ l)f fceders 600 III t2000 1'1 )

V"llcs
In singh.> ~llld dua\rn' lll1 sy::;lclll:-' Til n.::e a t crosse s.
Grid System \\.1,.\) al Ices
l.(lrgC :-' l ~ raCillg Oil
long hranches 250m (~OO 1'1)
The distinguishing feature of the grid system is that all of the pipes are intercon-
Lu"ge:-.t spacing in high -va lu e distnl"\ 150 (500 11 )
nected and there are no dead ends (see Fig. 6-3b). In such a system. water can reach
a given point of with~rawal from several directions. The grid system overcomes Fire h"<lr~lnl:'
Area" prot(::(tcd b) hy"dranb See -r"bk 62
all of the difficulties of the branching system discussed previously. One disadvan-
Lirgesl spacing whcn lire tl o" excecds JO() L',
tage is that the determination of the pipe sizes is somewhat more complicated. 6tl 111 tclll) 1'1)
(5000 ga1nninl
Several variations of the grid s"stem are also in use. Two of the most common l ;lrgL':-:.1 ~ r,lL'lng \\ hell lire no\\' IS :1 :-' lo\\' as 6U L s
are the grid pattern with loops (see Fig. 6-3c) and the grid pattern with dual mains t \(1110 gal Illln) 'it) III (~Of.l It)

(see Fig. 6-3d). In the former. additional loops are added to improve the distribu-

L .. ~_____________________
 334 WA TER ENVIRONMENTAL ENG INEER ING HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 335

o f pipe m a te mli is impo rt a nt as it will a ffec t th e an c illary equipm e nt needed fo r these valves is to isolate subsect ions of the system for repairs and m aintenance.
it s in s tall a ti on a nd m a int e nan ce. Drain va lves shou ld be provided at low points in the system. To remove air from
pipelin es, air-relief or release valves are placed a t high spots. in the pipeline.
Valves Check valves are used to limit the fl o w of water to a single direction .

The typ es o f val ves used m os t co mm o n ly a re gat e val ves, ~lir-reli e f val ves, a nd Fire Hydrants
c heck va lves. As no ted .in Table 6-1 a nd s how n in F ig. 6-4 thr ee ga te val ves a re
used at a ll c rosses a nd two ga te val ves ar e used a t a ll tees. Th e princ ipa l fun cti o n of
Fire hydrants are placed o n mains to pro vide locations whe~e fire hos~s and pumper
trucks can be connected to the water so.urce needed for fire fighting. Three types
. -
of hyd rants are used : flu sh. wa ll. and pos t. As the name implies: flush hydrants
~ ifo1 I 1'-1 , it-L a re placed in a chamber that is even with the surface of the street or . sidewalk .
8" Wall hydrants project from the walls of buildings and are used ex tensively in

}
commercia l dis tricts. Post hydrant s extend from the main to about I m above the

[
N

'" t '"
street o r sidewa lk .
Pos t hydrants are usually placed on a co ncrete block to eliminate sett ling
and are braced to resi st the latera l forces of th e flowing water. T yp ically, hydrants
are pro vided with one o r more 60-mm (2t- in ) hose outlets a nd a IOO-mm (4-in)
8" pumper-truck connection. In co ld clim ates. th e. operatin g valve is loca ted below

] J
Key ground level so that the barrel contains no wa ter except when in use. A drain
i\LI ins - -- valve o pens 'automat ica ll y when the hydrant valve is closed, to permit the escape
G ale v "I \'~> -+--- of water after use and to avoid dam a ge by freezing. In warm climates. t he hyd ra nt
Hyd ra nl s -----L
Servi ce hC<ld ers barrel m'ay co nt a in water a t a ll times. and a n ind ividua l valve is provided for each
out let.
8"
-, 1 t 1 I I
(a) .':.-crvice (Building) Connections
The service (building) connection is that portion of a wa ter suppl y sys tem th a t

' ~J~
l I .... .1. .' 1 lies between the wa ter suppl y main in the str eet and the take offs for th e various
11 1 I .!.j.~ L plumbing fixtllres at the point of usage.
8"
f------ ::l ~- - ----

} r
:l
I N I
I I 6-5 CAPACITY AND PRESSURE REQUIREMENtS
I,
1'0 T I~
I I
The capac it y ora water distribution system must be suffic ien t to', meet tl; e require-
' lo Is. ment s for fire fighting in co njunction with d o mes ti c, co mmercia l. and indu stri a l
____ J:l '~ demand s and for o th er system uses and losses. It is important to note th at capacit y
-:. :1 ----

I
1

I
I I a nd press ure must be co ns idered s imult a neou sly. For example. water must rise
I I to the upper stories of low-rise buildings in sufficient quantity and pressure. es-
,
I I
I
pecia ll y when fire fighting is consid ered . It sho uld be noted th,!t a pumped supply
I is used in most modern high-rise buildings. Also. th e capacity and pressu re ava il-
I]
~l+ a ble a t h ydrant s must be sufficient fo r fir e-fighting purposes.
-, H ---- E--~ - l - - - - - - .-
,; ~-
II I ~ I I
(h) Capacity

FiJ,.!lIrr 6- 4 SL'l'tI(lll l)f gfld di:-.l l lhll l lClIl ::, Ysl('m (a) sJn !,l It;.rn a i n sys t em a nd (h, d ll, d - Ill;lln . . y:-.t(,I1l. With th e except io n of that needed for fire fighting, the capacit y of th e dis tributi o n
(/ :r(Jm rU/I i ' I!l1 I f l __"" ) -
sys tem mu st be suffi cient to meet th e pe:1k de m a nd based o n d o mest ic, commercia L
 {~ i~'

~i
ENV IRONMENTAL ENG INEER ING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 337
336 WATER

industrial, a nd other miscella neous uses and system losses. The ultimate peak Table 6-2" Duration of required fire
demand would be the combin a tion of the peak fire-fighting and peak conve nti onal- flows based on flow *
consumer demand. In practice, howeve r. most distribution systel11saren ot s ized Fif e tlow
to provide the ultimate peak dem and . The reasons for this are (I) the probability Dura tion.
that the peak fire and consumer dema nd will occur simultaneous ly is low a nd (2) ga l/ min mJ / d h
most distribution systems a re sized for the future so excess capacity is avai lable.
?OOO or less 10.900
In general, most distribution systems are sized to meet the fire demand and
3.000 .t 6.400
a consumer demand of ISOt o 200 L/capita . d (40 to 50 gal/cap ita d) in excess of 21.XOO 4
-l.000
the yearly average value. Alternatively, the co nsumer demand ma y be taken as the 5.000 27.300
maximum d a ily demand (150 percent of the average daily demand). In the Un ited 6.000 32. 700 6
States. the general fire-fightin g requ irements are based o n the recom mend ati ons 7.000 3.8.200
of the Insurance Services Office, New Yo rk. The required fire fl ow is estimated ~.()OO 41.600 S
9.000 49.100 9
using the foll Qw ing equation. 10.000 and greater 54.500 10
F = 320C,jA (6-1)
Adapted f[()ln Guide j t)r D('(ermiflG/ion
:0-

where F = required fire fl ow. ml/d (~1 HnllfllT d Fi f t

F hn\". 2d cd .. I nsuranct:
C = . coefficient related to type of co nstructio n SCC\lCC Ulliee. New York. 1'174.

A = the total floor area (includin g all stor ies, but excluding basements)
in the building under considera ti on, m 2 For fire-resisti ve bu ildings
the six largest successive floor areas are used if the ver tica l openings
are unprotected ; if the ve rtical openings are pro tected properly, o nl y
the three largest success ive floor a reas a re considered.
Values for the coefficient Care 1.5 for wood frame construction, 1.0 for ord inary
construction. 0.8 for nonco mbu stible construction , a nd 0.6 fo r fire resistive co n-
struction. Interpolation between these va lues is used for constructi on th at does
not fall into one of the four categories. The co mpilted value is then adjusted lip or
down for (I) occupa ncy. (2) sprink ler protection , and (3) exposure. Th e maximum
fire flow determined using Eq. 6-1 shall not exceed 43,600 m 3/d for wood
frame construction and for ordin a ry and heavy timber constructio;l, and 32.700
for no ncombu stible construction and for fire resistive construction for anv o ne
location. The required fire flow ra te must be avai lab le in add ition to tl;e co-
incident maximum daily fl ow rate. The duration during which th e required fire
flow should be available varies fr om 2 to 10 h as su mmarized in Table 6-2. Beca use
a city will be pena Iized in its fire in sura nce rates if the needed flow s cannot be met
for the specified durations, most cities provide sto rage reservoirs to. meet fire
demands.
Pressure
For typical residential rates of demand. a sta tic press ure of275 kPa . gage (40 Ibiin z
gage) is considered to be normal. The minimum recommended pressure is ,ibo ut
140 kPa. gage (20 Ib/ in 2 . gage). In business dis t ric ts, pressure va lu es in the I'an gc .
of 350 to 550 kPa. gage (50 to 80 Ib 'in 2 gage) are COllllllon. For high-rise buildin g,
(greater than three stor ies) water is pumped to storage tanks located o n intermed-
iate fl oo rs. o n the roof. o r in tOIlers.
With the adve nt of th e modern fire-fighting eq uipment. the pressure th a t
must be main tained at a fire hydrant rarel y needs to be greater than 350 to 400 kPa,
gage (SO to 60 Ib/ in 2 gage). Th e exception is in sma ll towns where full-tim e fire
departme nt s with new eq uipment cannot be afforded. When pumper trucks are
used. the press ure at the fire hydrant sho uld not be allowed to dro p below about
70 k Pa. gage ( 10 Ib/ in 2 gage). This low pressure sho uld be ma intained to prevent
untreated wa ter rrom cnteri ng the wate r distribution system by seepage o r pipe
failure caused by vacuum co ll a pse.
6-6 DESIGN OF DlSTRlBUTION SYSTEMS
The ciesign of a water d istributi o n system for a new area can be o utlined as follows.
(The ana lys is of e:.tisti ng systems is con sidered in th e following section.)
I. Obtain a detai led map of th e area to be sen 'ed on which topographic contours
(or co ntro llin g eleva tio ns) and the locat io ns of present and future st reet s and
lots are identified.
2. Based on the topography, se lect poss ib le loca tio ns for distribution reservo irs.
If the a rea to be served is large. it may be dilided into severa l subareas to be
se rved with separa te di stributi on svstems.
~. Est imate the average and peak wat~r use for the area or each subarea. allowing
I'o r 11re li ghtin g and future growt h.
4 Est imate pipe sizes on the basis of water dema nd and loca l code req uirement s.
5. La y' ou t a ske leton syste m of supp ly mains leading from the distribution
I'csel'voir o r other so urce of supp ly.
() i\na lyze. using one of the SCle ra l methods di scussed III the foll ow ing sec ti o n.
the 1100\s ;tnd press ures in the supp ly netIl'L)I'k k)1 fire !lOll's . ;\ separa te analysis
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN
338 WATER

should be performed for each subarea. Also several configurations should be
examined for each area under various conditions of withdrawal.
7. Adjust pipe sizes to reduce pressure irregularities in the basic grid.
8. Add distribution mains to the grid system. Distribution mains that serve fire
hydrants should be at least 150 mm (6 in) in diameter in residential areas and
200 or 250 mm (8 or 10 in) in diameter in commercial and high-risk illdustrial
areas.
9. Reanalyze the hydraulic capacity of the system.
10. Add street mains for domestic service. These mains usually vary in size from
50 to 100mm(1 t04 in) in diameter.
II. Locate the necessary .valves and fire hydrants.
12. Prepare final design drawings and quantity takeoffs.
6-7 HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The purpose of a hydraulic analysis of a distrIbution system is to assess tlows
(including direction) and the associated pressure distribution that develops
within the system under various conditions of withdrawal. Several methods are
available. These include (1) sectioning, (2) the circle method. (3) relaxation, (4)
pipe equivalence. (5) digital computer analysis. and (6) electrical analogy. The
characteristics of each of these methods are summarized in Table 6-3. The method
of sections and the use of digital computer analysis are considered further below.
Table 6-3 Methods of analysis for water distribution systems
Method of Sections
The method of sections was developed by Allen Hazen [6-2] as a quick method
for checking the correctness of network pipe sizes. A similar procedure was pro-
posed by Pardoe. [6-10] Although the method is approximate, it is extremely
useful in analyzing pipe networks if its limitations are appreciated. The principal
steps involved in the application of this method are as follows.
I. Cut the network with a series of lines selected with due regard to varying pipe
sizes and district characteristics. The lines need not be straight or regularly
spaced. Typically the first series of lines will cut across the network at right angles
to the direction of flow. Additional cut lines may be oriented in other important
directions. For more than one source of supply, a curved cut line should be'
used to intercept the flow from each source of supply (see Fig. 6-5).
2. Estimate the amollnt of water that must be supplied to the areas beyond
each cut line (i.e., downstream). The water demand is composed of the fire
demand and the normal coincident draft due to domestic, commercial, industrial
and other uses. In most networks. the coincident draft will decrease from section
to section. The fire demand will remain high until high-demand or high-valve
areas are left behind.
3. Estimate the capacity of the distribution network at each cut line or section.
This can be done as follows:
a. Count ane! tabulate the number of pipes of each size that were cut. Only
those pipes that provide water in the direction of flow should be counted.

Meth o d Description ...................... . ......... . ......... 0"

------
Supply main
Method of sections Water-distribution-system grid is cut with a scric:-. or section s. and
capacity or the cut pipes is compared to the downstream demand.
the
- ---:- --- a
a- - t- - a' /'
The pipes In a distribution system trihutary to a ccntrallire hycir,lllt or /'
Clfcle methnd .
. g~OllP. of hydrants are cut \.vith a circle, anc! the capacity of the pipes I - r--
to meet the nre demand IS assessed
b - I-- - - t- - - - - +- b' I /
v- -b'

I 1/ -- -
..- v"'-
Relaxation A trial-and-error procedure in which systematic correci.ions are l- c'
applied tn (I) an initial set nf assumed nows or (2) an illltial set lOr I I
assumed heads until {he flow network is balanced hydraulically.
C_I--_ - r- - - - - I--c' I I I
Pipe equivalence The pipes ill a complex di stnbuti on system are replaccd with ;1 single
\ I \

Digital computer analvsis

pipe of equivalent capacity.

. Algorithms are "f1uen til solve Fqs. 6-2, 6-:;. and (.-4 sirnuluneoLisly
\ \ V
throughout the netw~Hk. The algorithms arc solved using modern d - I-- - - I- - - - -'- I-- <I: \ \~ "-
"--..:
high-speed digital computer", . NUl1lcrnu:.. cOll1rlll'ricd programs art: \-
available for the solutioll of \.vatcr -di~tribulI()n now problems. "-
'b
"c
Electrical analogy The.distribution system is rnolkkJ \A.oith ekLtrically equivalent \
components. F(H ex ample, nonilliear resistors are used to ~iJllu l~llc
pipe friction. If the current Illpuh and \\.:ilhdr~l\\"als :IfC prnrortiollal
to the water 110v,.:, thell the hcad l()-.;:-.(~ .., \\ill be proportlOIl:d III (II) (b)
measun.:J vd1t~lgt:: drops
Figu". 6-5 Dennitlon ,ketch for the application of the meThod of sections.
 340 WATER ENV I RO N MF. N TAL EN GINEERING HYDRAULlCS:l!J.lCN 341

P=4t 5 kPa
b. Determine the average availab le hydraulic gradient. This w ill d epend on
system press ures a nd a llowa ble flow ve locities. F or exa mple. if a flat grid
is 10,000 m wide in the direction of fl ow, if the press ure ava ilab le a t th e trans- b
mission pipe connection is 41 Sk P a, gage (60 Ib/ in 2 . gage), a nd if the minimum 300
ISO" 150 200
allowable pressure is 140 kPa, gage (20 Ib/ in 2 , gage) th e average hydra ulic
gradient is 0.0028 [(41 5 - 140)/ 10,000]. H ydrau lic gradient s an d ve locities o
on o
between 0.001 m/ m and 0.003m/ m and 0.6 to 125 m/ s (2 to 4 ft / s), respec- V)

ti ve ly, are common.

cOO 200
4. For the calculated h yd ra ulic gradient. determ ine the ca paci ty of th e ex istin g
cut pipes and total capacity.
5. Determine the difference betwee n th e req uired an d th e existing capac it y. o

6. If the existing capacity is in a dequat e, selec t pipe sizes a nd paths that will offse t
300 150 150
any deficiencies at the required hyd ra uli c grad ient. The capac it y o f th e system
o
can be increased by replacing sma ll pipes w ith larger pipes or addi n g pipes to o
the grid . Experience with the sys tem so metimes helps in selec tin g the pipe sizes,
but such experience is not necessa ry. If excess ca pacity is found , p ipe s izes may
CI

150
o
o
c"
-- --
150
- b

be reduced u sing the same procedures.

7. D e tefmine the size orthe equivalent pipe fo r th e re inforced sys tem a nd es ti ma te o
o
,-.,
the fl ow velocity. High ve loci ti es s hould be limited to avoid wa ter- hammer - c
p ro blem s by redu ci n g the hydra uli c grad ient.
150 150
8. Check the pressure requirements against th e reinforced sys te m.
0 ;

~~
Application of the method of sec tions is illu str a ted in Example 6-3. 0
Of>

200 ---!. 50
o

150
----r-
150
d

Example 6-3: Applying the method of sections Using the meth od of sec ti ons analyze the -_ oV", i
... 'wa"re r-oist"rib\iii o'n:pipe' g i id slio\"n in' ilie' acc6ril'p,iliYlrig flgU"rc. sij~Ci"(y tl;~' ~;i ~~~ '~~'d'
'0
'r,
0
'" o
,r,
- --00c, ----- - e
loca ti o n of any modifications yo u thi nk shou ld be made in the pipe g rid and reanal yze it
with these m o difications. A ssume t he following conditions apply. 150 150 150 150
Pipe <ii;lmclt'rS III millimeter s

1. Fi re flow demands for the downtown business dis trict a re estim a ted lI si ng th e fol lowing CD Re pl ace with 400 mm
equation G).Q) RcpIJCC with 200 mm

Q= 65, ' p(t - OO t vp)

I Iv]pdif\ the I)<lrcy Wci shach cquatl(ln to obtain s lope ;mel ciiamctcr form:
where Q = flow rate, Li s l. I ' ]
p = popUlation in thousand s II = I J 2!J
No te: The above eq uat io n was commonly used by the Nat ional Board o f Fire Und.er
writers for estim ati ng fire flows until it was replaced w it h Eq . (6- 1). II I t 2
::::- .'1 =
2. Co incid ent resi dent ial d emand o f 150 perce nt of average daily " 'ater dcmdnd. " "21J
3. Ave rage dai ly wat er demand is 500 L icapita d. I () '
4. Calculate Aows and head losses \\ith Darcy - Weisbach equati on using an Ivalue of .'i :.:= iy .'l f. d
0.02 0.
5. U se on ly pipe sizes of 150. 200 , ~IJO. 400. and (,00 mm when modd'ying the dis tribution
sys tem grid.

-- .
342 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 343

where Q = fl ow rate. m ) /s . . (15)(500 L/ capita day)(16,500 people)

d = pipe diameter. m Q. COinCident demand = . 3 3
... .... 10 L/ m
s = s lope. m / m
= 12.38 x 10) m 3 / d
y = acceleration due t o gravity. 9.81 mi s'
b. The fire demand for the downtown business district is based on a population of
Substitute values fo r y and f and so lve.
28,000.
Q= [:(~I;;J!2"5!2S I !' S. Determine the available hydraulic gradient acr~ss the distribution system.

= 24.60d " '5 ' /'

P,
3 3
h". co n ve nien ce. exp ress Q in units uf 10 m /d. s = "-- -
Y
L
where P, = press ure in supply main at head end of distribution system
= 415 x 10 3 Pa (given)

Rew ritin g the above eq uation in term s o f sa nd d yields P, = minimum pressure required at farthest end of distribution system

= 140 x 10 3 Pa (20 Ib/ in')

s = (2215 x 10- 7) Q5'
d L = length of main supply pipe across system

d = (4607 x 10 ') (Q
~
') II' = 902 5 m

415 - 140 N/m'

x 10 3
2. Cut the distribution -sys tem pipe grid with a series o f sect ion lines drawn approxi- ------nl 0 N / m )--- -
mately perpendicular to the large wat er main (see th e ligurc). ~ = = 0.0031 m/ m
9025 m
J Es t ima te popubtion d ow nstrea m o f each c ut sec tion . Th e values for t he sect ions s hown
in the figure are: 6. Co unt and tabulate the number of pipes of each size cut by each section.

For example. for section bb: - 0.6-m diameter

I - 0.3-m

<1<1 2X.OOO 2 - 0.2-m

bb 2l.fJOO 4 - 0.15-m
Cl' 16.500
dd 'J.OOO 7. Calculate the' capacity of each pipe c ut by sectiori bli .using the Darcy - Weisbach
ee }. 750 eqllation and the available hydraulic gradient. For example, for the 0.6-m-diameter
pipe:

4. Es timat e w;lIer demand down stream o f each cut section. The required values are: Q= 2125d S12 s ' 2

= 2125(0.6)5/2(0.0031)'"
(see step I)
= 32.99 x 10
3 3
m /d
-'
- - - -- - - ----- - - -
The capacities of the pipes cut by sec ti o n bb are:

SCUtl ) 1l Popu lati on roincicicnl Fire Total

32.99 10 3 m 3d
I - 0.6 X

aa 2X.OOO 2100 2H 14 49.14 I - 0.3 5.83

bb 2 1 .lJOO 172', 28 . 1-1 4')9 2 - 0.2 4.23
cc 16.)1)0 12.3k 2X 1-1 40. 52 4 - 0.15 4.12
dd '.i.DOI) 7.8X 2X . I-I }-I X')
l'c 'U SO :'.81 5. 45* 8.27

~ Ba...;cJ 011 re : -. idcll!ial fire- dl:rnarld of 63 L is (IOOU Hth e SUIll is greater th an the demand there is sufficient capacity across this section.
gal / mIn I 3
For section bb th e suppl y is grea te r than the demand (45.39 X !O3 m /d).
1.:1 ;
344 WATER
[ '! .

8. Calculate the diameter o f a sing le equivalent pipe using the d iame ter form of the
Da rcy - Weis bac h eq ua ti on (see step I).

. .j . '.' (4 7. 17 2)1/ 5 .
d = (4.667 x 10- 2) -~ = 0.692 m
0.003 1

9. Calcula te the actual hydra ulic g radient when th e capaci ty at th e sec ti o n line eq ua ls
the demand using the slope fo rm of the Darcy - Weisbach equa ti ons (see s tep i).

". ". .,. 2? .... .,.

M
45.39' ~
r' ~ 0-
co
.... oC 0 oC

s = (2215 x 10 - 7) 0.6925 = 0.00288 - <:0 0 C> 0 0 c

10. Using th e actual hydra uli c grad ient , recalc ul a te the ca pacity a t th e sec tio n line: It
'" ....
rl 0' -

-= r, x
'" .,. eX> or, CC 00 ...r-: r ..... : 0:

i.,.
CO
sho uld equal the demand. For exam ple. a t sec tion bb:
.,.
<YO
-= -or "" or,
~o 7-

r'
0-
~, '"::; \ .,.'"
0
r ....., C
N -
e- r' -
~,

r", "'"
3
- 0.6 31.80 x 10 m'/d
I - 0.3 5.62
2 - 0.2 4.08
4 - 0.15 3.89

45.48 x 10' rn ' / d

~I
11. Check fo r excess velocities in the pipes using the actual pipe ca paciti es fro m ste p 10.
o~
v,
\

10' m' h d ....o

--_. (10 ') - - - 'tl
Q d 3600 s 24 h o
v 2 of.,
A Ld
4 .,E
....ofo
I{r ')~
= (1.474 x
",
where Q= fl ow ra te. 10' rn ' id
I ....o~
" = pipe diameter. m

v= fluid ve loci ty. mls ,I~ I~

0: ,
"": r": r'! "'"
coo c
-:

For example. for the 0.6-m-diameter pipe

Ii _ - ('-I ~ 01 ("'I ("" -
__ ~ ('I

_, 3 1. 80
. V = (1.474 x 10 -) --"-'- = 1.30 rn /s
-g -.-:;
0.6' .... ,...
,...,
<:
,',
r,
or
C'
x.
c , ~
If the calculated velociti es are too hig h. modificati ons to the distribution-sys tem
~
Q -
.,..,. or, .,.
0 ;!. ~.

grid m ay be necessa ry.

12. Co mplet e the necessa ry computa ti ons fo r the remaining sec tions. The required " ]
.~
comp utat io ns for the distribution sys tem shown in the figure are su mmarized III the - :g ~
accompa nying table. Based o n the calcu la tio ns in the table. sec ti ons tid and ee have'
"2
v: i u
'0
-,; "" - ""
in sufficient capacity. Alth o ugh many modifications tl\ th e di stribution sysIC m grid
are possible. three tha t wi ll co rrect th e insufficie nt capacit y prob lems are s hu wn in
the figure . Sections dd and ee were recalculated a nd th e new resu lt s are shown in the
ta ble as sec ti ons dd and ce (rc\ ised).
 346 WA T ER ENV IRONMEN T AL ENG INE ERI NG HYDRA U LI C S DESIGN 347
....)

Digital Computer Analysis 6-9 CONSTRUCTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ....)

M os t di stributi o n netw o rk s a re n o w anal yzed using dig it a l co mputer p rog ra ms.
In writin g a co mputer prog ram to so lve netwo rk fl ow pro blems, the fo ll ow ing The basic requirem ents o f pipes fo r water di stribution c:~~~~r~~ a::m:~~1~::~ ....)
equ a ti o ns mu st be satisfi ed simultan eo us ly thr o ug ho ut th e ne two rk . stren gth and m a ximum corros IOn reslstance't~I~r;;::lf~izes steel ~nd reinforced
At eac h jun cti o n : steel. plas tic, a nd asbes tos c~ment com~ete II1 . In cold climates, pipes should
co ncrete are m o re co mpetItI ve II1 the Idfger sIzes.. . For even the coldest --.J
f eno u h belo w gro und to prevent freez1l1g II1 wmter.
(6-2) be ar g . d h f 15m (5 ft) is generally more than adequate.
part s of the Ul1lted hStates, a e~t b: bu'r ied o nly sufficie ntly deep to avoid damage .
.....)
F or eac h co mpl ete ci rc uit :
In warm clIma tes, t e pIpes nee . t ipe are
'LH = 0 fr o m traffic load s. Service co nnec tions t.o ca st-Iron orasbestos-~~r:e: ~orpora- -..J
(6-3)
made b y tappin g th e distributIOn m a lI1 WIth aspeC!al~ap.p~fe~dai~~~; the se~vice
F o r eac h p ipe: ti on coc k is th en installed WIth a fleXIble goosenec P I~ settlement between the
H = k Q" (6-4)

pIpe.
The go ose neck prevent s damage If th e re IS unequa.
.
.
. ' 1 d ' f m the ma1l1 to the cons umer are
--- I

main and the ser vice pipe. Ser vIce pIpes ea mg/ 0 . I -family dwellings ,20- to -..J
In t he m o re so phis ti ca ted o f t he ne t wor k comput er p rog ra m s, Eq s. 6-2, 6-3. a nd 6:4 usua lly o f copper tubing or galvafllze~ st~eL o~::~i~: sizes may be needed for
a re so lved si mult a neo us ly us in g o ne o f severa l m a tri x in ve rs io n tec hni q ues. 30-mm G- to It -in) pIpe IS co mm o n. ut a rger .
Severa l so luti o n tec hniqu es are prese n ted a nd a na lyzed in J e ppson [6-4J apa rtm ent ho uses o r bu siness establI shments. -..J
P erh a ps th e greatest ad va nt age o ffe red by th e use o f co mput e rs is that m a ny
m o re so luti ons ca n be deve lo ped a t a re aso nab le cos t to assess th e res ponse of
-.J
the sys te m to vary ing input s. Also. rea l-time ana lys is can be used to stu dy th e Filling A New System .
effec ts o f va ryi ng pump opera tio n p la ns. At th e prese nt tim e a lm os t a ll co ns ult ing d ra nts a nd valves are opened so that aIr can -..J
When a new pipe is fir st filled , all hy 'd ' re several days for large systems.
firm s a nd m os t indus tries have in-ho use co m p ut e r p rog rams o r have access to .. . d I IV'1l1 ma y requI
esca pe fr eely. FIIIlI1g IS o ne sow , < . ' . not rop edy taken out of the system.
s uc h prog ra m s o ffer ed by seve ra l o f th e nati o na l co mputin g se rvices. The key
Excessive press ures can devel o p If the .a lr IS fro~ a h ydrant, it is closed. The pro-
--.J
iss ue is no t in wr iting s uc h a program . b ut in un de rs ta nd in g wh a t p roblems shou ld
be so lved . When a stead y, unlI1terrupt ed strea m Iss uesI e ' Iosed and the system is full
cedure is continued until all valves and h ye rant s ar c ....)
.Df wateL. ...
.....)
6-8 CROSS-CONNECTIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Leakage . J
A cross-co n nec tion occurs whe n th e drinkin g-wa ter su pp ly is con nec ted to so me . . . s stems will vary with the care exerCIsed
T he am o unt o f lea ka ge fr o m di strIbutI o n y f i t m Leakage values from 5
so urce o f po llution . For example, if a co mmunit y ha s a d ua I' water di stributi o n . d h d co ndItI o n 0 t 1e sys e . ..)
111 construct IO n an t e age a n I' f ' diam . mi . d) are common
sys tem , o ne fo r fi re fi g ht ing a nd the o th er fo r domes ti c co ns umpti o n. th e two m ay
to 25 L/ mm o rpipe dia m km d (SO to 250 ga / lI1 O PlelPnegth of pipe between valves
be interc o nnec ted so that d o mesti c wa te r ma y be used to s upplem e nt th e o th er . ade bv cios mg 0 ff a . \
for new sy ste ms. Th e test IS m ,. . . t oduced through a speCial V
sys tem in case o f fire. S uc h an a rr angeme nt is d a nge ro us, fo r co nt a min ated wa ter . . the pIpe Water IS m r .
and a ll se r vIce co nnectIOn S to . '. . d f t least 12 h while leakage IS
from the fi re-fi g htin g s upply may ge t int o th e drinkin g- wate r sys tem eve n th o ugh I k' . , Ire IS malI1t a 1l1e or a
the two sys te ms a re nor mall l' sepa ra ted by c losed va lves. Th e p re ferred me tho d
mlet, and norma wor mg pI eSSl
.
II
t th e to ta oss IS es
. tl'nla ted from the difference --.J
measured. In an o pera tm g sys e m d d deliveries to the customers. ,
for int erc.o nn ec ting dual sys tems is th e a ir brea k , a lth o ugh d o ubl e c heck val ves . th s V 3tem a n metere
a re sometImes used . between me as ure d mput to e J . 'fic leak Patented leak J
'bl I d o r 10ca tlBg a specI .
There a re' several pOSSI e met 10 s d 'f . g water or the disturb-
Cross-co nn ec ti o ns may occur In priva te resid en ces, a pa rtm ent ho uses, and '. ' . k th e so un 0 escapm
detecto rs use a ud lo,ph o nes to pIC up d nd near the leak. Similar
co mm ercia l b uil d ings. es pec iall y wi th o ld-style plumbing fixtures If th e wa ter . . I' fi Id ' d by S'r!urate gro u .J
an ce in an e lect rI ca e c<luse . .' If'r h act loca tion is unknown. If
inl e t o f a plu mb in g fix ture is be low th e ove rfl ow d rai n o r r im, a redu ced p ress ure . d I t tl e p Ipe Itse I t e ex
deV Ices ma y be use to o ca e 1 . I I f 'pe from which there are no
in th e wa te r sys te m m ay cau se bac k s iph o nage. Ot he r so urces o f Cross-co nn ec t io ns .
press ure gages are m sta e a
II d lo ng a gIven en g t 1 0 pI
, .
. .
d ' t n be ta ken as an indIcatIOn
.J
a ro un d a ho use ho ld include ba thtu bs, fi s h pond s, sw immin g poo ls with un de rrim . f I h drauh c g ra len ca
tak eo ffs. a cha nge III slo pe 0 t le y .' . elr or unu suall y lush veget a tion
inle ts, a nd law n spr inkle rs th a t become s ub me rged whe n used . of a lea k. In so me insta nces th e esca plll g water It S J

J
 348 WATER ENVIRON~IENTAL ENG INEE RI NG HYDR AULICS DES IGN 349
,j
may be used to spot the loca ti o n of a lea k. The loca ti o n of all pipes. va lves, and design of sewe ls. t he ma terials 0 I' co nstruct .Io n. an d the constru cti on a nd ma in-
appurtenances sho uld be entered o n maps. This informa tion is e~se nt i ,t1 III case tena nce of sewers.
repairs are ever required.

Disinfection of New Systems 6-11 TYPES OF CO LLECTION S YSTEIVIS

Wh ile pipe is being handled and placed. th ere are man y opportunit ies for poll utio n. The three genera l types of collection systems commonly used in the United States
Hence, it is necessary to dis infect a new system or an ex isting sys tem after re pa irs are sa nitary. sto rmwat er. a nd combined. The characterlslics of each of th ese types
or add itions'. Disinfect ion is usua ll y accomp lished by introdu cin g chl o ri ne, of sewe rs a re d isc ussecl below.
calc ium hypoch lo rite. or ch lo rin a ted lim e in a mo unt s sufficient to give an immed-
ia te chlorine res idue of 50 mg/ L. Th e che mica l is introduced slow ly a nd permitt ed
to rema in in the system fo r a t leas t 12 a nd preferab ly 24 h before it is flushed o ut. Sa nit a ry Sewers
T he fl ushi ng may be accomp lished by o pening seve ra l fir e hydrants.
Oft en idcnt ifi ed as se parate sewe rs. sa nitar y sewers were deve loped to remove
domes lic wastes from . ' .ldenlia
res . I areas. 0 Il" gln,
. 'I lly . the fl ow III sa nitar y sewers
M aintenance of Distributi on Systems lVas by l(ral'it y. Mure rece ntl y. both presslll e a n d v acuum sewers ha ve . been used
. ,
to .serve- areas l.vhere
.. grav it. y sewers wou . lei b e Cf'ffi
I c ult ,'ll1d cos tl y to Inst all a nd
T he hydra ul ic efficie ncy of pipes will diminish with tim e because of tuhercu lati on,
lllaintall1.
encrusta tion . and sed iment depos it s. F lushing II ill di slodge so me of the fo reign
ma tter. but to clea n a pipe effecti ve l} a sc raper mu st be run thro ugh it. The scra per
may be forced t hro ugh by wate r press ure o r pu lled thr o ugh with a ca ble. Clea ni ng.
S torm wa ter Sewers
even t ho ugh costly, may payoff with Illcreased hyd raulic effi ciency and in creased
pressures thro ugh o ut the sys tem . Th e eflects of cleaning may last only a short Sewers Intend ed so lel y for the collection of sto rmwater are kn own as stormwa,ter
,
sewers. Usuallv sewe l'S .'separate
large r tha n sa nltalY .' ' .stormwa ter . sewet S ,Ire
time. and in ma ny cases pipes are lined with ceme nt mo rtar after clea n ing to
obta in more permane nt resu It s. - . . . bl
CllnstruCled to eltmln a te poll ution pro ems, . ' 'lssocta ted .with th
' e dIscharge
. . of Ull-
"
treated wastewater fr om eumblne( . I sewers .Int o II'aterco urses a.nd reCelVll1 e0 wa tels.
More recentl y. th e treatment 0 f sto rmwater Ilas .' developed Illt O. a se parate. and
6-10 P UMPI N G REQ U IR ED F OR WAT ER SU PPLY S YSTE MS specia lized field . Fo r this reaso n the desig n o f stormwa ter sewers IS not conSidered
. 'Infurmat .lo n o n sto lm
in thi s sec ti o n. Detailed ., ter sewers mav
w.l. ' -be' fo und 111 Refs.
In some cases. grav it y can be lI sed as th e dril'in g fo rce to bring wa ter fro m it s [6- 5.6-7.6- 14. a nd 6- 16].
source to the consumer. In mos t Cases. howe\"er. some form of pumping wil l be
required. Pllmps ar~ required to delile r water from we ll s and where necessary to
lift wa ter to distribu tion reservoirs an d eleva ted tank s. Often booster pumps Com bin ed Sewers
must be installed o n the mains to incrcase th e press ure. Pumps and pump stations , co Ile'cted toge th er in combined
Do mes ti c II'asteW<l ter and sto rmlYa ter are .. sewers.
.
are considered in greater deta il la ter in this chapt er. . '. . . . ' of the olde r Cllies 111 th e
\ f\lth oulLh th e use of comb ined sewe rs persi sts In mdny . .
Un it ed ~States. tlte y arc se ldom con strllctecI to eI',I),. TI1c JV are stdl used exte n~lve l y
III 1l1 ~11l \ part s (If th e wor ld. however.
Wastewa ter Co ll ec tion

Once used for it s intended purposes. t he wa ter suppl y of a co mmunit y j s considered 6-12 T YPES OF SE\VERS
to be waste wa ter. The indi vidual pipes lIsed tn co llec t ,;nd transport \vas tewa ter
are ca lled sel\"t'r s. and the network of sewers lI sed to co ll ec t was tewa ter from a .I-he types and sizes
. of sewers li se d WI'1 1 VJI)
., 11'1 tl 1 sir C of th e collect
.
inn system
'
and
commu nity is known as a co /lt'Cl iofl s r Sl e lli. -
th\: I llc~ltlon of tlte w~ls t ew(\ter-treatme nt I'aCI'1"Illes. Th e prin. clp<l _ l types of sewe
. rs
The purpose of this secti o n is to de fin e the types of collec tio n sys tems th a t are . n systems are (IeSC tl' b ecI b y fl Il1ctio n In 1 able 6-4 and IlIu s-
found III ll1 0s t cn llectlo
used . the appurtenances lI sed in conjunc ti on with sewers. the tlnw in sewers. tli e trat ed graphica lly In Fig. 6-6.
 ."
jO' ~@~.. ~ ~ $: r ...; --l '-'
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to '<
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o Q n ~
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(\; ..... ~ <

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"

Spigo t end VC
200'mm minimum
r B MH frame and cover Adjust to require.:; ::: ',;de
wi th a minimum of two
cou rses of brick masonry
pipe ",ith premo ld ed or reinfo rced-concr e te
Jomls \ grading rings
A A

L ~'~~1\ l:lt3 J
Rubber gasket
o r sealan t
T ypica l 3,O O-mm VC p ipe
st ub required a t ail
connec tions to manhole
200-mm minimum Precast rei nfo rced-
T y pical VC stub wi th concrete MH barrel
stopper fo r future' Class B conc rete
crad le support 6
co nnection
minimum ',-
c:
t,gc_--
~o .. E. _~.

Secti o nal plali C-C Form groove in baSe

concre te wit h steel
.Q
'"c
N

(;
'.
ring to receive :.0
tongue of barrel
U
E\6
o 0
~
l2 S-mm
minimum

VC pipe stub

r
with stopper

c
tc
Brick masonry o r -7JY4)7~~
Ba se to be co nstructed on
: Class B co ncre te
cradle support cl,ass A co ncrete Cla ss A co ncrete I
undisturbed mate rial o r l 2 5-mm : (ty p ica l) Bri ck masonry Con crete masonry
co mpa cted screened gravel minimum invert inve rt
w
V>
Se ctio n A - A Section B-B
Figure 6-7 T yp ical manh ole used ror reinrorced-concre le sewer p ipe, (From MeT calf & ddv, Inc, [6 -8].)
 See note 3
Precast MH barrel I: NV IRO N~ I ENTAL ENGINEERI~(j HY IJRALJLlCS DES IGN 353
and sea l with nonshrink
mortar (typical)
See note 3 6-13 COLLECTION SYSTEM APPURTENANCES
Reverse VC 150
mm The principal app urt enances of sa nitary sewers are manho les, drop inlets to man-
ho les_ buildin g connec ti o ns, a nd junc ti o n cha mbers. D e pendin g. on loca l topo-
150
graphy, sp ec ial stru ct ures ma y be req utred.
mm
Manholes
Ma nholes are used to int e rco nn ect I\VO or more sewers (see Fig. 6-6) a nd to p rovide
entry for scwe r c leanin g. Fo r sewers that are 1200 mm (4:::; in ) and sma \l er, man-
hol es shou ld be loca ted at changes in s ize. s lo pe. or direction . In large r sewe rs
cut curves to be these changes ca n be made without us ing a manho le. :\ typ ica l manhole fo r
cut and fitted to reinforced-concrete pipe is shown in Fig. 6-7.
suit conditions Class B concre te placed
at each manhole against undisturbed
(refer to note 2) material or sheeting Drop Inlets to Manholes

Shallow dro p _ _
typical
+
I

r__ Dee p drop

typi ca l
Wh ere th e difference in e leva ti on between the incoming a nd ou tgo in g sewer ex-
ceeds 0.5 m (1.5 ft), flow from incoming sewer ca n be dropped to th e eleva ti on of
(a) th e o utg o in g sewe r wi th :1 drop inlet s lIch as s how n in Fig. 6-8.

Notes : I .
Ccn ( erlin~
I. Drop pipe to be same diameter as sewer discharging into manhole for up 10 and including
including 300-mm size.
stree t C'rb 1----"'" '-___--1 M inilnunl depth .~ ... ' Building
'.~ .~ , foundation
2. Deeper drop may be constructed with stra ight pipe betwee n wye branch and curve cove r from top.. ':
of pipe 900 mm
...:,.
3. Extend encasement to first joint beyond excavation for drop con nection.
t ~t building . . F oo ting
4. Dimensions and cons tru ction of drop manh o le to be simi lar 10 typi cal manhole Building
except as shown. . .
I
200- X 150-mm
Scn.::cncd gravel
10 to cO mJ1J
F lex ibl e
wastewater
sys tem
Pipe size table

.~~~,:~~
.... I.m-..
Aluminum splash
plate Pipe sizes, mm
Inl et Drop Ckaltou t
sewer, pipe , plug
Dj D2
Payment limits 6-x50-mm
for drop inlets aluminulJl strap 300 250 pip"
allchors spaced 250 200
600mm O.c. 200 200-
No te: I SO-min pipe nJily be
150 150
Vc. AC. DI . or PVC
125 125 Main sewer size v;]ries
200- mm VC shown
S t31flless-s leel bands.
with takeup screws

Notes:
J. Refer to table above for sizes
of drop pipes to be used with
inlet sewers.
Invert detail
Invert d e t ail at sid e drops 2. Dimensions and construct ion of
at main run drops 2 drop manhole to be simila r 10
typical manhole excep t as shown. plas ti c body
(b)
Figure 6-8 Typical drop inlets for vitrified clay pipe used in collect io n sys tems: (0) o ut side drop, DeLlil i\ - Flexible coupling:
Ita scale
ih) inside drop for sewer 600 mm and smaller. (From M el<'l1 li L~ i:"dd... Ill c. ["-81.)

352
354 WAT ER ENVIRONI>1ENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 355

Building Connections where V = veloc it y, m/ s

11 = fri c tion factor
The sewers leading from individual hou ses or buildings to the municip a l collcction
sys tem are known as building co nnecti o ns. A typical h o use co nnection is s ho wn R = hydraulic radius
in Fig. 6-9. cro ss-sectional area of Aow, m 2
wetted perimeter, m

Junction Chambers S = slope of energy grade line, m / m

As the diameter of intersecting sewers (e.g. ,. main and trunk sewers) continu es to The recommended n value for the des ign of new and existing well-constructed
increase as wastewater from more of the service area is collected , precast manh o les sewers is 0.013. An 11 value of 0.0 ISis recommended for the analysis of older sewers.
can no lo nger be used. Wh e n thi s situation occurs, special juncti o n chambers a re The graphs presented in Figs. 6-10 and 6-11 have been prepared to simplify the
constructed to connect the intersecting sewers. use of the Manning equation in the design of sewers. Also because many sewers
do not Aow full, the relationship between hydraulic elements for flow at full depth
and at other depths in circular sewers is illustrated in Fig ..6-12. Developed using
6-14 BASIC CONSIDERA nONS IN THE DESIGN OF SEWERS the Manning equation , Fig. 6-12 is used to obtain thevalues of V. Q, A, R. and n
at a given depth ratio based on the corresponding values of VJ , QJ' A J' R J'
In planning and des igning sanitary sewers the following fa cto rs must be co nsid ered and nJ when the pipe is flowing full.
separately fo r ea ch install a tion:
Sewer Pipe Materials and Sizes
I. Estimation of wastewater des ign Aow rates The principal materials used in the manufacture of sewer pipe are asbestos cement,
2. Selection of design parameters ductile iron, reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, polyvinyl chloride, and
G . H ydraulic design equation vitrified clay. Information on the sizes of pipes made with these materials is pre-
b. Alternative sewer pipe materials sented in Table 6-5.
c. Minimum sizes Minimum sewer sizes are usually specified in local building codes. The
d. Minimum and maximum velocities smallest sewer used should be larger than the building sewer connections so that
3. Selection of appropriate sewer appurtenances ...o.bj~q~ .P.a.~?t;q .thrQ.l,Ighth.e building sewer will not clog the municipal sewer.
4. Evaluation ofalternatlve aiigI1nients Building sewer connections vary in size from 100 to I SO mm (4 to 6 in). The
S. Evaluation of the use of c urv ed sewers minimum size recommended for gravity sewers is 200 mm (8 in), although ISO-mm
(6-in) co nnections have been used in some communities.

Design Flow Rates Minimum and Maximum Velocities

The total wastewater flow in sanitar y sewers is made up o f three co mp o nents :
(I) res idential, commercial, and instituti o nal wastewater, (2) indu strial wastew a ter.
and (3) infiltration . SanitilfY sewers are designed for the following fl ows (Ref.
[6-8J)
I. Peak flow s from residential. co mm ercial, ins tituti o nal, and indu strial so urces
for the entire service area
2. Peak infiltration allowance for th e entire ser vice area
Hydraulic design equation Curre ntly, th e Mannin g equati o n is used mos t co m-
monly for th e d es ign o f sanitar y sc wers. The M a nnin g equati o n is
V = ~ R2 tJ S I / 1 (6- 5)
11
When the vel o city of flow in a sewer is low, there is a tendency for the solids present
in wastewater to settle out. Because the deposited solids may accumulate and
ultimately block the flow. sufficient velocity should be developed on a regular
basis to flush out any deposited solids. Based on past experience, current practice
is to design sa nitar y sewers with appropriate slopes to maintain a minimum flow
velocit y of 0.6 m / s (-2.0 ft/ s) when the sewer is Aowing full or half full. To prevent
tbe deposit Ion of sand and gravel a velocity of 0.75 m /s (2.5 ft/ s) is recommended.
To a void damaging sewers it is recommended that the maximum flow velocities
be limited to v;t!ues equal"to or less than 30 m / s (10 ft/ s).
Minimum Slopes
Minimum s lopes are o ften used to a vo id extensive excavation where the slope of
th e gr o und surface is Aat. In gen eral. minimum s lopes based on Manning's equation
 "
2'
'"
~
o
' f)

C
<:>

.c
0.
~
""
o
E
o
V)
.2.
V)
0 0 0 0 00
a a o 'r. 'n
0 0
o
0 0 0 0 00
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 o 0 0 0 0
0 0
lli / IU ' ,dO IS
tlJ / tU ';)dO IS

356 357
 358 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 359

n Table 6-5 Ayailable size ranges and descriptions of commonly used pipe for grayity-
Values o f -
nruu flow st'wers
1.1 1.2 1.3 14 Avaitabte
size range,
Type of pipe mm (in) Description
- - - fI constan t \'\,
Asbeslos cement (A C) 100-900 Weighs less than other commonly rigid pipes. May be
I 1
- - - Ind ependent of 1/
0.8 (4-36) su sceplible to acid corrosion and hydrogen sulfide
I , atlack, but if properly cured with steam at high

//
/ A-. Hydraulic
pressure (autoclave process), may be used even in
env ironments with moderately aggressive waters or
soi ls with high-sulfate content.
/ / radius R
Ductile iron (0 1) 100-t350 Often used for river crossings and where Ihe pipe must

.c
Cl.
v
.",
04 ~/
,/' (4-54) support unusually high loads, where an unusually
lea kproof sewe r is required, or where unusual root
problems are likely to .develop. Ductite-iron pipes
are susceptible to acid corrosion and hydrogen sulfide
, /
0
.9 ,
/ /
,//
a!lack, and therefore should not be used where the
groundwater is brackish, unless suitabte protective
~ ,/ measures are taken.

0.2 v Reinforced concrele IRC) 300-3600 Readit y available in most localities. Susceptible to
(t2- t44) co rr os ion of interior if th e atmosphere over waste-
wate r contains hydrogen sutfide, or from outside if
buried in an acid of high-sulfate environment.

Preslressed conc re te ( PC) 400 - 3600 Espec ially suited to tong transmission mains without
( 16- 144) building connections and where precautions against
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
lea kage are required. Susceptibility to corrosion (the
s;tme as reinforced concrete).
H ydrau li c elements V Q'. A R
V fuU QfulJ ~ R'ulJ P,)lyvinyl chloride (PYC) 100-375 A plastic pipe used for sewers as an alternative to
(4- t5) .. asbestos-=entaMd 'lfitf>liecl-day pipe, Lightweight ............ .
Figure 6-12 H yd rauli c elements fnr circular sewers. but slrong. Highly resistant to corrosion.

Yilrified c lay (VC) 100- 900 For many years the most widety used pipe for gravity
(4- 36) sewe rs; st ill widely used in small and medium sizes.
have proved to be adequate for sma ll-diameter sewers. As the pipe sizes increase Res istant to corrosio n by both acids and alkalies.
beyond 600 mm (24 in) the minimum practicable slop.e for construction is about Not susce ptible to damage from hydrogen sulfide,
0.0008 Ill/ m. but is britlle and susceptibte to breakage.

In wa rm areas. hydrogen sulfid e will often develop as wastewater is tran sported

.)Olirce: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc . [68J
In sewers laid at minimum slopes. The deve lopment o f hydrogen su lfide can (I)
cause odor problems, (2) lead to th e deterioration of materials co ntaining cement.
and (3) result in the precipitation. as sulfides. of trace metals needed for proper Another reason for not installing curved sewers is that the lise of laser-type survey-
bacterial growth in biological trea tment systems. A more complete analysis of ing equipment for maintaining grade during construction is not feasible.
hydrogen-s lilfide problem s In sewers ma y be found in Ref. [6-8].

Usc of Cuned Sewers
Although not used in thc past , cu rvcd selVers have pl'ovcd to he satisf;lc tor y as
lon g as the curva ture is nut severe. Before usin g cur ved sewers. the compa tibilit y
of I he clean in g eq uipm ent t\l be used for sewer ma intenan cc Illust be assessed.
Sewer Ventilation
Ventilation in sewers is needed to avoid (1) t he danger of asphyxiation of sewer
maintenance employees, (2) the buildup of odorous gases. and (3) the development
of ex plos ive mixtures of sewe r gases, principally methane and oxygen. Design
ConSiderations for the ventilation of sewers are discussed in detail in Ref. [6-8].
 360 WATER
Sin gle- family hom es
A-I
6-15 DESIGN OF SANITARY SEWERS (200 hal
4th St.
The design of sanitary se\VersinvQlves fieldwork, the preparation of maps and pro-

r
files, and detailed design computations. Each of these topics is considered briefly '">
<:
below. The detailed design of san itary sewers is illustrated in Example 6-4. c _ I
o -_
E
E Mixed - - - - cO.O m
SthS.t. .~ resid~nti31
Fieldwork ~================~~_;::;=====::::::::.J ~ hOUSing
Low-ri se A- S I

-
Todesign sanitary sewers properly, accurate and detailed.maps should be available apartment ___ ( ~5 0 hal
for the areas to be served. The location of streets, alleys, highways, railroads,
.................\
........ .......
A-4
(100 hQ)
---
public buildings and parks, streams, drainage ditches. and o ther features that may ......... 6th St
influence the design of the sewers should be identified. Accurate elevations are ;:===============-=1- 19.0 III

needed throughout the area to be served by the proposed sewer. Profiles are
needed for all existing or proposed streets, alleys, and potential rights-of-way I
where sewers may be placed. In addition, detailed information must be available
on the location of surface and subsurface utilities such as water and gas mains,
electrical conduits. drain lines, and other underground structures.
Single-
fa m il y
homes
A-6
------ --- Single- - - - _
~
Ig Om
fallltly
In addition to the above information, soils data should also be available. (200 hal hom es
Soils borings should be made to a depth of at least 1.5 m (5 ft) below the bottom A-7 I
( 300 hal
of the sewer trench. (,
7th St

Commercia!
dis tri ct
Preparatio.n of Maps and Profiles A-8
(100 hal
While tlie fieldwork is going on, work on the preparation of maps and profiles 8 I
~
Single-
should proceed simultaneously. Thus. if any information is found to be missing
it can be collected before the fieldwork is completed. Maps on a scale of 25 m' to '
10 mm (200 ft to 1 in) are acceptable for most purposes. Where additional detail
is needed a scale of about 5 m or less to 10 mm (40 ft or less to 1 in) is often used.
family
.. "tlo"riles"
A-'i
(200 hal
"

1>Lx ccl
-
--..;..,: "

residenti'l!"
SthS t.

---- --
.. . .

Smg!e- - - 17.0 m
In preparing design profiles, street centerline elevations are shown at least every 9th St hOU Sing ~ family
15 m (50 ft) and at all locations where the surface stope changes abruptly. A-IO homes
6 (IOOha) ~ A II~
"- "-.................. 10 (25_0 hal
Design Computations for Sanitary Sewers " Industrial"-......... 7 II

The detailed design of. sanitary sewers involves the se lection of appropriate pipe "- f"-- park
A-I: ....... l~~====
___ 8 "'----
sizes and slopes to transport th e quantity of wastewater expected from the surroun- I . . . . . "- (cOO hd) ---
16.0 In
ding and upstream areas the next pipe in series, subject to t.he appropriate design . "-

L ="-.. . ~
Trunk ::-ewer
constraints. The design procedure for sanitary sewers is illustrated in Example 6-4.
9 0- Used to indica!c
location or line
o 500 15.0 III to \',:hicll w~sk\\'att.:.'r
Example 6-4: Designing a gravity-flow s3nit3r~' sewer 'Design a gravity-flow trunk san i-
LJ I I I I from con t ributing
tary ~e wer for the area shown in the accompanying ligure ((II. The trunk sewer is to be Scale . m
To tltatment Jrea IS di sch~ r!:!t'd
laid along Peach Avenue starting at 4th Street and ending at I I th Street. Asslime that the plant

following design criteria have been developed based on an analy sis of local co ndition s \0)
and codes.
3tl l
 ENV IRONMENTAL ENG INEERIN G HYDRAULICS DESIGN 363
362 WATER

b. F or commercia l, industrial , and institutional areas, also obtain the peak infiltra-
I. For design period use the saturat ion peri od (time required to reach sa turation po u-
latlon). p ti o n va lues from the figure (b) . However, to take into account that the total length
o f sewe rs in' these areas will generally be less than that in residential areas, use only
2. For population densities use the data gj\'en in the table.
50 percent o f the actua l a rea to co mpute the infiltration allowance,
7. for inflow allowance assume that the steady-flow inflow is accounted for in the
infiltration allowance.
Saturat ion 8. Peaking fac tors:.
populat ion Wastewater o. R esidentia l- u se the curve given in the accompanying figure (e) .
T ype or density. flow , b. Co mmerc ial - 1.8
Zoni ng development person! ha L/capi t" d c. Indu strial -2. l
d. In stituti ona l (school) - 4.0
Reside nt ial Single-family dwellings 40 380
Residential Duplexes 60 300
Resident ial Low-ri se apartments 120 220
Residential Mixed ho usi ng 70 250
(; 4

~
00
c
3. For residential wastewater tl ows use the data given in the table .
4. For commercial and industrial flow s (average):
""~ 5 m3 /s, 2.0
0...
a. Co mme rcial - 20 m 3 : ha d.
I
b, Indu s trial - 30 mJ/ ha . d. 0.1 0.5 5
0.004 0.01 0.05
5. F o r inst ituti onal fl ows (ave rage):
Avecage wastewater flow (excl uding infiltration l inflow) , m 3/s
College - 400 nl" / d (5330 stud ents x 7S L/student . d),(IOOO L /m J)
(c)
6. F o r infiltration a ll owance:
(/. For residential a leas. o btain the peak infiltration va lu es from the accompany in g
figure (b).
9. for th e hydraulic des ign equatio n u se the Manning equation with a n n value-ofO.Ol3.
T o si mplify the co mputation s, use Fig. 6-10.
100 10. Minimum pipe s ize:The loca l building code spec ifies 200 mm (8 in) as the smallest pipe
pe rmi ssib le for this situation.
11. Minimum ve loci ty: To prevent the depositi on of so lids at low wastewater flow s, use
a minimum velocity of 0.75 m ls (2. 5 ft /s ) during the peak flow conditions.
'0 50
12. Minimum cove r (minimum depth of cover ove r the to p of the sewer): As established
'" 40
~ by th e local community building code, the minimum depth of cover is 2.0 m.
E 30 Old sewe rs

20 SOLUTIO N

5,000 ha. 10 .0 mJ/ ha' d I. Layo ut the trunk sewer. Draw a line to represent the proposed sewer [see figure (a)].
10 2. Locate and number th e manh o les. Loca te ma nhol es at (!l changes in direction. (2)
changes in slope, (3) pipe junctions. (4) upper ends o f sewe rs. and (5) int erva ls from
90 to 120 m o r less. Identify each manhole with a number [see figure (a)]. For the
purpose o f thi s example only the manh o les at the maj o r junctions have been numbered.
5
N~w sewers include existing sewers having pipe joints In an actual design, intermediate manholes would be loca ted and numbered.
sea led With com press io n gaskets o f eiastomeric mat eri a ls. 3. Pre pare a sewer des ign comp utati o n table. Based on the experi ence of numerous
engi neers. it has been found that the best approach for carrying out sewe r compu tati ons
5 ,000 ha. 3.3 mJ/ ha ' d
is to use a co mput a ti on table. The necessary computations fo r the sani ta ry sewer
I -->

';:O:-----L--L--1--1L.l-LliL---L.-'---"--:::I~1J.....ILILLI:-:c---L_..L-L s hown in figure (II) are presented in the accompanying ta ble. Although the table is,
500 1.000 5,000
for the most part. scl f-explanaw ry. the following comments arc presented to clarify it s
Servic,' area. ha
deve lopment.
(b )
...'"
0-

Sewer computation table

Locat ion Residential fl ows

Lengt h Average Cumulative Cumulative

of : Population Populati on unit Flow average pea k flow.
sewer, Area. ~density. increment, flow. increment, flo w. Peaking m 3jd
Line Fmni To m Subarea' ha : persons jha perso ns Ljca pita . d m' j d m' j d factor ( II x 12)

( I) , (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) :(7) (8) (9) ( 10) (II) (12) ( 13)

707 A-I 200 : 40 8. 000 380 3040 3,040 2.9 8,8 16

707 A-2 3.040 2.9 8.8 16
A- 3 3,040 2.9 8.8 16
A-5 250 : 70 17.500 250 4375 7.415 2.7 20,021
4 1414 A-4 100 : 120 12.000 220 2640 10.055 2.6 26,143
A-7 300 40 12.000 3S0 4560 14.615 2.6 37,999
.j ,~ 5 707 A-6 200 ' 40 8.000 380 3040 17.655 2.5 44.13 8
5. (, 707 A-8 17.655 2.5 44.13 8
A-9 200 40 ~.OOO 3S0 3040 20.695 2.5 51,738
6 (, 707 A-I O 100 70 7.000 250 1750 22,445 2.5 56.113
7 8 707 A-II 250 40 10.000 380 3800 3,800t 2.9 11.020
9 707 707 A-12 26,245 2.5 65 ,613

Sewer computation table (Conlinued)

Indu str ial 110ws
Loca ti on Commc:rci,1i now~

A \'Crage Cumulative Cumulative

;\ \'erage CUITlUlatl\C Cumulative
Lcngl h peak flow,
peak Aow. unit average
of unit average
Area. flow, flow, Peaking m 3 jd
Area. now. !low. Peaking m' id
~e\\'er . mJ jd factor (21 x 22)
m.\ ." ha d m.l 'd faclol (16 x 17) ha m' /ha d
L'lle Fr\.)!l1 To m Subarea' ha

(19) (20) (21 ) (22) (23)

( 5) ( 14) (15) (10) (17) ( 18)
(II 12) dl (4)

707 A-J
707 A-2
A- 3 50 20 1000 1.8 1800
A- 5 1000 1.0 ISOO
1~14 A-~ 1000 1.8 1800
4
A-7 1000 1.8 1800
707 A-6 1000 1.8 1800
~ ~
A-S 100 20 3000 1.8 5400
h 707
.'\-9 3000 1.8 5400
A-IO 3000 1.8 5400
6 i\ 707
70i A-II 2.1 12,600
1.8 5400 200 30 6000
9 707 A-12 3000

'~
~
'J'
 '.-J

""'"

Sewer computation table (Col1linued)

Lnc( (ion
In stitutional Aows Cumulat ive subtotal, Inti lna tion

Cumulative Cumulati ve
Len gth Cumulative Cumu lative
Cum ulative average peak Aow.
or average peak Aow. flow: m.\ /d
Peak unit infiltration
sev.:cr, m'\ /d Cumulative Intiltrati on allowance,
tlo\v, Peaking m1 /d
Lin t.: To ( II + 16 + (13+18+ Area. area,
Frll!l1 In Suharca* . m" ,<1 factor
allowance m' /d
(24 x ::'5) 21 + 24) 2:l + 26)
--_._--------------- ha ha m' /ha . u (30 x 31)
III (::'1 pI (5) ( ::'4 1 (::'5) (26}

200::: 200 R.O 1600

50t 250 7.5 1875
25+ 275 7.5 2063
4 14 14 250 525 7.0 3675
100 625 6.5 4063
4 4 707 300 92-5 5.5 5088
707 200 1125 5.0 5625
50::: 11 75 5.0 5875
11 707 200 1375 4.9 6738
X 707 100 1475t 4.8 7080
9 707 250 250t 8.0 2000
100::: 1825 4.0 7300

Sewer computation table (Conril1ued)

Loca tion De sign flows: Sewer design Sewer layout

Ground surface Sewer pipe

elevation invert
Lengt h Cumulati ve Capacity Velocity elevation
of peak Aow, Cumulative Sewer when when At At
sewer, m' /d peak Mow , diameter, Sl ope, full, full, upper lower Upper Lower
Line From To m Subarea (28 + 32) m' /s: mm m/m m 3 /s m/s manhole manhole end end

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (33) (34) : (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42)

I 707 AI 10,416 0.121: 450 0.0018 0.121 0.75 20.00 19.00 17.50 16.23
2 2 707 A2 12,291 0.142:
A3 14,279 0.165:
A5 27,096 0.314: 750 0.0009 0.330 0.75 19.00 18.33 15.93 15.29
4 1414 A4 33,6'06 0.389:
A7 46,487 0.538: 900 0 .0009 0.540 0.85 18.33 17.40 15.14 U.86
4 4 707 A6 53,163 061) 1050 00008~ 0.770 0 .87 17.40 17.00 13 .71 13.14
6 707 A8 57.013 066~
Aq 65.476 0 758: 1050 00008~: 0.770 0.87 17.00 16.50 13.14 12.58
6 6 707 AIO 70.193 0.81Z 1050 0.0009 0.820 0 .95 16.50 16.00 12.58 11.94
8 7 707 AII 13,020 0.151: 525 0.0014 0.165 0.75 16.20 16.00 12.46 13.46
9 707 A12 92.513 1.071; 1200 00008~ 1.100 0.98 16.00 15.00 11.79 11.22

See figure (0).

t Line '/ receives flow from subarea All only.
t 50 percent of area (see assumption 6b).
~ mJ /s = (m' /d) /(86.400 sid).
~ The minimum practical slope for construction is about 0.0008 m/m.
'.-J

"'....."

(
368 WATER ENV tRONMENTA L ENG INEERt NG HYDRAU LI CS DESIGN 369

O. The entries in columns I through 5 a re used to identify th e sewer lin es under co n- For line I :
sideration a nd to suinmarize the basic physical data from figure (a) .
b. The entries in co lumns 6 through 13 are used to obt ain the cumu la ti ve peak do- Lower
invcr! 17.50 III - (00018 mfm)(707 m) = 16.23 m
mesiic flow (column 13). The area (co lumn 6) is obtained from figure (a). The pop u-
lati on density (column 7) and the unit fl ow da ta (co lumn 9) were given. Peaking elevation
faC!ors , obtai ned from figure (e) , are en tered in co lumn 12.
[I' the depth or cover (rcmember to allow for th e pipe wa ll thickness above th e
L The commerc.ial area , the co rres ponding unit fl ow. and the cumul a ti ve ave ra lle
crown) t'or any section ha s become toO shall o\\' , repea t the process 'with a lower
fl ows areentered in co lumns 14, 15; and 16. respecti ve ly. T he give n peaking fact~r
initial in vert elevation ,lr a steepe r slope for th at sec ti on.
fo r the commercial area is en tered in co lu mn 17. and the comp ut ed cumul ative
When a manhole IS loca ted at a sewer junction. the outlet sewe r elevation is
peak com mercial.flowsa re ent ered in .co lum n 18.
ftxcd by the lowes t inlet scwer. If rhe pI pe size in creases, th e crowns of the two pipes
d Th e en tr ies in col umn s 19 'thro ugh 23 for the industrial flows a rc th e same as Illu st be matched at t he manh ole. Thi s is done to avoid th e back ing up of wastewa ter
desc ribed for the commerc ial !low.s (co lumn s 14 through 18) into the ,ma iler pi pe. An example of this si tua tion is th e increase in size from 450 to
e. The instituti o nal fl ows are e nt ered in co lumn s 24 thro ugh 26. 750 I11Ill atmanho\e~. For th is case. the calc ul ations are as foll ows:
I The cumula tive a ve rage and peak tl ows are summari zed in co lu mn s 27 and 28,
res pectivel y .
Lowe r invert ciev;lIion of the 450- ml11 sewer is 16.23 m.
.If. The infiltration allowance (columns 29 "thr ough 3~) is dete rmin cd usin g th e curvc
Uppcr in\'crt cleva t ion fo r the 750-IllIll-sewe r (l ine 2) is 15.93 III (16.23 m + 0.45 III -
for new sewe rs in fig ure (b).
Ii. The total cum ul at ive peak desig n fl ow (col umn 33) is obtai ned by su mming col umn s
0.75 Ill)
Lower l\wer t elev~lti (> n for th e 7S0- mlll sewer is 1 5.~9 III [ 15.93 m - (0.0009 m/ m) x
28 and 32.
i . Sewer i:l esig n informati o n is summarized in co lumns 3S through 38. The required
(707 m)j.
Th ese procedures ;\re rcpc," ed until the elevation,> fo r the en tire sewe r are estab-
pipe sizes are estimated usi ng Manni.ngs eq ua ti on with an IJ va lue of 0.0. 13 (see
Fi g. 6-10) . The capacit y of the se lec ted pipe and th e ve l,)('it\ whe n rull are tabulateci lished.
in columns 37 and 38. In a ll cases th e velocity shou ld exc~eel 0.75 m/s (2.5 ft / s).
j. The necessa ry la yo ut data fo r th e sewe r (co lumns :W through 42) are ob tain ed as
CIJ~ t MI' NT A com putation :able. suc h as the o ne show n in thi s examp le. lIot only saves
foll ows: The gro und surfa ce eleva tio ns at th e manhol e loca t ion s en tered in colu mn s
time but also is usl!ful ror su mmarizing bot h the data and the com put ed resu lts in an
39 a nd 40 are ob tained by int erpo latio n with th e eiev;lIi on dat a given in fig ure (a) .
orderlv sequence I'or ,ubscLJue nl usc . Th e specific col um ns in a given co mput a tion ta ble
The sewe r inve rt eleva tions shown in col umn s 4 1 and 42 are obtained by tria l and
depend on th e factors that must be consi dered In arriv in g at the peak deSIgn tl ows. Most
erro r with a sewe r profile work shee t. Th e first step in preparing ~ wor k sheet is to
sanItary and civil engineering con"Jillng firms have develuped tabulation forms of their
plot the gro und-surfa ce elevation s give n in co lum ns YJ and 40. working bac kwards
.. .. .()wflfor seWCF dch>gn .wmpulaLions .. Alt.hQ ug,h .th.e .fq pl.l.~.rn.a)l.eliff~r. in specific details
fr om a co nvenient point. After th e gro und -surface' r~~'filc is 'Ct ;';I',;,;): the ne'x'i 'ste'p"
and in t he order uf pres~ntat ion rrom thIs ta ble. t he same informa ti on is u s'~a 'lI'y prese nted .
is to beg in sketching the in vcrt and crown (in side holtom <l nel in sid e to p o f the pipe.
Some cng in en illg firlll ' have developed com put er program s ro r se wer des ign.
respec ti ve ly) of ea~ h se wer sec tio n as the nece ssa ry devation dat~ are deve lo ped.
The me thod fo r es tab li shin g the in ve rt elevations wi ll be illu strat ed by analyzing
se lected sewer lines startin g with -line I..which connec ts manho les I and 2. The fir st
step is to loca te th e invert o f the upper end of th e pipe a t such an elevation th a t the
min imum cove r requiremen t is sa{isfied, ta king int o accou nt bot h th e Inside diameter 6-16 PREPARATI ON OF CONTRACT DRAW I NGS AND
of the pipe a nel it s wu llthickn ess. Th e upper invert ekva ti on of the 450-mm pipe is SPEC I FICATI ONS
se t initi a lly a t elevation 17 .5 m :
Once the sewer des ign computa ti o ll s have been comp lcted. a lt erna ti ve a li gnments
ground surface - depth of cover - pipe wall Ih ickncss - pire """neler
20.00 m 2.00 m 0.05111 0.45 m
ha ve been examined. and the mos t cos t- and energy-effecti ve ali gnment been has
select ed. th e next step is to prcpare COlltrac t drawings and specificati ons. Deta iled
co nt ract drawings, In cluding plans and profiles for each scwer. 'a nd speci ficati o ns
The p ipe thi ckn ess wi ll va ry with the type 01' sewer For this exa mple. 0.05 III will
be used fo r all pipe s izes. Th e lower elev ati on is co nlpuied.tw ,>ub tra ctlng the fall as mll st be prepared before bid s can be obtall1el! to bude! the projec t. A typica l pran
follows: and profile of a segment uf a sewer line is show n ."1 Fig. 67 13. Th e Importance of
pre paring accura te and detailed draw ings and specificat ions canno t 'be overem-
Lowe r Uppe r Slope Length phasized. Perh~lps the most com pellin g reaso n is tha t such careful preliminary
in vert =' i 11\Trt of A of work wi ll like ly ensure a successful pr oject with a minimum number of change
el c"~11 ion devatioll sewer sew~r orders and wi tho ut a lawsu it.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAUU

90'l5 13 ' '' ll]_

+
v 'O N HW "1 veLtz + 0 P. IS o 6-17 CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
i \\ or ,
r ,' There are many ways in which the actual constructionofasewerl!YS
l\ +
o accomplished, dependin g on the soil conditions encountered and the,
equipment available for the j o b. The important (hing is that the filn.~.
II;~.
~\ \
o
o
N
perfor m the function for which it is intended with a minimum of main!,! . ~~SII"

~ c? l
Vl
+
o
To attain this end, three conditions should be met: (1) the pipe shoul\.!i}'1i_:_ .
carefully, properly bedded , and backfilled in such a manner that there j ',
I:;:, o or breakage during and after construction ; (2) joints.should be made
00
3 care to eliminate excessive infiltration; and (3) the line and slope

,
+
\ ~\
~.
o should be free of irregularities that might favor the accumulation of

\ 0
0
'"
o
V)

+
with resultant clogging of the pipe.

o
\ LHOS 13"1l] ..,
,.., 6-18 MAINTENANCE OF SEWERS
ON HW 0
Ov'lS I + 0 CIS

+
o
""
~
.;
~
Sewer maintenance involves keeping sewers clear of obstructions an~ -'
working order. Most stoppagesin sewers are caused by the accumulati.
o, E ~ material. tree roots, accumulatI?n of grease, or collapse of the sewer:, ...
.... E ~ llsually enter through the pIpe jomts. Good deSIgn and proper jomt c.~
+ c :;; J
S IS the best preventIve measure .. Most CItIes have ordinances req~mT!gl;5i
~

0 o
'"
U;
";;
~
grease traps o n serVIce connectIOns where wastewater may contam la~~
o
99' 0513"U ] o ~
of grease, Collapse of the pipe is unlikely if adequate cover is provided . >., '- '
II' WI+OElS o+ able care is exercised to avoid breakage during and after constructio .
~ 'ON HW
~ Where flushin g is inadequate to remove an obstruction, sewer$.
o with specia l tools attached to cables or jointed rods and pushed or p '
00
o
.. . .. . . . .... . ~ . .... the sewer rrom a manhole or o ther point or entry. The type of tool d _,.,
0
0
o
calise or the obstruction, Cutting tools are used to remove roots, scoo~,
0
I o are lIsed to remo ve grit and sludge, and brushes are effectIve III rem ,' .,
i V)
o The use or a little copper sulfate in a sewer is often effective in killing r ,
+
II
1 1 o damaging the tree.
Occasionally, explosions may occur in se~ers, The most commo,~
'"-'I
~I \ ~ o
"+
o ex plOS Ive gases are mflammable and volatile liqUIds III the wastewat <, /

o
E
Err-~ o or domestic gas from an adjacent main. Ga ses gIven off by the de

S: , -, ~~
-0 6
0
or was tes are rarely the cause of explosions. However, many sewer-
o o ,
~+ r
o wor kers have been asphyxiated in gas-filled sewers. In no case sho
I
:r:
0
+ be permitted to enter a sewe r until proper tests ror the presence of da~
::;:~
Vl R \ 0
have been made. Whenever a worker enters a sewer, there. should ~~~
I j;>~1 Ali i g person at the surface who can give emergency aId If reqlIIfeci, [6-5, 6-4fJ ."
--::- be- 0
N HW
000 + 0 l' IS 0+
I . 1 I I
6-19 DESIGN OF STORMWATER SEWERS
/'
~

'"
Oll UI 'UO~II':!AJI]
The design procedure ror stormwater sewers is essentially the same ,~~,~
E c: c:
E E E lor the deSign or sa llltary sewers. The major dIfference IS that thequant~~ "
6
~
6
V )
6
Water to be removed rrom a service area is determined on the baSIS ofa:tJ.~:
"

:170
 372 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRA U LI CS DESIGN 373

analysis. Details on the analysis and design of stormwater sewers may be found Radial now
Mi xed n ow
in Refs. [6-5, 6-7,6-14, and 6-16].

Axial now
Water and Wastewater Pumping
Single slage
Some form of pumping is used in' most water supply and wastewater collection Mullis tage
systems. As noted earlier, in water supply systems pumps are required to deliv!!r
water from wells. to lift water to distribution reservoirs and elevated tanks. and J e t (ej ec tor boosted)
'. Cas lift
to increase pressure in distribution systems. In wastewater systems. pumps are
H ydrau li c ram
used to avoid deep excavations. to convey wastewater over hills and other terrain Electromagnetic
where gravity sewers cannot be used. 'and at treatment plants to provide sufficient
head for plant operation. The movement of water and wastewater from one loca- Piston
tion to another is the most common application of pumps ill both types of systems. Plun ger
Because pumping is so important in the operation of water supply and collec-
tion systems, it is the purpose of this section (I) to examine the types of pumps Diaphragm
and pump drivers that are commonly used. (2) to review pump application termin-
ology. (3) to review pump characteristics and their applications. (4) to review the
Single rotor
analysis of pump systems and the selection of pumps. and (5) to review the design
of water and wastewater pump stations.
Multipl e rotor

6-20 PUMPS
Figure 6-14 PrinCipal types (If pumps. (Adaptcd (rom Hvdraulic Institllte Standards [63].)

The types of pumps used most commonly in the water and wastewater systems are
described in this section. In general. pumps may be classifi ed according to their
(1) principle of operation. (2) field of application (i.e .. liquid s handled). (3) opera-
fieaci"anc(
.. .... .. tlonar'cfLliy' ({.e.: capaci't'y): (4) type of construction. and (5) method of
drive. With respect to the principle of operation, pumps may be classified as
kinetic-energy pumps or positive-displacement pumps. The term lurbo machine is'
also used to describe kinetic-energy pumps. The principal types of pumps included
under these two classifications are shown in Fig. 6-14.
Kinetic-Energy Pumps
The principal subclassification of kinetic-energy pumps is centrifllgal. which, in
turn . is divided further into three groups:
J. Radial-flow pumps
2. Mixed-flow pumps
3. Axial-flow pumps .
The above classifications are derived from the manner in which th e fluid is displaced
as it moves through the pump. Thus. the fluid is displaced radially in a radial-flow
pump. axially in an axial-flow pump. and both radially and axially in a mixed-
tlnw pump.
The principal components of kinetic-energy pumps are:
L The rotating element called the impeller that imparts energy to the liquid being
pumped.
2. The shaft on which th e impeller IS mounted.
3. The pump casing that includ es th e inlet and outlet passages for leading the
.liquid being pumped int o and ou t o f the pump. and the recuperatmg sectIOn
\':hid1 receives th'e liquid discharged from the impeller and directs It to the
outlet passage. The function of the recuperating section is to convert a portion
of the kinetic energy of th e fluid into pressure energy. T ypica lly thiS IS accom-
plished by means of a vo lute or a set of diffusion vanes. In a volute casmg,-the
size of the channel surrou ndin g the impeller increa ses gradually to the size of the
pump discharge nozzle, and most of the conversion of veloeity to pressure occurs
in the conical discharge nozzle. In a difl'usion casing, the impeller discharges mto
a channel provided with guide vanes. The cOliversion of velocny to pressure
occurs within the va ne ]1<t ssages.
4. The frame which supports the pump casing.
Bec ause rags and trCl sh In wastewate r (eve n though screened) would quickly
clog the small passa[!cs Ifl typic,tl cle;lr\.\<lter radiClI-Ao,,' pumps. th e pumps used
 374 WATE R
for untreated was tewater are usua ll y the s ingle-end suction vo lut e type. fitt ed with
nonclog impellers. Nonclog pumps have open passages and a minimum number
of va nes (no t exceeding tw o in th e smaller s izes and limited to three. or at thc m os t
fou r. in th e la rger sizes).
Wastewater pumps mu st be ab le to pass so lid s that en ter the co llccti o n sys tem.
Because a 70-mm (2 .S-in) -diameter so lid ca n p ass thr o ugh m os t d o mesti c to ilets,
it is co mm o n practice to req uire that pumps be able to discharge a 7S-mm (3-in)
so lid . M os t IOO-mm(4-in) pumps -- Le .. pumps w ith a IOO-mm (4-in) di sc harge
openll1g -:- no rmall y s ho uld be abl e to pa ss 7S-m m (3 ~ in) -diame t er so lid s, and
200-mm (8-in) pumps should be able to pass IOO-lllm (4-in) -diam e ter so lid s, etc.
N o nc log pumps s maller than 100 mm (4 in) s ho uld not be used in municipa l
pumping sta ti o ns fo r hand lin g untrea ted was te wa ter.
Figure 6- 15 T y pical screw pump lI se d 10 pump wa stc\\ater.
ENV IRO NMENTAL ENGINEERIN G H YD RA ULICS DESIGN 375
Positive-Displacement Pumps
Posi ti ve-displacemcnt pumps are usuall y divid ed in to tw o major categories:
reciprocatin g (piston o r diaphragm) pumps and rotary pumps. Pneumatic ejectors
and th e Archimedean screw pump are also included under this category.
Pi ston-t ype reciprocating pumps utilize a reciprocating piston or plunger
ill a cyli nd er to draw a fluid in on the suction side and to discharge it under pressure
on the di sc harge side. In a diaphragm pump, the reciprocating element is a flexible
diaphragm. In both of these pumps check valves a re used to control the pump
sucti o n and discharge.
In rotary pos itive-disp lacement pumps, the essential working element is. a
rotor thaI may have th e fo rm o f an impeller. vane, lobe, or any o ther suitable
configura tion . The principal types o f rotary positive-displacement pumps are (I)
eccentric ro tor sc rew (progressive cav ity), (2) gear, (3) lobe, (4) peristaltic, (S)
pi sto n, (6) sc rew, (7) vane, a nd (8) flexible vane.
Pneumatic ejectors are o ften used for raising wastewater from building sumps.
The ejector consists of an airtigh t tank into which wastewater flows by gravity and
out o f which the wastewater is forced automatically whenever sufficient waste-
water has accumulated to raise a float and ope n the compressed a ir-inlet valve.
The screw pump is based on the Archimedean sc rew principle in which a
revo lvi ng sha ft fitted with one, two, o r three heli ca l blades rotates in an inclined
tr ough and pushes the wastewater up the tr o ugh (see Fig. 6-IS). Screw pumps are
com mo nl y used in wastewater-treatment plant s to pump untreated wastewater
and return was te activated s lud ge.
6-21 PUMP DRIVE UNITS
Th e most com mo nl y used drives for pumps are direct-connected electric motors
(see Fig. 6-16). Constant-speed electric motors coupled to var iab le-s peed devices
are a lso used extensive ly: Interna l-comb ustion engines and turbines are ofien
In stall ed to ensure that th e pumps ca n operate during electric-power ou tages or
whe re was tewater gas or other gas is available fo r fuel.
Electric M otors - Direct Connected
Electric direc t-conn ec ted motors may be constant -. Illulti- or variable-speed.
Each is d esc ribed below.
C011SIMIl-speed pumps may be driven by squirrel-cage induction motors,
wo und-I' o ln r indu ction motors, o r sy nchronous motors. Squirrel-cage inductio'n
motors ;.II1d synchro nous m o tors opera te at a co ns tant speed, but wound-rotor
indu cti o n motors can operate at diffe rent speed s b y va ry ing the res istance of the
rot or or seco ndary ci rc uit. Squirrel-cage motors will normally be selected for
constan t- speed pUlllpS because o r th e ir s impli c it y. reliabilit y, and economy.
 376 WATER E" \ ' IR O"~ I E,, T A L EN G IN EER ING HYDRA U LI CS DESIGN 377

Table 6-6 Approximate operating

speeds of co nstant-speed motors on
60-cycle a lt erna tin g currcnt

M ow r sreed. ri mi n

P n1c~ Sy nchro no u s I nd uct io n

3500 ,550
I KIJu 17'fI 1770
1200 I I ) 11 117(1
900 ~7i1 90'
10 7::'0 h<)() 705
600 58~
I"
14 51 4 ,Oil
16 450 -4:; ~

IS 400 390
20 3)0 .'SO
22 3~7 'I~
24 :;00 c'J()
26 277 cr.X
2B 257 24'}
--_._--
Figur~ 6-16 E x" mples or elec lric mOlors used 10 drive pumps
T he mus t Ul l11l11U II Ill cc: il <l IlI Ca l I <lI'ia ble-s peed de vices include co ne dri ves,
Muiliple-:ipeed operati o n ca n be o bt a ineci with squ irre l-cage o r wo un d-ro tor gca l dmes. a nd be lt d rl\es . .'\ Illa g ncli c co upim g (a lso kn own as an edd y curren t
motors. For squirrel-cage mo tors. th e choice of speeds is res tri cted to two o r more ciulch) IS In slali ed be tw een Ih e lllotOl' and pump. A magnetic coup lin g co nsists
of the speeds listed in Table 6-6. If the lowe r speed of a two-s peed mo to r is one- half of a co nsta nt-speed membe r (dr um) a nd a 10 10 1' . Th e dr um is driven by th e co n-
the hig her speed, a single- o r two-wind in g mo to r can be used. If th e lower speed is slallt-speed e lec tric motor Th e ro to l is lLsed .lo. dri ve the pump. FlUid co uplm gs
not one-ha lf. a two-speed mo tor wi tht \.V 0 willdrngs is reqll ired: WlieiY otie(a fih-g .. . pla ced6c i;~ce I~ tl;c'~;~ i~; ~';lmjl; ;I;~lI; ; ;; e used to obtain variable- speed o peration
a pump at two co nstant speeds. th e ad va ntage of the squ irrel cage (or synch ronous Wi lh pumps. Th e Ill ost C'l llll11 11 n flu id cu uplings ma y be class ifi ed as hyd rosta tic ,
motor) is that the motor operates at maximum e tficieney at both speeds. However. hydr okineti C. an d hydru visC(lu'..
the wound-rotor motor 0perates at maximum efficiency o nly at full speed
If the operating c.oqci it.io ns vary in pumping sta ti o ns. (,CltiL/h le-speed Qperation
of. the pumps may be desirable. Variable-speed (stepless ) mo to r uperatiun has Internal-Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines
been poss ible. for man y years us in g liquid res isto rs with wo und-rot o r mot or con- In large pumpin g sta tion s, inl crnal- lo mbu stl o n e ng ines a re used as a source o f
trols. With tile develo pment of solid elec tro nic controls <l numbcr of meth ods of standby power for clril in g Ih e pumps ancith e crit ica l elect rica l con tr o ls If th e powe r
achiev ing variable-speed control fo r both squirre l-cage and wound-rotor motors fails . Int ernal-co mbu sti on cl1llin cs us uall y clri \e ge ncrators so that powe r IS ava il-
are no\-\' available. They includ e (I) va riable-frequ ency drive. (2) variable vo ltage. able not o nl y for the pump b'ut a lso for the <lux illi a ry equipm ent and th e co ntr o l
(3) wound-rotor mot o r. solid-state co ntro l. and (4) wo und-roto r. rege nerati ve sys tem. T he powe r generat ed hy these engin es can also be Ll sed III any of the a va il-
seco ndary cont ro l. , able pumps instcad llf bemg cunnect ed to a s ingl e pump. Diesel engmes o r spa rk -
ignit ed engines fu eleli lIit h e.itirn na tural ur prop~lT , e gas are common ly used fo r
Electric Constant-Speed Motors Coupled to Variable-Speed Dnices th is senicc. G aso.lin c cnll in es a re in stallcd ucc a s i o n ~ill y , but are no t co mm on
because of lhe prub lems ,;' ith fuel stllrage .
Worldwide: th e most co mnlOn wa y to o btain vari a ble-spced pUIllP ope ra ti on is Al trea tme nt p lants \\ irnc slu dge gas is ~1 1 ailab l e , e ithe r clual-fu e l diese l
to li se ,I co nstan t-s peed elec tri c motor co upled to a I':lr i'lble-s pced delicc. Variab le- engi ncs o r spark -igni lcd ga'. en gln cs Gin be uscd . Dual -fuel d iesel englll es a re
. spceu devices. in se rted between the motor and th e PUIllP, Ill ay he llassined as Opel'a ted IV it h a 111 ix t lire <If d iesc l pi i :lnd gas. Spark -Ign iled eng Ines ca n be o perat ed
rneclElni ca l. magnetic. and Iluici . with Sludge gas. These engin es II "u ILi nor ill a ll } hc supp lied lV ith dual carburetors
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 379
378 WATER

and a separate so urce of alternate fuel, such as natural or propane gas, to prov ide
power when the s ludge gas is not avai lab le.
Gas turbines have been used a s high-speed driv es for pumps. especially in
large-capacity m ob ile pumping unit s. In larger s izes. gas turbin es are competitive
wit Ii steam turbines.
Fluid-Driven Pumps
Fluid-driven pumps are a lso bec o min g mo re common throughout th e world .
The most common Auid drives are powered with compressed gas, pressurized
water or oiL and steam .
6-22 PUMP APPLICATION TERMINOLOGY AND USAGE
The purpose of this section is to present the bas ic terminolog y used to define pump
performance and to con sider it s usage in the so lution of pump pro blems. Term-
inology to be considered in this discu ss ion includes (I) capacity. (2) head, (3)
pump efficiency. and (4) power input to the pump. [6- 8J
S. I'vlal1oll1!!crie discharge head (U md) is the discharge gage reading (expressed
III meters) measli red at the disc harge nozzle of pump referenced to the center-
IlIIe of the pump impe ll er.
6. tv/allometric (Hm) is the ' increase6f presstirehead (expressecl in meters)
ge nerated by the pump (U ms + H md)' . .
7. Fric ~ionhcad (h f s' hfd) is the head of water that must be supplied to overcome
the fnclIonal loss caused by the flow of fluid through the pipe system. The
frictIOnal head loss In the suction (h f ;) and discharge (h f ,,) piping system may
be comp uted WIth the Hazen - Wllh,ims or Darcy - Weisbach equations,
8. Velocity head is the kinetic energy contained in the liquid being pumped at .
any POlI1t III the system and is given by
V2
Velocity head = - (6-6)
2g
where V = velocity of fluid, m/s (ft/s)
9 = acceleration due to gravity. 9.81 m/s 2 (32.2 ft / S2)
9. tv! inorhead loss is the term applied to the head of water that must be supplied
to overcome the loss o f head through fittings and valves. Minor losses in the

Capacity
The capacity (flow rate) of a pump is th e vol um e of fluid pumped per unit of time,
vJ
2g
which us ually is measured in cubic meters per second (m 3 /s).lit e rs per second (Lis),
gallons per minnte (ga l/ min), million ga llon s per day (Mgal/d), o r c ubic feet per
second(ft.3./s): ................ .

Head
The term head refers to the elevation of a free surfac e o f water above o r below a
reference datum. Terms app lied s pecifically to the ana lys is o f pumps a nd pump
sys tems are illustrated grap hica lly In Figs. 6- 17 and 6- 18 and are defined brieAy
below.
h, v2
l. Stalic SLiCliOI1 head (lis) is the di~Terence in e leva tion betwee n the suction liquid
level and the centerline o f the pump impe ller. If the s uc ti o n liquid le ve l is
below th e center lin e o f the pump impeller. it is a sllllie sli c rio l1 liJi.
2. SlllIic di sc!wrye hewl (h J ) is ~he diA'e re nce in eva lu ation between th e disc harge
J---+-----1.--j~+-J._fI~\--,I-I-f-I-'+--L---1-- Datum

liquid level and the centerlin'e o f th e pLlmp impeller.

1 Stm;c head (H sta , ) is the diA'e ren'ce in ele'vation between the sta ti c discharge E
and s tatic s uc tion liquid levels (hd - II,). ~
~
4. M al10mel ric Sllct iOIl/, eud (H mJ is th e sucti oll g:.tge reading (expressed ill me te rs)
mea sured at the suc tion non le of th e pUIllP refere nced to th e center line o f the
Figure >.17 Definition sketch for a pump in stallati on with a suc ti on head .
pump impe ll er.
 380 W ATER ENV IR ON MEN T AL ENG IN EER ING H YDR AU LI CS DESIGN 381

where
(6-9)

(6- 10)

-- where /-I , = to tal d yna mic head, m (ft)

/-I md( /-I ",,) = man o metri c d isc harge (s ucti o n) head mea sured a t discharge
(s ucti o n) nozz le of pump referenced to th e centerlin e of the
pump impell er, 111 (ft )
~~i( Vs) = ve locit y In d isc ha rge (sucti o n) no zzle, m/s (ft /s)
9 = acce lera ti o n du e to gravi ty. 9.8 1 m/s2 (32 .2 ft /s" )
H,
hd (Ii,) = static discharge (s ucti o n) head. m (ft)
. - -j[-- .p,;-t-t-H-t-l1-+H+t-.L--+-- -- - - Da tum
he n' = suction entra nce loss. m (ft)
h fd (hfJ = fl'icti ona l head loss In d ischarge (suc ti o n) p iping, m (ft)
H ms h",d (II",,) = mi no r fi tting and va lve losses in discha rge (sucti on)
pi ping sys tem. m (rt )

-- --- As no ted previo usly. t he reference datum fo r wr it ing Eq. (6- 10) is taken as th e
eleva ti on of the ce nte rline of th e pump impeller. In accord ance wi t h th e stand ards
of th e Hydrauli c Instit ut e f 6}]. distances (head s) above dil tu m are co nsi dered
pos it ive : distances be low da tum are co nsidered negati ve.
~g
In terms of th e sta t ic head. Eq . (6- 10) ca n be writt en as
Figure 6- 18 Defini t io n sketc h fo r a pum p in sta llation with a sucti o n lift.
(6- 11 )

suctio n (11m,) a nd di sch a rge (hmd ) pip ing system are usua ll y estima ted as where /-I , = to ta l dynam ic head. m (ft )
....... ......... . '. (~;;l,<;!! o n s. of the ve loc it y head by usin g the fo llow ing ex p ression : /-I s,o, = tota l static head. m (ft )
= h" - 17 ,
v2
h = K - (6- 7) Th e energy (Bern oulli 's) equat io n ca n a lso be applied to de termine the tota l
m 2g
dyna mic head on the pump, Th e energ y equ'a ti o n written be tween the suctio n and
where 17 m = m ino r head loss, m (ft) ciisc ha rge nozz le of the pump is
K = head loss coeffi cient
fI , =
J)
~
V'
+ '-..C i + :" - (P-' + ~
V2
+ :, ) (6-1 2)
" .'2{/ ;. 2g
St andard textboo ks and reference wo rk s o n hydra uli cs should be co ns ult ed
fo r typica l K va lues for va ri o us pipelin e fi tt ings a nd appurtenances. Whe re H , = to ta l dy na mic head . m (ft)
Pil ( Ps ) = disc ha rge (suctio n) gage press ure. kN / m2 (lbr/ft )
2
10. T otal dynamic head (H,) is the head against whi ch th e pump mu'st wor k when
~' = specifi c we ig ht of wat er. N !m 3 (lh r/ ft 3 )
wil ter or was tewa ter is bein g pumped . Th e to ta l dy na mic head on a pump.
v~ ( V; ) = veloc ity in d isc ha l!;e (s uct ion) nozzle. m/s (ft/s)
co mmonly a bbreY la ted TD H , can be de termined by considerin g th e static
q = accelerat io ll dll e t ~) gl'a vity. 9.8 1 m/s2 (3 2. 2 ft /s2 )
suction a nd d ischa rge heads, the frictio na l head losses. the ve loc ity heads, a nd
2,1.( Z,) = eleva ti o n of disc hal'ge (s uctio n) gage ~lb ()ve cl a tuill. III (ft )
th e mm or head losses. T he expression fo r determin ing the to ta l d yna mic head
for the pump show n in Fig. 6-1 8 is given by Eq. (6-1 0).
Pump Effici ency

Hf = H md -
v3 V;
Hnos + -- - --- (1i-8) Pump pe rfo rm a nce IS Illeasured in term s of the c lpacit y tha t a pump can disc harge
2g 2g ag<linst a gi\ en head and :It a gi'.e n e ffi ciency Th e pump ca pac it y is a fun ctio n o f
31ll WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING H YDRAU LI CS DESI GN 383

the design. Info rmatio n on the design is furni shed by the pump manufacturer in a
series of curves for a given pump. Pump effic iency Ep , the r:ltio of the useful
power output to the power input, is given by
power delivered to Auid Po
E = " - - - - - ; - -- (6- JJ)
P power input to pump PI
Pump efficiencies usua lly range from 60 to 85 percent. The energy losses in a
pump may be class ified as vo lu metric. mechanical, and hydrau li c. llolu met ric losses
occur becau se the sma ll clearances necessary between th e pump casing and the
rota ting element can leak. Mechanical losses are ca used by mechanica l friction in
the stuffing boxes and beari ngs, by internal disk friction , and by fluid shear.
Frictio nal and eddy losses within the flow passages account for the hydraulic'
losses.
Applica ti on of the terminology and equations used to define pump per-
formance is illus trated in Example 6-5.
Example 6-5: Finding energy requirements for pumping A water pump is discharging at
a rate of 0.25 m J/s. The diame ters of the di scha rge and suctio n !Jozzles are 300 and
3-50 mm , respective ly. The reading on the discha rge gage located 0.25 m a bove the
cent e rlin e of the impeiler is 150 kN /m 2'; the. rea ding o n the sucti o n gage located at the
ce nterline of the impe ller is 20 kN / m2 Determine (I) the to ta l dynamic hea d , (2) the
power input required b y the pump, and (3) the power input to the m o tor. Assume the
cmciency of the pump and m otor are 65 and 90 percent , respectively.
SOLUTION

Determine th e head on the pump using the energy eq uati o n [Eq . (6- 12)]. The reference
Power Input
datum is the cen ter lin e o f th e pump impeller.
In practice, power input to the pump is computed usin g th e fo ll ow in g equa tion : (/. Th e va lues for the indi vidua l ter ms in the ene rgy equations are as fo ll ows:

power delivered to nuid ;'Q H ,

PI = -.--------- = (6- 14) ~ = ~~,OOO N/ m 2 = 15.29 m
Ep LI' )' 98 10 N/ m 2

whe re PI = power input to pump. kW (kN m/s)

)' = specific weight of liquid . kN/ mJ V = -Q" = 0.25 m)/s
= 3.)-4 /
ms
" Ad (n / 4)(0.3 m)2
Q = capac ity, m J/s
H , = to tal dynamic head [see Eg. (6-II)J , III JI,~ (3.54 m/s)2
Ep = pump effic iency -- = = 0.64 m
2g 2(9.8 1 m/s2 )
When the How rate is give n in ga ll o ns per minute, milli on ga llons per day, or z" = 0.25 m
cubic feet per seco nd and the head is give n in feet , then th e power' inpu t to the
pump can be co mputed using Eqs. (6- J5), (6- 16), and (6-17), respecti ve ly. P, = 20.000 N/m ~ = 204 m
)' 98 10 N/ m2
. (62.4 Ib/ ft J)(Q gal/min)(H, ft)
p - - _ . _ - - - - --------- - .------
J - (60 s/ min)( 7.48 gal/ft J)(550 ft . Ib is hp)EI' Q, 0.25 m)/s 260
V
,
= -A, = (1[ / 4)(0.35 m) 2 = .
m/s
(Q galfmin)(H, ft)
(6- J 5)
3960 EI' .1:1 = (2.60 mj s)2 = 0.34 m
2g 2(9.8 1 m/s2)
p _ (62.4 Ib/ft~ )(Q ~~~t1/d)(H , !t~(I~(~~~y M gaQ
I - 86.400 sic! (7.48 gal /ft J)(550 ft Ib/s hp)E p Z, = 0

(Q Mga l/d)( H, ft)

(6-16) h. The tota l dynamic head is obtained by s ubstituti ng the above va lues in Eq. (6-12).
5. 696 Ep
. (62.4 Ib/ ft J)(Q ft 3 !s)( H, ft )
P - - - - - . _ - -- H =
P" = 29
y' 1'5 (P, v; )
+ Z" + r + 2g + z,
I - (550 ft Ib i s hp)E p
(Q ft J/ s)(H , ft) = 15.2Y m + O.M m + 0.25 m - (2.04 m + 0.34 m + 0)
- -----
8.8 14E p (6-17) = I 3.R III
 384 WATER ENVI R ON~ I ENTAL ENG INEERI NG H YDRAULI CS DESIGN 385

2. Us ing Eq . (6- 14) dete rmine t he power input required by th e pump. int ersec ti o n o f th e new pump h ead-capac it y c ur ve w ith th e sys tem head-ca pac it y
cur ve. a nd not h y app lica ti on o f the affinit y laws to the or ig in a l ope rating p oi nt
yQH
p = -- on ly.
, Ep

= (9 810 ~~m 3!025 ~J/s)~~) Cha nges in Impeller D ia meters

0.65
To cove r a wid e range o f fl ows eco n omica ll y \v ith a min imum numb er o f pump
= 52.1 kW sizes and impell er des ig ns. man u fac turers cus to maril y offer a range o f impeller
3. Determine th e powe r input to th e m o to r. diamete rs for eac h size ca s ing (see Pump Charac te ri sti c Cur ves helow). I n gen e ra l,
these impe llers h,J\'e identica l inlets a nd o nl y th e o ut s id e diameter is changed.
lI suall y by ma chinin g clown th e diame ter. Th e' fo llow ing re la tio n s hips for det e r-
mining the effec t of chang es in th e d iame te r o f th e impelle r ho ld a ppro xi mately.
52.1 kW but wi th less accuracy than th e a fJinity laws.
= - --
0.90 QI DI
(6-21 )
= 57.9 kW Q2 D2
HI Df (6-22)
6-23 PUMP OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS AND CU RV ES
il l Di
D~
(6-23)
The operating c harac teris tics of pumps depend o n th e ir size, speed. and design . D~
P u mps of si mil a r size a nd des ign are p rod uced by many m anufac t ure rs. bu t they
In som e cases. two o r more iJll[le ll e r des igns may be ava ilable. eac h in a range o f
vary somewhat because of t he design mod ification s made by eac h man ufa cturer.
sizes . fo r the sa me cas ing. Beca use these impellers are not geo me t rica ll y simil a r.
Im p o rt ant bas ic re la ti o n s hi ps th a t ca n be used to cha rac teri ze a nd ana lyze pump
the affinity laws do not ho ld.
pe rfo rm a n ce un der va rying cond itions include t he affinity laws. ty r e numbers.
a nd 'ne t pos it ive s uc tio n head. To aid in t he selectio n o f an appropriate rump for
a g iven se r vice, pump manufacturers provide characteristic curves fo r th eir pumps . Type N umber (S pecifi c S peed)
.... . . . . ... ........ .. .. . . ......... ........ ... ... .. " .. - ... .. ....... .
For a geometrically s imilar se ri es of pumps o peratin g und er s imilar conditi o ns.
th e fo ll ow in g relati ons hip ()htain ed is d e fined as th e' t ype numbe r (s pec ific speed ) .
Affinity Laws
IIQI 2
For t he sa m e p u mp operating a t di fferen t speed s t he diamet er d o es not c hange. 11 =---- or (6-24 )
s H J '4
. and t ~1e fo llowing re la ti o nships can b e derived fo r.centrifuga l pumps.
where = type number
II,
Ql 11,
= speed. r/ min
11
(6- 18)
Q2 = n2 Q = capaci ty. 11I 3 ;S (gal /min)
H = head. m (ft)
HI nf ( 6-1 9)
H 2 = n~ Although th e seco nd form of the type-number eq uation is correct when a ppli ed
with a consis tent se t of-u nit s. the fil's t fo rm is u sed in the United States. [6-1J
PI 11~ Fo r a n y pump o peratin g at any given speed. Q a nd H are taken a t th e p o in t
(6-20)
P2 = n~ of ma ximum efficien cy. Wh en us in g Eq . (6-24) fo r pum ps ha ving double-suction
T h ese re la t ionsh ips. k n own co llective ly as t h.e alJinil,l'./aws. are used to determine im[le llers: o ne- hair o f t he di sc h;\r ge is used . unl ess o ther w ise noted. F o r mult i-
tHe effect of c han ges in speed on th e ca pacit). head . a nd po wer o f a pumr. stage pumps. t he head is th e head pe r stage. Th e var iations in maximum effic ien cy
The effect of changes in speed o n the pOmp c haracteri stic c ur ves is obtained to he ex pec ted with va ri a ti o ns in size (ca pac it y) a nd design (t ype num be r) a re
by pl o tting new curves with the use o f the aiffinity laws. T he new o perati ng po in!. show n in Fig. 6- 1Y. The [lrogressi'e cha n ges in impeller shape as th e typ e num her
th e Inte rsec tion o f the pump and sys te m he;Jd -ca pac ity curves. wi ll he give n hy th e inc n::ascs a re shol\n a lo ng th e b o ttllm o f Fi g. 0-1 9.
 386 WA IloR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 387

1 00 r-------------------------.-------------~ Net Positive Suction Head (N PSH)

0.031 mJ/s
~ I
~ 70 r-_--,,,--_ _ ____~----OO 13 mJ/s - - - - - ---1
When pumps operate at high speeds and at a capacity greater than the best effi-
ciency po int (bep), pump cav itation is apotential danger: cavitation reduces pump
capac ity ane! elTicicncy and can damage the pump. It occurs in pumps when the
abso lute pressure of the inlet drops below the vapor pressure of the fluid being
pumped. Under this condition, vapor bubbles form at the inlet, and when the
vapor bubbles are carried into a zone of higher pressure, they collapse abruptly
and the surrounding fluid rushes to fill the void with such force that a hammering
action occurs. The high localized stresses that result from the hammering action
ca n pit the pump impeller.
When determining if cavitation will be a problem, the NPSH available
(NPSH A ) at the eye of the impeller is determined. The available NPSH A is then
compared to the NPSH required by the pump (NPSH R ) to prevent cavitation.
Th e NPSH A is the total energy available at the inlet flange of the pump, above
the va por pressure of the water. expressed in feet (meters). In effect, the NPSH A is
the head available to push liquid into the pump to replace .liquid discharge by the
pump. The NPSH4 is found by adding the. term (PatmiY Pva~or/Y) to the total
energy head available at th e suction side of the pump.

Palm Pvapor
NPS H 4 =
.
IIs - I1,nl - Jlfs - L hms + -Y- - ---
Y
(6-25)

where Palm = atmospheric press ure, kN / m 2(lbr/ft2)

['va po r = vapor pressure o f water, kN/ m 2 (lbr/ft 2 )
'i' = specific weight of water, k N/ mJ(lbr/ft3)
Tile N PSH required by the pump is determined by tests of geometrically
similar pumps operated at constant speed and rated capacity but with varying
Sucti o n head s. The onset of cavitation is indicated by a drop in efficiency as the
heau is reuuced. The application of Eq. (6-25) is illustrated in Example.6-6.

Example 6~6: Determining net positive suction head Determine the available net positive
suclion head (NPSHAl for the pump installation shown in Fig. 617. Assume the following
Imrc' lkr s hape dala are applicab le
Figure 6-19 Pump efficiency ve rsus Iype number and pump caracilY
h, = 2.0 m
h,", = 0.10 m
Pump d esign c haracteristics. cav itation paramet e rs, ,~nd abn o rmal ope rati o n
under transient co nditi o ns can be cQr relat ed satisfactor il y wi th the ty pe number. "Is = 0.25 m
Fu rt her cons idera ti o n o f th e type- number equat io n .reveals t he fo ll ow ing: L:>ms = 0.1 5 m
Temp = 20c e
J. If la rger units o f the same type are se lect ed fo r ab o ut th e same heac!, the opera-
ting speed mus t be reduced. S(ll.L! nO N
2. If unit s o f high e r s pecific speed are se lec ted fo r the same head and ca pacity,
the y will o perat e at a high e r speed: hence the cum plete unit , in c lud/ll g th e driver. Delermine th e vapor pressure at 20e.
s hould be less expensive. H o wever. long-ter m ope rati un a nd maintenance
cos ts will ge nera lly be hi g her. P"",,, = 2.34 kN/ m2 (see Appendix C)
 388 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 389

2. Substitute known quantities in Eq. (6-25) and solve for NPSH" . curves, the total dynamic head H, in meters (feet), the efficiency E in percent, and
the power input P in kilowatts (horsepower) are plotted as ordinates against the
NPSH A = h.s -e n
h t - hfs _ 'h
L ms + P"m _ -
P"POt
- capacity (flow rate) Q in cubic meters per second (gallons per minute or million
}' I' gallons per day) as the abscissa (see Fig. 6-20). The general shape of these curves
varies with the type number. Characteristic curves for typical radial-flow, mixed-
= -2.0 m - 0.1 m - 0.25 m - 0.15 m + _IO_I_.3_k_N--,-/_m~2 2.34 kN/m2
9.789 kN/m 3 9.787 kN/ m 3 flow volute, mixed-flow propeller, and axial-flow centrifugal pumps are shown
in Fig. 6-21. The variables have been plotted as a percentage of their values at the
= - 2.0 m - 0.1 m - 0.25 m - 0. 15 m + 10.35 m - 0.24 m
best efficiency point (bep).
= 7.61 m

COMMENT The computed value of NPSH A is compared to the value required for the
150 150
pump (NPSH R ) to determine if the pump can be operated safely without cavitation. Radial flow
11 , = 1000

Pump Characteri~tic_Curves

Pump manufacturers provide information on the performance of their pumps

In the form .of characteristic curves, commonly called pump curves. In most pump

100
30

25 ~ 300

~
'">- Axial flow
o ~llX c d flow
", = 65 00 11, = 13,000
20 ;; 250
:::
<l>
60 0.
E
-0 15
:r::'"'"

10 150
\
. \ .

5
20
.
IOO~P~o~~~
~'-
' c~r___--
__--~~,

0 0
50

0 2000 4000 6000 (gnl / min)

I I I J
I I I I I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Discilnrge , m 3j s Per ce nt 0 1 d isc harge at be; t effi ciency

Fi.gure 6-20 Typical pump characteristic curves for a 375-mm-diamcter impeller variable-speed pump. Figure 6-21 Typical characteri stic curve s fo r centrifugal pumps' (0) radial-flow; (b) mixed -flow
(Courtesy 01 SmiTh and Lorrlrss.) VOlute ; (c) rrdxeLl-tl o w propeller ; (d ) axial -fl nw.
390 WATER
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERINGHYDRAULiCS DESIGN 391

6-24 ANALYSIS OF PUMP SYSTEMS 40,-------------------------------.

System analysis for a pumping installation is conducted to select the most suitable Pump head-
pumping units and to define their operating points. System analysis involves capacity curve

calculating system head-capacity curves for the pumping system and the use of 30
these curves in conjunction with the head-capacity curves of available pumps.
Both single-pump and mUltiple-pump systems are considered.
E System head-
System Head-Capacity Curve ~ 20
:r:"
To determine the head required ofa pump, or group of pumps, that would discharge 90
various flow rates into a given piping system, a system head-capacity curve is ;>,
u
prepared (see Fig. 6-22). This curve is a graphic representation of the system head c

and is developed by plotting-the total dynamic head (static lift plus kinetic energy
10 80 ~
losses) over a range of flows from zero to the maximum expected value with the I:i:i
70
use of Eq. (6-1 I) for pump systems such as shown in Figs. 6-17 and 6-18.
OL-~ ____~______- L______~L__ _ _ _~
Single-Pump Operation o 10 15 20
Discharge. Lis
As noted previously, pump characteristic curves illustrate the relationship be-
Figure 6-23 Definition sketch for determination of pump operating point.
tween head, capacity, efficiency, and brake horsepower over a wide range of pos-
sible operating conditions, but they do not indicate at which point on the curves
the pump will operate. The operating point is found by plotting the pump head-
capacity curve on the system head-capacity curve (see Fig. 6-23). The intersection
40,---------------------------------, of the pump head-capacity curve and the system head-capacity curve represents
the head and capacity that the pump will produce if operated in the given piping
SystcriiTliis poinf is alsc)"(<'iioWtyaslhe -pump opeyating paine.
System ilc'ad-capacity curve

30 Multiple-Pump Operation
In most pump stations, two or more pumps usually operate in paralleL Situations
will also be encountered where pumps operate in series. In pumping stations
E where two or more pumps may operate either individually or in parallel and dis-
-g 20
<l)
charge into the same header and force main, the following method for determining
:r: minor losses the pump operating point is recommended:

I. The friction losses in the suction and discharge piping of individual pumps are
10 omitted from the system head-capacity curve. .
Total static head 2. Instead, these losses are subtracted from the head-capacity clIr,>;es of the individ-
lIal pumps to obtain modified pump head-capacity curves, which represent the
he,ld-capacity capability of the puinp and its individual valves and piping com-
OL-______ ~ ______ ~ ________L -_ _ _ _ ~ bines.
o 5 10 IS 20 3. When two or more pumps operate in paralleL the combined pump head-capacity
Discharge, Lis Curve is found by adding the capacities of the modified curves at the same head
Figure 6-22 Typical head-capacity curve for a pump installation . (,ee Fig. 6-240). The point of intersection of the combined pump-head curve with
 l:NVI RO N MEN TAl ENG INEERI NG HYDRAULI CS DESIG N 393
392 WATER

Force main (eli ameler = 3 S0 111 III , Ekv .= I S.O m

PI le ngth = 200 m) Pump syste m
PI P2 Diameter and length

-0-
manirold I
--E)--D- or pump suction lin es
No I 2S 0-mmq.,2 m Bend
No.2 300-mmq. , 2m
P2
-g r-_ _ _ 1 Diameter and length or
pump discharge line s
::c'"
No. 22 S-mmq.,3 m
No.2 27 S-01mq. ,3 m

Pump
d isc harge lin e

. Discharge Elev. = 5.0 m

Disc harge
(a) (b) Bend
Figure 6-24 Head -ca paci ty curves ror pumps opera ted in (a) parall el and (b) se ri es.
I so lation VJl vc

tlie system head -ca pacity CUr ves is the ope ra tin g poin t for th e two pumps oper-
No te: Bo th pumps
a tin g in pa rall el. By entering th e mod ified pump-head curves of each pump at Sucti o n are se t at t he
the o pera tin g- po int head. th e capacity con tri b ut ed by each pump. th e effic iency Intake Pump sue t io n line sa me e leva ti o n .
of each pump. and th e brake ho rse power req uired under th ese co nditi ons can bel l (a)

be d etermined. To find th e to ta l head a t w hi c h eac h indi vid ua l pUIllP wil l

Pump no. I :
operate. proceed ve rti ca ll y a t co ns tant capac it y from the m o difi ed pump
head-capac it y c urve to th e actua l head-capac it y curve. The pump spec ificat io ns No min a l impell er size = 225 mill
o r purchase order must be drawn so th a t th e pump will prod uce thi s hcad . Ope ralin g , pecd 00 11 50 r ' min
Each pump can o perate a t seve ral po int s on the head-capacity curve. w ith the
. . ' .. ' ' heaG liicreas'in g; a ncl"rhe oisc h'a rge'dec'reas ih'g ::is'I'lW WpUi11pS go' into o pera tion: "Q. II .
An effort s ho uld be made to limit th ese o pe ra tin g po int s to a range of fl ows In l i ':, III

between 60 and 120 percent of t~le bep.

0 :1 0n
D.I n.u
().~ I X.S
Often o ne o r more boos te r pwnps may be ins talled in th e s ucti o n lin e or th e 025 X()
forc e main lead in g from a pumping stati o n to meet specific s it e co ndition s. Pumps
insta lled in se ries wi th ex is ting pumps are used to increase th e head capacity of
Pump no. ~.
th e pumping s tation, When two o r more pumps operate in se ri es, the co mbined
head-capacity cur ve is found by adding th e head of eac h pump at th e sa me capaci ty, No m ina l im peller size ~' ~75 111 m
This procedure is illustrat ed in Fi gure 6- 24b. Wh e n a boos ter pump is add ed to OJl e ralin ~ speed = 70(J r min
a for ce m a in fed by parallel pumps, th e combined head -capacit y curve is found by
adding th e head of th e booster pump to th e m o difi ed head of th e parallel pumpS. Q II.
at a given capac ity, The analysis ofa typical pump sys tem is illu strated in EXCllllple ' 3
In s m
6-7,
i - lI .tl 40.0
1) . 1 ,I) 2
Example 6-7; Analyzing a pump system T wo ce nt rifu gal pumps are ava ibbJc fo r usc in 0.2 l5 .U
th e pump sys tem shown in the acco mpan yin g f'i gure (a). Usin g Ihe data gi ven bel,,\\", tU 26 0
det ermine the sy slem d ischa rge when eac h pump is opcrated sep.lrately a nd WIl , '11 Iw lh (U IO.il
pumps a re opera led ill IXlra lJcI.

i-
394 WATER
ENv tR ONMENTAL ENG INEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 395

3. H ead loss coefficients: 5 0.-~~~~~~~~~~----~--~--------~--~~

a. Int a ke be ll = 0. 3
b. Isolatiun valves = 0.1 (open fully) O ri gin al pump
c. Eccentric reducer = 0. 1 heod-capacit y curve (P2)
d. Co ncentric increase r = 0.05 40,--_ __
Modified pump System
head -ca pacity curve (mP2)
t'. C heck va lve = 2.5 head-capacity
f Bend = 0.25
g. Fricti o n = 0.020
4. H ead loss co mputatio ns:
u . Use Darcy- W e isbach eq uati on for head loss co mputati o ns [ se ~ Eq . (6-26)]. 30
h. Neglect hea d loss in pump system manifol d. E
U
'""
SOl. UT ION
:r:
20 --
I. De\"elup a nd p lo t the system head-capacity curve.
{/. The head loss in the force main. compu ted using the D arcy W eisbach eq uation , is as
follow s
10~---

L V'
" = j --
D 2g
where r = 0.020
L = 250 m
o 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Di scha rge , m 3/s
D = 0.35 m
(b)
1(3.14 x (03W)
V = QI - -~------'---'-
I 4 2. Pl o t the o ri ginal pump head-capacity cu rves. The head-capacity curves fo r the given
....... g.",; .9.R I m/ s2 pumps are pl o tt ed o n fi gu re (b).
3. Determine th e station lusses fo r the pumps.
b. P re pare a head loss com putati on table .
a. Com pute the head loss in the suction piping as follows:

Q. iI. h ~ , a, It . L) V 2

m 3 .,s m
hni" '"
m m h1{"al
=
(0.3 +.0.1 + 0.1. + 0.020 D- -29
0.0 000 0.00 10.0 10 00 b. Cu mput e it L , as a fun cti u ll uf the discharge fo r the two pumps
0.1 0.7'i 0.0 5 10. 0 10.84
0.2 3. 15 0.22 10.0 13. 37
0.3 7. 09 0.50 10 .0 17 .59
0.4 12.60 0.88 10.0 23 .48
Pum p I Pump 2
0.5 19.68 138 10 .0 31.06
Q,
m' /s fiLS ' m ilL , m
V'
* h(1.011 := 29 0.0 0-0 0.0
t S tat ic head = 10.0 (15.0 - 5 0) 0.1 0.14 0.06
0.2 0.56 0.26
0.3 0.58
0.4 1 03
(" The system head-capactty cline is ploned III ligure (h )
 396 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRA ULICS DESIGN 397

c. Compute the head loss in the discharge piping as foll ows: h. Determin e the pump discharges and operating heads al the given discharge va lues.

hLD = (h;n< + h,. + h. + 2hb + 0.020~) ~:

(0.05 + 2.5 + 0.1 + 2(0.25) + 0.020 -L)

Q. H,
V2 Pump(s) m' /s m
-
D 2g
I 0.200 18.0
d. Compute hLD as a function of the discharge for the two pumps.
2 0.312 24.2
(I )* 0.133 26.0
(2)* 0. 272 28.0
Pump I Pump 2
Q,
* When pump ' (I) and
m'/s hLD.m hLDI m
(2) are operated in parallel.

00 0.0 0.0
0.1 110 0.48
CUMMENT A wider range of di sc harges could be achieved if the smal ler pump was con-
0.2 4.41 1.95
vertecllo variable-speed operation
-. 0.3
0.4
4.39
7.80

e. Sum of the head losses in the suc ti on and discharge piping to obtain the station 6-25 PUMP STATIONS FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER
losses for each pump. .
Pump st~ltiolls ror wa ter and wastewater will \'ary in configuration depending 011
Pump I Pump 2
the ser\ice requircments. Beca usc th e deSign o r pumplll g stations is be yo nd the
Q, scope of the prese nt discuSSI()n. tile read er IS referred to Refs. [6-1. 6-S, 6- 11. and
mJ/s 17 sl In fl si m 6- 15J for a ll10re complete discussion or water and wastewater pump station s.
00 0.0 00
O. I 1.24 0. 54
0.2 4.97 2.2 I
0.3 4.97
Hydraulic Analysis of Water and Wastewater Treatment
0.4 8.83
The primary purpose of tilis sectio n IS to delineate the steps involved in th e hy -
draLili c analysis of wate r- and \\,~I s t e\\'a ter-trea tm e nt plants. I-!owe\e r, before
4. Plot the station losses and develop the modified pump curves. conside ring th e subj ec t o f trc~ltment plant hydl<lulics. it is impo rtant to consider
a. The sta tion losses are plotted as.shown in figure' (b). all or th e steps involved in the de sigil or water- and \\<tstewater-treatm ent plant s.
b. The modified pump curves are ob tain ed by subtracting the station losses from the
origina l pump head-capacity curves. The modified pump curves are designated
(mP I) and (mP2).
5. Determine the system discharges and corresponding head s.
6-26 TREATi\IENT PLANT DESIG N
a. Referring to figure (b) the following values are ob tain ed'

Once th e requir ed emuc nt qu:liilv has ocell defined. the steps involved in treat -
Q, H, mellt plant design typic:l11\ Include (.1) s\nthesis of alternati\e fl ow sheets, (2)
Pump( s) m"' /s III ben ch tcsts ~Ind pihlt-plant s tu dlc, . (,I) se lection oj design cr it eria. (..) sIzi ng PI'
physica l faci lit ies. (~) prep~II' ~lti(111 "I' solids b;II:ll1ces. (6) layollt of the ph vsic al
0.200 13. 5 facilitie s. (7) prepar:tlioll nrllldraltilC I'rnfil cs. and (X) preparation of cons tructi 011
0.312 I H.I
(2) !I (I) 0.405 24.0
c1ra\\ings. specili c:lIlllI1S. :Ind CtlSl est 11I1:ltes Re cilise o f til e imporwnce of each
of these steps. e:lc h IS c()nsidcled scp: tr~ltcl\ In the f"lluII'JIlg discliss io n.
 398 WATER
Synthesis of Alternative Treatment Process Flow S heets
A fl ow shee t can be defi ned as th e group in g toge ther o f unit o pcra ti o ns and proces-
ses to a c hi eve a specific t reatment o bj ec ti ve. Alt crnate fl ow s hcets wi ll be deve lo ped
o n th e ba sis o f t he characteri s ti cs o f the wat er and wastewa ter to be treated ,
th e tr ea tm e nt objecti ves a ncL if availab le, the res ults o f be nch and pilo t-sca le
te sts. Th e bes t a lterna ti ve fl ow s heet s are se lected after the y ha\'e a ll bee n eva lu -
a ted in ter m s o f their perfo rmance, ph ys ica l implementati o n. energy requIre-
ment s. and cos t. T yp ica l ex amples o f s uc h fluw s hee t:; are s how n In Fi gs. 4- 1 and
4~2 a nd Fi gs 5-2 a nd 5-3 . .
Bench Tests and Pilot-Plant S tudies
Th e purpose o f co nductin g benc h tes ts a nd pilo t-p lant studies IS ( I) to es ta b lish
th e s uitab ly o f a lter na ti ve unit o pe rati o ns a nd processes fOI' trea ting a g ivcn wat er
o r wa stewa ter a n d (2) to ob ta in th e data a nd Infor ma tion necessary to des ig n t he
se lec ted o r e ratio ns and processes. Be nc h tes ts, ;15 th c n;lmc illlpli es. ;Irc s mall-
sca le te sts tha t ca n be co nducted in tlt e labora to r). T y ricalh' tltey arc used to
es tabli s h app rox im a te c hemical d osages a nd to obt;lill kll1 etic coe t-fi cie nt s.
Conti nu o us r il o t- pla nt st udies are co nduct ed to \'crify t he result s llr bc nch tes ts.
Selection of Design Criteria
Afte r o ne o r m o re a lternati ve tl o\V s hee ts have hee n de\"eill ped . th c nex t s tep in
design inv o lves se lec ti o n o f d es ig n cr it eria. Des ign cr iteria ar e selected o n the basis
o f t heu ry, pu b li s hed dat a ill the Irterat'ure-, the r e~'u Its' pf be m:h ' te ~ t s <I l1 d r rlot-scale'
st udi es. and th e past exp eri ence o f the de s igner.
Sizing of Unit .operations and Proc esses
Once des ign criteria have been se lec ted. th e nex t step is to s ize th~ requ ired uriit
o pera ti ons a nd processes so that the phys ica l fa c iliti es required fo r th e ir imp le-
mentati o n can be de ter min ed . De pending o n s ite co nst ra int s. it Ill ay be necessary
to cha nge from a c irc ular to a rec ta n g u lar bas in. fo r examr k .
Solids Balances
. Afte r des ign cr it er ia ha ve been se lected and th e unit o perati o ns ;.IIld processes
s ized. so lids ba la nces shou ld be prerared for each se lec ted p mcess !l o w sheet.
[deall y. so lids balances sho uld be prepared for the average and peak /l o w rates.
The preparat io n o f a so li d s ba lance II1 vo lves th e det e r m inati o n ll f th e quantities
o f so lid s en te rin g and lea ving each uni t o pe ra ti u n or process. These da ta are
espec ia ll y impo rt a nt in th e design (s izin g) of the s lud ge-process ing facilit ies.
ENV IRONMENTAL ENG INEER ING H YDRAU LI CS DES IGN 399
Plant Layout
Usi ng the informa t io n o n th e size o f the facilities dete rmined o n the basis of the
selected cr it e ri a. va ri o u s p la nt layou ts are de vel o ped w ithin the constraints o f the
ph ys ica l s ite. [n layi n g Ollt the va riou s faci lities, s pecial a ttenti o n s ho uld be g iven
to minimi z ing pipe le ng t h s, to g ro upin g togeth er rel a ted facilities, and to th e need
for future expan s ion.
Hydraulic Profiles
Once the treatm e nt faciliti es and interco nn ec tin g p ipi ng have been sized prelimi-
naril y, hydrau lic profi les s ho uld be dev elo p ed fo r peak an d average fl ow rates. The
piepar ati o n o f h ydrauli c profi les is co ns idered in d e tai l in th e foll owing sectio n .
Const ruction Drawiings and Specifications
Th e fina l step in the des ign process in vo lves the pre para tion of const ruction dr aw-
ings. specifica t io ns. and cos t es tim a tes. Because th e clarity w ith wh ic h the co nstruc-
ti o n d raw in gs are prese nted w ill affec t b o th t he bid prices and final plant o perati o n,
th e importa nce o f th is s tep ca nn o t be ove rstressed. Con s tructi on specificatio n s
ha ve been m ore o r less s tand a rdized. The key iss ue is to make sure th a t specific a-
ti ons are co mplete s o th a t cos tl y ch a n ge orde rs ca n be eliminated. Finally, the
eng in eer's cos t es tim a te is used as a gu id e in eva luating the bids subm itt ed by the
var io us contractors.
... 6-27 .. PREPARA nON .. OF HYDRAULIC PROFILES
Hydra uli c profiles are prepa red for three reaso ns: (1) to e ns ure th a t the hydrau lic
grJdi ent is adeq uJ te fo r fl o w thr o ugh the trea tme nt fac ilities, (2) to establish th e
head needed for pu mps. w here requ ired, a nd (3) to ensure that pla nt facilities w ill
not be fl ooded o r back ed lIr dur in g period s o f peak flow . Prepa ring hydra ulic
p ro fil es invo lves careful co ns idera ti o n o f th e frict ional and min o r head losses
that ca n occur in piping sys tem s a nd o f th e head losses assoc iated with control
stru ctures. These head losses are co ns id e red separa tely bel o w. Application o f the
info rma ti o n o n head lo sses in t he prepara tion o f hydra ulic profi les is illustra ted
in th e fin a l part or thi s sec tion.
Frictional Head .Lo ss
The fri cti o nal hea (1 loss that oc.curs as water a nd wastewa ter fl ows thro ugh pipes
ca n be ' computed wi th seve ra l eq ua ti o ns The recommended equati o n is the
O'\I"(;Y ' Weisbach as g iven b.:: lo w.
L 1' "
h,. f-D 2g
-- (6-26)
 400 WATER ENV IR ONMENTA L ENGINEERING HYDRAULI CS DEStGN 401

where h f = head loss, m (ft) The appl ica ti on of Eqs. (6-26) ane! (6-27) is illu strated in Example 6-8. A more
f = coefficient of friction complete review of th e equations used for the analysis of co ntrol structures ma y
L = length of pipe, m (ft ) be founci in Refs. [6-6. 6-X, 6- 13, and 6-15].
D = diameter of pipe, m (ft)
V = mean velocity, mls (ft/s ) Example 6-8: Preparing a hydraulic profile Prepare a hydraulic profil e for peak fl ow
9 = acceleration due to gravit y. 9.8 1 m/s2 (32.2 ft / S2) conditionsand se t cont ro l eleva tions for the portion of a treatment plant shown in the
The valuesofthe friction f?ctor are obtained from a Moody diagram. A represent a- accompanying figurc. The following data and assumpt ions a re applicable.
tive value used for most friction computations is 0.020.
Vee not ch weir (90)
(Weir cres t se t
Minor Head Losses Vee notch weir (90 ) Inlet channel at elev. 100.0 m)
/ Straighl (Francis) Weir
As noted earlier in the section on pumps. minor head losses are produced when
various control devices are inserted in piping systems. Valves are the most common
control devices used in piping systems. Minor head losses 31so occur at pipe
joints, pipe interconnections, pipe expansions and contract ions. ane! pipe entrances
and exits. For practical purposes minor head losses are usuall y estima ted as a 17 m
-15 m
fraction of the velocity head in th e downstream pipe section usi ng J::q. (6-7) 40 m

h
m
=
V2
K .---
2g
Typical K values for various kinds of control devices ane! pipe configurations may
(6-7) O.S

Air
III di"

- 4 - __-l~==~I~I_
-
be found in Refs. [6-6.6-8, and 6-13J and in manufacturers' lit era ture.

Head Losses from Control Structures

Primary Aeration . Secondary
The most common control structures usee! in both water- and was tewater-trea t- sedimen tation tank se dimentation
tank tank
_ ...... . ...~~~1t..I?!~.~!~ .~r~. VJ~it:s. ?f.o~.e..s.<?rl. .<?r. a~.o~11 e r: .T~.t: .ro.rrnt!I~l s..u.sed .111ost .c().rn. monly.
(0)
for rectangular and vee-notch weirs are give below.
For rectangular weirs, the Franci s equation is used most co mmon ly. The
Francis equation is
I. Flow rates'
Q = 1.84 (L - 0.1 nh)h J2 (6-27) a. Average flow = 8000 mI ld
where Q = discharge, m 3/s (ft3 jS ) h. Peak fl ow = 16,000 111 J Id
= D.IS5 ml js
1.84 = numerical constant
2. Primar y sedimentation tank'
L = length of crest of weir. m (ft)
o. Diameter at weir circle = 15 III
11 = number of end contractions
h. Weir spacing = 0.3 m
h = head on weir crest. 111 (ft) r. Weir type = 900. vce Ilotch
3.33 = valu e of numerica l constant for U.S. customary unit s d. Weir depth = 0. 1 111
e. Return flow s frolll sludgeprocessing facilities = 0.15Q
For 90 trian gular weirs the general equation is:
3. Aeration tank .
Q = 0. 55 h S : z (6-28) o. In let type = slide gates
h. Number 01' gates = b
where Q = di scharge, m 1 /s (ftJ;s) c Width or slide gate = 0.20 III
0.55 = t1umerical constant d. Return activated sludge discharged to influent chan nel at peak tl ow = 0.25Q
h = heae! on weir crest. 111 (ft) e Length of aerati on tank eftlucnt \\'elr = 15 III
2.5 = value of numerical constant for U.s. customa ry unit s. j Weir Iype = straig ht sharp-crc,tcd
402 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 403

4. Secondary sedimentation tank: 2. Determine water surface elevation in aeration-tank effluent channel.
a. Weir crest elevation = 100 m a. Summarize head losses and coefficient values .
b. Diameter at weir circle = 17 m (I) Exit 1055_ k" = LO
c. Weir spacing = 0.3 m
d. W e ir type = 90 vee notch (2) Bend lo sses_ 2 at kb = 0.4
e. Weir depth = 0.1 (3) Friction loss in pipe, f = 0.020
f Underflow = O.4Q
5. H ead loss computations: (4) Entrance loss. k," = 0.5
a. Head loss coefficients b. Deter ri111le . velocity in pipe connecting the aeration tank to the secondary sedi-
Pipe entrance = 0.5
mentati on tank:
Pipe bends = 0.4
Pipe exit = 1.0 v= Q/ A
b. Pipe friction factor in D arcy-Weisbach eq uation = 0.020 = 14(0.185 m 3/ s)/ 3.14(0.3 m)2
r. Head loss across aeration tank = 0.02 m (The head los - . . . .
not well defined.) , across aeration tank s IS = 0.92 m/s

d. Neglect liquid in underflow from primary sedi m entation tank. c. Determine head loss in piping system connecting the aeration tank to the secondary
e. ~ses~:t head loss be twee n s lid e gates in aeration-tank influent channel. sedimentation tank.

, =(k" + 2kh + f L)
f ' h e the !Illet slide gates to the aeration tank ca n be modeled as a Fran CIS weir 2
V
\\It two end contractions. D+ k,n 29
g. Assume effluent weir in aeration tank can be modeled as a Francis weir.
h. the
In se tt1llg
t weir
f elevations
. ' crest an d
assume a free -fall of 0 .010 m betwee n tlle weir 50 m ) (0.92)2
wa er sur ace In the downstream channel. =
(
I + 2(O A) + 0.020 0.6 m + 0.5 2(981)

= 0.171 m
SOLUTION
d. Determine water surface elevation in aeration-tank effluent channel.
Determine water surface elevation in seco nda ry clarifier 100.081 m + 0.171 m
Elev.
u. Determine number of weirs. 100.252 m

No. of weirs = Tr D/ (d/ weir) 3. Set the elevation of effluent discharge weir and d~i~~~i~e' ~~tei 'surfac'e'ele"Vati'o~';ri'" -... ..... ... ..
= 114 (17)i(0.J rn/ wcir) aeration tank near the etTIuent discharge weir.
a. Se t the elevation of the effluent weir in the aeration tank. As given in the problem
177.9. say 17X
statement. the free-faJl distance between the weir crest and the water surface elevatio~
h. Det er min e flow pe r weir. in the efflu ent channel' is 0.010 m. Thus
q/ weir = (16,000 mJ/ d)/ l n .Elev. = 100.252 m + 0.010 m = 100.262 m
= 89.89 m J/d . weir
b. Determine'the head on the effiuent weir assuming two end contractions.
= 0.00104 111 3 Is . weir
Q = 1.84(L - 0.1 nll)113/2
c. Det erm ine head on vee-notc h weirs.
1.4(0.11'5 mJ js) = 1.84[15 m - 0.1(2)I1JI1 3/2
q = 0.5511 5 ; 2
h = 0.044 m (by trial-a nd-error analysis)
II = (Q!0.55) 2.' s
c. Determine water s urface elevati o n in aeration tank near effiuent di scharge weir.
= (0.001 04:0.55)' <

= 1).081111 Elev. = 100.262 m + 0.044 m = 100.306 m

4. Set elevation 0 1s lide gates and determine water surface elevation in influent channel to
d. Determine water su rface elevat ion in seconc!;lry cbrilicr.
aeration tank .
Ele\'. 1000 m + O.OX I rn a. Ass ume 3 head loss o f 0.020 m across the aeration tank. Also assume a free fall of
100.08 1 rn 0.0 10m between the crest 0 1 t he s lide gate a nd t he water surface in the aeration tank.
 404 WATER
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER I NG HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 405

b. Set the elevation of the crest of t he slide gate.

c Detcrmine flow per weir.
Elev. = 100 306 In + 0.020 rlI + 0.010 In = 100.336 In If/weir = J
I 15(16.000 Ill /cI); 157
c. Determine the head on rheslid e ga tes: 117.2 m l jd weir
= 0.00136 111 3 /s wClr
(I) The flow per slide gate = 1.4(0.185 m J/s )/6 = 0.043 m J /s
(2) Determine head on slide ga te assuming slide gate is a Francis weir with lWO end Ii. Determin e head on vee-nolch weirs.
contractions.
if = 0.55115"
Q = 1. 84(L - 0.1 nh)h J /2
" = (QIOS5)' 5
0.043 mJ/s = 1. 84(0.5 In - 0.1(2)h)h 3 /' .. = (0001 36/055), ,5
h = 0.139 m (by trial-and -er ror ana lys is) = 0.091111

d. Determine water surface eleva tion in influent channel to aera ti on tank. e. D eterrnJllL: \V{l i e r Slllr'lce
~ elpvtlon
....
u in primar y sedi men tation tank .
p

Elev. = 100.336m + 0.139 m = 100.475 m Elcv. = 100.7 17 m + 0.091 m = 100.808 m

7. Preparc a hydraulic profile showing Ihe computelI e Ind"

I )ns.. See th e acco mpanying
s. Determine water surface elevation in primary-sedimcntation-tank etfiuenr channel.
(/. Summarize head losses and coefficient values. See step 20. tigure (iJ).
b. Determine velocity in pipe con necting the primary sedimentalion lank 10 Ihe
100.808 100301)
aeration lank inlet channel.
100.717 100.26: 100.08 1
v= Q/ A ;--
11 5(018 5 m 3 /s)/ 3.14(025 m) ' 100.707
= 108 m/ s

c. Determine head loss. in piping sys lem connecting the primary sedimenlali on lank
to the aeration tank inlet channel.

. = ( 1 + 2(0.4) + 0.020 -.-

4+ 00.5) - ---~
1.0'
O.S 2(9.X I)
= 0.232 m

d. Deter~ine -:vater surface elevaiion in primary sedimentation tank em-lIenl ehaJln el.

Elc\,. = 100.475 m + 0.2 32 m = 100.707 m PrIlJl~HY Aeration Seconuary

:-oeulllltniatioll lank se diment ati on
6. Set elevation of primary cttluent weirs and del ermine wain surface eleva l ion in primary lank lank
sedimenlalion lank .
(Ii)
Q. Set elevalion of vee- n ot~h weirs in primary sedimenlation tank.
l (),,\II:'H .
In Ihl\ e.\ampk;1 distance 0 I 001 . n 1 'VIS . ao; a .free-fall.at
. . lI sed . each
. . of Ihe
b
EIe\'. ,= 100.707 m + 0.010 m = 100. 7 17 m . Where lhe lo ss "I. he<l J ..
eunlro l weirs. . . . I .) He deSI"lIers
IS elili ca . ," . <- wli l. allO\\- lhe wells
'.
to e-
cb nl C suhlll crt;cd <II pcaknow cOnd,IH)n, .. ...S 11 h mel. .gcd Inlel s ,md outlets have. a15.0 ' been
.
b. Determine number of weirs. . 1lOU 1( ia."0 be made 10 select. lhe 0plJmum
used in man)- .planls . .'\ !ladeon
. . .,In,'')''5' . I Idpipeb
No. of weirs = rrD I(d !weir spac in g) .
"zes .
ill use 10 Interconnecl treatmcnt llilih . .. 1-I.~' cost . 01. ~ large. r pipe size s lOU . . e1
'eonlpared
. . to the COSI of encrgy needed Il) mt'fCome .. . the differential
... head .loss .assocblat ec
I
114( 15 m)!(OJ m/weir) . . . . . . I . . lum pipe size wlil be Imllt ed Y I le
with Ihe sl11aller pipe size In most Sl llla!lllns. t lc IlldXm . .
157 . d I!) a,(IllI tl l~' (I ,~ posi
minimum wlncll)' . require . l i"n 01 solids.

n
 406 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS

DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS 6-8 Why IS the equation used in Example 6-3 no longer favored for estimating fire flows
in business districts"
6-1 Determine the maximum monthly water s upply that can be taken from a st ream using the 6-9 What is the origin of th e ter m" fire plug ""
data from Example 6-2. What is the capacity of the reqll1red sto rage reservoir'! 6-10 Referring to the figure used in Example 6-3 and assuming that the data given in that
6-2 Determine the maximum monthly water supply tha t ca n be obtained from a stream with the eX 3m r ie are applieahle. wh<Jt modifications must be made in the water distributIOn system to
cumulative runoff record shown in th e accompanying figure. What is the capacity of the re- serve an additional po pulation of 2500 persons located beyond the lower boundary of the
quired storage reservoir'! existing system?
6-11 Referring to the figure and the population information given in Prob. 6-15, and to the
50r-----------------------~--------------------------__,
data given in Example 6-3. estimate the size of the pipes for a water dlstnbutlOn system for
the service area shown. Assume a water main will be placed in each street and that a loop Will .
be placed around th e se rvice area. Assume the water supply main, to be placed in Peavy
Avenue, wi ll enter the se rvice area from 65th Street.
6-12 A 2.0-m circular sewer is laid on a slope ofO.OOOS m/m. If n is equal to 0.013 at all depths
,
'<> of flows. determine:
a (a) Q and V when the sewer is flowing full .'
x (b) Q and V when the sewer is flowing at a depth of 0.3 m
<:!i 30 (c) Q and V when the Aow in the sewer isat 0.6 of its capacity
3
;::'" (d) V and depth of flow when Q = 1.0 m /s .
o
6-13 Solve Prob. 6-12 assuming that n is variable and is equal to 0.015 when the pipe is flowmg
;:'"
<> fulL
.."; 20
6-14 A rectangular sewer 1.25 m wide and 15 m high has been laid on a slope of 0.0055.
'"
"3 (0) What is the maximum flow rate if the Manning's n value for the sewer is 0.013?
E
;:0 (b) What are th e dimensions of an egg-shaped sewer laid at the same slope that has the
u
10
same now caracity?
6-15 Develop a preliminary design. Including flow rates, pipe sizes, and pipe slopes for a trunk
sewer to be laid in the develorment shown in the accompanying figure from 6th to 1st Streets
along Peavy Avenue. Assume the following data apply.

20.5
6 12 18 24 30 36 19.0

I-~-
Month

Low-rise
6-3 Using the cumulative runolTcurve given in the figure for Prob 6-2. determine the capacity I \
of the storage reservoir needed to provide a'constant supply ofO.:n x 10" m 3 / month.
6-4 Referring to the figure used in Example 6-1 and assllming that the following data apply.
18. 5

\ \
\ Commercial
apartments Vi
.;:
V"l Single-
family \
I upstream
area
3
determine the maximum flow rate that can be withdrawn by the c it y while maintaining a Peavy Ave. dwellings 0.005 m 7s

To-~==~~~~~====~~==~-
minlIllum pressure of 140 kPa.
I
fp = 50 L, = 3,500 treat \ Park \

~~===T=c1=10=b=a=n=o=g=IO=U~S~A=v=e=.=====1 ~
III III
Jnent
L" = S.OOO m ill' = OS III plant I \ High- \ '\
Lo w risl'
iI" ,= 0.5 III j = 0.020 (d p , d,)
\
apa rtments
\ . Vi
flse
ap~rtments I
I

__\-=~=-\-~ _\_J
\ Singlefamily \
6-5 Refe rring to th e sa ine figure and assulllin'g that the data gi ven in Prob. 6-4 apply, de-
i \
~--i-
termine E .\ when the city demand is equal to 0.3 m 3 /s.
6-6 Estimate the required fire flow for a schoo l of wood frame cons truction with a total
Aoor area of 1600 m 2 Assume the fire flow Illust be increased by 10 rercent clue to unfav orable o 500
expos ure.
II I I I
6-7 Estimate the I'e(juired fir e tl ow for vour classroom huilding. sCJle. m
 408 WATER ENV tRONMENTAL ENGINEER ING HYDR AULICS DESIGN 409

(a) Saturation population and flow data: r-- ------ -- --- ~---- - --I

I
I
Commercia l
1
Saturation 1 .1
'1)c v>
~I
population
I . c -=
Wa stewater ~ ~
Type of density, Ash St Single-family
flow,* ~ ;;;
o
.c
dwellings
Zoning development person/ha L/capita d r , ;;:; 1
o-lo. -
Residential
Residential
Single-family dwellings
Duplexes
30.
50.
380.
1
2063 206 1 20.60
'"
-r
'1
310. 1 .,;
Residential Low- rise apartments 10.0. 260. I ;-

Residential High -rise apartments 160. 220.

I
Industrial ~

- .20.01
.<::
- . .
Birch St. I
Refer to figure (c) in Example 6-4 for pea king factors. - 19.80 19.70 57
19. 1

(b) Wastewater flow and peaking data for commercia l and industrial areas and in-
i Cedar Sf. Hi gh-
rise Lowr ise 1
a part apar t men ts
stitutional faci lities: I
I Comrnerci,11
mcnts
II
I --- ---
----------- ----- ---- -~

o 500
Area/ Flow Pea king II! til
facility basis Valu e factor : :; caie. III

Commercial m 3 /ha . d 32 1.5

Industrial m 3 ; ha d 60. 2.2 6-21 II wastewate r pump has:1 lOO-mm d ischarge a nd a 350-mm suc ti on. The readin g on the
School L/student . d 80. 3.5 discharge gage located at the pump cent erline .is J40 kPa (kN/ m'). The readin g on the sucti on
Hospital L/bed . d 60. 3.5
Park gage loca ted 0.75 m below t he pump cen terl ine is 20 k Pa (k N/ m '). 1ft he total head 0 11 the pump
L/perso n . d 3D 4.0.
... " . . . . . . . . . .-.-..- .....,-.-. . -.. .,-
.. -..- ...
--..- ..- . ...,.
.. ...,.
.. c-
.. .,-
....,- ...~
..----,.,-,.,. . .~..,-
...,- ..~.. .. . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . .
is 15 m. determine (I) the pump discharge and (2) the energy input to the motor. assuming a
pump efficiency of 82 percent and a mot or dficiency of 91 percent.
6-22 Solve Prob. 0-21. but assume that the total head is 10 m and the readin g on the discharge
(c) The average daily attendance at the schoo l is 1000 students. gage IS 100 k Pa (k N/ ni') .
(d) Assume park usage wi ll be 500 persons/d.
6-231\ centrifugal pump with an impeller cliameter of 0.25 m delivers 0.02 m'/s agamst a
(e) Assume flow from upstream area is equal to 0.005 m 3 /s.
head of IX m at a power input or 4 kW whe n opera ting at 1170 r/ min . If it is assumed that
6-16 Develop a preliminary design'. including flow rates. pipe sizes. and pipe slo pes for a trunk the cfliciency remains th e same, d~tefJlline the (I) head. (2) discharge. and (3) power input
sewer to be laid in the development show n in the figure shown on the opposite page frotn 10th for a geometrica ll y similar pump with <.ill impeller diameter of 0.30 m operating at 870 r/ min.
to 13th Avenues along Ash Street to II th Avenue to Birch Street. Assume the data given in 6-24 A mixed-flow volu te pump is to opera te at a head of 5 m and discharge 0.17 m 3 js. It is
Prob. 6-15 are applicable.
to be driven by a direct-coupled squirre l-cage inductio n motor operat ing on 6-cycle (60-H z)
6-] 7 Using the data from Prob. 6-1 5 and the contour data shown in that figure. prepa re a cur rent If the specifi c speed is not to exceed 100. what sho uld be the operat ing speed? What
profile simi lar to the one shown in Fig. 6-16 for the trunk sewe r. efficiency cou ld be expected. illld how much power will be required ~
6-18 Using the data from Prob. 6-16 and the elevation data show n in that figure. prepare a 6-25 Ir the ciJameter of th e impell er in pump no. 2. in Exampl e 6-7 were changed from 275
profile similar to the one shown in Fig. 6-13 for. the trunk sewer. to 250 mm. \\'hat would be the maximulll discharge that clJuld be expected with two pumps
6-19 Compute the volume of excavat ion and length of pipe'of various diametns req'uired for Operatin g ill paralleJ'l
the trunk sewer designed in Probs. 6-1<; and (,-17.' Assume thaI the width of the trench is 14 6-26 Usin!, the d~lta give n below in conjunction with the pumpin g system sc hematic show n in
times the inside diameter of the sewe rs plus O.lnl. The minimum width of the trench is I m and figure ((]) on page 410: .
to allow for pipe bedding material. the depth of the excavation is to be 0.2 m oelow the invert (a) Determine t he sys tem pumping Cil pacity when pumps I and 2 are ope rat ing in parallel.
of t he sewer. The pump performance curves for pumps I and 2 are given in figure (b). Ignore losses othe r than
6-20 Compute the volume of excava tion and leng th of pipe of various diameters required for rriction ill developing the system cu rve. Minor losses should be considered in deve loping th e
the sewer designed ill Pmos. ()-!Ii and ('-I~ . 11,<' the design constraints gi\enll1 hob. (,-1'.1. muddied pump curves.
 ENVtRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 411
410 WATER

Elev. 10.0 m (I What is the kilowatt requirement for each pump at the above operati ng point?
3
(c) At what reduced speed must pump I be operated alone to pump 0.20 m / s to the
Po int c reservoir ? Wha t is the corresponding head?

L.
H ev . 3 .5 m
Pipe D, m L,m
Point b
a- b 0.35 30 (sa me for both pumps)
b -c 0.50 800

I i.
Head loss compu ta tions:

Pum p 2 Bo th pumps are se t at th e same eleva tion . k,nl = 0.3

(a)
k" ,,, = 0.5

kche ck yalv e = 2.5

f = 0.020 (for all piping)

6-27 Solve Pr ob. 6-26 using pump c urves 3 and 4 given in figure (b) of Prob. 6-26.
6-28 Determin e the a vaila ble net positi ve suction head (NPSH A) for the pumping system given
in Example 6-6.
6-29 Solve Pr o b. 6-26 for the pumping system given in Prob. 6-24.
6-30 Develop the hydraulic profile for the peak-flow condition for the portion of the waste-
water-treatment plant shown in the figure o n page 412. Assume that 33 percent of the plant
E infl ow is recyc led from the secondary 'sedit'rierHation tanks tu the head'end'of the aeration tank : .... .. .
-0 16 The pertinen t data and informa ti o n are show n as follows:
::r:'"'" 3
Q". = 10,000 m /d
12 90 3
Qp<" = 18,000 m /d
*;:,
u
P(imary sedimentation:
8 80 .~
u
"
E Nu mber of tanks = 2
lJ..I
4 70 Di a meter - 13.75 m

Secondary sed imentation :

0
0 0.6 Number o f tanks = 2
Discharge , IIl J !>
Di a meter = 15 m

.--
lb)

Aeration-tank cflluen t weir : :;.!:'

,~
T ype-s ha rp-crested , straight weir

J
We ir length = 4 m

.
. . ~
-
.... "' ~-~~~:;j'$~;':'.-'
; ~.~~~..::
412 WATER
ENVIRONMENTAL ENG INEER ING HYDRA UI.I CS DESIGN 413

6.6 K ing. H . W. , a nd E. F. Brat er HOlldbook o/Hydraulics, 51h cd., M cGraw- Hili , New York, 1963.
6.7 Lager, J . A., and W . G. Smith' erball SlOrnJll'Oler Manag~menl and Technology: An Assessmenl,
EPi\.670/2-74-040 . Ci ncin nat i. Ohio, December 1974.
518.26 6-8 Metcalf & Eddy. Inc. WaS/ elVala Engineering. Col/eclion and PlImping of WaSlell'(Jler. rev . by
(secondary) G. Tchobanoglous , McGraw-HilI. New York. 1981.
6.9 Metcaif & Eddy , Inc. Wa.HeH'llIer Engineering. Trealmenl, Disposal, R ellse, 2d ed .. McGraw-HilI.
New York, 1979
6- 10 Pardoe, .W . S. "Computing Head Loss in Grid iron D istributi on System;" Erigineerlng News-
Record, 93(1 3):5 16 (1924). '
6. 11 Pump in!) Sialion Design fin Ihe I'raniein.'! Enl}lI1ecr Volllllle f Fundamentals. Volume II Wasle-
waleI'. Vol;ill1e III W(lIer. Conference P roceedings . Depanrilent o f Civil Engineering and Engi-
neering Materials, Montana State Linrversil\'. Bozeman, 1981.
6-12 Ripple. W.: "T he Capacity of Storage Re sef\'oirs f\>r Water Supply." Prof Insl Cie Eng: vo l. 7 1,
1883
6.13 Vennard. J . K .. a nu R . L. Street Ul'fllenllJfl' FlUid .If echanics. 5th cu .. Wiley. New York, 1975.
See de lai l A 0-14 \Vanieli sta, M P.: S'tnrnlll'oter !\l alla[lenlrr!1 QuantifY und QUOlifY Ann Arbor Scie nce. Ann
,\roor , Mich .. 1978.
EI 6-15 Water Pollution Cutltru\ FederatI on Drsigll (~( ~V(J SfeH'(lle" alld SwrmH'([ler Pumping Srariolls.
5 1il.26
Manual of Practice no. FD-4. New Yor k. 1%1
6-16 Whipple. 'Ivy" et al . Sror1Jl\\'(J/c'f .\4ollaqerncltf In l (rhani::ing Areas, Prentice -H all, Englewood
ClifTs. N.J .. 1%)

EI
48.0 m 5 16.00 15 .0 m

I
EI 51J.90 I__

2-0.40 m

I
. 1------ - - ----1
4 0 n1

Primary A~rali o n Seco.ndary

clarification I~nk c larifica li o n
tanks lank s
Profil e

REFERENCES
1966.- , H.: Cenln.IlIgal and Ollwr R O{()<YllanllC
6-1 Addison I . P umps, 3d ed .. Chapman an d Hall. Lo nd on,

6-2 F;i~, ami

G,' M ., J . C. Ge ye r, and D. /\ . Oktlll: fI '(ilCI' WaSlell'Oler Engine~rinq, Volume I . Waler
IIppl) and WaSlewater Remoral, Wiley. New York. 1968. .
6-3 Hydraulic
.' a. 'Ii I
In>lilul e Slm;&If d F: r C'tlllI~U.lJa.Rntary,{JndRt!('ipro('alilItIPllmpJ
. I Jlhed. Hyuraulic
I nSlllute , Cleveland . Ohio. 1975 . . .." .
6-4 J ~pPsocn, R. W .: Allalysis 0/ Flo II ' ill Pipe .Velllorks, Ann Arbor Scicnce. Ann Arbo r Mich 1976
J
6-5 Oml
F d ommJ!lee
: f I A ' . .
0 I Ie .. mencan Soclelv of C ivil Engineers and Ihe Walc r Po llu lion COnlrol
.. .
E e erallon: . Design and ConSlruction ~f SanilOrr Sellws, ASCI:' Manuals and R~p orls on
. ngmecflng Pracllce no : 37. Ncw Yo rk , 1969. .