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Concepts in Development
GROWTH RATE
conditions. They define economic
growth as long-term increase in
The growth rate for period t can be defined production potential of the economy.
in the following manner: Some economists feel that it is
Q Qt1 Qt growth of per capita GDPFC, not GDPFC,
gt = t = 1... (1)
Qt1 Qt1 that should be used to gauge the growth
where of an economy. But the point to be noted
gt = (relative) growth rate of GDP in is that economic growth is a long-term
period t phenomenon about the change in total
Qt = GDPFC for period t economic activity of an economy.
Qt1 = GDPFC for period t1
Economic Development
Suppose GDPFC for period 1999-2000 at
1993-94 prices is Rs 11,52,000 crore and Some economists hold a view that the
GDPFC for period 1998-99 at 1993-94 prices economic development is not much
is Rs 10,83,000. We can find out that different from economic growth. For
Rs 11,52,000Rs 10,83,000 them, both are processes of long-term
gt = = 1.06371 = 0.0637 increase in per capita income. Some
Rs 10,83,000
The growth rate is therefore 0.0637. other economists believe that
However, numerically growth rate is development is distinctly different
presented in terms of per cent. Growth rate process than growth and covers other
would therefore be written as 6.37 per cent. dimensions of change besides growth.
Sometimes, people average such growth Still others hold that, development is
rates for a number of periods (decade or nothing but the level of per capita income
quinquennium) and call it as average achieved in a particular year.
annual growth rate (AAGR).
Whole human history may be
If there is a general tendency of thought of as a succession of
growth but there are occurrences of developments or changes, largely in
decline, the rates of growth will be positive direction. Looking from a
negative in certain years. Shall we then distance, we find that production
say that, while the potential of economy structure of the economy has changed:
to produce is continuously increasing, from hunting-gathering to settled
the potential is sometimes not realised? agriculture, from agriculture to
There could be various reasons for manufacturing, from manufacturing to
occasional decline. In economies automatic production, from production
that depend to a large extent on external of goods to production of services. It does
trade conditions in other countries may not mean services were not produced,
affect the realisation. Monsoon may say thousand years ago; it only means
widely fail in certain years and economy that its relative importance has changed
may get derailed for a while. Internal and that this might have occurred
demand may for a variety of reasons fail with increase in all activities in a broad
to make full use of the potential. Some sense.
economists put too much emphasis on However, economics takes most of its
supply potential and ignore demand lues from the economic history of the
6 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
West during the last two centuries or so. modern value system. In order to
During this period, a variety of sweeping accommodate this thought, economic
changes took place in Europe, which may development could be defined as
broadly be categorized as technological economic growth plus, that is, something
and institutional. Early economists more than economic growth.
working in the field of development There were attempts to emphasize
economics took notice of change in the technological dimension of development.
composition of output and deployment of It was pointed out that economic growth
labour in activities. They called it should be accompanied by rise in
structural change. Structural change productivity. Then, we could define
meant relative increase in terms of economic development as economic
proportion of non-agriculture/non- growth accompanied by rise in
primary output and concomitant productivity.
changes in proportion of employment of Development is, however, just not
labour in non-agricultural activities (and concerned with description of economic
also in that of allocation of capital and history. It is to be pursued as a deliberate
land). However, this structural change mechanism of deliverance of the masses
has to take place along with increase in from poverty and idleness in a relatively
output of all (or majority of) goods, not short period of time. Developments in the
with decrease. They defined economic fifties and sixties did not perceptibly
development as economic growth with change the scene in these crucial areas.
structural change in favour of non- Many economists felt disillusioned and
agricultural activities. And structural started showing their anguish. One such
change was understood in terms of Western economist who had been dealing
composition of GDP and industrial distri- with problems of development asserted
bution of labour. This was a reflection of in a World Conference in Delhi: The
changing demand for goods and services questions to ask about a countrys
on the one hand and changing demand development are: What has been
for labour by production technology in happening to poverty? What has been
different sectors on the other. happening to unemployment? What has
Most of the mainstream economists been happening to inequality? If all three
believed that all economies in the West of these have declined from high levels,
traversed the same path and believed then beyond doubt this has been a period
that other economies would also follow of development for the country
the same path. When they did not find concerned. If one or two of these central
it happening they pointed out that problems have been growing worse,
institutional changes are equally impor- especially if all the three, it would be
tant. Institutional changes could mean strange to call the result development
emergence of new institutions in even if per capita income doubled.
governance, as also in capital market and Indeed, here is a reference to
money market. Some pointed out conscious attempts made to develop an
necessity of attitudinal changes in people economy by adopting a strategy. If the
a leap from traditional value system to strategy brings in growth in capacity to
CONCEPTS IN DEVELOPMENT 7
produce more and in actual output, as well as its distribution. One is entitled
transformation in structure of economy to ones wages when one is employed. One
in terms of composition of output of should get adequate wages, if employed
goods and services or even in deployment or should get remunerative prices for
of labour force, emergence of institutions what one produces, if self-employed. Mass
in terms of variety of banks, and poverty was one particular problem we
technology making use of machines and attributed to the colonial rule and wanted
power instead of men and cattle, but to secure self-governance in order to
makes no significant dent on basic eradicate it. If that scourge still persists
problems of underdeveloped countries, on a large scale, we have a cause to worry
what use are the efforts or the strategy? about. In short, the suggestion is that
the income should get redistributed in
UNDERDEVELOPED ECONOMIES favour of relatively worse-off. Keeping this
The poor countries have been variously in view, some economists prefer to define
described in literature on development economic development as economic growth
economics : as backward, underdeveloped, with redistribution of resources in favour
developing, low income, and Third World of the relatively worse off. In this concept,
countries. Various terms have their origin it is believed that reduction in inequality
in objection to some other terms. We do will reduce poverty and will lead to
not feel good if someone calls our economy
reduction in unemployment too.
backward as economy is often substituted
for country or nation; after all we are an Sustainable Development
ancient living civilisation.
The choice of the word largely depends In recent years an important issue has
on sensitivity of the audience and arisen. The issue is whether the level of
sensibility of the analyst, said Jagdish development, even in a developing
Bhagwati, a leading economist from India. country where it is fairly low, is
Third World was used to describe sustainable. In developed countries, the
countries, which were neither in capitalist
major cause of worry about sustain-
block nor in socialist block and members
of non-aligned movement. Some try to ability of development is supposed to be
classify countries as least developed a wasteful consumption style and in
countries, non-oil exporting developing many developing countries, the cause of
countries and petroleum-rich OPEC such worry is said to be large and
countries (OPEC stands for Organisation increasing population.
of Petroleum Exporting Countries). In this context, there are two facts,
The term Fourth World is sometimes which are brought to our notice. One,
used to describe the poor in the present production technology makes use
underdeveloped countries and sometimes
of non-renewable (exhaustible) natural
to least developed countries.
resources such as fossil fuels (coal, gas
and petroleum) or even of renewable
This implies that development has natural resources (such as forests,
to be related to welfare of people. It was animals and water) to such an extent that
suggested much earlier that welfare of their regeneration becomes difficult.
people depends on the size of the cake Two, present production technology
8 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES
1. Prepare a table showing relevant series of GDP at current and constant prices.
Calculate growth rate for each year and average growth rate for each decade.
2. Write down things, places, activities and institutions, which are not economic.
INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 11
CHAPTER 2
Indicators of Development
(indicators) impinging upon industria- hospital beds and number of doctors per
lisation, urbanisation and moderni- lakh of population. They also included
sation. They went on enlisting indicators, enrolment rates, electricity consumption
which they thought, reflected some or and steel consumption per head. Length
the other dimension of development. At of metalled roads, number of villages
one stage, they listed as many as 73 electrified and availability of post offices
indicators though, finally, they selected also got their way into it. So did the
only 16 as it was found that many of the character of agricultural organisation.
indicators were reflected through others. These are important indicators and are
considered by many as the ends in
UNRISD Core Indicators of themselves.
Socio-economic Development A question was, however, raised:
Expectation of life at birth whether inputs can be taken as
Percentage of population in localities of development indicators. While enrolment
20,000 and over rate indicates an input, literacy rate
Consumption of animal protein per capita shows the output. While hospital
per day facilities indicate inputs, life expectancy
Combined primary and secondary shows the output. If you have better
enrolment sanitation, you have better health and
Vocational enrolment ratio you require less of hospital facilities.
Average number of persons per room
Even income is in a way an input.
Newspaper circulation per 1000
population Researchers and policy-makers were
Percentage of economically active not very happy with such alternatives
population with electricity, gas, water, etc to national income as welfare measures
Agriculture production per male as they did not find the approach suitable
agriculture worker to produce a meaningful social indicator.
Percentage of adult male labour in Attempts were, then, made to develop
agriculture composite index of development,
Electricity consumption, kwh per capita purportedly based on aims and
Steel consumption per capita
objectives of development or outcomes
Energy consumption, kg of coal equivalent
per capita of the development process rather on the
Percentage GDP derived from means thereof.
manufacturing
Foreign trade per capita, 1960 US $ Quality of Life Indices
Percentage of salaried and wage earners We may recall the constituents of quality
to total economically active population of life in the previous chapter. They were
generally indicated as health, freedom,
While at your level, it is not necessary education, environment, etc., the things
to go into the nitty-gritty of the ways the that you directly enjoy. Based on these
indices were developed, an idea of the parameters, attempts have been made
variables that were included in such in the recent past to construct indices,
attempts could be of some interest. The which may, broadly, be called indices of
variables included are per capita income, quality of life. In fact, longevity and
INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 15
literacy have undisputedly been accepted indicators chosen should reflect results
as parameters of quality of life. We shall and social distribution of results and
be studying two popular indices, viz., should not reflect values of specific
Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) and (Euro-American) societies. Composite
Human Development Index (HDI), which index should be simple to construct and
have both used longevity and literacy as easy to comprehend and should lead
basic constituents. There is, indeed, an itself to international comparison.
attempt to measure quality of life and we
will make reference to it towards the end. Choice of Indicators
It is important to remind at this stage Morris, therefore, tried to look for those
that these indices were developed in the indicators, which were the results of the
international context and were used for development efforts, were not the values
ranking different countries according to of particular societies as there could be
numerical value of achievement in non-market, non-urban, non-industrial
descending order. The indices are simple or non-plan ways to develop. They should
arithmetic averages of normalised create no problems in international
aggregates for society/groups. comparison. Out of hundred and odd
indicators, he could find only three which
Physical Quality of Life Index could have universal appeal as ends in
Towards the end of the seventies of the themselves and meet the criteria laid
past century, Morris David Morris down. These are:
perused the variables adopted by several 1. Life Expectancy (LE),
UN Committees, the UNRISD, and the
2. Infant Mortality (IM), and
OECD development economists. He
found that most of the indicators were 3. Basic Literacy (BL).
inputs to development process rather These three indicators could be
than result of the development process. improved in a variety of ways. Whether
These indicators reflected the belief that a country should attain higher life
there exists only one course of expectancy through better medical
development. It implied that facilities or better sanitation or better
economically less developed countries nutrition, is not really important. But it
are simply underdeveloped versions of is universally accepted that a country
industrialised countries. This view has should have high life expectancy.
certain biases and value-bias of Europe. Whether a country should have a higher
It overlooks the diversity among the rate of basic literacy through formal
underdeveloped countries and the channels or non-formal channels is not
differences in social organisation in important. But a country should try to
different economies. Moreover, such attempt for higher level of literacy is the
efforts seem to measure development as point. This is also almost universally
an activity rather than as an end. He, accepted. Whosoever is born will die, is
therefore, proposed a set of criteria for accepted but those who have been born
developing a composite index of should not die as children in infancy.
development. He further proposed that This is the point generally accepted.
16 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 2.1
Maximum and Minimum Values of Component Indicators
Dimension Max Min Range
Basic Literacy Rate (BLR) 100 0 100
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 229 9 220
Life Expectancy at Age 1 (LEI) 77 38 39
INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 17
TABLE 2.2
Maximum and Minimum Values of Component Indicators
Component Unit Maximum Minimum
Life Expectancy at Birth (LEB) Years 85 25
Adult Literacy Rate (ALR) Percentage 0 100
Combined Enrolment Ratio (CER) Percentage 0 100
Standard of Living (SL) PPP$ 100 40000
Standard of Living (SL) Log PPP$ 2 4+2log2
INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 19
components, the UNDP has finally fixed that the number of countries for which
the following minimum and maximum exercise could be conducted varied from
values for various components of Human year to year. Fluctuation in rank partly
Development Index (see Table 2.2). owes to number of countries included.
TABLE 2.3
Source: Human Development Report, Oxford University Press Delhi. Issues from 1990-2001
HDI and India Between the last two years, we find, Indias
The United Nations Development rank improved by 13 while number of
Programme (UNDP) has been compiling countries dropped by 12. It is quite possible
human development indices for different that most of the countries excluded were
countries for which it had access to above India. We should also notice that
relevant data. These indices are Indias rank improved by 2 from 123 in 1988
published in Human Development to 121 in 1990 while the HDI value actually
Report, brought out annually by the fell. It is possible because of change in
UNDP. The position of India in the comity methodology and components used.
of nations (number given in the Despite these weaknesses, we can see
parentheses), as given in different HDRs, that Indias HDI value is improving since
is shown in Table 2.3. 1990 when it recorded its lowest value.
We can notice that the data Fortunately, HDR 2001 has
compilation takes time. We can also notice calculated HDI values for different
TABLE 2.4
Value of Human Development Index Since 1975 for India
EXERCISES
1. What do you mean by per capita income?
2. What are the factors that have to be subtracted from GDPFC in order to get
NNPFC? Should we use NNPFC at current prices or at constant prices if we have
to judge the level of development of a country over time?
3. Why should we divide NNPFC by population when we are not making comparison
with other nations? Explain.
22 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
4. What are the weaknesses of the NNP as an index of development? What are
the three suggestions made in order to make up for some of the deficiencies?
5. What are the major problems with the attempts made by the UNRISD?
6. List the three components of Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI).
7. How is PQLI constructed from ALR, LEI and IMR?
8. Why is PQLI called a physical index?
9. What is the rationale for Human Development Index?
10. Discuss three elements that go into making of HDI.
11. Indices on quality of life insist on inclusion of outcome of development process.
Income is an input for well-being. How do you defend its inclusion in HDI?
12. Give the formula for a component index of HDI.
13. Discuss why per capita income should be measured in purchasing power parity
dollars.
14. How is PPP$ income converted into standard of living index?
15. List six constituents along with units, which have been considered by the
authors of On Measuring the Quality of Life.
16. What do you mean by political and civil rights? How strongly do you feel that
they should be considered indicators of development? Discuss.
17. Discuss the evolution of indices of development.
ACTIVITY
Suppose for a country Utopia, the values of different Components of Human
Development Index for male and female sections are given below:
Study the data and calculate HDI for male and female sections using maximum and
minimum value as given in Table 2.2. Further, suppose your teacher informs you that
women are biologically sturdier than men and therefore, their minimum and maximum
values of life expectancy, can be revised to 30 and 90 respectively. Recalculate your
HDIs and discuss implications with your classmates.
UNIT II
In this unit, you will basically learn the growth of and structural changes
in the Indian economy particularly since Independence. As most of the
data are available since 1950-51, the study of changes will mostly confine to
the period since 1950-51. In one case, data is available from 1960-61 only.
Towards the end, in a section, we shall use data since 1972-73. The end
year of a series will be determined by the relevant publications giving
the data.
With growth, every economy diversifies itself in terms of contribution
of different economic activities. Besides structural changes in the economy
in terms of contribution of different sectors, you will have an idea as to
how the labour force is engaged in different economic activities.
As it is felt that growth will be hampered if our economic infrastructure
in terms of energy, transport and communication is weak, you shall see
how our economy is faring in this respect. We also feel concerned about our
education, health and housing and, therefore, you will have an idea about
these social sectors as well.
It is understood that there has come a great break in our policies in
1991 in terms of what has come to be known as Liberalization, Privatization
and Globalisation (LPG). We shall, therefore, discuss major policy planks
before and after 1991 and contrast the two sets of policies.
CHAPTER 3
TABLE 3.1
Gross Domestic Product at Constant Prices (1993-94) from 1950-51 to 2000-01
Fiscal Year GDP (Rs. Crore) Fiscal Year GDP (Rs. Crore)
Sources: National Accounts Statistics: Back Series 1950-51 to 1993-94 and National Accounts
Statistics 2001, both published by the Central Statistical Organisation.
30 per cent. Most of the people were are and should be more interested to
engaged in agriculture as cultivators know whether growth rate itself has risen
on their own tiny holdings or as wage over time.
labourers on others fields. From the series given in the
appendix, we can calculate year-to-year
Growth of GDP since 1950-51 growth. We can also calculate rates of
Growth of an economy is reckoned with growth for different plan-periods or
growth in its GDP at constant prices. We different decades or for periods divided
have now a complete series of gross by significant events. All such breakups
GROWTH AND STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE INDIAN ECONOMY 27
have been used by scholars. We shall Presently, it can be safely accepted that
calculate growth rate per annum by the rate of growth is close to six per cent
decades only. We shall use two popular per annum. Some credit can be given to
methods of calculation of annual rate of the policies adopted in the eighties and
growth for long periods, viz. average nineties on the growth front but credit
annual growth and compound annual should also be given to the base created
growth rate (discussed in an appendix). during the fifties, sixties and seventies,
We present below the rates of growth which helped change the productivity
of GDP for each of the decades and for of the agricultural economy and
the half century gone by in the following diversification of the industrial economy
table. From Table 3.2, we notice that of the country.
the rate of growth for the whole duration
is conclusively more than 4 per cent per Growth of Per Capita Income
annum. The rate of growth got depressed Per capita income is the ratio of net
in seventies but has definitely improved national product to the (mid-year) size
during the eighties and nineties. of population. Net national product is
28 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 3.2
Annual Growth Rates of Gross Domestic Product at Factor Cost for Different Decades
(per cent per annum)
likely to follow the pattern of gross times from a little less than Rs 3,700 in
domestic product, as the component of 1950-51 to over Rs10,000 in 2000-01,
net factor income from abroad is small at constant prices of 1993-94. In none
in comparison to the total. Population of the years shown here, there is a
has been secularly rising in the last fifty decline over the year in the previous row.
years though, of late, the rate of growth But, one can notice that there is hardly
of population has started declining. We any rise in 1965-66 over 1960-61, that
can remember that, in the case of is, after a gap of five years. Generally,
population, we have only decennial there is some rise in normal years. It
figures and, therefore, can calculate only means that 1965-66 was a particularly
a single rate of growth of population. bad year. In fact, 1965-66 and 1966-67
Using this technique, population size for were years of severe drought, though
each mid-year is interpolated. Dividing they gave us green revolution.
net national product by the size of However, with a view to giving you
population, per capita income is an idea about the wider fluctuations in
calculated. This is presented in Table 3.3 case of per capita income, we give
at the interval of five years. here the graphical presentation. For
You can see that annual per capita the actual data, see appendix of the
income has risen a little less than three chapter.
TABLE 3.3
Per Capita Income at Constant Prices (1993-94) from 1950-51 to 2000-01
Table 3.4 shows the annual growth choose to ignore the difference between
rate of per capita income for each of the the two methods at the moment (See
decades and for the whole period of fifty Appendix).
Per Capita Income in Rs.
Year
in the sector of electricity, gas and water exercises and develop your own views on
supply, now it is part of manufacturing. contributions of different sectors.
Table 3.5 presents the contribution
of eleven major sectors, over six points Absolute Contribution of Different
covering fifty years, to the gross domestic Sectors
product at constant prices of 1993-94. It is easy to see that agriculture
From this Table we shall derive two more production has been continuously on
Tables, one presenting the composition increase and has increased about four-
of gross domestic product and the other fold. Since our Table does not include all
presenting the rate of growth of different the years, we do not find any drop in
sectors for each of the decades and the agricultural production. There are many
half-century as a whole. periods when agricultural production
While we shall highlight some salient actually fell. Whenever we notice a fall
features of production structure or in the gross domestic product, a major
composition of output, it would be reason is likely to be a fall in agricultural
interesting for you to do your own production as its contribution to GDP had
32 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 3.5
Contribution of Different Sectors to Gross Domestic Product at Constant Prices
of 1993-94 for the period between 1950-51 and 1999-00 (Rs Crore)
estate also rose fifteen times while 30 per cent over the period.
community, social and personal services, The share of manufacturing in GDP
including public administration and has gradually risen from 9 per cent to 17
defence rose only eleven-fold. Thus, in per cent over the period. The share of
the second half of the twentieth century electricity, gas and water supply, which
while the contribution of primary sector was hardly one third of one per cent rose
to GDP rose to four fold that of secondary to close to 2.5 per cent. The activity of
and tertiary sectors rose by fifteen construction, despite good rise in
fold each. absolute terms, is considered to be
slackening; during the first twenty years,
Relative Contribution of Different while the share rose from 4 per cent to
Sectors 6 per cent, during the last thirty years it
Relative contribution of a sector depends fell back to 5 per cent. Secondary sector
on its own performance as well as that as a whole raised its contribution from
of other sectors. As a result, despite about 14 per cent to more than 24 per
positive contribution, a sector may lose cent. The secondary sector is closely
relative position. Thus, while agriculture contesting the primary sector as far as
contributed 50 per cent to the making of
its contribution to the GDP is concerned.
GDP in 1950-51, it contributes less than
25 per cent at the close of the century Let us look at the tertiary sector. The
despite four-fold increase in its output. share of contribution of activities of
The contribution of primary sector came trade, hotel and restaurant business
down from close to 60 per cent to less than rose from 8-9 per cent to 14-15 per cent
TABLE 3.6
Composition of Output in Terms of Sectoral Output to Gross Domestic
Product valued at Constant Prices of 1993-94 (in Percentage)
SECTOR OF ACTIVITY 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1999-00
Agriculture 50.16 47.26 40.96 35.76 28.96 23.16
Forestry and Logging 6.73 4.71 4.42 2.97 1.70 1.09
Fishing 0.89 1.03 1.08 0.99 1.00 0.95
Mining and Quarrying 1.48 1.74 1.78 2.11 2.86 2.30
PRIMARY SECTOR 59.26 54.75 48.23 41.82 34.52 27.50
Manufacturing 8.89 10.90 12.62 13.82 16.64 17.08
Electricity, Gas and Water Supply 0.33 0.59 1.18 1.69 2.34 2.45
Construction 4.07 5.12 6.11 6.08 5.52 5.10
SECONDARY SECTOR 13.29 16.61 19.91 21.59 24.49 24.63
Trade, Hotels and Restaurant 8.64 9.83 10.91 12.19 12.54 14.61
Transport, Storage and 3.31 3.91 4.64 6.22 6.19 7.33
Communication
Financing, Insurance, Real Estate 6.68 6.10 5.94 6.52 9.67 12.72
and Business Services
Community, Social and 9.41 9.17 10.69 11.65 12.18 13.20
Personal Services
TERTIARY SECTOR 28.03 29.01 32.18 36.59 40.58 47.87
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
TABLE 3.7
Annual Rate of Growth of Different Sectors over the Decades (in per cent)
We do not have regular annual has been public sector. But the presence
series of production output of the of public sector in production, beyond
activities according to rural-urban public administration and control, was
division. The CSO has made available very little before Independence. It has been
such a division for the years 1970-71, increasing over time as we pursued a
1980-81 and 1993-94 but only at current policy of state intervention in various
prices and for net domestic product. With sectors for variety of reasons. There is not
the help of these figures, we gather some one broad sector of economic activities
broad idea about the shift in activities. where public sector is altogether absent.
From the perusal of these statistics, We have firm data on contribution
one would notice that in 1970-71 only of public sector in different production
62.5 per cent net domestic product was sectors since1960-61. A cursory look
generated in the rural area where more suggests that the importance of public
than 80 per cent population resided (and sector had been on increase with the
worked) while in the urban area passage of time in practically
population residing (and working) was all sectors. The share of public sector,
less, 20 per cent, the net domestic which was barely 9 per cent even in
product generated was 37.5 per cent. 1960-61, has increased close to 27 per
Thus, per capita net domestic product cent though of late the speed of rise has
in the urban area was 2.45 times that in slackened.
the rural area. When we look at the data Public administration is purely a
for 1993-94, we gather that while public sector activity and in fishing, it
population proportion in rural area has has just shown its presence. In
reduced by about 6.7 per cent points, agriculture its presence has increased
its contribution to net domestic product but it predominantly seems to be
has reduced by 8.6 per cent points but irrigation as this activity is accounted
just the reverse could be said to be the for within the sector of agriculture. Its
case with the urban area. But the loss contribution in forestry and logging
of 6.7 points in 80.2 points is not the sector is drastically reducing. Most of the
same as gain of 6.7 points in 19.8 points. mining activity is under public sector and
Therefore, net accretions to the two areas it is now around 80 per cent. Even in
on per capita basis show that per capita the sector of manufacturing its share has
net domestic product in the urban area gradually increased from around 7 per
is 2.39 times that in the rural area. cent in 1960-61 to around 20 per cent
Though this ratio is not deteriorating in 1998-99. The share in construction
over time, it is high enough to make activity has increased from less than 5
people move to urban areas even if per cent in 1960-61 to almost 16 per cent
unemployment rate is somewhat higher in 1998-99.
in urban areas. It is in trade that public sector has
withdrawn since 1980-81 when it
Division between Public Sector and participated to an extent of 8.5 per cent.
Private Sector Its role in transport has also plummeted
Ever since there has been the state, there to some extent yet it plays a great role.
GROWTH AND STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE INDIAN ECONOMY 37
The railways are completely with the permitted to work. Even if production is
Government of India. In road transport, almost mechanised, there is a man
state corporations play a significant role behind the machine. People who are
at least in passenger transport. In employed and people who employ as well
financial sector too, the presence of as people who are self-employed are all
public sector rose significantly; it rose treated as workers. Their numerical
from 6.5 per cent in 1960-61 to 17 per strength is known as work force. People
cent thanks due to nationalisation of 14 who are willing to work at the prevailing
major banks. A further dose of wage rate but are not employed, are
nationalisation in 1975-76 led to its treated as unemployed. Despite the
further rise to 27 per cent by 1980-81. general feeling that a large number of
Even 6.5 per cent in 1960-61 should owe people are unemployed, the percentage
a great deal to the nationalisation of of people who are unemployed is not very
Imperial Bank as the State Bank of India. large. (However, in the composition of the
unemployed, a large number comes from
Division between Organised and the educated lot). The reason is that poor
Unorganised Sectors people cannot afford to be unemployed.
Organised sector includes all public They work on somebody elses farm, shop
sector establishments and private sector or factory or engage themselves in some
establishments registered under one or or the other activity on their own
the other act, such as Company Act, account. We should, however, remember
Factory Act, Societies Act or Cooperative that statistics used by us do not include
Act, etc. They are supposed to maintain people engaged in activities carried out
accounts. Net domestic product was in homes and hearths by the members
found divided between organised sector of the family/household. The proportion
and unorganised sector in 25:75 ratio of people working in total population in
in 1960-61. With passage of time, the our country is around 40 per cent. This
proportion of organised sector went on proportion is higher in the case of male
increasing, with some fluctuation, and members and those living in villages.
reached around 30 per cent by 1980-81. There is a variety of ways in which
Since then, its share has been rising and employment data is presented. One
it is expected to be around 40 per cent classification is sectoral (or industrial)
by the close of the century. Within and the other is occupational. They are
organized sector, manufacturing made for each of basic four categories,
accounts for 40 per cent and community viz., rural male, rural female, urban male
and personal services, 30 per cent while and urban female. Employment data is
trade and finance may account for 25 available from the census as well as the
per cent. NSS. The census data for 2001 is not
yet available in as much detail as we need
Industrial Structure of Employment
them in this chapter. We opt for the NSS
All able-bodied persons should work. data. However, comparable NSS data is
Children should not be allowed to work. available from 1972-73 only at an
Old, sick and infirm should not be interval of five years (See Table 3.8).
38 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 3.8
Industrial Classification of Workers from 1972-73 to 1999-2000 (in per cent)
It is easy to see that, until early persons employed in each sector. Total
seventies, as many as three-fourths of the employment rose during this period by
workers were engaged in agricultural/ 16 crore (about 70 per cent); in the last
primary activities. By the close of the six years by 2.5 crore. It would be
century, their strength gradually reduced discovered that, for the first time in
to three-fifths. In manufacturing, the 1999-2000, employment in agriculture
proportion of workers rose slowly from less sector has reduced and it reduced by 50
than 9 per cent to over 12 per cent. lakh when compared to 1993-94. In these
Construction activity picked up fast. As a six years, some 3 crore people were thus
result, there is 6 per cent increase over absorbed in non-agriculture sectors.
10.8 during the period under discussion. Trade, manufacturing and construction
Trade and commerce as well as were major absorbing sectors.
transportation activities picked up fast;
Concluding Remarks
their share became twice.
It is important to remember that our In this chapter, first, we tried to have
total employment also went on some idea about the economy in the
increasing. By multiplying these initial years of our Independence and
percentages with corresponding total emphasised that the first half of the
employment (given in the last row of twentieth century was bad in terms of
Table 8), we can get absolute number of growth as well as in terms of
GROWTH AND STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE INDIAN ECONOMY 39
diversification of the economy. Then, we 25 per cent while that of tertiary sector,
discussed the growth of GDP and PCI. from around 28 per cent to 48 per cent
We noticed that, over the span of fifty during the same period.
years, the growth rate of GDP was a We also touched upon the contri-
little over 4 per cent per annum. The bution of rural sector vis-a-vis urban
rate of growth during the seventies was sector, public sector vis-a-vis private
particularly low. During the eighties and sector and organised sector vis--vis
nineties, we were able to grow at a rate unorganised sectors. Contribution of
close to 6.0 per cent per annum. Per rural sector decreased from over 62 per
capita income grew at the rate of slightly cent in 1970-71 to about 54 per cent in
more than 2 per cent per annum during 1993-94 while population of the sector
the whole span of fifty years. During reduced from 80 per cent to 75 per cent.
the eighties and nineties, the rate was Contribution of public sector grew from
found to be more than 3.5 per cent per less than 10 per cent in 1960-61 to well
annum. over 25 per cent in 1998-99.
Then, in order to find out as to how Contribution of organised sector was
the composition of GDP in terms of about 25 per cent in 1960-61, which is
sectoral contribution was changing, we expected to have risen to around 40 per
studied absolute contribution and cent.
relative contribution of different sectors, In the end, we discussed how
as also growth rate of different sectors. labour is being absorbed in different
We noticed that contribution of sectors. The employment in agriculture
agriculture to GDP, despite four-fold has declined from three-fourths in
increase, reduced from 50 per cent in 1972-73 to three-fifths in 1999-2000;
1950-51 to less than 24 per cent in 1999- the absolute number reduced for the
2000. The contribution of primary sector first time in 1999-2000. Employment
came down from 60 per cent to 27.5 per deceleration in primary sector is evenly
cent. The contribution of secondary shared between secondary sector and
sector increased from 13 per cent to about tertiary sector.
EXERCISES
1. Briefly discuss the conditions of the Indian economy at the time of
Independence or a little after.
2. Discuss the growth of GDP for the whole period of fifty years since 1950-51 as
well as each of the decades. Account for acceleration or deceleration.
3. Give a snapshot picture of growth of per capita income for each of the decades.
Try to reason as to why the growth rate during the seventies by the method
CAGR is so low.
4. What do you mean by structural change in an economy? Explain.
5. Enumerate the activities normally included in primary, secondary and tertiary
40 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
sectors.
6. Discuss, with the help of tables, as to why the contribution of agriculture to
GDP reduced so drastically despite the success of green revolution and surplus
of agricultural production, especially foodgrains.
7. How have secondary sector and its sub-sectors fared during post-Independence
period?
8. Give the salient features of growth of tertiary sector and its contribution to
GDP since 1950-51.
9. Discuss the changes in sectoral composition of GDP.
10. How do you define public sector? How has it grown since 1960-61?
11. Discuss the implications of reduction in contribution of rural areas to GDP,
which is higher than reduction of its share in population.
12. How is the contribution profile of organised sector changing?
13. Differentiate between industrial and occupational distributions of employment.
14. Discuss the industrial distribution of workers in the Indian economy since
1972-73.
ACTIVITIES
1. Search the years of decline in per capita income from the Table given in the
appendix. Find out its frequency in each decades. Discuss implications with
your classmates.
2. Locate negative growth rates in Table 3.7. Reason out why from what you read
outside the class.
3. With the help of total employment figures given in the bottom row of Table 3.8
and percentage distribution of workers in other rows, prepare a table of absolute
employment for each sector for each year. With the help of this table, formulate
your ideas as to which sectors are displacing labour and which ones are
absorbing it.
4. Suppose labour productivity of a sector is obtained by dividing absolute
contribution of a sector by the size of employment in that sector. Treat
employment for 1972-73 as if it is for 1970-71, and similarly employment for
1993-94 as if it is for 1990-91 for this limited purpose. Calculate labour
productivity for 1970-71 and 1990-91 for each sector and compare the two
sets of derived figures.
ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE 41
CHAPTER 4
Economic Infrastructure
away firewood from the forests of their sources of commercial energy. We have
colonies and to digging coal. Till the other already noted that wood, agriculture
day, trains were run with steam power residue, and animal waste are now
using coal. On the one hand, invention regarded as non-commercial energy. We
of combustion engine and discovery of may note that energy based on
petroleum changed the scene of power sunshine/wind/tide/biomass is consi-
use in transportation, while on the dered commercial. Thus, we provide
other, use of electric power transformed below: (i) division of primary energy
the manufacturing scene. into commercial and non-commercial
energy, and (ii) division of final
Pattern of Energy Use commercial energy into coal, petroleum
Before we turn to modern commercial products, natural gas and electricity
energy sources for detailed discussion, (See Table 4.1).
it would be good to have an idea about Table 4.1 mainly reflects changes in
the changes in pattern of energy technology of energy use over time
consumption. It may be noted that, for though, partly, it reflects process of
totalling different energy sources, they modernisation and environmental
have to be converted into common unit. concerns and awareness. Use of
One such unit is million tonne of oil commercial energy has risen
equivalent (MTOE). Once they are considerably even in the relative sense.
converted into a common unit, Though consumption of coal has increased
percentages can be calculated. ten times since early fifties, its direct final
TABLE 4.1
Pattern of Energy Consumption (in per cent of million tonnes of oil equivalent)
Source: Ninth Five-Year Plan 1997-2002, Volume II, Planning Commission, Government of India.
Coal, lignite, petroleum and gas are consumption has drastically reduced as
the primary sources as they can be a proportion. Further, despite so much
directly used to provide energy to the talk about scarcity of petroleum, we may
manufacturing process as well as in note, that its use as final commercial
production of electric power. But along energy is almost 50 per cent of total use
with power, they are also used as final of commercial energy.
44 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 4.2
Production of Coal and Lignite (Million Tonnes)
1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01
Coal 32.20 55.23 72.95 113.91 211.73 309.63
Lignite - 03.39 5.11 13.77 22.95
Total 32.20 55.23 76.34 119.02 225.50 332.58
Source: Economic Survey 2001-02, Economic Division, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
With advent of railways in 1853, about one-tenth. Coke (soft and hard)
which used steam engine, coal came to is basically used in metallurgical
be increasingly used as fuel and in the industries such as iron and steel plant
first fifty years, its use increased from (in the production of pig iron) as well as
one million tonne to more than six million in non-metallurgical industries. Non-
tonnes. In the next fifty years (by coking coal is also used in other
1950-51), it increased to 32-33 million industries. It is also used in domestic
tonnes while, in the still next fifty years, and market coking. For consumption
that is after Independence, the statistics, see Table 4.3.
TABLE 4.3
Sector-wise Coal Consumption (Million Tonnes)
Power Steel Cement Railways Others Total
1980-81 34.5 17.6 4.3 10.9 27.7 95.0
1985-86 72.9 24.5 7.9 9.1 40.7 155.1
1990-91 118.6 24.5 10.1 5.0 47.0 205.2
1995-96 184.5 26.4 11.0 0.3 48.9 271.1
2000-01
Source: Annual Report, 2000-01, Ministry of Coal, Government of India.
ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE 45
Lignite is very similar to coal. Known is highly dependent on oil for energy and
as brown coal, it has lower energy content to some extent for process. We use many
than coal. Its production is around of the petroleum products without
20 million tonnes. Thermal power stations realising that what they are made of.
close to lignite pit-head stations use it as Crude petroleum gives us petrol, diesel,
feedstock. A small proportion of lignite is kerosene, gasoline, furnace oil, bitumen,
also used to make briquettes, which are paraffin wax and also coal tar.
used as domestic fuel. Lignite is found in Earlier we thought that we had oil
Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. reserves only in Assam. After
Coal is consumed by thermal power Independence, we set up an Oil and
stations as feedstock to the extent of Natural Gas Directorate in 1956 (later
66 per cent. It was a conscious decision converted into Oil and Natural Gas
made in the seventies to increasingly use Commission in 1959). The Commission
coal for generating electricity as hydro- discovered more reserves in Assam and
power was found to have certain struck oil in Ankleshwar (Gujarat) in
limitations. Ten per cent of coke 1961 and later, in Cambay basin
production is used by coke oven plants (Maharashtra). However, even by
for producing hard coke for use in steel 1960-61, we produced no more than 0.5
plants. Railways in early fifties used to million tonnes. But twenty years later
be a major consumer but now, they in 1980-81 we were producing twenty
hardly use it. Collieries themselves use times more, 10.5 millions tonnes. Twenty
coal to an extent of 5 per cent. years later, that is, by the close of the
One is genuinely worried as to what century, our production of crude oil was
will happen when coal stocks are still around 32 million tonnes. It is
exhausted. At the present rate of important to note that our consumption
consumption, the proven stocks may last of oil is increasing at faster pace than
for 250 years. However, our demand is likely our domestic production of the same.
to increase and reasonable projections show When we produced 10 million tonnes,
that it may not last for more than 125 years. we consumed 25 million tonnes. When
we produced 30 million tonnes, we
Petroleum
consumed 85 million tonnes, forcing an
Though oil was dug in India in Digboi in import of about 50 million tonnes. We
1901, its quantity was very small. It was have frozen our own production level
not needed then as much as it is required with a view to conserving it for future.
today. Motor transport was not so visible, In the first year of the present century,
which needs so much of petrol/diesel. our import has risen to 74 million tonnes.
Kerosene was of course in use for lighting Besides crude oil, we also import other
homes. Trains were hauled by steam petroleum products. For development in
engine. this sector, in terms of production and
Many countries in the Middle East import, see Table 4.4.
are rich not because they have developed Natural gas is our new resource as
their economies but because they have adequate technology has developed for
a lot of oil reserves. Present technology harnessing it. Starting with annual
46 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 4.4
Petroleum Statistics: Production, Availability and Refining (Million Tonnes)
TABLE 4.5
Electricity Generated (Gross) in Billion KWH
TABLE 4.6
Consumption of Electricity from Utilities by Categories of Consumers (in per cent)
pollution, a lot of emphasis is being laid pleasure. People have increasingly been
on the development of non-conventional using some or the other means of
energy sources. Some of these sources transportationfrom bullock-carts to
were traditionally used but with boats, railways to roads, airways to
inefficient old technology. However, most ships. We need essentially two things
forms, including solar energy, have to medium and carrier. Waterwaysrivers,
be first converted into electricity. canals, lake and seasneed boats and
Biomass, wind, small hydro, conversion ships; airways need aircrafts or
of waste, tides/waves/ temperature- helicopters; railways need trains; and
gradient over seas, and geothermal these days, roads need trucks, lorries,
energy, among others, are also such buses and cars besides rickshaws,
forms of energy. Their potential is said tongas and carts. On the pattern of water
to be very great at least as useful pipelines, we have now got pipelines for
supplement. Chemical sources like fuel transporting crude oil, petroleum
cell and hydrogen burning are also being products and natural gas.
mentioned. However, in many cases,
technology has yet to be adequately Railways
developed. Railways are, by far, the most important
Wind energy is already being means of transportation of goods and
harnessed in quite a few places. There passengers. With modest beginning in
are 204 sites where wind can be used 1853 (150 years ago) when the first train
for generating electricity. You may see ran for a distance of 20 and odd miles
moving wind turbines in the following on April 16 between Bombay (now,
states: Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Mumbai) and Thane (a suburb of
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Mumbai), it developed into a grand
Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and network in the nineteenth century itself.
Tamil Nadu. Success with solar thermal By 1900, there were 25000 miles (40000
energy through use of solar cooker has kilometres) of railway lines in India,
been limited. Solar photovoltaics is a which included present Pakistan,
great hope again. We are at present Bangladesh and Burma. Next fifty years
harnessing only 3 per cent of the known added only 10000 miles (16000
potential. kilometres). By 1950, railway lines could
measure up to 54000 kilometres in the
Transport
present territory of India.
Production of goods and consumption of The British, of course, developed the
goods are often at two different locations. railways for administrative as well as
Different raw materials for a production commercial reasons. It helped them have
process are also found at different places. tight control over the territory and open
Some goods are stocked in places up the country for collecting food and
different from points of sales. People raw material for Britain and for selling
reside at one place and work at another. their manufactures in India. If one goes
But people also move to attend certain through the construction details of
functions, go on pilgrimage or travel for railways, one would notice that it started
ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE 49
from port towns and spread towards the Indian system of railways is the
interior with the sole intention of largest in the world under a single
facilitating export of agriculture produce, management, by its track, stock, and
particularly cotton. Its development was staff. It is the biggest public undertaking
thus geared more towards foreign trade in the country. It has about 16 lakh
than internal trade or development of employees on its roll and more than
industry in the country. Development of 2 lakh casual workers. It runs daily about
the railways also created valuable market 13500 trains, including more than 8500
for the British steel and engineering passenger trains, connecting around
industries and opportunities for 7000 stationsbig and small, halt and
profitable investment for the British flag ones. It hauls 1.2 crore passengers
companies. and 12 lakh tonnes of goods daily. It is
truly called the life-line of the nation.
EVIDENCE FOR BRITISH INTEREST In 1950-51, we had a route length of
You can read the names of British
53600 kilometres, running track of
Companies, which supplied steel girdles 59300 kilometres and the total track of
for bridges if your train happens to stop 77600 kilometres. In 2000-01, we had
at some rail bridge and you are sitting in route length of 63000 kilometres,
an ordinary coach by the side of a running track of 81200 kilometres and
window. the total track of 108000 kilometres. It
means that the track density increased
The British Government of India gave from 1.1 in 1950-51 to 1.7 in 2000-01.
many concessions to the private Railway Thus, while route length did not increase
Companies, like free grant of land, even by 20 per cent, running track rose
guarantee of a minimum return on by 30 per cent and total track by 40 per
capital, again with the objective of laying cent. More importantly, the electrified
railway lines in as much area as possible. track, which used to be less than
However, owing to criticism of private 400 kilometres in 1950-51 and on
ownership and management, the suburban sections only, is now more than
Government of India started taking over 15000 kilometres, of which ninety per
the private companies from 1925the cent is on heavy density freight routes.
year in which the first electric engine was Except a few sections between Mumbai
introduced on the Indian track. In fact, and Chennai, and Chennai and Kolkata,
this was the year in which the budget all routes connecting four metropolises
for railways was separated from the (two between Delhi and Mumbai) have
budget for general finance. Budget for been electrified. Majority of tracks (65 per
the railways is presented a few days cent) are now in broad gauge and gauge
before the general budget of the Union conversion from metre/narrow gauge to
Government in the Parliament. In 1950, broad gauge is an important item in the
with the taking over of the railways in agenda of development (Gauge means the
former princely States, the process of distance between two rails of a track).
nationalisation of the railways was The number of locomotives increased
completed. from 8200 in 1950-51 to over 11000 in
50 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
1970-71 but came down to 7300 (electric respectively while the number of
engines only 2800) only. However, earlier coaches and wagons has risen only 2 and
locomotives used to be steam ones and 1.2 times respectively. It is important
had slow speed, now they are diesel and to point out that 60 per cent of the
electric ones and run much faster and passengers are suburban passengers
tract more load. Similarly coaches and who share 20 per cent journey in terms
wagons, which number 40000 and of passenger kilometers and contribute
TABLE 4.7
Progress of Railways in Post-Independence Period
264000, respectively, are better equipped 11 per cent of the revenue to railways.
and render better service. Engines, We may further note that while the
coaches and wagons, put together, is number of coaches is not increasing
known as rolling stock. For judging the fast, their seating capacity has
progress, see Table 4.7. increased particularly because broad
Table 4.7 is meant to help you form gauge compartments can accommodate
an idea about how our railways are more passengers.
performing. For example, you can see that It may be noted that seven bulk
goods originating in million tonnes and commodities, essential for core sectors
goods carried in million tonne-kilometres of the economy, viz. coal, foodgrains,
have increased five and seven times fertilisers, petroleum products, finished
ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE 51
steel and raw material for steel plants, It may be noted that two-thirds of
contribute most of the freight traffic the total earnings of railways, which are
(95 per cent). Certain essential around Rs 30,000 crore, come from
commodities like salt, fruits and goods traffic and only one-third from
vegetables, sugarcane, certain ores, passenger traffic. It spends most of its
livestock, etc. constitute further 3 per cent. earnings on material inputs and on
We can recall that the railways were compensation of the employees. The
started by the private companies, which railways spend around more than
were supported by the British Rs 15,000 crore on employees which is
Government in India. By 1925, it was around 50 per cent of the total expenses.
nationalised. Thus, it has completed The following factors suggest that
75 years under private ownership and railways should be duly promoted:
75 years under government ownership.
But accounts of the Department of 1. Railways are more than six times
Railways are separate from the general energy efficient than roads.
accounts of the Government of India. The 2. Railways are almost four times more
Government of India has provided equity economical in land use.
capital on which it should receive some 3. Rail construction costs are six
dividend. Normally, dividend is based on times lower than roads for
the amount of profit but the railways have comparable levels of traffic.
been asked to pay 6 per cent on the capital 4. Social costs in terms of environ-
owned by it, which may be around Rs mental damage are significantly
20,000-25,000 crore these days. lower for railways vis-a-vis roads.
52 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
5. Rail is the only major transport, also to be served through road network
which can use any form of primary so that farmers could take their produce
energy. to nearby mandis or perishable
vegetables and milk and milk products
Roads could be collected from rural areas for
consumption in towns and cities.
Roads can reach the doorsteps. There In Europe, first, a canal system was
are areas, which can be reached through developed for cheap transport of goods.
road only. Vast hinterlands of the Later on, they developed steam engine and
country can be linked only through with that railways became prominent.
roads. We have more than 6 lakh Once petroleum was discovered and
inhabited villages with more than 10 internal combustion engine was
lakh habitations. We can reach them developed, road system came to supple-
only through roads. We have only 7000 ment the rail system extensively as it is
railway stations. From railway stations quicker, more convenient and more
to cities and within city to ones shop flexible in comparison to the railways.
and residence, one can reach only Modern material for surfacing roads also
through roads. Short distances to became available because of development
connect railway system have to be of petroleum products. Modern roads in
covered through roads only. The railways India came to draw particular attention
have certain limitations in terms of of the Government of India after creation
flexibility. of the Central Road Fund in 1929, which
When major transportation was is now partly spent on maintenance and
carried through carts and camels, we did construction of the national highways and
not need modern surfaced roads. We partly on construction of rural roads, inter-
might have had one crore bullock-carts state roads or roads of economic importance.
engaging two crore heads of cattle and Indian road network is one of the
one crore persons engaged in bullock largest in the world. In 1950-51, we had
cart transportation. Only cities had a road network of about four lakh
pucca roads for use by horse carts. Now, kilometres of roads1.6 lakh kilometres
we are having motorised vehicles, which surfaced (while railways had only 54,000
need pucca roads. Rural-urban link has route kilometres) and 2.4 lakh kilometres
unsurfaced. While surfaced roads are more roads had been taken over by the
all-weather ones, unsurfaced ones Government of India under National
become unserviceable during monsoon. Highway Act, 1956; 5727 kilometres were
Presently we are having 25 lakh added only in 2000-01. State highways
kilometres of total road length of which increased from around 57000 kilometres
14 lakh kilometres are surfaced (compare in 1970-71 to 1.4 lakh kilometres by 2001.
with 63000 kilometres of route length of States also widened the scope of their
railways). For the purpose of highways. Most of these roads are
construction, repair and maintenance surfaced. They have also been widened.
the roads have been categorised as the But highways, national and state, account
national highways, state highways and for less than two lakh kilometres and are
other roads. While national highways are now almost surfaced. To see the progress
the responsibility of the Union over time see Table 4.8.
Government, all other roads, including Finally, let us note that, while the
state highways, are the responsibility of length of our road network has risen
the government of the respective states from 4 lakh kilometres to 25 lakh
in whose jurisdiction they fall. kilometres, the vehicle population has
By 1950-51, national highways grown from 3 lakh to 4 crore, freight
measured some 20000 kilometres, which traffic from 600 crore tonne-kilometres
increased to 58000 kilometres in to 45,000 crore tonne-kilometres, and
January 2001 (almost 90 per cent of total passenger traffic from 2,300 crore
route kilometres of the railways). Many passenger-kilometres to 1,50,000 crore
TABLE 4.8
Roads by Broad Classification (in Kilometres) and Vehicles (in Number)
Note : Figures for 2000-01 are rounded ones and somewhat conjectural in nature but based on
government statistics for the late nineties.
Source : Indian Planning Experience: A Statistical Profile, Planning Commission, Government of
India, 2001 and Economic Survey 2001-2002, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
54 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
ROAD USERS
Roads are basically constructed for vehicles to ply on. Motorized vehicles are of two varieties
passenger or bus service and goods or truck service. But, then there are personal cars/
jeeps, taxies, two-wheelers and tractors. According to registration statistics, we can expect
on the roads, about six lakh buses, 25 lakh trucks, 50 lakh cars/jeeps/taxies, 2.8 crore
two-wheelers and 45 lakh other vehicles which may include tractors, trailers, and three-
wheelers (passengers and goods). Total vehicle population is thus around 4.0 crore, some
of which might have become scrap.
However, in order to economize on cost and time as well as to quickly move to a place,
we need better roads and better vehicles, which do not pollute too. This consideration
became more prominent after pollution levels rose to alarming proportions in many cities.
NATIONAL WATERWAYS
National Waterway No.1 is on Ganga between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 kms), via
Patna, Bhagalpur and Farakka. Depth between 1.5 and 2.0 metres is maintained between
Patna and Haldia for major part of the year.
National Waterway No.2 is on Brahmaputra between Sadia and Dhubri (890 kms),
via Guwahati (Pandu). There exists an Indo-Bangladesh Protocol for connecting the way
to Kolkata.
National Waterway No.3 is on West Coast canal between Kottapuram to Kollam
through Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals (205 kms).
the ports and the Union Government, inadequate rail and road facilities make
pool the resources for expansion, re- use of these ports. In times of congestion
equipment and modernisation. in major ports, they serve as good
supplement. Minor ports are the
OUR MAJOR PORTS responsibility of the respective State
Bombay (Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata), Governments, which may receive loan
Madras (Chennai), Cochin (Kochi), and assistance from the Union Government
Visakhapatnam are important ports in for development purposes. Besides
India that exist prior to India's handling cargo, the minor ports are also
Independence. We have added six more: used for passenger traffic.
Haldia near Kolkata, Nhava Sheva (now At the time of Independence, we had
named J. L. Nehru) near Mumbai, and
42 ships with less than 100000 GRT (gross
Kandla in Gujarat, and upgraded Paradip
in Orissa, Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu, registered tonnage). Today, the Shipping
and Mangalore in Karnataka. Corporation of India alone has a fleet of
Marmagao was added after liberation 160 vessels aggregating four million GRT;
of Goa. it is rated as one of the largest shipping
companies of the world and operates on
Our ports handled more than 250
million tonnes of cargo in 2000-01, important sea trade routes of the world.
loading and unloading included. This is There are 66 shipping companies, of
thirteen times of what they handled in which 43 are exclusively in overseas
1950-51 (20 million tonnes). Petroleum transport, 16 exclusively in coastal
and Oil Lubricants (POL) products, iron transport and 7 in both.
ore, coal, fertilisers and other raw
materials, and some containerised cargo Air Transport
are the major items transported. There Air transport is the fastest and costliest
are virtually no overseas passenger of all the modes of transportation. It is
ships, though there are some services the newest of all too. Its influence is
available for Port Blair (Andaman and so pervasive that distance has came to
Nicobar). Improvement is needed in
be measured in hours rather than in
many cases.
There are around 140 minor ports miles.
with limited facilities and hinterland. Before the two World Wars, the air
They mainly serve the needs of the transport in India hardly carried any
coastal shipping. Coastal areas with passengers and cargo and was
56 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 4.9
Growth of Civil Aviation in Terms of Passengers/Cargo Services (in Thousand)
and thus helping the economy grow the Department and Branch Post Offices
faster. in rural areas run on contractual basis.
This era is said to be an era of There are more than 5.8 lakh letterboxes
technological revolution. We have taken all over the country. The system is said to
advantage of technological development be the largest postal network in the world.
in telecommunication and information Still, there are more than one lakh villages,
technology. Still, the old modes of which do not have a post office within a
communication continue to be important. distance of three kilometers. In these
We identify communication systems with areas, the postal department is utilizing
postal communication and telecommuni- the services of the existing infrastructure
cation services, though there was a time of gram panchayats and is running the
when communication meant transport, basic postal service on contractual basis
particularly air transport. (See Table 4.10). Each post office on an
average serves 21-22 sq. km. area and
Postal Service 5500 persons.
Postal service still plays a great role and Acceptance and delivery of money
the Department of Posts promises, in one order is an important service rendered
of its recent annual reports, high quality by postal network. More than Rs 5,000
mail, parcel and related services in India crores are transacted through money
and throughout the world, exceeding the order service. Twelve cities in India use
expectations of the customers, employees satellite mechanism.
and society. Mail route has risen ten times from
Number of post offices in India has 2,72,000 km in 1950-51 to 27,20,000 km
increased from 23344 in urban places and in 2000-01. Speed post has been
selected villages in 1947-48 to 154551 in introduced since 1986. The number of
2000-01. In rural areas, the number has cities covered by speed post has now
increased four and a half times from risen to 108 and overseas facility is also
around 31 thousand in 1950-51 to around available for 97 countries. The
138 thousand in 2000-01 and that of urban Government has, in the wake of
post offices around three-times from liberalisation, accorded formal status to
5,400 in 1950-51 to 16,400 in the private courier services. There are
2000-01. These post offices include Head schemes for linking Delhi with state
Post Offices and Sub-Post Offices, run by capitals and six metropolises.
TABLE 4.10
Growth of Number of Post Offices by Rural and Urban Division
EXERCISES
1. What is meant by infrastructure? Explain the basic qualities of infrastructure.
2. Indicate two categories of infrastructure. Give examples.
3. Categorise canals, houses, schools, railways, ships, hospitals, banks,
development banks, aerodromes, courts, power plants, transmission lines and
satellites into economic and social infrastructure.
4. Name commercial, non-commercial and non-conventional sources of energy.
5. Differentiate between primary and final sources of energy and show that coal
is both a primary and a final source of energy.
6. Discuss changes in the pattern of consumption of energy over the last fifty
years in respect of primary sources in terms of commercial and non-commercial
energy.
7. Discuss changes in the pattern of consumption of energy over the last fifty
years in respect of final sources in terms of coal, petroleum products, gas and
electricity.
8. Discuss the growth of coal use and changing profile of its use.
9. Oil is an important energy resource which needs to be used efficiently in
India comment.
10. How important is gas as a new resource?
11. What are the three major sources of electricity? Why did we choose to switch
to thermal power knowing fully well that coal combustion causes pollution?
12. Discuss, in brief, the possibility of development of non-conventional energy.
13. Discuss the growth of railways since Independence in terms of tracks,
electrification, composition of locos, etc.
14. Why should we prefer rail transport for long haulage?
15. What are the advantages of roads over railways as a means of transport?
16. Give an account of expansion and improvement of road transport since
Independence.
17. List different types of water transport.
18. Discuss the importance of inland water transport and appreciate its
limitations.
19. Give an account of coastal shipping and overseas shipping.
20. Give out the salient features of civil aviation.
21. Underline the importance of pipeline transport.
22. Discuss the progress of postal services of India since Independence.
ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE 61
ACTIVITY
Calculate percentage consumption of different categories of consumers if we take
into account the generation of electricity by non-utilities. Assume the whole of
electricity generation by the non-utilities is consumed by industries only.
62 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 5
Social Infrastructure
TABLE 5.1
Population Size and Number of Literates (in crore) and Literacy Rate (in per cent)
of 6-14 years of age a fundamental right. enrolment ratio. The gross enrolment
It has also made a fundamental duty of ratio was hardly 43 per cent in 1950-51
the parents/guardians to provide but now it is more than 100 per cent.
opportunities for education to children You may wonder how such a ratio could
in the age group of 6-14 years. be more than 100! It simply means that
Elementary education is normally children enrolled in primary classes may
divided in our country in two parts: not be strictly from the age group 6-11
Classes I-V, known as primary school years. We know most schools in towns
and Classes VI-VIII, upper primary and cities admit children with age 5 in
(middle) school. Corresponding age Class I. We should also know that many
groups of children may be considered as children beyond age 11 might be
6-11 years and 11-14 years. We had studying in village primary schools in
around three lakh primary schools and many remote areas. This swells the
13.5 thousand upper primary schools in numerator. That is why there is an
1950-51. In the year 1999-2000, we adjective gross, yet, there are children
had over 6.4 lakh primary schools in this age group who are not going to
(including primary sections of higher school. Non-enrolment is more preva-
level schools) and about 2 lakh upper lent among girl children (See Table 5.2).
primary schools. Enrolment in upper primary classes
In 1950-51, the enrolment in primary in 1950-51 was just 13 per cent 21 per
schools was less than 2 crore. Today, it is cent for boys and 5 per cent for girls.
more than 11 crore (Population of the Today, about 70 per cent boys and 50
children has increased 3 times while per cent girls are estimated to be
enrolment rose by 5.5 times). It is attending upper primary classes. The
customary to divide the enrolment by the number of upper primary schools has
population of the relevant age group so risen from less than 14000 to
that a valid comparison could be made 2 lakh in the last fifty years.
over time. This is known as gross Number of students rose from 33 lakh
TABLE 5.2
Statistics related to Elementary Education: Enrolment, Schools and Teachers
in 1950-51 to about 4.2 crore in 1999-2000. About fifty per cent of educational
But, the disparity between male and female expenditure is incurred on elementary
enrolment, though narrowing, still persists. education in India. There are areas
Proportion of trained teachers is where it is difficult to provide facilities of
increasing and so is the proportion of education as population is very thinly
female teachers. It is believed that at spread or people move to different places
school level, trained teachers, in different seasons to make both ends
particularly the female teachers, prove meet. There are areas where people are
to be better teachers. too poor to afford sending their children
Majority of primary schools in India to school; boys may be tending cattle and
are run by government. State girls may be taking care of siblings
governments play a major role in while parents are working in their own
providing education in their respective or somebody elses field. In some areas,
territories. But, there are also schools girls beyond a certain age are disallowed
run by societies/associations/ trusts. to go to school by the parents. It means
These are known as public schools. that, in some areas, access is denied
and in some other areas, access is not
availed of.
PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN INDIA In order to overcome these problems,
Public schools in our country are not a scheme known as non-formal education
owned and managed by the government. for the age group of 6-14 years was
They are open to public without launched with the assistance of the Union
discrimination on the basis of divisions Government. Non-formal schools were
in society. Our public schools are public opened, to begin with in 1986-87, in rural,
in the sense that they are owned by
tribal, desert, hilly and remote areas and
societies, association or trusts rather than
the government. There may be urban slums in nine educationally
discrimination on other grounds; merit backward states. Around 500 voluntary
may be one of them. organisations were also involved
wherever possible in this task and around
3 lakh non-formal schools were opened,
An important issue that deserves our of which 1 lakh were exclusively for girls,
attention is that there exists a
which enrolled 75 lakh children. Average
phenomenon of drop-out. Students
enrolled in Class I (or VI) leave education enrolment per non-formal school comes
before completing Class V (or VIII). Ratio out to be 25. Adult education programme,
of such students to total enrolment in originally meant for 15-35 illiterate age
the beginning is called drop-out ratio. group was also extended to enroll children
Only 60 per cent students who enroll in of age group 6-14 years who were not
Class I pass out Class V. Of those, who going to school.
enroll in Class VI, only 50 per cent pass State Governments have, with a view
out from Class VIII. to universalising primary education, also
66 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 5.3
Statistics related to Secondary Education: Enrolment, Schools and Teachers
Unit 1950 1961 1971 1981 1991 2000
Enrolment Lakh 12.2 34.63 65.80 88.07 143.65 185.82
School Lakh 0.07 0.17 0.37 0.51 0.80 1.17
Teachers Lakh 1.26 2.96 6.29 9.12 13.34 17.20
Enrolment Ratio Per cent 5.30 10.60 19.00 17.30 24.00*
*For the year 1990.
Source: India 1985: A Reference Manual, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Government of India and India Yearbook 2001: Manpower Profile, Institute of
Applied Manpower Research, New Delhi.
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 67
TABLE 5.4
Life Expectancy at Selected Ages for Years of Census (in Years)
Source : Compendium of Indias Fertility and Mortality Indicators 1971-1997, based on the SRS, Registrar
General of India, New Delhi, 1999.
70 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
We notice that, over the century gone they should receive all immunisation
by, while death rate (per thousand vaccines, etc. Third, they should enjoy a
population) has reduced from around 45 clean surrounding. Fourth, they should
in the beginning, dropping to 25 in the get nutritive food in adequate quantity.
middle to 9 at the close, infant mortality Fifth, they should have adequate access
rate (per thousand live births) has reduced to medical cure in case they fall ill. Even
from over 200 in the beginning, dropping adult population should enjoy a clean
to 145 in the middle, and to 70 at the surrounding, get nutritive food and
close. We may further note that in the should have access to medical care,
urban areas, while general death rate is should they fall ill. (Everyone should
6.5, infant mortality is 45. However, there have adequate clothing and shelter.) In
is still scope for reduction in infant addition, while children should have
mortality and we plan to reduce it to 30 chance to learn and play and should not
in next ten years or so. be forced to work, the adult should have
It has to be remembered that births the chance to work and must work. First,
are necessary to carry forward the society three observations fall in the category of
but too many of them, by all reckoning, public health. It is because of our
may pose problems in the short run and ventures in the public health that our
moderate our attainments and conditions of life, mentioned above, have
achievements. Nevertheless, once a child improved.
is born, human society wants it to In order to avoid total wastage of life
survive, to contribute and to enjoy. in childhood by death or partial wastage
by crippling impairment, we should take
Public Health full care of our children and their
How is it possible that people live long, mothers. If you are in a village, you might
live a healthy and productive life and do have noticed camps for various
not die in infancy or childhood? First, immunisations for children and writings
babies should be born healthy, which on walls regarding immunisation
requires mothers to be healthy. Second, programmes. If you are living in a town
PUBLIC HEALTH
Impact of industrial revolution on health was bad. It became a matter of community concern
requiring government action on a continuing basis. It was realised that the human cost of
industrial revolution and urbanisation in terms of ill health and pre-mature death was
enormous. It was discovered that communicable diseases spread because of filthy
environmental conditions. An important study on health conditions was published in 1842.
After a struggle for six years, a Public Health Act was passed in 1848 in the British
Parliament. The movement led finally to establishment of Ministry of Health in Britain
in1919.
It may be recorded that Kautilya was particular about public hygiene and sanitation.
He made it a part of civic duties that people should not spoil public places, parks and
streets. He also made spoiling an act of punishable offence. In his days, perhaps industrial
pollution did not exist.
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 71
or city, you might have seen hoardings visiting us. Number of cholera patients
displaying dates for mass immunisation which, earlier, used to be in tens of
for children. In fact, compared to earlier thousand, has reduced to a few
days, expectant mothers and children thousands and a few deaths still occur.
are getting much better attention. But, acute diarrhoeal diseases still affect
Pregnant mothers should receive one per cent of our population and cause
Tetanus Toxoid (TT) injections twice to a few thousand deaths. Unfortunately,
avoid tetanus infection. Even in 1980- incidence of malaria is still large and
81, only 53 lakh mothers received TT; in lakhs of people suffer from it and a few
1996-97 their number reached 2 crore hundreds even die. Equal toll is reported
30 lakh. Mothers, particularly expectant due to Japanese encephalitis. National
and nursing ones, should be given anti-malaria programme (earlier called
prophylaxis against anaemia. national malaria eradication programme)
Unfortunately, most Indian women is taking care of malaria, kal-a-azar,
suffer from anaemia because of poor encephalitis, and filaria. About 40 per
nutrition. Children born of such mothers cent population carries the risk of filaria
are also prone to suffer from anaemia. through carrier persons and diseased
Children should be protected against persons are also in crores. Similarly, we
diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough) have in place now a national leprosy
and tetanus by DPT vaccine, polio by oral eradication programme taking care of
polio vaccine (OPV), measles, basillus more than 5 lakh patients, a national
calimette guerin by BCG vaccine, T.B. control programme, national goiter
blindness (for deficiency of vitamin A), control programme, and national
etc. Most of these vaccines are now programme for control of blindness.
being manufactured in India and There exists a national AIDS control
companies belong to both public and organization for taking care of
private sector. The Department of prevention and treatment of STD, HIV
Family Welfare (of Ministry of Health and positive and AIDS, which impair not only
Family Welfare of the Government of health but make the patient vulnerable
India) is making efforts to cover all for other diseases.
children against such illnesses under
its universal immunisation programme. STD, HIV AND AIDS
Earlier epidemics such as plague STD = Sexually Transmitted Diseases
and kala-azar used to occasionally break HIV = Human Immunodeficiency Virus
out and take a heavy toll. Once in a AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency
while they occur even now, basically due Syndrome
to lack of cleanliness. In recent past
(1994), plague broke out in Surat What about clean surrounding and
(Gujarat). Bihar and West Bengal still nutritive food? Let us go with still
report cases of kala-azar and deaths due moderate agenda. One is the use of
to it. Cholera and small pox used to be contaminated drinking water causing a
other two major curses, killing thousands. lot of morbidity and some mortality. The
Since 1977, small pox has stopped diseases are listed as diarrhoea,
72 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
trachoma, intestinal worms, hepatitis, much effort made in urban areas, only
typhoid and malaria. Most of these are 50 per cent population has access to
water bome diseases. These diseases sanitation facilities in 1997 as against
result in temporary disability and around 30 per cent in 1985. In rural
unnecessary treatment, permanent areas, this facility is now available to
disability, and loss of preventable life. 8 per cent population in comparison to
Of all patients, 50 per cent suffer from less than 0.8 per cent in 1985.
communicable diseases, 20 per cent of Health Care System
which are water-borne. Twenty-five per
The best thing to hope is that we do not
cent children below five, die due to
fall ill. We should prevent illness through
diarrhoea. Crores of man-days are lost
sanitation measures, public health
due to water-borne diseases. We must, measures and pieces of advice on health,
therefore, ensure safe drinking water to nutrition and cleanliness. Should we fall
everybody. However, in the last fifteen ill at all, we should be cured. This means
years, the coverage of safe drinking water that we should have hospitals,
has improved quite a bit. It is said to have dispensaries and health centres and also
improved in rural areas from 56 per cent doctors, nurses, pharmacists, coun-
in 1985 to 82 per cent in 1999. sellors and health guides. However, we
Much of surrounding can be know that besides allopathy, medical
improved if sanitation facilities are practitioners also adopt ayurveda,
provided at least in urban areas. Despite homoeopathy, unani, siddha,
MORBIDITY
It is a state of ill health. It makes you feel bad about yourself or cause others to worry
about you. You may be suffering from an acute or chronic ailment. It affects your work by
making you temporarily disabled. Prolonged morbidity may lead to mortality.
In our country, acute respiratory infection (1.5 crore) and diarrhoel diseases (80 lakh)
are two major causes of morbidity, leading to a few thousand deaths.
According to a recent survey conducted by the NSSO, number of persons per thousand,
reporting illness preceding the date of survey was found to be 118 and 88 as against 18
and 12 in Mizoram in rural and urban areas respectively. These are the most literate
states of the country. In Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradeh, Bihar and Rajasthan they are
found to be 61, 41, 36 and 28, respectively, in rural areas and 72, 38, 41 and 33,
respectively, in urban areas. These figures defy easy interpretation.
Much of the morbidity could be prevented if our population had good nutrition
standards. According to a survey conducted in a few States, in all categories of boys or
girls, between 1-3 and 16-18, whether males or females with moderate work or sedentary
work, calorie deficiency and protein deficiency are found to be 10-30 per cent. Only exception
is the category of females doing sedentary work where average calorie intake per day is
found to be 1954 kcal as against recommended 1875 kcal and average protein intake per
day, 50 grams as against recommended 50 grams. However, this is an average picture. If
some of them are over-eating, others must be under-eating.
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 73
naturopathy, and yoga. Hospitals are 30000 (20000 in hilly and tribal
also run by Ministries other than Health areas), which provide general
Ministry (such as the Ministry of medical care with family planning
Railways for their employees, Labour advice. In relation to community
Ministry in certain mines, Energy health centres these centres are
Ministry in coal mines). Hospitals are referred to as subsidiary health
also run by various councils, centres.
universities, and State Governments, but 3. Health Sub-Centre, to cater to a
more importantly by private population of about 5,000 (3,000 in
establishments. There are hospitals to hilly and tribal areas) basically for
admit patients. There are dispensaries family planning services and
to distribute medical aid and medicines. supplies. In some States like
There are health centres in rural areas. Kerala, a health sub-centre covers
We have more information about only half a village while in some
allopathic institutions. Despite the fact other States like Nagaland it covers
that 75 per cent population lives in 10 villages.
villages, hospitals in rural areas are only
one-third of the total and beds are not Right from the First Plan, we
even one-fourth. Again, hospitals under launched the scheme of primary health
Government management are just 30 per centres. Later, in the mid-sixties, we
cent of the total, though they have more added to it the idea of health sub-centres
than 60 per cent beds. Naturally, and still later, that of community
Government hospitals are bigger ones, centres. It is understandable, for we
if not better ones. In the case of require resources to set up these
dispensaries, the distribution in favour facilities. The more we are developed, the
of rural areas is slightly better. Beds are more we are provided for. At the close of
equally divided. Forty per cent the century, we have 3,000 community
dispensaries are under the Government. health centres, 24,000 primary health
Local bodies, like municipal authorities, centres and 1,40,000 sub-centres. As per
are also participating in medical care norms laid down, we need minimum
system to a limited extent. 7,000-8,000 community health centres
Let us now also have a look at health- and 25,000-30,000 primary health
care system prevailing in rural areas. centres. We may not be much deficient
Besides hospitals and dispensaries noted in the case of sub-centres. But we may
above, we have the following structure: have to improve the working of these
1. Community Health Centre, at centres. We learn from newspapers that
district (and sub-district) level,to our doctors do not stay in villages, nurses
cater to about one lakh population, commute and health workers and guides
with 30 beds, specialised medical are invisible (See Table 5.6).
care services in gynaecology,
Medical Personnel
paediatrics, surgery and medicine.
2. Primary Health Centre, at block When you fall ill, you need not only
level, to cater to a population of hospital or dispensary but also doctor,
74 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 5.6
Institutional Statistics of Curative Health Care System
nurse and pharmacist, and, may be, a elements. To begin with, people might
laboratory technician too. Some diseases have hid under caves. Settlement
require specialists, besides physicians actually meant domestication of animals,
and surgeons. In case of birth, one cultivation of crops and construction of
requires a midwife. Doctors are counted huts. As our food and clothing improved,
as medical personnel; others assisting we improved our houses too.
them in treatment are known as para- We require not only residential
medical personnel. There are many non- houses but also houses for commercial
medical personnel in large hospitals. activities and premises for industrial
Compared to 1951, when we had only activities. We shall concern ourselves
60,000 medical practitioners, we have with the residential houses, though we
about 5 lakh today, majority of whom work shall take cognizance of the fact that
in Government run institutions. Number houses are used for other purposes as
of dentists has risen from 3,300 to 29,000. wellseparately or jointly. A shop may
Number of nurses is now close to 6.0 lakh be run in a part of a house. Cows may
compared to 15,000 in 1951. The number be kept in a part of a house or they may
of midwives, auxiliary nurse-cum- occupy an altogether separate house.
midwives (ANM) and health workers, has Thus, a house may be residential,
risen from 8,000 to over 3 lakh. non-residential, or partly residential and
Average practitioners-population partly non-residential. However, houses
ratio per one lakh of population has partly residential are treated as
improved from 17 in 1951 to 52 in 1998. residential in aggregate statistics as our
Average nurse-population ratio has concentration is on deficits in residential
improved from less than 5 in 1951 to 62 accommodation.
in 1998.
Census House
Housing According to the census, a census house
After availing the minimum of food and is a building or part of a building having (i)
clothing, people want a roof over their a separate main entrance from the road,
heads to save themselves from the (ii) a common courtyard, or (iii) a staircase.
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 75
This census house may be vacant or improved. Naturally, they were all kutcha,
occupied. In case, it is occupied, it might even if serviceable. So far as urban areas
be used for residential purpose or non- are concerned, an estimate suggested
residential purposes or partly for deficit of 55 lakh without taking into
residential purpose and partly for non- account of depreciation (deterioration/
residential purposes. However, for our dilapidation) or obsolescence of houses.
purpose, we can club residential and partly Taking all this into account plus increase
residential units as residential units. in population as well as of slum dwellings
(estimated to be about 10 lakh), an
Housing Stock
estimate suggested the need for
We have kutcha, semi-pucca and pucca additional 80 lakh houses over existing
housing units. Depending upon the 1.0 crore. Housing deficit was thus
material of walls and roofs, houses are precarious.
declared kutcha, semi-pucca and pucca. If we segregate data by rural-urban
A house with walls and roofs with pucca division, the following picture emerges
material is pucca whereas a house with in respect of total stock, vacant stock,
both of them in kutcha material is kutcha. occupied houses and division of
In other cases, a house is called semi- occupied houses into residential and
pucca. Kutcha houses are further divided non-residential categories. Though the
into two typesserviceable and non- total stock in the seventies and eighties
serviceable. Serviceable houses stay for grew at a slightly higher rate than the
years with marginal servicing of walls and population, it is insufficient in view of
roofs. They have generally solid mud walls the backlog. Moreover, during the
but thatch roofs. Non-serviceable ones eighties, vacant stock grew by more
have to be rebuilt or replaced every season than 40 per cent. It may partly be a
or year and cannot be serviced as their reflection of the condition of stock and
walls and roofs are made of the materials partly of affluence/fear of insecurity of
such as grass, leaves, reeds or bamboos. owners. One should also look at rural-
We may agree that we need, at the urban division for better insight (See
minimum, serviceable kutcha houses at Table 5.7). Data for 2001 census is not
the present level of development of our yet available.
economy. At a future point in We should further note that one-
development, we may hold the view that sixth to one-fifth of the total stock is
we need pucca house for everybody unless occupied, both in rural and urban areas,
somebody decides otherwise. for exclusively non-residential purposes.
In 1951, there were 6.4 crore Rarely do we talk about shortage of stock
houses 5.4 crore counted in rural areas for non-residential purposes. We are very
and about 1.0 crore houses in urban much concerned with shortage of
areas. What was the quality of houses housing units for residential purpose.
can be guessed from a statement made
in 1961 about rural houses: About 5.0 Housing Shortage
crore houses in rural areas were If each household should have at least
required to be replaced or substantially one house and no household should be
76 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 5.7
Characteristics of Housing Stock by Rural-Urban Division 1951-1991 (in lakh)
having more than one house, then for a In fact, this estimate considers those
given habitation, the difference between households, which are sharing house with
the number of households and the number others but does not consider those, which
of houses would show the deficit. If one are completely shelterless. If we add the
household can occupy more than one two, the shortage reckons at 44 lakh. If we
house or can keep them vacant, then take a view that each household should not
shortage would still be larger. It would only have a house to live in but the house
imply that (i) some of the households are should also not be a non-serviceable
shelterless, staying in raiyn-basera or (kutcha) one, then we should also find out
living on pavement, and (ii) some of the the number of such houses. Such houses
households are sharing single house/ are more than 1.14 crore, including more
dwelling. We should remember that than 11 lakh in urban areas. Most of the
jhuggi-jhopris are houses! government officials and analysts are
Total national shortage, which used to tolerant of serviceable kutcha house in
be 55 lakh in 1961, is now (1991) only 38 rural areas but not in urban areas. They
lakh with 31 lakh in rural areas and feel that kutcha houses in urban areas,
around 8 lakh in urban areas. As a even if serviceable, should be replaced by
proportion, it is but 2.5 per cent. But, is pucca houses. Then, one should also find
this the total picture? out the number of such houses in urban
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 77
areas. Their number is more than 26 fifty years, we have been marching ahead
lakh. Adding all numbers, governmental in the development of social sectors of
publications show that total shortage is education, health and housing with the
about 1.85 crore. We should perhaps not assistance of the Governments at Union
add rural and urban shortage, as many and State levels. In education, we have
publications do, because replacement of yet to universalise primary education. In
non-serviceable kutcha houses by vocationalisation of secondary education,
serviceable kutcha houses in rural areas
we find that it is much below the targeted
is considered acceptable.
level. In higher education, there may be
Other Dimensions an excess of general education and deficit
of technical education.
Do you know the proportion of Kutcha
Similarly, in health sector, we find
and Pucca houses or households living
that our vital statistics have improved to
in rented accommodation in rural and
a significant extent thanks to public
urban areas in India?
health measures and programmes of
A comparison between 1971 and nutrition. We note with some concern that
1991 shows that proportion of pucca our infant mortality rates have to decline
houses has increased from 18 per cent further and efforts need to be taken to
to 31 per cent in rural areas and from 64 improve the nutritional requirements of
per cent to 73 per cent in urban areas. children and adolescents. Immunisation
As expected, in rural areas, around 6-7 should cover all children and mothers.
per cent households rent house whereas Rural health care system needs to be
in urban areas, the percentage of improved in quality terms; medical
households renting in accommodation personnel have to be appointed and
may be as high as 54 per cent. However, appointed personnel must be in
that was the scenario in 1961 and 1971. attendance in place of their duty.
In 1981, 46.5 per cent and in 1991, 36.5 In case of shelter, our deficiency is
per cent households were renting in terms of number and quality of
accommodation in urban areas. housing stock though there are
completely shelterless people as well.
Concluding Remarks
Over time, proportion of pucca houses has
Going through the chapter, you may improved. Renting-in phenomenon
develop an impression that, in the last seems to be reducing.
TABLE 5.8
Dimensions of Housing Shortage for 1991
EXERCISES
1. What do you mean by social infrastructure and how do you distinguish it
from economic infrastructure?
2. Housing is a social infrastructure - comment.
3. Whom do you call literate? How is literacy different from education?
4. How is literacy rate calculated in India now?
5. Give an account of development of literacy in India over the last fifty years
and bring out the problem areas where we should concentrate on in future.
6. What is the new development that has taken place with the Census 2001 so
far as the number of illiterates is concerned?
7. How is gross enrolment ratio calculated? Can it exceed 100 in terms of
percentage?
8. Discuss the progress of elementary education and how far are we away from
the universalisation of elementary education.
9. Discuss the progress of secondary education and point out the areas of limited
success.
10. What do you mean by tertiary/higher education? Discuss its salient features.
11. Discuss how life expectancy at birth has improved before Independence and
after Independence.
12. Bring out the salient features of life expectancy across age and sex.
13. Describe the meaning of public health. Discuss major public health measures
undertaken by the state in recent years to control diseases.
14. Discuss the role of sanitation in urban areas.
15. How has the public health care system evolved in post-Independence India?
16. Describe the rural health care system in India.
17. What do you mean by a census house and housing stock?
18. Define pucca, kutcha and semi-pucca houses.
19. Define serviceable kutcha house and unserviceable kutcha house.
20. Discuss various uses a house could be put to. Why are certain houses found
vacant?
21. Give an account of housing scene in the rural areas as evolved since 1961.
22. Give an account of housing scene in the urban areas as evolved since 1961.
23. Discuss various aspects of housing stock.
24. Discuss the nature of housing shortage in India.
ACTIVITY
Find out in your locality, vicinity or village:
(i) how many boys and girls have not enrolled in school,
(ii) how many boys and girls dropped out of school (after enrolment) from
different classes; and
(iii) what are the factors that led to non-enrolment and drop out of (a) boys
and (b) girls.
(iv) Talk to parents, boys and girls who have not gone to school.
CHAPTER 6
WORD PLANNING
The word planning in a managers language and the management books or planning cells
in corporations has little different meaning. Planning is also used by town planners for
physical and spatial planning. Today, environmentalists talk of resources planning. People
also talk of retirement plan.
Planning in our context is different. It is related with welfare of people; it is related with
State action and initiative; and its sphere is economic and social development. By the way,
other planning strategies, such as town and country planning are now getting integrated with
national planning.
82 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
that means are autonomous in the sense Therefore, division of heads as social and
they are selected by the planners. But economic is a proposition of convenience
there exists a fundamental restriction on rather than a proposition of
selection of means, which is the principle. Since we cover almost all
requirement of mutual consistency. activities which by choice we seek to
Since uncoordinated market develop, we call it comprehensive
processes cannot be fully trusted to development planning.
pursue the objectives the State sets out We do spend a lot in modernising our
for its people, it was suggested in many armed forces, equipping law and order
quarters that economic planning should machinery, improving judicial system,
be resorted to by the State. Economic and in bettering other state organs but
planning is thus concerned with we do so in the interest of running the
pursuance of economic development, system smoothly or we feel compelled to
with economic well-being in mind, do so. We, therefore, do not call them
through all means at the hands of the either developmental activities or
State, including persuasive ones. We, designate them as economic or social
in India, are, however, concerned with activities, though all of them are almost
planning of economic and social exclusively taken care of by the State.
development. Naturally goals and While covering many social and
means of this planning are somewhat economic activities, the State may choose
different. just to advise and coordinate, encourage
Since the word planning had and discourage through indirect fiscal
acquired economic overtones by the time and financial mechanisms and through
our country thought of planning, we enacting laws. It may choose to produce
stated in very clear terms, right in the and distribute all goods and services.
beginning, that our planning would cover India chose to use a (judicious) mix of
both economic and social spheres. direct and indirect means: enacting laws
Economic sphere refers to agriculture, for distributing/ allocating agricultural
industry, transportation, etc. while social and non-agricultural land to different
sphere refers to education, health, sections of people or different activities;
shelter, etc. The nature of work in the restricting, banning or proscribing
economic sphere includes the certain activities; opening special
development of irrigation, dams, mining, financial institutions and manipulating
forestry, rail, roads, warehousing, etc. interest rates and/or credit limits for
whereas the development of schools, different categories of activities; making
colleges, universities, hospitals, fiscal provisions for taxing or subsidising
dispensaries, health centres, family certain activities in certain areas;
planning centres, broadcasting, etc. are undertaking production/distribution as
included in the social sphere. You may a supplementary mechanism with a
see many works in economic sphere have certain social objectives in view; and
something to do with the social and vice undertaking production and distribution
versa. There may be sectors which of certain goods and services (natural
may be as much social as economic. monopolies). Engagement of direct
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES TILL 1991 83
MIXED ECONOMY
Paul A. Samuelson, a Nobel Laureate in Economic Science and William D. Nordhus, in
their very popular textbook Economics, define mixed economy as one, which primarily
relies on price mechanism for economic organisation but uses a variety of government
interventions such as taxes, spending and regulation to handle macroeconomic instability
and market failures.
Prior to these economists, Joseph E.Stigtitz defined the concept in a much more simple
manner. Stigtitz defines it as a mixture of public and private decision making.
86 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
During the first forty years we cannot short, the State will influence, if not
claim to have followed one single policy; completely control, much of the economic
in fact, we find, it had been evolving. But activities of the private sector through
there are some common features: various instruments like license and
expansion of public sector, industrialisa- allocation of critical inputs, including
tion and import substitution, self- foreign exchange, under its control.
sufficiency in foodgrains, state control on Centralised Planning: States will
financial resources, control on foreign promote centralised planning so that
capital, protection of small scale interests of different regions and different
industries, regulation of large scale sections are promoted. Sub-national
industry, curb on monopolistic practices, plans would be dovetailed/integrated
provision of public health measures and with the national plan. It had to be
spread of education and literacy. basically formulated at the level of the
However, the dominant features that national Planning Commission. Even till
deserve special mention may be listed as: date, while there are state level
interventionist state, centralised (provincial) planning commissions in
planning, expansion of public sector, existence, there are no independent State
development of heavy industries, plans. Planning in our country is quite
emphasis on import substitution. We may centralised.
note that the last three are all in the Expansion of Public Sector : Role of the
industrial area. State particularly in relation to the
Interventionist State: State will industries was debated in the thirties
intervene in the market processes so that itself. While there was unanimity in the
it secures adequate livelihood for the poor National Planning Committee that
and brings down disparity among defence industries should be owned and
classes. It will make laws whereby controlled by the State, it was suggested
intermediary interests in land are in the case of other key industries even
abolished and concentration of wealth is a control of the State would be sufficient.
prevented. It will create institutions, Much before we thought of formulating a
which will promote agriculture, industry plan, an Industrial Policy (Resolution,
and trade. It will adopt fiscal policy, which 1948) was already in place, which
would promote growth and social justice. delimited the scope of public ownership
It will have monetary policy to make of certain industries.
adequate funds available to the We may note that at the time of
industries, which are essential for the Independence, except the railways, there
economy. It would not allow free flow of was nothing spectacular in economic
foreign capital investment and will direct sphere, which could be said to be in the
its use, in case it allows foreign public sector. Industrial Policy
investment to come. Keeping different Resolution, 1956 clearly stated that the
interests in mind it will determine the State will progressively assume
ownership, scale, and use of funds-- predominance and direct responsibility
particularly in industrial sphere. In for setting up new industrial under-
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES TILL 1991 87
We refer, for this purpose, first to our On the whole, our rate of growth over
long-term basic objectives of maximum the long stretch of 40 years was around 4
production, full employment, reduction in per cent per annum. Taking the rate of
inequality in income and wealth, and growth of population as 2 per cent per
concentration of economic power. We, annum, our per capita income could be said
then, refer to some other areas too, which to have risen by 2 per cent per annum.
are more or less elaborations of these Thus, on an average, the people around
objectives. 1990 were living twice better in comparison
Maximum Production : During the first to their parents in their age in the wee hour
three decades of planning, we did not of Independence.
achieve a rate of growth beyond 3.5 per Perhaps more important is to know
cent per annum on a long run basis and what was it that grew at whatever rate it
never met the targets set for a particular did? If people are hungry, we ought to know
plan, which were normally more than 5 whether we grew enough food. In 1951, we
had in net terms less than 50 million tonnes
per cent per annum. It is difficult to assert
of foodgrains, including all cereals and
that we did not fully exploit the potential pulses. Around the close of 1980s, we
or to say that our targets were realistic produced as much as 150 million tonnes.
or reasonable. For example, for the First In 1951, we imported around 5 million
Plan we had set a very low target (1.8 per tonnes to feed ourselves. Normally the
cent per annum) for rate of growth and situation was not that bad; our imports only
achieved twice of it thanks to good improved food availability. While in early
monsoon (This growth owes to un- fifties, we had less than 400 grams of
foodgrains per person, by 1990, thanks to
planned quarters). During the Second
the continued rise in domestic production
Plan we did better on growth front than
over time, the per person availability rose
during the First Plan but we were to nearly 500 grams. This simply means
unhappy as we could achieve only 4.0- that our production in foodgrains grew at
4.2 per cent per annum while the original much faster pace than our population.
target being 5.0 per cent per annum. However, we should remember that
During the Third Plan period, we we faced very bad days in the mid-sixties
achieved only annual average growth rate when we had to import more than 10
of 2.4 per cent against the target of 5.0 million tonnes and we received food aid
per cent. Again, this is due to the wars from other countries, chiefly the US. The
US once threatened to monitor food-aid
with China in 1962 and with Pakistan
on monthly basis. This forced us to usher
in 1965 and the failure of monsoon in
in green revolution in the late sixties, a
1965-66. From the mid-seventies term for use of high-yielding variety
onwards, and definitely after 1979-80, one seeds, intensive irrigation, chemical
finds that the growth trajectory of the fertilisers, pesticides, etc. Thanks to its
Indian economy got shifted from the path success our imports of foodgrains have
of 3.5 per cent per annum to the path of been nominal. We even exported, on net
5.5 per cent per annum. basis, though at nominal scale.
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES TILL 1991 89
The rate of unemployment, on a long run That our growth pattern did not
basis, continued to be the same with wide create enough job opportunities is
fluctuations over years, depending upon evident from the fact that the
the peculiar circumstances. There was government had to run an umpteen
never a year when the level of economic number of programmes for creating
activities in the economy demanded so supplementary self-employment
much labour that we felt shortage, opportunities or wage employment.
barring harvest seasons. Some of these programmes
Data on comparable basis is concentrated on small farmer/
available from 1972-73 only. The manufacturer/trader so that they could
following findings deserve our attention: employ themselves and earn their
(i) unemployment on usual status basis livelihood by producing things or
fluctuated between 1.6 per cent in 1972- providing service.
73 and 3.9 per cent in 1977-78, being Reduction in Inequality : We wanted to
2.5 per cent in 1983 and 3.7 per cent in reduce inequality in the distribution of
1987-88, (ii) unemployment reduced income and consumption as well as
from over 8.0 per cent person-days in concentration of wealth. It is believed
early seventies to 6.0 per cent person- that, in the initial stages of
days in late eighties, (iii) poverty in terms development, inequality tends to
of absolute number continued to be increase while the lot of everybody
around 32 crore from 1973-74 to 1987- improves. We do not have practically any
88, (iv) poverty in terms of people below data on distribution of income over
poverty line reduced from around 55 per households. What we know is that the
cent in 1973-74 to 39 per cent in 1987- percentage of income tax payers has
88, and (v) proportion of unemployed increased over the years and poverty,
among the poor is less than the as percentage of people below poverty
line, has reduced. By 1993-94, which is
proportion of unemployed among the
the year closest to the period under
non-poor.
review, while the proportion of poor had
Supposing that the trends were
reduced, their absolute number
similar in the fifties and sixties, we can
remained the same. In the case of
infer that, despite fluctuations in
income tax payers, both the proportion
employment/unemployment by usual
and the absolute number of income tax
status, per person per day employment payers rose, though slightly. The size of
and wages improved. As a result, poverty the middle class has also risen both in
has declined to some extent. However, proportion and number.
low unemployment rate among the poor However, unless we show that income
shows that the poor cannot remain of top x percent has reduced from y1 per
unemployed as there is no other way they cent to y2 per cent during a long period of
can get their livelihood. There were not time, we cannot say much. In the case of
enough employment opportunities for all total private consumption expenditure
so that wages could rise adequately. incurred by the households, it appears
Many people refer to such situation as that the share of bottom 40 per cent in
jobless growth. rural areas, for each of its deciles, has
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES TILL 1991 91
EXERCISES
1. Which are the factors determining the manner, the extent and the pace of state
intervention in an economy?
2. The Constitution of India allows ownership and control of material resources to exist as
well as market to function yet it seeks to intervene. Why?
3. Where is the provision for economic and social planning in the Constitution?
4. What were the three models that prompted Indian leaders for deciding in favour of
planning in the late thirties?
94 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
5. Who formed the National Planning Committee and when? Who were the Chairman and
Secretary of the National Planning Committee?
6. What were the key recommendations of the National Planning Committee?
7. What do you mean by economic planning?
8. What do you mean by comprehensive development planning?
9. List some of the economic spheres and the social spheres separately.
10. List some of the methods of intervention by the State in functioning of the economy.
11. Write a brief history of our plans, mentioning the reasons why a five year plan was
not formulated when it was due.
12. Distinguish between planning (long-term) objectives and plan objectives. Write out
planning objectives and provide rationale for the same.
13. What is our major framework of planning? Is it existence of mixed economy? What do
you mean by the mixed economy?
14. What are the important features of our economic policy as pursued till 1991? Discuss
in detail each of them, justifying the background.
15. Discuss our achievement/failure in maximising production, particularly in the case of
foodgrains.
16. What do you mean by self-employment and wage-employment?
17. What do you mean by person day?
18. Discuss our achievement/failure in the matter of employment before the onset of new
economic policy.
19. What is our record during 1951-1991, about reduction of inequality in (i) distribution
of income, (ii) distribution of consumption expenditure in rural and urban areas, and
(iii) distribution of land holdings?
20. What is our record in the matter of concentration of economic power particularly in
the context of industrial wealth?
21. Write a short essay on our achievements during 1951-1991, highlighting relative
success in different objectives.
ACTIVITIES
1. If we do not want to depend on imports for our food, how much foodgrains we should
produce at home if each one of us must consume foodgrains @ 500 grams per day and
must ensure 12.5 per cent of foodgrains grown for seed, feed and wastage? You can
remember that net output is reckoned at 87.5 per cent of gross output.
2. Supposing that there are 40 crore people working for the total person days available
during a particular year is 14600 crore person days (=40 cr * 365 days). Taking 10 per
cent as the unemployment rate, we need to create 1460 crore person days =14600
million person days, taking due care of composition profile of labour force along with
regional dimensions. Try to find out how much employment was generated in terms of
person days by various schemes of employment. Was it half of the requirement?
3. Group Activity: Look at the Constitution. Try to find out in how many senses the word
State has been used in the Constitution. Discuss among yourselves in the presence of
your teacher.
CHAPTER 7
latter case, the undertakings are so Railways are being suggested for
reformed that they perform well even if it corporatisation; which means the
means partnership with the private sector. Railway Board should be converted into
The issue to be considered here was as to a public corporation, which has some
who would buy non-performing, loss autonomy. This could be called
making enterprises and if some parties privatisation in operational sense. There
choose to do so, why should they pay large are no disinvestments involved, however.
sums? A government starving of funds Another view suggests lease of a public
could then think of selling shares of their enterprise to a private party or
performing enterprises so that it could contracting out many of the services
balance its budget a bit better. needed as inputs. This has been regarded
If privatisation has some intrinsic as privatisation in organisational sense.
value, we should not mind promoting it. But properly speaking, it is a matter of
We are trying various models of ownership. With ownership comes control.
privatisation. The simple one relates to Without privatisation also, government
the issue of ownership. Complete sell- can still bestow organisational and
off, retaining 26 per cent stocks with veto operational autonomy and have a
power, retaining 51 per cent stocks and memorandum of understanding with the
retaining 75 per cent stocks have all been management.
tried in one or the other case. Which form Let us finally note that our
should be adopted depended upon the programme of privatisation through
nature of product/service a particular disinvestments has succeeded to the
enterprise was manufacturing/ extent of 50 per cent only.
providing. Divestment, which is total sell-
off, could be thought of in an area, which Globalisation
has no reason to be in the public sector. The term globalisation has yet to gain
If good/service produced falls in the a definite meaning. One economist
category reserved for public sector, the defined it to mean exposure to
Government should retain at least 51 per competition with the world leader in a
cent holding and should not disinvest particular industry. Another thinks
beyond 49 per cent of total stock (If the that it is about free trade in goods
last three options are resorted to, it and services among nations together
means that the enterprises will turn into with free international mobility of
joint ventures). Selling out shares to the factors of production. Let us just talk
employees and running the enterprise of globalisation of Indian economy.
on cooperative principle is another This means more/better integration of
option. Later, the Government of India Indian economy with world economy.
experimented with bundling shares of How could the two economies integrate?
profit making and loss making Not by aid, which is a unilateral flow
enterprises without much success. but by trade, which is a bilateral flow.
There are other views on Not by economic relations between
privatisation. Instilling commercial spirit governments, but by interface of our
in public sector enterprises is one such. markets with the world market.
ECONOMIC REFORMS SINCE 1991 101
How does one sell in a country if the (a) reduction of trade barriers with a
government bans import of the goods, view to allowing freer flow of goods
puts a quota restriction (while we to (and from) the country;
are willing to supply and the people of (b) free flow of foreign capital in terms
the country of import are willing to of investment (direct and portfolio)
buy) or creates a high tariff barrier by by ensuring conducive atmosphere
imposing 300 per cent import duty? We and easy approval of proposals;
become uncompetitive by such devices (c) free flow of technology; and
and the Government protects (d) free movement of labour and
inefficiencies of domestic producers. If manpower.
the Government removes such barriers,
the domestic producers will either (e) FDI
improve efficiency in that line or (f) Pravasi Bhartiya Fund
will switch over to other lines of The present WTO regime is working
production. for free (if not free) trade through
If you agree with this argument, you unprotected competition by removal of
would advocate dismantling of tariff and non-tariff barriers and substantial
non-tariff barriers both. But there may reduction in tariff barriers as also by
be good reasons to differ with this kind removal/reduction of subsidies. It has
of argument. After all, no Government extended the areas traditionally negotiated
does it for pleasure. Protection of in the GATT by including what are known
domestic industry from competition may as GATS (General Agreement on Trade on
be desirable in certain areas. Services), TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual
Property Rights) and TRIMS (Trade Related
Would you like to produce in your
Investment Measures).
country and sell everywhere? Multi-
national corporations and trans-national Concluding Remarks
corporations have plants in several
We started this chapter with a
countries. Production in a host country
background charting evolution of policies
saves them from transportation cost and
and developments in industrial economy
labour cost in many cases. Then, you of India. First, we found that practices
should permit movement of capital too. followed were not true to the spirit of the
So, factor markets also get integrated. policies. Concentration of power did rise
Once the producer has a stake in the despite intentions to the contrary. In the
country, he will perhaps bring in better seventies, worsening foreign exchange
technology and managerial practices and position prompted for tighter controls.
entrepreneurial skills as well. This will So, loose ends were tightened. But by
have spillover effects. 1980, it was learnt that our policies have
However, many of us are concerned become too restrictive. License, permit
to know whether movement of labour and quota raj became pervasive.
and manpower would be equally easy. Restrictions were then softened quite a
And we know that it is not easy. bit. Funds were liberally borrowed from
In short, the globalisation means international market, partly because aid-
pursuing : pool was drying. Imports were made
102 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
EXERCISES
1. Discuss the developments in the Indian economy, particularly in its industrial
sphere during 1960-90.
2. Mention good points and major weaknesses of the policies pursued during the
eighties.
3. Why do we put restrictions on some activities? Illustrate with examples.
4. What was the basic problem that forced us to have a U-turn in our policies?
5. What was the level of foreign exchange reserves in 1991?
6. What do you mean by macro-economic stabilisation programme? Mention its
characteristics in terms of its instruments and coverage.
7. What do you mean by micro-economic adjustment programme? Mention its
characteristics in terms of its instruments and coverage.
8. What are the main features of economic reforms?
9. What do you mean by laissez-faire? Discuss the difference between policy of
laissez-faire and policy of liberalisation.
10. Differentiate between policy of restriction and policy of liberalisation.
11. What you mean by privatisation? Discuss how it is different from
denationalisation.
12. What do you mean by disinvestment? How far did we succeed in this
programme?
13. What do you mean by globalisation?
14. How do you react to asymmetric treatment to capital market and labour market
by the WTO?
15. What is the WTO? What is it supposed to do?
UNIT III
In this unit, you will be exposed to some of the challenges that the Indian
economy is facing. Needless to mention, we shall be discussing three
perennial problems that we have been struggling with. These are population,
poverty and unemployment.
It is often emphasised that much of economic development is hampered
because of lack of quality infrastructure. We have already learnt about the
progress we have made in the last fifty years in some of infrastructure
services. Here, we shall review them from the angle of the kind of challenges
they are facing. The infrastructure covered shall, however, be only energy,
transport, communication, health and education.
In the last chapter we shall be concerned with some other emerging
issues. The issues that have been identified are environment, gender
and migration.
CHAPTER 8
Population in India
POPULATION IN CRORES
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
CENSUS YEARS
29
Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV
24
)
19 growth
14
-1
1901-11 1911-21 1921-31 1931-41 1941-51 1951-61 1961-71 1971-81 1981-91 1991-2001
INTERCENSAL PERIOD
be having four phases. The dip between cent but it accelerated and then
1941 and 1951 is ignored as it is decelerated. Researchers take 1981 as
considered an aberration. Population the dividing year. The period 1951-1981,
was not rising before 1921 but denoting rise of population by 34 crore
fluctuating. The period before 1921 is, or 89 per cent, is called the phase of rapid
therefore, considered a phase of growth. We can also call it the phase of
stagnation (or fluctuation). During 1901- high and accelerating growth. By
1921, population rose by 1.3 crore and contrast, the period since 1981 may be
growth was just 5.4 per cent for the called the phase of high but decelerating
period as a whole. Between the years of growth. Population has risen by 50 per
great divide (1921) and small divide cent during 1981-2001.
(1951), population grew by 11 crore in
absolute number and by 44 per cent. Annual Growth Rates
This period is known as the phase of Many people rely more on growth rate
steady growth. During each decade in expressed in terms of per cent per
this period, we have seen the growth rate annum. Since, there are only two figures
was above 10 per cent and below 15 per available initial and final, we have to
cent. Then, there was a quantum jump. use only compound interest formula to
In all five decades after Independence, calculate rate of growth per annum (See
decadal growth rate was above 20 per Table 8.3). Starting with a little more
110 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
than one per cent per annum, the rate phers, using census data. Now, they are
of growth rose around two per cent per using data collected by the Sample
annum during the fifties and touched Registration System (SRS). In Table 8.4,
the level of 2.25 per cent per annum we provide information on birth and
during the sixties and seventies. During death rates for the first seven decades
the eighties, it came down to 2.13 per of the twentieth century, which are based
cent per annum and during the nineties, on census and then years at the distance
it came to the other side of two per cent of a quinquennium, which are based on
per annum. the SRS (See also Fig. 8.3).
While our growth rates have been
twice the highest rates ever achieved in Trends in Vital Rates
Europe, they have been two-thirds and Death rate and birth rate, as revealed by
three-fourths of the rates witnessed in 1911 and 1921 censuses, were very close
many developing countries. Our growth in the beginning of the twentieth century.
rates are considered high. There is, The rate of natural growth during
therefore, no scope for complacence in 1911-21 was just 0.09 per cent per
making attempts to moderate the rate annum. This was the decade of actual
of growth. decline of population. Then there was
decline in both birth rate and death rate.
Basic Factors for High Growth However, differential in declines would
The growth of population depends on determine whether there was decrease or
four basic factors: birth, death, in- increase in growth rate. Compared to
migration and out-migration. For a decline in birth rate, the decline in death
country as large as ours, the factors of rate has been normally higher, which
migration are not very significant. (For resulted in increase in growth rate. The
smaller units, particularly border states, reduction in birth rate between the thirties
we cannot ignore these factors). There and forties was, however, higher than that
are, therefore, only two factors, which in death rate despite some deaths during
account for growth--positive contribution the partition. But the general trend was
of births and negative contribution of of increasing growth rate, which basically
deaths. Growth rate is, therefore, often owes itself to drastic reduction in the
expressed as the difference between birth death rate. Thus, it is not because of
rate and death rate. This growth rate is increase in birth rate but because of
often called the rate of natural growth or decrease in death rate that caused rapid
natural increase as birth and death are rise in growth rate. See Fig. 8.3 for birth
considered natural phenomena in rate, death rate and growth rate.
comparison to migration, which is social This graph shows how steep was the
or economic in nature. All these rates reduction in death rate as compared to
are expressed by demographers in terms the reduction in birth rate. But the birth
of per thousand rather than per hundred rate was declining too. Now that the
(cent). Earlier, the birth rates and death death rate is reaching a plateau, we can
rates were calculated by our demogra- hope for a reduction in birth rate.
POPULATION IN INDIA 111
TABLE 8.4
Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Growth (Per Thousand)
60
= Birth rate = Death rate = Rate of Natural Growth
50
40
VITAL RATES
30
20
10
0
1901-11 11-21 21-31 31-41 41-51 51-61 61-71 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 1998
YEARS
becomes low and steady and the result 8 to almost 3, yet the birth rate has
is low growth rate. We are in the third increased because there are more women
phase of demographic transition. (and men) around low death rates.Even
We may however note that life when a couple starts replacing itself, it
expectancy after transition is high while, will take about seventy years for
before transition, it is low. population to stabilise in terms of
number because the couple will, on an
Matter of Life and Death average, live seventy years.
However, if our birth rates were low, it One major incentive for parents to
could be argued that the rise would have choose smaller number of children is
been lower. If birth rate could decline lower infant mortality. A lot of reduction
faster than death rate, then it was in death rate is due to reduction in infant
possible that growth rate could actually mortality. It is bound to lead to further
decline. But that has never happened. reduction in the birth rate. Death rate is
Theory of demographic transition close to the lowest possible. The lowest
explains that reduction in birth rate has death rate is 7 per thousand anywhere
always followed reduction in death rate. in the world. Further reduction in death
Compared to 7.5 per thousand points rate becomes difficult as in the face of
reduction in birth rate in seventy years low birth rate, the population actually
till 1971, reduction of 10 per thousand becomes older. Reduction in birth rate
points since 1971 is creditable. also requires improvement in economic
Compared to 25 per thousand points conditions and in spread of education.
reduction in death rate during seventy Diversification of economy and of job
years till 1971, the reduction of 6 per profile of female work would further
thousand points since 1971 is quite low. contribute to reduction in birth rate.
However, we should accept the Composition of Population
proposition that once the rates approach
their limits, it becomes difficult to reduce Sex Ratio
them any further. The rates, particularly Any real organic population has to have
death rate, are fast approaching the both the sexes. There should be balance
limits. in their numbers. Nature is found to give
However, human beings would a few more male births than female births.
always love to live as long as possible. But nature has also made women
We should, therefore, try to save as many sturdier. If there is no discrimination on
lives from death as possible. We are doing the part of the society, the two numbers
it. We may not mind preventing birth but should be more or less in balance. Neither
once a life comes into being, we consider too many or nor too few members of any
it sacrosanct to prevent it from death and sex would be desirable as they are
abhor infanticide if it is committed. complementary to each other in certain
Regarding high birth rate, we wish respects. There are a few countries, like
to point out that total fertility rate, which the Russian Federation (1140), Japan
roughly speaking is the number of births (1041), the USA (1029) and Indonesia
per woman, has declined from more than (1004), where the sex ratio is in favour of
POPULATION IN INDIA 113
women and there are many others in stick in the park or more adults
which it is in favour of men. Similar is working on the farm or in the factory?
the case within our own country. We do not yet have age composition data
In India, sex ratio is normally from the Census 2001. With division
defined as the number of women per between three groups of people, viz.
1000 men. Sex ratio for the country as children (0-14), adults (15-60) and
a whole has not been in favour of women
old people (60+), we provide age
throughout the twentieth century. It
declined from 972 in the beginning of composition data for selected years in
the century to 927 in 1991 though there Table 8.6. It may be noted that the
were a few hiccups. In this perspective, proportion of children, which was slowly
sex ratio of 933 in 2001 is considered a rising and crossed the mark of 41 per
welcome improvement. The highest cent in 1971, has slid back and was
decline was observed in the sixties (See the lowest ever in 1991. Proportion of
Table 8.5). the old went on increasing and is six
It may be noted that in the times in terms of proportion. If the
beginning of the century, many states proportion of children had inverted-U
had sex ratio of more than 1000. Among movement, the proportion of adults has
the large states, for example, Bihar had
U-shape movement.
sex ratio of 1061 and Tamil Nadu of 1044
whereas Kerala had only 1004. At the The changes are clear reflection of
close of century, while Kerala surged high birth rates till seventies and
towards 1058, Bihar and Tamil Nadu decreasing death rates across ages. The
reached 921 and 986, respectively. decline in proportion of children is again
Punjab and Haryana always had it bad. reflection of decreasing birth rate. The
But more important is to note that rising proportion of old people may give
sex ratio for the age group 0-6 has rise to certain problems.
decreased from 945 in 1991 to 927 in
2001. In Punjab, it has gone down from Implications for Development
875 in 1991 to 793 in 2001 and, in
Haryana, from 879 to 820 during the Contrasting Arguments
same period. This shows some kind of
neglect of girls and the denial of right to There are people arguing that population
life to them. is not a problem. You could argue in their
favour by pointing out that, during the
Age Composition last two centuries since Malthus who
Do we have more children playing in gave alarm, world population has become
the field or more old people walking with more than six-fold from less than one
TABLE 8.5
Sex Ratio in India during Twentieth Century (females per thousand males)
Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
Sex Ratio 972 964 955 950 945 946 941 930 934 927 933
Source: Census of India 2001 Series 1 India: Provisional Population Totals-Paper 1 of 2001, Registrar
General and Census Commissioner, India.
114 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
hundred crore to six hundred crore and sometime argue that higher investment
yet, most people in most countries are in demographic issues may reduce the
living three-times longer and living at amount meant for developmental
least twice better. activities.
There are people arguing that
population is the only problem. You Dependency Burden
could argue, as many do, that all The same has been couched in terms of
social ills of poverty, malnutrition, ill- dependency burden. As children, during
health, of environmental degradation their childhood, are pure and simple
and even of crime owe basically to the consumers, they are considered as a
large size of population. There have burden on the society. Larger the burden
been people using such terms as for consumption, lower the scope for
population bomb and population saving for capital formation. It leads to
explosion. Indeed, there have been lower deepening of capital.
predictions that population rise, if not Expenditure on children has, in this
controlled, would lead to food argument, not been considered
catastrophes and ecological disasters. investment in human capital formation.
There are also people to argue that
Demographic Investment population growth, in due course, adds
A more sober view would be to accept to labour force and the larger labour force
that a slower growth through reduction requires more capital in terms of existing
in birth rate would leave better scope for tools and equipment. This leads to less
non-demographic investment. capital for investment in new techniques,
Death takes place at every age which would help raise productivity per
though its incidence is higher at lower worker. There are people to argue that:
age (childhood) as well as at higher age. 1. population pressure, resulting from
A high birth rate means more children. high growth, was a major stimulus
A lower infant mortality, which we always for green revolution;
aspire, means that more children will
2. younger the population, the more
remain alive. Larger the number of
amenable is it to change, receptive
children, the more we require schools
to new ideas, willing to shift
and health facilities. This has been called
resources from low productive areas
as demographic investment. Planners
TABLE 8.6
Age Composition of Population for Selected Years by Broad Groups
(per cent)
Group Age Group 1911 1921 1931 1961 1971 1981 1991
to high productive areas; and couples who go for higher order births
3. population growth increases the in order to ensure that they are finally
supply of decision-makers, expands left with the desired number. This
markets and leads to development desired number may also reduce in the
via shortages (that is, increase in next generation if infant mortality
demand). reduces considerably.
One popular notion is that, in order
One may argue why many developed
to get a son, some couples become
countries are seeking a growth in their
parents of several daughters and others
population, why many others are
indulge in infanticide of female child or
encouraging in-migration and why some
abortion of female foetus. Begetting more
developing countries argue that
daughters may be preferable to other
population growth will spur
practices. This desire for son contributes
development. A more sober view would
to around 12 per cent extra births. People
therefore be that a stagnant population
are being educated about equality of
requires some growth and rapidly growing
genders and right to life for girl chidren.
population requires slowing down.
Factors for Decline in Fertility
Measures to Check High Rate of
Growth Reducing the rate of growth finally
revolves round reducing birth rate. Birth
Analysis rate depends on age-specific birth
Analysis based on recent all-India (fertility) rates and the number of women
surveys suggests that three factors in the specific ages. We may not directly
contribute to high fertility: control the number of women; rather
their number is likely to swell as life
1. Large proportion of women in
expectancy improves. So, it is the age
reproductive age group contributes
specific fertility rates, which we may have
to the extent of 60 per cent.
to control. Slow reduction in birth rate
2. Unmet needs for contraception
owes a great deal to availability of more
contributes to the extent of 20 per
married women in reproductive age
cent.
group. Let us see what is the position.
3. Fertility behaviour due to high See Table 8.7 for age-specific fertility for
infant mortality again contributes reproductive ages by five-yearly age
to the extent of 20 per cent. groups. The data is based on SRS and
We may not and should not control is, therefore, from 1971 only.
number of women in any way but we may First thing we should note is that,
control effective reproductive span by during the last three decades, the total
raising the age of marriage. Then, we are fertility rate has fallen by 40 per cent from
left with only two real options: one, 5.2 to 3.2. We should further note that
contraceptive devices must be made fertility rates have considerably declined
available to the couples at affordable for early age groups as well as for late age
prices and two, infant mortality be groups. At other ages also, there is
further reduced in order to induce reduction. Reduction in age-specific
116 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
fertility may not be too drastic but it is group between 20 to 35 years is the most
definitely significant. Considerable fertile period but marriages take place
pregnancy occurs at the age groups of 20- for various individual requirements and
24, 25-29 and 30-34. These may be cases social reasons mostly in twenties.
of first or second births. Yet, there is Therefore, there is a need to make
considerable reduction particularly in the couples in this age group feel that they
age group of 30-34. Contraception should opt for fewer children and there is
have played no insignificant role as availability of artificial means to control
women, at this prime age span, must pregnancy. As couples, particularly
have been married. Hopefully, they are women, get more educated, take to non-
avoiding higher order births. agricultural jobs and are aware of
Similarly, we also find that the mean increasing survival of children, they are
likely to go for having smaller number of
age at marriage of male and female, and
children.
in rural and urban areas, has been rising
For couples, who find it economic to
and that proportion of married persons
have more children, there has to be a
in lower age group has considerably programme of education to make them
declined. aware that it is not in their interest.
Simultaneously, there have to be
General Guiding Principles for
possibility of visible improvement in
Further Reduction
their standard of living -- a ray of hope
Women reproduce during age span of for better living.
15 years to 45/49 years. Postponement There are various schemes of the
of marriage, say till the age of 20 years, Government, which have contributed to
will help avoid some of the births, which the reduction of birth rate, more so in
are, otherwise, not very healthy ones. Age that of total fertility rate, along with
TABLE 8.7
Age-specific Fertility by Age Groups of Reproductive Period (per thousand)
EXERCISES
1. What should be the considerations for judging whether the population of a
country is large?
2. Using round figures, discuss the growth of population of India during the last
hundred years.
3. What future scenario do you see for population in India?
4. Why are certain years called years of the great divide and the small divide?
5. Discuss the characteristics of four demographic phases of Indian population
in terms of levels and trends of population growth.
6. Briefly discuss the idea behind demographic transition.
7. Discuss the trends of birth rate and death rate over the century and its impact
on growth rate.
8. Do you consider that reduction in birth rate in India is commendable?
9. What had been the basic cause of dramatic rise in population: high birth rate
or low death rate or a combination of both?
10. Discuss trends of sex ratio and its social implication.
11. Discuss the changes in age structure of population over the century.
12. Argue: (i) Population is the only problem, and (ii) population is not a problem
at all.
13. Discuss the implications of increasing population for the economy in terms of:
(i) demographic investment, and (ii) dependency burden. Give the contrary
views also.
POPULATION IN INDIA 119
ACTIVITY
Note down arguments which people in your vicinity give in favour of large
families as well as in favour of small families. Analyse these statements with
respect to socio-economic profile of the people giving the arguments.
120 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 9
Poverty in India
comparisons. For measuring the level persons with income 10, 17, 23, 30,
of inequality, these comparisons, again 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 units (Rupees,
measured by the difference of ones Hundreds of Rupees or Thousands of
income from the mean income, have to Rupees). Further, suppose, poverty line
be condensed into one single number. is 50 units. Obviously, five persons are
Standard deviation (or its division by below poverty line. In other words,
the mean) is one such measure of 50 per cent people are below poverty
inequality. line. We shall see that this measure of
Some attempts have also been made poverty, percentage of people below
to choose only some values of the poverty line, is known as head count
distribution. Range, for example, is one ratio. But how do we fix this number,
such measure. Range is defined as the which is known as poverty line? Before
difference between maximum and we try to answer this question, let us
minimum value. Some people prefer to see the implications of fixing a very
divide the range by the mean. high or very low poverty line.
In short, the point is that inequality
concerns with the pair-wise comparison High/Low Poverty Line
or comparison with some parameter of People often argue that our poverty line
the distribution in whose respect we are is too low and that a particular poverty
considering inequality. Poverty, on the line tells us that more than 90 per cent
other hand, concerns with the of people in India are actually poor. There
comparison with respect to a fixed line, are others who argue that the poverty
called poverty line. It is to be noted that lines could be fixed at a particular level
the distribution parameter like mean by persons who are interested in showing
goes on changing as distribution goes on a high proportion of people as poor so
changing. But poverty line is fixed that they go on formulating and
extraneously and, therefore, remains implementing poverty alleviating
fixed. programmes and keep themselves
engaged. Let us understand the
Poverty Line implications of these propositions.
Poverty is normally defined with Suppose, for the example given above
respect to poverty line. But what is poverty line is 100 units, then everybody
the poverty line and how is it fixed? is poor and everybody is in queue for
Poverty line is a cut-off point on the line assistance. Wherefrom do you get
of distribution, which divides the resources (money) to give assistance?
population as poor and non-poor. For You have to wait and see that people
simplicity, we consider distribution of grow out of poverty on their own, if they
income. People with income below can. The same will be the case when
poverty line are poor and people with there are too few on the other side of the
income above poverty line are non- poverty line. On the other hand, if
poor. Suppose we are considering poverty line is just 5 units, then
distribution of income per month or everybody is above poverty line and
per year. Suppose there are ten poverty is not an issue as no one or very
122 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
few people deserve assistance. They are In countries where data on income
very few poor simply because we have distribution is not available, data on
deliberately fixed a very low poverty line. consumption distribution is accepted as
Therefore, neither high nor low proxy for income distribution. India is
poverty line is desirable; it has to be one such country. It, however, means
reasonable from the feasibility of policy/ that the people on poverty line are
schemes. It should have some considered neither savers nor dissavers
relationship with the capacity of the -- neither lenders nor borrowers! In India,
nation, which may roughly be taken as we have another reason to consider
the per capita income. consumption, which is that we have a
long series of consumption data collected
Poverty Line in Terms of through sampling surveys conducted
Consumption or Income by the National Sample Survey
We have already pointed out that many Organisation (NSSO).
criteria including income and consumption
are used to define poverty line. Among Fixing Poverty Line
them, income is the most comprehensive How is the poverty line fixed then? It has
criterion. Income is suggested to be a better been fixed in various ways. Consumption
measure as it is considered as potential of food is considered the most important
consumption and permits long-term choice as food is essential for life. Fix the diet
through saving. But income is likely to with minimum quantities of essential
fluctuate in larger degree than items. Calculate the cost of this diet.
consumption. Consumption is said to be Increase this food cost, say by 50 per
steadier as it is maintained through cent, to allow consumption of other (non-
accumulation or spending of savings if food) items such as clothing, shelter,
income were to fluctuate. We may note that lighting, etc. for we know that nobody,
the difference between income and in a civilised society, lives by food alone.
consumption is called saving. Saving may You may like to add certain expenditure
be positive or negative. Negative saving is on medical care if it is not provided free.
also known as dissaving. This is consumption expenditure line of
calorie needs are satisfied. As the categories of people, separately for rural
quantities written against the areas and urban areas.
consumption classes are average
quantities, we can associate these Average Calorie Norms for Rural
calories with the mid-values of the and Urban Areas
respective consumption classes. Multiplying calorie requirement of a
certain group by its proportion in the
Calorie Norms population and adding all such products,
But how are the calorie needs fixed? we get the average calorie requirement
Some are children, some are adults and of the population. This exercise was
some are old. Some are men and some made separately for rural areas and
are women. Some are sedentary workers compared to persons living in urban
and some do hard work, even if we ignore areas a greates proportion of these who
climatic differences of the areas of engaged in heavy work were found in
residence. Nutritionists, when asked to rural areas. As a result, average
suggest the minimum amount of calories requirements for rural and urban person
that people should consume in order to was found to be 2435 calories and 2095
remain fit for life and to carry on normal calories respectively, which are
productive activity they perform, approximated to 2400 and 2100 calories
recommend different amounts of calories and which are reported in most of the
writings. If population composition were
for different groups of people. Groups are
to change, these average calorie
usually defined according to age, sex and
requirements would also change. But
activity. Our nutritionists categorize
this change would be nominal.
population into sixteen categories
Thus, in India, poverty line is the level
defined by age, sex and activity, and
of private consumption expenditure,
recommended minimum calories varying
which ensures a food basket that would
from 300 calories for children below 1
supply the required amount of calories.
year of either sex to 3600 calories for
It should be noted that it is not just the
young man engaged in heavy work.
cost of food items giving the prescribed
Population Composition calories. Peoples normal purchase is
accepted and expenditure at which
When the first attempt was made to people buy food items in such amounts,
estimate the poverty line in the 1970's, besides other items, that ensures the
the population data provided by census required amount of calories, is accepted
1971 was used. To start with, the whole as poverty line. The required amount of
population was split and grouped into calories calculated in this way is the
16 categories. For example, female non- minimum amount. The people are
workers in urban areas are around 23 allowed to enjoy other items in such
per cent of total urban population amounts as they choose under the
whereas males working in rural areas circumstances.
constitute 22 per cent of total rural At the time of the official exercise,
population. This is estimated for all 16 survey of consumption expenditure
POVERTY IN INDIA 125
carried out by the NSS for the year 1973- the country with urban poor in the
74 was available. The consumption country. Divide these aggregates of the
survey data is tabulated by per capita poor by appropriate aggregates of
household consumption expenditure. population, we get percentage of people
Against a class-interval of per capita below poverty line. Percentage of people
household consumption expenditure, below poverty line is also known as head
items of consumption by amount are count ratio or poverty incidence ratio.
written down. Therefore, for an interval,
one can calculate the amount of calories Poverty Estimates for India
if we know the number of calories that Most of the estimates of poverty in India
consumption of a unit of certain food are in terms of head count ratio. Many
item provides to human beings. The scholars have delved into the estimation
required amount of calories would business. The Government of India and
coincide with one of the class-interval the World Bank made estimates of
or will fall between two intervals. Using poverty for India. Many of these series
inverse interpolation, one can find with start right from the mid-fifties. However,
ease the amount of consumption we are providing the estimates of poverty,
expenditure at which minimum calorie which have been made with common
requirement is met. This is poverty line. methodology and comparable sample
Rural poverty line was found to be surveys of consumption expenditure
Rs 49.09 and urban poverty line, since 1973-74. The Planning Commi-
Rs 56.64 per month at 1973-74 prices. ssion has prepared these estimates (See
Table 9.1).
Estimation of Poverty in India Between any two years reported, you
We may remember that the data with us can notice that there is reduction in
is actually sample data. Sample poverty. It is possible that there might
percentage is accepted as population be a year or two in any duration when
percentage. Multiplying these percen- this might not have happened. On the
tages with appropriate population sizes, basis of smaller samples, some scholars
we obtain absolute number of poor
persons in rural and urban areas of each TABLE 9.1
state. These numbers can be added in a Head Count Ratio Estimates of Poverty:
variety of combinations. For finding out Rural, Urban and India (in percentage)
total number of the poor in a particular Year Rural Urban India
state, add the number of rural poor and
1973-74 56.4 49.0 54.9
urban poor in that state. For finding out
1977-78 53.1 45.2 51.3
total number of the poor in a particular 1983 45.7 40.8 44.5
group of states, say southern states, add 1987-88 39.1 38.2 38.9
rural and urban poor in all states in the 1993-94 37.3 32.4 36.0
group. For finding out rural (urban) poor 1999-00 27.1 23.6 26.1
in the country, add rural (urban) poor of Source: Economic Survey 2001-2002, Economic
all states. For finding out total number Division, Ministry of Finance,
of poor in the country, add rural poor in Government of India.
126 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
classes for property and income, taxing which has now been re-christened as
commodities of luxury consumption items Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana
at higher rate, subsidising essential (SGSY). This is a centrally sponsored
items like foodgrains, and providing free scheme, which is in operation in all 5000
education and mid-day meals were all development blocks of the country since
redistributive measures adopted with 1980. The grant/subsidy part is shared
this purpose. But, their success was very between the Union Government and the
limited. Or, one could say that, but for State Government on 50:50 basis. But the
these attempts, situation would have scheme is, now, executed by the district
perhaps been worse. These measures administration with the involvement of
have lost much of their significance. Panchayati Raj representatives.
It became clear by the mid-sixties Under this scheme, the families
that success of growth and redistributive below poverty line (basically small and
measures will remain limited if some marginal farmers, agricultural labourers
special, supplementary programmes not and rural artisans) are provided financial
started to help certain occupational assistance to acquire productive assets.
categories and social sections. We are The purpose is that the families are able
confining to programmes started by the to generate additional income on a
Government of India. These programmes sustained basis. Assistance is provided
were intended to be of two types: in the form of subsidy and bank credit.
(i) encouraging self-employment, and The proportion of subsidy in the
(ii) providing supplementary wage assistance differs from category to
employment. These programmes are category: small farmer, 25 per cent,
mostly confined to rural areas as marginal farmer, agricultural labourer
numerically four times more poor stay 33.33 per cent and SC/ST/PH, 50 per
in rural areas than in urban areas. We cent respectively. Coverage percentage
shall confine ourselves to rural for various categories is also fixed.
programmes only. There is a ceiling to the subsidy given.
We shall concentrate on (i) self- More than five crore families have
employment programmes, (ii) wage been given assistance. Total assistance,
employment programme, (iii) social over twenty years since inception, might
security programme (in brief), and be somewhere around Rs 40,000 crore,
(iv) public distribution system. It may be of which no less than Rs 15,000 crore
noted that these programmes are in form the subsidy. This total is the sum
some sense entitlement programmes of expenditure incurred over different
while those helping the poor in years, which obviously had different
education, health or housing are prices. Average assistance, actually
capability enhancing programmes. investment from the viewpoint of
assisted family, comes out to be Rs
Self-employment Programmes 7,500-8,000. It has been suggested that
Most important of all self-employment the investment is too low and it was too
generating programmes is the Integrated thinly spread to generate sufficient
Rural Development Programme (IRDP), income on a sustained basis. The
128 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
families, which were extremely poor, scheme. If the number of poor in the
could not fare well with one time rural areas continued to be 25 crore
assistance. The suggestion is that, if (5 crore families) despite assistance to
amount for disbursal is low, fewer more than 5 crore families (25 crore
families should have been assisted but persons), what could be the explanation?
adequately assisted. By the same token, One could well guess:
it could also be suggested that relatively 1. Assistance might not have gone to
better off within the poor should have the poor at all;
been assisted so that at least these
2. Assistance might have been too
families could stand on their legs. There
small to start any meaningful self-
would be others to suggest the opposite
employment generating productive
because relatively worse off among the
activity;
poor deserve better deal.
The IRDP had several allied 3. Incorrect selection of projects
programmes such as TRYSEM, DWCRA, (purchase of milch cattle was quite
GKY, MWS and SITRA. According to an popular but there was little care for
assessment, accepted by the Planning finding out availability of feed,
Commission, though they presented fodder or veterinary services on the
together a matrix of multiple programmes one hand and milk market on the
they had no desired linkages. For example, other); and
TRYSEM is a training programme for self- 4. Assistance for productive purposes
employment but less than 25 per cent of gets eaten into consumption
TRYSEM trainees were assisted under activities such as meeting expenses
IRDP. Similarly, IRDP beneficiaries, if they on marriages.
had training for meaningful self-employ- The SGSY, mentioned earlier claims
ment could generate adequate income but to be holistic programme, taking care of
not even 5 per cent beneficiaries were infrastructure facilities, technology,
given training under TRYSEM. credit and marketing arrangements. Let
There are studies reporting us hope.
corruption and assistance to non-
Wage Employment Programmes
deserving families. Lukewarm attitude
of district officials and bank managers For people, who had no assets of their
for the fear of non-recovery is also own (like land and cattle), simultaneously
responsible for part of the failure of the with IRDP, a wage employment
ACRONYMS
TRYSEM = Training of Rural Youth for Self-employment
DWCRA = Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
GKY = Ganga Kalyan Yojana
MWS = Million Well Scheme
SITRA = Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans
POVERTY IN INDIA 129
programme, viz. National Rural provide open irrigation wells, free of cost,
Employment Programme (NREP) was to poor small and marginal farmers
launched in 1980 as a centrally belonging to SC/ST category and Indira
sponsored scheme with 50 per cent Awas Yojana (IAY) to provide houses, free
funding from the Union Government. of cost, to SC/ST families--now extended
Supplementing the above scheme, for other poor from other social groups
another wage employment programme as well.
was launched on 15 August 1983. The The scheme has created some
scheme, known as Rural Landless infrastructure and has given employ-
Employment Guarantee Programme ment to some people for some days. But
(RLEGP), was again a centrally sponsored the way the programme was run did not
scheme but with 100 per cent funding by either generate sufficient employment
the Union Government. However, in to make any dent on poverty or create
1989, the two schemes were merged and relevant infrastructure. In the year
the merged scheme was called Jawahar 1998-99, employment created was less
Rojgar Yojana (JRY) to be funded by the than 40 crore man-days at total
Union Government to the tune of 80 per expenditure of Rs 2,500 crore. Taking
cent, the rest 20 per cent being provided material component at 40 per cent,
by the respective States. People below one can find that Rs 1,500 crore were
poverty line were to be given work at the paid as wages. Thus, average wage rate
rate notified and execution of the comes out to be less than Rs 40. Even
programme was to be done by the village if we take 4 crore persons to be in the
Panchayats themselves. queue for work, a person on an average
The objective of the programme was got work for 10 days in a year. Total
generation of gainful employment for the help to a family, with work to both man
unemployed and underemployed men and wife, would be at the most Rs 800
and women in rural areas. But there in a year. This is too paltry a sum for
were other objectives too. We can any family. In such a scenario, the
mention two significant ones: charges that Panchayat officials
favour their kith and kin get some
1. Creating community and social
validity.
assets such as social forestry, soil
Now, it is understood that the
conservation works, minor
scheme emphasised too much on
irrigation works, renovation of
employment creation and neglected
village wells, rural roads,
development of village infrastructure.
dispensary, school, Panchayat
Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) has
Ghar, market yard, bus stand,
been replaced by Jawahar Gram
Anganwadi/Balwadi, etc., and
Samaridhi Yojana (JGSY). It aims
2. Producing positive impact on wage at creation of demand-driven
level. community village infrastructure and
Two schemes, earlier sub-schemes of employment generation is only
NREP/RLEGP, were made part of JRY. secondary objective.
These are Million Well Scheme (MWS) to
130 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Next, we provided a very simplified fully trusted for fast alleviation. With this
account of poverty line which is fixed at in view, many focussed schemes, though
the national level in India and what were supplementary in nature, were launched
the rural and urban poverty lines. As since the late seventies. We discussed
poverty estimates based on a common mainly those, which were implemented in
methodology and comparable surveys rural areas. While these programmes
are available for six points between 1973- generating self-employment and wage
74 and 1999-2000, we presented and employment might have lifted a few lakh
analysed them for salient trends in terms families above the poverty line and
of poverty percentage and absolute brought others closer to the poverty line,
number. their success is rated as limited. Massive
Last, we noted that while growth and non-farm activities in rural areas,
general redistributive policy are necessary commensurate with the needs of the
for poverty alleviation, they could not be people, are expected to click.
EXERCISES
1. What do you understand by poverty?
2. Explain the difference between relative poverty and absolute poverty?
3. Give a hint as to how relative poverty (inequality) in terms of income can be
measured.
4. What is the difference between a distribution parameter and the poverty line?
5. Define poverty line. Explain implications of fixing a high poverty line for policy
making.
6. Explain implications of fixing a low poverty line for making policy of assistance.
7. In what terms should the poverty line be defined: income or consumption?
Explain your answer.
8. How is calorie consumption of different consumption expenditure classes
obtained in India?
9. How calorie norms are fixed for average rural person and average urban person
in India?
10. How is poverty line fixed in India at the national level?
11. Discuss poverty estimates since 1973-74 for country as a whole and draw out
salient trends for rural and urban areas.
12. What is the level of poverty in India and in its rural and urban areas? How do
you view the reduction in percentage and number between 1993-94 and 1999-
2000?
13. Why was there a need for launching poverty alleviation programmes? Why
were they not launched earlier?
14. List some of the poverty alleviation programmes operating in rural areas.
15. Discuss the nature, working and result of self employment generating schemes.
16. Discuss the nature, working and result of wage employment generating
schemes.
132 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY
Group Activity : Try to find out how beneficiaries are selected for various poverty
alleviation programmes in your village/locality in your vicinity. Discuss your
observations with your teacher.
CHAPTER 10
Unemployment
example given above, you can see that on the board of a private company where
one-third of the labour force is only he or she get salary for signing only two
superficially engaged. Engagement is not letters a day. The term was however
co-terminus with employment. It is coined by Joan Robinson to refer to the
entirely possible in a household phenomenon of engagement of very
enterprise such as activity on a small productive workers into shoe shining.
farm, whether owned and rented, where In a country like India, where more
work requirement for labour is less than than 50 per cent workers are still self-
the labour available within the employed, this hidden unemployment is
household. There are many other much larger. This is one reason that
informal activities, in rural as well as in some of these disguisedly unemployed
urban habitations, where such a move to urban areas and become openly
situation exists. But is it not because of unemployed. In this sense, open
lack of opportunities outside the employment is just the tip of the iceberg.
household activity/enterprise that forces Open unemployment is often
the household members to share the categorised as cyclical, structural, and
inadequate amount of work? frictional unemployment. If one so
Redundancy of engagement of a part wishes, one can first categorise open
of total household labour in terms of employment into secular and cyclical
productivity has always been referred to unemployment and then, secular
in literature. It has also been referred to unemployment into structural and
as the case in which a part of labour is frictional unemployment.
not gainfully engaged/employed. Still When aggregate demand for goods
further, we have indicated that they are and services in the economy falls far
not fully engaged in terms of time below its capacity, a large chunk of
disposition. All these three criteria of labour force gets unemployed. This is
productivity, income/remuneration and known as cyclical unemployment. Under
time-disposition are co-extensive in the the belief in a capitalist system, the
example of self-employment in household economy will pass through different
economic activity. There is a hidden phases of a cycle around some secular
belief in the productivity theory that trend. These phases are known as boom,
remuneration to a factor is given recession, depression and recovery.
according to its productivity. In fact, Boom is the phase of the highest
income, productivity, and time-disposition economic activity while depression is
are three dimensions of employment and, that of the lowest economic activity.
in labour market, they may not converge. While, in the case of depression, a lot of
When governments talk of overstaffing people are thrown out of job, in the phase
and plan to retrench people from of boom, many people, not normally in
government offices or are not recruiting labour market, are drawn into it. War
people in place of those who retire, the period is unfortunately similar to boom
employees are considered redundant insofar as total economic activity is
from the angles of production and time- concerned. Many women were drawn
disposition. So is the case with a director into labour force in Western countries
136 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
during the war periods and men were grown. They do not immediately get
thrown out during the depressions. absorbed in their preferred jobs at
As time passes, some new economic expected wage. Such unemployment is
activities emerge, some existing known as frictional unemployment.
economic activities gain in importance Sometimes, this may be caused by
and some other lose in importance. As a technological changes. Frictional
consequence, change in the demand unemployment is, for many, one of
pattern for goods necessitates change in voluntary unemployment, people
the demand pattern for labour. This is searching their first job.
actually a change in structure in the However, within a given year itself,
economic activities. But, labour force the overall level of economic activities in
cannot immediately metamorphose, many economies like ours may have
matching the change in demand pattern. seasonal fluctuations. Some of you may
So, there shall be vacancies in one corner recall Gandhi telling rural populace to
of the economy and there shall be people engage in spinning as supplement to
searching jobs in the other corner of the work and income as he had discovered
economy. This is known as structural that agriculture did not provide enough
unemployment. There is no overall work to people, particularly in the rainy
shortage of work but there is mismatch season. During the harvest season, there
between demand pattern and supply is, though, some shortage of labour and
structure. Some retraining and people usually not working are drawn to
redeployment may help people to some labour force. And, some rickshaw
extent. Structural imbalances occur pullers/ construction workers, who move
across occupations or across regions as from rural habitations to urban
certain sectors grow while others decline. habitations in dull season, move back
High real wages, welfare benefits and tax during the harvest. Such unemployment
concessions can create high levels of is said to be seasonal unemployment.
structural unemployment for entire
economies. Measurement of Unemployment
Further, labour market is not as Irrespective of the reasons for which
smooth as markets for other people are unemployed, we may be
commodities. There are many interested in knowing the extent of
institutional interventions. But, more unemployment in any given year. In fact,
than that, some people are always on the we know many facts about a person who
look out for better job prospects. Some is employed: where he is employed, at
of them leave their present job before what wage, at what position and so on--
picking up the next job. They engage in all economic aspects. However, when it
some educational pursuit or training and comes to the unemployed, we know more
come back in the labour market. Many about his demographic/social
women in urban area work for sometime characteristics. So, unemployment is
before marriage but leave the job after studied in terms of rural/urban division,
marriage, beget children and come back male/female division, division by age,
to labour market when children have and division by educational status, etc.
UNEMPLOYMENT 137
did not get work. This is the size of labour force). Remember the NSS data is
unemployment by daily status. Dividing based on sampling. Absolute figures are
it by the number of mandays available, obtained by multiplying participation
we get unemployment rate by daily status. rates obtained from sampling data and
population figures obtained by
Unemployment In India interpolation or projections.
We have already suggested that We can note from the table that
unemployment is studied in terms of during 1972-2000 our labour force has
rural or urban division, male or female increased from 24 crore to 41 crore, that
division, division by age, and division by is by two-thirds. While the rural labour
educational status, etc. We shall confine force has risen from 20 crore to 30 crore,
our discussion to rural or urban and a little more than 50 per cent, urban
male or female divisions. We shall also labour force has risen from 4 crore to
provide an idea about the size of the 10 crore, that is by 150 per cent.
labour focre and work force and their Migration from rural to urban areas
rates since 1972-73 (See Table 10.1 for must have played a great role. As you
labour force, work force and unemployed can see that the urban females in labour
TABLE 10.1
Labour Force, Work Force and Unemployed Labour Force by Male/Female
and Rural/Urban Divisions (in crores)
Year Rural Male Rural Female Urban Male Urban Female Total
Labour Force
1972-73 12.87 7.09 3.29 0.77 24.02
1977-78 14.45 8.36 41.4 1.21 28.16
1983 15.59 9.13 5.02 1.30 31.04
1987-88 16.50 9.51 5.85 1.58 33.44
1993-94 18.93 10.47 6.73 1.84 37.97
1999-00 20.02 10.50 8.07 2.00 40.67
Work Force
1972-73 12.72 7.06 3.18 0.72 23.68
1977-78 14.14 8.01 3.88 1.04 27.07
1983 15.27 9.04 4.73 1.23 30.27
1987-88 16.05 9.20 5.50 1.45 32.20
1993-94 18.66 10.37 6.45 1.73 37.21
1999-00 19.68 10.40 7.71 1.89 39.68
Unemployed
Labour Force
1972-73 0.15 0.03 0.16 0.05 0.39
1977-78 0.31 0.35 0.26 0.17 1.09
1983 0.32 0.09 0.29 0.07 0.77
1987-88 0.45 0.31 0.35 0.13 1.24
1993-94 0.37 0.10 0.36 0.12 0.95
1999-00 0.32 0.10 0.29 0.09 0.80
Source : India Year Book 2001 Manpower Profile, Institute of Applied Manpower Research, New Delhi, 2001.
UNEMPLOYMENT 139
force have risen by 200 per cent though highest among all categories (See Table
they are still only 5 per cent of the total 10.2).
labour force. It means more and more Are these rates small enough to be
women in urban areas are now willing ignored? Are we justified to say that
to work outside their homes. Rural unemployment is not a problem in India?
women are already working outside. Very Compared to western countries, it
similar is the case for work force, needing appears plausible to argue that our
no extra comments. unemployment rates are low. We can
When it comes to unemployed labour perhaps say that our problem is poverty
force, we note wide fluctuations across while theirs is unemployment.
periods and across categories. For However, when we refer to daily
example, in 1977-78 over 1973-74, status unemployment rates, we find that
unemployment in all categories rose, and, they are twice/thrice as high as usual
for women, in larger proportions. In the status unemployment. It means that,
next interval, while unemployment of men though the people may not be
does not decline, that of women drops unemployed for major part of year, they
drastically, and this pattern gets repeated. are unemployed on days they are
Unemployment in 1999-2000 is lower available and willing to work.
than or at least higher when compared to Unemployment rates in 1999-2000 for
1993-94 or 1987-88. Yet, in absolute different categories are about 7 per cent
number unemployment in 1999-2000 is except in case of urban female in which
twice as large as in 1972-73. case it is 0.4 per cent. When we try to
However, as we try to find out what find out the position of the educated in
proportion of labour force is unemployed, employment, we discover that, while
we find that never has the rate of unemployment for urban male is 6-7 per
unemployment in the labour force been cent, that for rural female is as high as
more than 4 per cent, the lowest rate 30 per cent for graduates and 15 per cent
being just 1.6 per cent. When we for matric-passed. Hence, higher the
segregate it into different categories, we education, higher the rate of
notice that unemployment of women in unemployment.
urban areas is the highest though it widely To conclude, we may note that low
fluctuated but even in 1999-2000 it is the unemployment rate may be a reflection
TABLE 10.2
Usual Status Unemployment Rates by Rural/Urban and Male/Female Division
(as per cent of labour force in the category)
Year Rural Male Rural Female Urban Male Urban Female Total
of poverty. Poor cannot stay away from new entrants to the labour force may be
work for long, irrespective of wages. But searching for more jobs than are
there exists considerable mismatch available. Besides frustration that the
between the requirements of the youth gets when he finds no job, it is a
economy and availability of manpower. wastage of national resources invested
This is structural unemployment. Some in his/her upbringing and education.
EXERCISES
1. Bring out the importance of employment.
2. How is unemployment an economic as well as a social problem?
3. Why is womens household work not recognised as work?
4. What do you mean by voluntary employment? Is it totally voluntary?
5. Explain the meaning of involuntary unemployment.
6. Distinguish between open unemployment and disguised unemployment.
Explain it by examples.
7. Is disguised unemployment prevalent in agriculture alone? Where else do you
notice it?
8. Explain the meaning of cyclical and structural unemployment.
9. Explain the difference between structural unemployment and frictional
unemployment.
10. What do you mean by seasonal unemployment?
11. Explain the concepts of labour force, work force and unemployment and the
relationship among the three.
12. What do you mean by usual status employment and unemployment?
13. How do you find out labour force/work force participation rate?
14. What is unemployment rate by usual staus?
15. Try to explain unemployment rate by daily status.
16. What is present size of labour force and how is it distributed across categories?
17. How has unemployment grown over time by absolute number?
18. Discuss the pattern of and changes in unemployment rates.
19. What is the relationship between poverty and unemployment?
ACTIVITY
Note down efforts made by the people who are in search of a job. Try to
analyse whether their conditions can be understood in terms of categories
discussed in this chapter.
CHAPTER 11
Infrastructural Challenges
Introduction Energy
Infrastructure and its services play a key As we have seen in a previous chapter,
role in economic development. Slow energy is a critical input for most of the
growth of infrastructure impede the production processes and consumption
growth of the economy. Development of activities. Modern economic growth in all
quality infrastructure, which is efficient countries is found to be associated with
and low cost to users, however, requires a massive use of energy. In the last fifty
high upfront cost and often has long years, we have had more than four-fold
gestation period. Heavy investment increase in total energy use for less than
requirement involved in its development three-fold population. It increased from
suggests that participation of all sectors 90 MOTE (million tonnes of oil
public, private and foreignmay be equivalent) in 1953-54 to 375 MOTE in
needed.
1996-97. But, if we concentrate only on
Since many infrastructure services
commercial energy, the increase is ten-
operate at fairly large scale, they assume
fold from 25 MOTE to 250 MOTE. It is
monopolistic character. In such cases,
obvious that most of the increase
some regulatory framework is instituted
accounts for the shift from non-
irrespective of its ownership in public or
in private sectors. The regulator should commercial energy to commercial
be such that it has no vested interest in energy. The share of commercial energy
running the service, or running it in total energy consumption has
inefficiently and/or pricing the service increased from 28 per cent in the early
at much higher level than its efficient fifties to 66 per cent in the late nineties.
cost. While use of commercial energy has risen
We have earlier suggested that ten-fold, that of non-commercial energy
infrastructure services can be divided rose only two-fold. Our per capita energy
into two categories economic and consumption has increased by about 50
social. We propose to discuss in this per cent from 0.25 OTE in 1953-54 to
chapter three economic and two 0.36 OTE in 1996-97. It is considered
infrastructure services. These are: pretty low. While we will have to put
energy, transport, communication, efforts to optimise availability of energy,
education and health. in view of limited potential of primary
142 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
ENERGY
Non-Commercial Commercial
Fuelwood
Conventional Non Conventional
Animal Dung
Coal Solar/Wind
Biogas/Biomass
Petroleum/Gas Small Hydro
Crop Residue
Hydro Ocean Thermal/
Nuclear Wave
and nuclear. Nuclear plants have just 3 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd.
per cent of installed capacity and 4 per (NPCIL). State Governments have their
cent of electricity supply. Plants using State Electricity Boards. There also exist
non-conventional resources (solar, gobar Central Electricity Authority and Central
gas and wind) are insignificant in terms Electric Regulatory Commission.
of total supply. Once electricity has been
Plant Load Factor
generated, that can be transmitted
through the same network. At local In order to judge the operational
level, electricity is downloaded and efficiency of a thermal plant, an index
distributed. Thus, there are three called plant load factor is used. If total
phases of electricity supply: generation, capacity is continuously used over a
transmission and distribution. Private year, that is, all 24 hours and 365 days,
investors are encouraged to enter the total electricity generated would be
areas of generation and distribution, not 72,000 million watts (24 365) hours
transmission. = 63,07,20,000 million watt-hours,
Our total installed capacity of which is equal to 6,30,720 million
generating power increased from less than kilowatt-hours or 630 billion kwh.
1,500 megawatt to over one lakh However, some allowance is made for
megawatts (1,00,000 MW) in the last fifty technical factors and we can accept 600
years. Of the present capacity, 72 per billion kwh as the maximum
cent is in thermal sector and 25 per cent generation. But we are actually
in hydel sector. We are adding roughly producing around 400 billion kwh.
4000 MW each year. In terms of Thus, combined plant load factor is
generation of power, thermal is around 66 per cent.
contributing 80 per cent and hydel, 16 However, if one tries to find out its
per cent. Hydel power projects, with regional pattern, one finds that it
storage facilities, provide peak time varies from 18 per cent in the North-
support to the power system. Where East to 80 per cent in the South. While
peaking support from the hydel is poor, the North and the West finish with 72
as in the Western and Eastern regions, per cent each, the East is around 50
thermal plants have to undertake this per cent. Plants in private sector show
task as well. a load factor above 75 per cent and in
The Union Government, State the Central (government) sector 72-73
Governments and Private Sector are all per cent but in the State (government)
in power generation business through sector just about 64 per cent. Analysis
plants using dams, steam and gas. In shows that State and Central sectors
addition, the Union Government has are equally efficient if the State sector
plants, that use nuclear fission plants in the East and the North-East
technology. The Union Government are not taken into account. Yet, it
operates Power generation companies should be mentioned that in recent years
such as NTPC (National Thermal Power we have improved plant load factor
Corporation), NHPC (National considerably, particularly when management
Hydroelectric Power Corporation) and of many thermal plants went into the
144 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
metre gauge and 3000 RKM in narrow have been consistently pursuing the uni-
gauge. Around one-fourth of total route gauge policy by converting metre gauge
(and one-third of broad gauge) is lines into broad gauge ones and
electrified. Electrified routes are in fact all programme of electrification of important
double or triple or even quadruple at sections. Hopefully, the electrification of
places and thus carry much more freight golden quadrilateral is complete. There
and many more passengers. Railways are is less emphasis on new lines but
said to have played an integrating role in multiplexing of track in busy corridors
social and economic development of the is receiving some attention. Renewal and
country. upgra-dation of track is equally
Despite the fact that Railways are important as our tracks are quite old and
less energy intensive and more outdated.
environment friendly, the Railways have
The Indian Railways, with 15.5 lakh
been losing their market share in the
employees, are the largest employer
total transport sector. Efforts are now
among the public sector undertakings
on to improve its share. In recent years
and in all undertakings. But this asset
total net tonne-kilometres of goods
carried by the Railways has been over is now being considered a burden as the
30,000 crore and passenger-kilometres, wage-bill, including pension liabilities,
above 45,000 crore. But, more important constitutes the major portion of
part is that the Railways transport all operating cost. The Railways are now
heavy, bulk raw materials/ores introducing a plan of right-sizing the
(including coal and POL) and essential manpower. As you know under the
items of fertilisers and foodgrains, Railways establishment, we also have
wherever they exist. certain production units. It has been
It is important to remember that, for decided that many departments
quite sometime now, the Indian Railways concerned with the running (like
service. Due to its limited capacity, the one crore persons is just 0.15 kilometres.
railways concentrated on bulk freight It is comparable to Brazil, Thailand and
from the core sector and ignored high Korea and little better than Bangladesh,
value non-bulk sectors and thus lost Nepal and Sri Lanka. Still further, in
valuable revenue. General policy of comparison to 30 per cent in Brazil,
cross-subsidisation of passenger traffic 50 per cent in Thailand, 70 per cent in
by freight traffic, unduly raising freight South Korea and 85 per cent in the USA,
charges, made the railways lose goods in India only 20 per cent of the paved roads
traffic. are in good condition.
The Railways are now realising that, Before we discuss about modern
by hiking freight charges and restraining motorized transportation, a word about
hike in passenger fares, they have, over the non-motorised transport. Manual
years, out-priced themselves in the goods rickshaws, cycle rickshaws, handcarts
sector and have, therefore, lost traffic. They (both goods and passengers), tongas,
are now considering correction of this carts driven by bullocks, buffaloes and
imbalance through reduction in the level camels, and pack animals are major non-
of cross-subsidisation. They are motorised transport modes. There may
venturing out to have partnership with be around 50 lakh cycle rickshaws
private sector for better connectivity with (contrast with 5 lakh buses and 20 lakh
ports. They are trying to improve their goods vehicles) and 850 lakh draught
parcel services. animals and they haul significantly
The Ministry of Railways had high/short distance goods and
constituted an Expert Group on the last passenger traffic. Inexpensive,
day of 1998 to study the railways system environment-friendly and simple in
and make recommendation for technology as the non-motorised modes
reorganization, if needed. It has are, they also represent stagnant
recommended for corporatisation of the technology and drudgery for human
Railway Board into the Indian Railway beings.
Corporation and suggested that an You have already noted, in a previous
Indian Railway Regulatory Authority chapter, that we have classified our
should be set up to regulate tariff roads into National Highways, State
structure. Highways and other roads. National
Highways measure around 58,000 kms
Road and Road Transport while state highways put together
India has about 35 lakh kilometres of road measure about 1,58,000 kms. National
network allowing plying of 5 lakh Highways are, however, the prime
passenger buses and 20 lakh goods arterial routes as they cater to about 45
vehicles. It is one of the largest in the world per cent of total road transport though
but its quality is too poor to meet the need their length is just 4 5 per cent of the
of modern fast moving vehicular traffic. total surfaced roads. Till a few years ago
In fact, standard paved roads constitute (1996) only 3 4 per cent of National
hardly a little over 50 per cent of the total. Highways were multi-laned though
Road density in terms of paved roads per 75 per cent were standard double laned
INFRASTRUCTURAL CHALLENGES 149
and 12-13 per cent, standard single- National Highways Development Project
laned. State Highways were hardly multi- (NHDP), launched in 1998, is expected
laned while only 20 per cent were double- to complete the Golden Quadrilateral by
laned. Only 36 per cent of state highways 2003 and the two corridors by 2007.
were single-laned and another 36 per
Rural Roads
cent of State Highways, below standard.
It may be noted that on some of the state Our villages are not well connected with
highways traffic is as high as on national national/state/district roads. For want
highways. Laning or over-bridging a rail- of funds, we have a gradual approach
road crossing is decided upon number of which first seeks to provide accessibility
vehicles (measured in passenger car units) to villages with larger population, say
that pass per day. over 1000/1500. In order to give a fillip
Large sections of National Highways to this infrastructure, a Pradhan Mantri
and some sections of State Highways are Gram Sadak Pariyojana has recently
being used well over 100 per cent of their been announced. It intends to provide
intended capacity, leading to slow speed, connectivity to all villages of more than
high vehicle operating costs, 500 persons through good all-weather
environmental pollution and high road.
incidence of accidents. Construction of
Water Transport
missing links and bypasses and bridges,
strengthening of weak roads, and Water transport has three components:
widening of single lanes to two-lanes and Shipping through 11 major ports and
two-lanes to four-lanes have therefore, 139 minor ports, handling 90 per cent
been the major programmes in the recent of our foreign trade; coastal shipping
years. along 5,560 kms coastal line, ferrying
The National Highways network has bulk cargo of coal, POL, iron coastal line
two major networks, which have to be ore; and inland water transport with
four-laned. They are: (i) 6,000 kms long 15,000 kms navigable waterways, hardly
Golden Quadrilateral connecting four contributing one per cent to transport
metros, viz. Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, in terms of tonne-kms.
and Kolkata, and (ii) 7,000 kms long
North-South and East-West corridors, Overseas Shipping
connecting Srinagar with Kanyakumari Over 90 per cent of international trade
(via Delhi, Jhansi and Bangalore) and in terms of volume and 80 per cent in
Silchar with Porbandar (via Kanpur, terms of value is carried out by our ships
Jhansi and Udaipur) respectively. The owned by 80 companies. The major items
all sectors and also suggested that deemed ones, 1,2000 colleges (including
disparity in access to education, whether 1,500 exclusively for women) and a host
rural-urban or male-female, be of unrecognised institutions particularly
eliminated. It means: (a) free and in the higher education sector.
compulsory education to children in age Yet, it would be good to have a glimpse
group of 6-14, (b) total eradication of on physical educational statistics. These
illiteracy, (c) vocationalisation of days, total enrolment of boys and girls, in
education, and (d) focus on education of primary schools is over 11 crore and in
women, weaker sections and minorities. upper primary schools, over 4.2 crore and
In deference to the Supreme Court about 2.8 crore in high/higher secondary/
judgement declaring right to education as inter/pre-degree schools and colleges. Thus,
fundamental right, the Lok Sabha has over 18 crore students are studying in some
passed the Ninety Third Amendment Bill or the other class/stage of school education.
of the Constitution which makes the Up to Class VIII, the students are around
right to free and compulsory education 16 crore while population in the age-group
for children in the age group of 6-14 a 6-14 is over 20 crore. Thus, about 80 per
Fundamental Right and for parents/ cent children, 90 per cent boys and 70 per
guardian a Fundamental Duty to provide cent girls, are attending schools. The drop-
opportunities for their children. But, the out rates of boys declined from 55 per cent
Government accepts that its success in primary level and 68 per cent in upper
would be limited in the absence of a primary level in 1980-81 to less than 40 and
strong social movement for universal a little above 50 per cent respectively, in
elementary education. 1999-2000. Similarly, the drop-out rates
According to the Sixth All India of girls, from 65 per cent at primary level
Educational Survey, organised by the and nearly 80 per cent at upper primary
NCERT in 1993, 94 per cent of the rural level have reduced to 40 per cent and 55
population and 83 per cent of the rural per cent, respectively. But they are indeed
habitations have access to primary very high. In fact, hardly 60 per cent
schools/sections within a distance of 1 students who enroll in Class I reach
km.; 85 per cent of the rural population Class V.
and 76 per cent of the rural habitations Gross enrolment ratios for women
have access to upper primary schools or with respect to relevant age-groups, are
sections. It is understood that, in the consistently lower than those for men at
years gone by, the access level should all levels but at the same time one can
have improved. At this stage, we are notice that the differential between male
having about 6,50,000 primary schools/ and female enrolment ratios has
substantially reduced over time (See
sections, about 2,00,000 upper primary
Table 11.1).
schools/sections and 1,16,000 Outcome is always more important
secondary schools as against 2,10,000 than inputs into a process; yet, inputs
primary schools/sections, 13,600 upper are also of some consequence. We have
primary schools and 7,400 secondary seen to some extent what our
schools in 1950-51. We have by now educational system is giving to us. But
around 300 universities, including how much effort do we make? Some of
154 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 11.1
Gross Enrolment Ratios (in per cent)
these efforts can be inferred in terms of and (vi) Mahila Samakhya, for
money we spend on the system. The empowerment of women.
Government, Union and States put
Health
together, is spending more than Rs
45,000 crore, around Rs 40,000 as non- Undoubtedly, over fifty years, our health
plan revenue expenditure and Rs 5,000- conditions have improved. While crude
6,000 crore as plan expenditure. But this death rate has reduced from around 25-
constitutes to be no more than 3.8 per 27 in 1951 to less than 9 in 2000, infant
cent of our GDP. It is considered very low mortality rate has halved from about 145
as the Government of India had been to 70 and child mortality rate from 57 to
promising for the last 35 years to annually 22 over the same period. As a result, life
spend 6 per cent of GDP. Of the total plan expectancy at birth has improved from
expenditure by all governments, around 36-37 years to 61-62 years
expenditure on education, which was during this period. Our women now live
about 7.0 per cent during the Third Plan longer by about three years.
and came down to 2.7 per cent during Yet, burden of disease continues to
the Sixth Plan, slowly rose to about 6.0 be significant. Communicable diseases
per cent towards the close of the Ninth still dominate the causes of mortality and
Plan. The Union Government morbidity but their incidence over time
supplements the efforts of the State has significantly reduced.
Governments through its schemes:
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL TRANSITION
(i) Operation Black Board for improving
As life expectancy of a population improves
school infrastructure, including additional
the relative incidence of communicable
teacher, (ii) National Programme of and non-communicable diseases changes.
Nutritional Support, proving mid-day meal Earlier, before the onset of the transition
to students, (iii) Minimum Levels of the major cause for mortality and
Learning, involving development of morbidity used to be communicable
competencies in Language, Mathematics diseases, after the transition the major
and Environmental Studies, (iv) DPEP/ cause happens to be non-communicable
BEP/UPEP, (v) Non-formal Education, diseases.
INFRASTRUCTURAL CHALLENGES 155
EXERCISES
1. Bring out the importance of infrastructure in development.
2. Why do we need contribution of all sectorsprivate, public, and foreign in
development of infrastructure?
3. Why do we need independent regulatory authorities in infrastructure sector
between the service provider and government?
4. Discuss consumption of energy in India since Independence in terms of total
and per capita consumption, as also shift in composition of energy sources.
5. Distinguish between primary and final sources; between commercial and non-
commercial sources; and between conventional and non-conventional sources
of energy.
6. Discuss the role of three services needed in supply of electricity. Should they
be in different hands? Attempt your answer.
7. What are the three basic sources of generating power?
8. What do you mean by plant load factor? How could it be improved?
9. Why do we require grid for transmission of electricity?
10. What do you mean by transmission and distribution losses? How could they
be reduced?
11. Discuss the division of traffic between road and rail transport.
12. Why did road sector do relatively better than the railways?
13. Discuss electrification of tracks and unification of gauge programmes and
how they are going to help us in transport sector.
14. What are the major items carried by the Indian Railways?
15. What is the size of manpower in the Indian Railways? Why has it turned into
a liability?
16. It is alleged that freight traffic is paying for passengers, higher class passengers
are paying for lower class passengers, and non-suburban passengers are paying
for suburban passengers. Give your views.
17. What should the Indian Railways do to increase their share of traffic?
18. What are the changes proposed in the functioning of Indian Railway?
19. Discuss the road network in India and its condition.
20. How do you assess the importance of National Highways?
21. What is your assessment about rural road network?
156 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
(SPM) pollute air. As air is the carrier of diseases in India are found to be water-
oxygen for human beings and other related. A good percentage of infant
animals, they suffer from various mortality is associated with it.
ailments causing disability which affects Water quality gets damaged due to
work and leisure. Gases like CO, CO2, three major factors, viz. domestic and
NO2, SO2, and ozone, and suspended human waste water, industrial waste
particulates, including lead particulates water and agricultural runoff. Domestic
are major pollutants causing diseases and human waste water is the most
which often results in early death. These problematic and the principal cause of
diseases include respiratory, cardio- many severe water-borne diseases.
vascular, hyper-tension, asthma, eye Disposal of untreated sewage water (as is
irritation, and neurological problems. done in many cities) as irrigation water
Diseases cause morbidity leading to for crops, particularly vegetables, is not
loss of work to the individuals and loss good. Some vegetables are washed in these
of output to the society and cost of dirty nallahs and some of which are some-
treatment to the individuals/society. times eaten raw. Sewage and wastewater
Instead of baking bread, some people and also industrial wastewater find their
are engaged developing and way into rivers and streams beyond the
manufacturing chemprox! (Chemprox latters assimilative capacities. Major
is not a real drug. It is a word coined water polluting industries are chemicals,
to give a flavour of unnecessary pharmaceuticals, textiles, cement,
activities we indulge in because of our electrical and electronic equipments, glass
misdoings or inadequate precaution.) and ceramics, pulp and paperboard,
One would not be manufacturing many leather tanning, food processing and
odd drugs but for the fact that pollution petroleum refining. Indiscriminate use of
is causing many a disease. Death itself chemicalsfertilisers and pesticidesin
is a heavy cost. These problems get agriculture does finally result into conta-
accentuated in a country like India mination of surface and ground water.
where general nutrition level is fairly Demand for water is rising and will
low. Cost of prevention would be found further rise, particularly in urban areas,
to be too low in comparison to cost of due to rise in population but more than
consequences. that, due to rise in income leading to
higher per capita demand for water. Its
Water Pollution demand, to some extent, can be curtailed
It is said that all surface and a lot of by better pricing of water supply. Proper
ground water in India, in rural and urban collection of user charges is equally
areas both, is so contaminated that it is important. Water supply is getting more
unfit for direct consumption by human and more expensive as raw water needs
beings. Diarrhoea, trachoma, intestinal to be treated for pollutants.
worms, and hepatitis are caused by poor
quality water, poor sanitation and poor Degradation of Resources
hygiene. Ten per cent of all diseases and Degradation of resources saps their
twenty per cent of all communicable productive capacity. Long-term
OTHER EMERGING ISSUES 159
We may briefly note some of the steps A New Forest Policy was announced
that have been undertaken to improve by the Ministry of Environment and
the scene. The Government of India has Forests in December 1988. There is little
accepted the recommendations on social new in this policy in terms of targets but
forestry made by the National its focus and orientation in strategy is
Commission on Agriculture (1976). important. It lays down that forest-based
Social forestry has three components, industries would not be allowed to
viz. farm forestry, public woodlots and plunder forests and would no longer be
community woodlots. Under farm permitted to get forest produce at
forestry schemes, farmers are concessional rate and they must get their
encouraged to plant trees on their farms raw materials from woods raised through
with free or subsidized seedlings supplied farm forestry. According to this policy,
by the state forest departments. Under the industries are advised to motivate
public woodlots, the forest departments farmers, through incentive measures, for
have undertaken to plant fast growing farm forestry. Private contractors will not
trees along roads and canals and in other be permitted to collect forest produce and
public lands. Under community various government agencies and tribal
woodlots, local communities are cooperatives would be set up to replace
supposed to plant trees on village them. Forestland would not be diverted
commons. The purpose is obviously to for non-forest use including cultivation
1. increase green cover; of tea, coffee, spices, rubber, palm, oil-
bearing plants, horticultural plants and
2. produce raw materials for paper; medicinal plants.
rayon and match industries; Yet it is understood that there is a
3. meet the requirements of the poor lot of under-hand dealing between the
for fuelwood/firewood and fodder; timber merchants and forest officials.
4. grow small timber and minor forest Multiple purpose big dams also
produce; and swallow a lot of forest-land. The poor are
5. create more employment in rural said to be stealing wood and other minor
areas through afforestation. forest produce. However, our view is that
the poor may be collecting only fallen
In some areas of the country, you dead pieces and may not be cutting green
would notice some success in this area; trees. Fallen dead pieces of woods, in any
though admittedly much more needs to case, have to be collected.
be done. Many of these trees do little to
conserve water and, therefore, should be Land Degradation
grown in areas of water-logging. Our land is suffering from a variety of
It was found that, besides industri- degradations. Degradations make it unfit
alists, State Governments were also for cultivation. Erosion of topsoil due to
unmindful of these odd developments as water and wind, and salinity and
forest exploitation gave them revenue. alkalinity due to water logging or flooding
So much so, that many industries were with marine water are our great
given timber at nominal prices. problems. Our lands are either flood-
OTHER EMERGING ISSUES 161
prone or drought prone. Flood causes area, gets affected by flood while 40 lakh
greater erosion if soil is without trees and hectares gets damaged due to shifting
grass. This soil goes to silt dams, cultivation. Ravines encroach as much
reservoirs, tanks, rivers and streams. as 8,000 hectares every year. An old
The reduction in depth further spreads authoritative estimate of the problem is:
the area affected by flood. Thus, there One-third of our land under forest, two-
exists a small vicious circle. thirds land under agriculture and nearly
Grass may be overgrazed and trees all cultivable waste lands, permanent
may be cut without replacement. In some pastures and grazing lands are in urgent
areas we still practise shifting cultivation need of soil conservation measures.
by slash and burn method. Such soil is Thereafter many conservation measures
drought-prone too. Areas which for long have been undertaken but it seems, on
have been denuded lose humus and do balance, that we could not succeed much
not have vegetative cover, do not retain in containing further degradations.
water and, therefore, loose topsoil which
erodes with wind too. In this process, the Gender
topsoil loses major nutrients such as There exist biological differences between
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. the two genders. Division of certain roles
In some cases, on the other hand, between the two genders is, therefore,
we find that there is excessive water near considered natural. For example, only
the topsoil, which sucks such minerals female can bear children. Perhaps, she
upturning soil either alkaline or saline. can do better in rearing too.
This type of soil is not suitable for However, in all societies, it is found
cultivation. Then there is some area, that there exist many other differentials,
which remains perennially submerged which in no way could be ascribed to
under water. From Table 12.2, we can biological differences. It is now believed
see that more than 50 per cent area that human society has, for ages, been
suffers from serious degradations. discriminating between the two genders
Every year, it is estimated, 80 lakh and, on balance, has been favouring
hectares, with 40 lakh hectares cropped male section. In our society, the level of
TABLE 12.2
Details of Areas Suffering from Various Degradations
TABLE 12.4
Sex Ratio for Age Groups 0-6 and 7+ for 1991 and 2001
Year Sex Ratio for 0-6 Sex Ratio for 7+ Sex ratio for All
1991 945 923 927
2001 927 935 933
Source: Census of India 2001 Series 1 India, Provisional Population Totals, Registrar and Census
Commissioner, India.
164 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Mean age at marriage has improved from empowering women. However, the
around 15 years in 1951 to around 20 legislatures, which reserved seats for
years by the end of the century. women in local bodies, have not done so
in respect of their own seats (See Table
Literacy Rate
12.6).
One spectacular achievement that we From the Table12.6, we can see that
have had is in the case of literacy where representation of people through women
the gaps are closing fast (See Table 12.5). in Lok Sabha has been fluctuating but
In the last fifty years, while overall female rising. In Rajya Sabha, it is constant.
literacy rate improved from around 9 per The representation is to the Parliament
cent to 54 per cent, that of rural areas rather low. Similar should be the case
from less than 5 per cent to over 45 per with State Legislatures.
cent. While the gap in 1951 was 18 per
cent points on 9 per cent female literacy, Work Participation and Wages
in 2001 it is 21 per cent points on Women are subjected to work in
54 per cent literacy. homestead as well as at work place. Their
But, there is no reason to be work in home is not recognised as work.
complacent on the matter. This is an Work outside home is recognised as
aspect where both the sexes should enjoy work. If we consider the ratio of workers
a hundred per cent literacy. In fact, to corresponding populations, we would
rural-urban differential in female literacy find that male work participation rate is
is staggering by any standard. And rural about 55 per cent irrespective of the area
female is the only section, which has of residence while female participation
literacy rate less than 50 per cent. rate is about 12 per cent in urban areas
but 25 per cent in rural areas. Many
Political Empowerment
think that it is a serious reflection on
On political front, one-third seats have societys refusal to allow women to work
been reserved for women at local level outside home. No doubt, generally,
political bodies and there are more than women who work outside home, earn
10 lakh mahila panchs. This is money and are slightly more
considered to be one major step of independent than their counterpart who
TABLE 12.5
Male and Female literacy Rates by Rural-Urban Division (in percent)
Year Rural Male Rural Female Urban Male Urban Female Male Female
1951 19.02 04.87 45.60 22.33 27.10 08.86
1961 34.30 10.10 66.00 40.50 40.40 15.35
1971 48.60 15.50 69.80 48.80 45.96 21.97
1981 49.60 21.70 76.70 56.30 56.38 29.76
1991 57.90 30.60 81.10 64.00 64.13 39.29
2001 71.40 46.70 86.70 73.20 75.85 54.16
Source : Economic Survey 2001-2002, Economic Division, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
OTHER EMERGING ISSUES 165
Table 12.6
Representation by Women in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
work only inside home. Many analysts, workers category in urban areas can be
therefore, advocate that their dismissed as, in each sub-category, do
participation should be raised. Those women get paid low. In rural areas,
who are familiar with Indian situation women with education up to eighth
would perhaps disagree with this view standard seem to be better placed, say as
because higher participation of rural Class III employees and they may be
women in work outside does not show belonging to urban areas (for regular jobs
that their standing is better in any sense in rural areas are in the government).
than their urban counterpart. The point Among the casual workers, womens wage
is whether females of a house are is about two-thirds of the wage for the
working outside home, particularly on male.
farms, because of compulsion of poverty It could well be argued by the
or by sweet choice to supplement income. employer that women perform different,
However, it has to be noted that they often low skilled, jobs; otherwise equal
are often low paid as well. This is where pay for equal job is available. There are
the discrimination exists. We are providing scholars to suggest so. For example, let
here information on wages for man and us take the case of medical profession.
women with same qualifications (See There are more women nurses and more
Table 12.7). Except in two cases, i.e. male doctors.
workers with education up to Class VIII
in rural areas and all workers in urban Migration
areas, everywhere we find that average People move for a variety of reasons from
wage rate received by women is less. All one place to another and for different
166 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TABLE 12.7
Average Wage/Salary Received by Employees Per Day in 1999-2000 (Rs.)
Regular Regular
Not literate 71.23 40.32 Not literate 87.63 51.83
Educated upto VIII 91.63 161.48 Educated upto VIII 105.08 64.41
Secondary 148.23 126.09 Secondary 168.16 145.73
Graduate + 220.93 159.92 Graduate + 261.55 234.74
All 127.32 114.01 All 169.71 295.00
Casual 44.84 29.01 Casual 62.26 37.71
Source : India Yearbook 2001 Manpower Profile, Institute of Applied Manpower Research, New Delhi.
TABLE 12.8
Distribution of Migration by Reason (percentage)
1981 1991
Reasons Female Male Female Male
Employment 1.9 31.8 1.8 27.0
Education 1.0 5.1 0.8 4.8
Family Moved 14.3 30.3 11.0 26.6
Marriage 73.4 3.3 76.1 4.0
Others 9.4 29.5 10.3 37.6
Total Migration (crore) 14.52 6.25 16.78 6.43
Source: India Yearbook 2001 Manpower Profile, Institute of Applied Manpower Research, New Delhi.
EXERCISES
1. Contrast past and present thinking with regard to relationship between nature
and development.
2. What are the important environmental issues, which should receive our
attention?
3. What are the major causes of air pollution?
4. How do you justify cost of prevention/abatement of pollution?
5. Discuss the major causes of water pollution.
6. What do you mean by degradations of resources?
7. What proportion of land should be covered under forest? What is the suggestion
for hilly areas?
8. Discuss the programme of social forestry.
9. Discuss the salient provisions of Forest Policy 1988.
10. What is the level of land degradations in India?
11. What are the causes of land degradations?
12. What do you mean by gender issues?
13. Discuss the trend of sex ratio over the century.
14. What are the factors determining sex ratio?
15. Why do you think child sex ratio has declined in the nineties?
16. Discuss the progress of female literacy vis-a-vis male literacy in the last fifty
years.
17. What is the provision for representation by female in panchayati raj
institutions? Why is there no such provision for the parliament and state
legislatures?
18. What is work participation scene and average wage position for female workers?
19. Give an historical account of migration to the New World.
20. What do you mean by economic migration?
21. What are pull and push factors of migration?
22. What is the migration pattern of women in India by reasons?
23. What is the migration pattern of men in India by reasons?
24. What do you mean by brain drain?
25. Argue in favour of and against the new thinking that education is an industry
and that we should export its product.
APPENDICES
CHAPTER 1
Economy
One can safely say that the field of study of economics is economy. But what is an
economy? Looking around, one may feel like saying that an economy is the collection
of farms, factories, workshops, mines, shops; roads, railways, ships, aeroplanes,
pipelines conveying gas and oil or even water; offices, banks, schools and colleges;
cinema, theatre and opera houses; and dispensaries and hospitals. They all produce
goods and services, which have economic value and are consumed directly or
indirectly by the people. This view of the economy is simple, descriptive and
straightforward. It should be acceptable.
However, there are people who point towards the variety of usage of word
economy: national economy, world economy, and international economy; village
economy, rural economy and urban economy; slave economy, feudal economy,
capitalist economy and socialist economy; even household economy. What is the
common feature in all these definitions of economy? Erudite scholars point out
that it is actually a set of relationships, which could be abstracted from, to a large
extent, from other forms of social relationships. These relationships manifest in
use of labour power and provisioning of material needs.
An attempt has also been made to define economy as a structure of relationships
among a group of people in terms of the manner in which they exercise control over
resources, use of resources, and labour for production of goods and services and
define and settle the claims of the members over what is produced.
Modern Economic Growth
Human societies have been increasing production by using natural resources in
more productive manner, improving production techniques, producing more and
more and more varied goods and services and living better lives. But there might
have been long periods when some societies actually declined. There might have
been periods when increase in population exceeded the growth in quantum of goods
and services (In good old days, goods might have meant foodstuff foodgrains and
other eatables). Per capita product might not have had a sustained increase.
Population too might not have had sustained increase.
The history of last two hundred years in the West is, however, considered to be
peculiar. This is the period when population had sustained increase. But increase
in quantum of goods and services exceeded that in population. As a result, there
was sustained increase in per capita product (as well as in per worker output).
The same could be said about the last fifty years in the case of many so-called
developing countries. Here too, population rose more rapidly than it did in the West
in any stretch of fifty years. But total quantum of goods and services rose still
faster. As a result, there was sustained increase in per capita product.
Character of Growth Rate Series
If growth rate remains the same as time changes, we can call it steady growth. A
series of 100, 110, 121, 133.1, 146.41. shows a steady growth of 10 per cent. If
182 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
we instead find that as time passes, growth rate increases, we can call it a case of
accelerating growth. A series of 100, 110, 122, 135, and 150 portrays a case of
accelerating growth. On the other hand, if growth rate decreases as time passes, we
can call it a case of decelerating growth. A series of 100, 110, 120, 130, and 140
is a case of decelerating growth.
But what happens in reality is that no economy shows such a neat pattern.
There are fluctuations, sometimes very wide. There exists a possibility that these
fluctuations are around a rising or declining or steady trend/path. But there is a
sustained rise in the GDP when considered over long period, say, decade after decade.
CHAPTER 2
Computation of HDI for India for 1999
Suppose we are given the following data for India for the year 1999:
Let us first combine Adult Literacy Ratio (ALR) and Combined Enrolment Ratio
(CER) into Education Attainment (EA). Giving two-thirds as weight to ALR and one-
third as weight to CER, we find
EA = (2/3)*56.5 per cent + (1/3)*56.0 per cent = 56.13 per cent
Now let us find out logarithm of per capita income to make it reflect standard of
living (SL)
SL = log (PPP $ 2,284) = 3.352
Let us now invoke the formula for component index (CI), which is
Actual Value of the Component Value of the Component
CL =
Maximum Value of the Component Minimum Value of The Component
Let us use actual values from the above and the maximum and minimum
values from Table 2.2 and obtain
Using the simple arithmetic average the three component indices, it is easy to
compute HDI. Putting these figures, we find
HDI = (1/3)(LEI + EAI + SLI) = (1/3) (0.632 + 0.561 + 0.520) = 0.571.
APPENDICES 183
CHAPTER 3
TABLE A
Gross Domestic Product at Constant Prices of 1993-94
from 1950-51 to 1999 - 2000 (Rs. Crore)
Year GDP Year GDP Year GDP Year GDP Year GDP
1950-51 140466 1960-61 206103 1970-71 296278 1980-81 401128 1990-91 692871
1951-52 143745 1961-62 212499 1971-72 299269 1981-82 425073 1991-92 701863
1952-53 147824 1962-63 216994 1972-73 298316 1982-83 438079 1992-93 737792
1953-54 156822 1963-64 227980 1973-74 311894 1983-84 471742 1993-94 781345
1954-55 163479 1964-65 245270 1974-75 315514 1984-85 492077 1994-95 838031
1955-56 167667 1965-66 236306 1975-76 343924 1985-86 513990 1995-96 899563
1956-57 177211 1966-67 238710 1976-77 348223 1986-87 536257 1996-97 970083
1957-58 175068 1967-68 258137 1977-78 374235 1987-88 556778 1997-98 1016266
1958-59 188354 1968-69 264873 1978-79 394828 1988-89 615098 1998-99 1083047
1959-60 192476 1969-70 282134 1979-80 374291 1989-90 656331 1999-00 1151991
rates were very close to one per cent per annum, which was lower than the rate of
growth of population.
We can see for the Table B that per capita income declined in as many as
twelve years out of the fifty years while GDP had declined only in four. It simply
means that, in eight other years, the rate of growth of GDP was lower than the rate
of growth of population (accepted by us). While the rate of growth of population has
started declining in the eighties and nineties, the rate of growth of economic activity
is on rise.
TABLE B
Per Capita Income at Constant Prices of 1993-94 from 1950 - 51 to 1999-2000 (Rs.)
Year PCI Year PCI Year PCI Year PCI Year PCI
1950-51 3687 1960-61 4429 1970-71 5002 1980-81 5352 1990-91 7321
1951-52 3714 1961-62 4449 1971-72 4914 1981-82 5555 1991-92 7212
1952-53 3747 1962-63 4425 1972-73 4763 1982-83 5548 1992-93 7433
1953-54 3909 1963-64 4546 1973-74 4880 1983-84 5854 1993-94 7698
1954-55 3994 1964-65 4781 1974-75 4830 1984-85 5956 1994-95 8088
1955-56 4020 1965-66 4459 1975-76 5167 1985-86 6082 1995-96 8498
1956-57 4159 1966-67 4392 1976-77 5103 1986-87 6189 1996-97 9036
1957-58 4007 1967-68 4653 1977-78 5375 1987-88 6260 1997-98 9288
1958-59 4222 1968-69 4657 1978-79 5551 1988-89 6777 1998-99 9733
1959-60 4216 1969-70 4865 1979-80 5092 1989-90 7087 1999-00 10204
APPENDICES 185
CHAPTER 6
Three Plans submitted to GOI before Independence
A Plan of Economic Development for India, known as Bombay Plan was prepared by
eight leading industrialists of the country, which accepted the role of the State
within the framework of capitalistic framework.
Peoples Plan for Economic Development of India, known as Peoples Plan prepared
by B. N. Banerjee, G. D. Parekh, and V. M. Tarkunde but released by M. N. Roy,
General Secretary of the Indian Federation of Labour, recommended creation of
State capitalism.
The Gandhian Plan of Economic Development for India, known as Gandhian
Plan by Shriman Narayan Agarwal, which recommended building up of a self-
reliant rural economy.
The Bombay Plan proposed a doubling of per capita income over fifteen years,
excluding preparatory time taking 3 to 5 years, amounting to trebling of national
income at the given rate of population rise, which would necessitate twice of
agriculture production, five times industrial production, creation of industries for
production of power and capital goods but confining production of essential
consumption goods with small scale and cottage industries. All this needed Rs
10,000 crore over 15 years, which was found feasible. The Peoples Plan, on the
other hand, proposed an outlay of Rs 15,000 crore, found feasible, over
10 years leading four times increase in agriculture and six times increase in
industry. Gandhian Plan proposed doubling of per capita income in ten years
through rejuvenation of village economy though accepting basic structure as it
existed then.
(a) that the citizens, men and women equally have the right to an adequate means
of livelihood;
(b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are
so distributed as best to subserve the common good; and
(c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration
of wealth and means of production to the common detriment.
Having regard to these rights and in furtherance of these principles as well as
of the declared objective of the Government to promote a rapid rise in the
standard of living of the people by efficient exploitation of the resources of the
country, increasing production, and offering opportunities to all employment in
the service of the community,
The Planning Commission will
1. make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the
country, including technical personnel, and investigate the possibilities of
augmenting such of these resources as are found to be deficient in relation to
the nations requirements;
2. formulate a Plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of the countrys
resources;
3. on a determination of priorities, define the stages in which the Plan should be
carried out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of
each stage;
4. indicate the factors which are tending to retard economic development, and
determine the conditions which, in view of the current social and political situation,
should be established for the successful execution of the Plan;
Plans Prepared by the Planning Commission
Fourth Five Year Plan 1966-1971 1961- 1976 (15) Abandoned in June 1966
(Sixth) Five Year Plan* 1978-1983 1978-1988 (10) Perspective extended to 15
*Subsequently scrapped; Note: Figures within parentheses denote number of years.
APPENDICES 187
5. determine the nature of the machinery which will be necessary for securing
the successful implementation of each stage of the Plan in all its aspects;
6. appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each
stage of the Plan and recommend the adjustments of policy and measures that
such appraisal may show to be necessary; and
7. make such interim or ancillary recommendations as appear to it to be
appropriate either for facilitating the discharge of the duties assigned to it; or,
on a consideration of the prevailing economic conditions, current policies,
measures and develoment programmes; or on an examination of such specific
problems as may be referred to it for advice by Central or State Govenments.
(Emphasis has been added by the Author)
First Plan
Maximum Production
Full employment and
Removal of economic inequalities.
Second Plan
Third Plan
Equal opportunities
Distribution of economic powers
Reduction in disparities in income
Fourth Plan
Fifth Plan
Removal of poverty
Attainment of Self Reliance
Growth Rate of 5.5 per cent per annum
188 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Eighth Plan
Generation of adequate employment for near full employment by turn of the
century
Containment of population growth through peoples cooperation and scheme of
incentives and disincentives
Universalisation of elementary education and eradication of illiteracy among people
in the age group 15-35
APPENDICES 189
Provision of safe drinking water and primary health care facilities, elimination of
scavenging
Growth and diversification of agriculture to achieve self-sufficiency in food and to
generate surpluses for exports
Strengthening infrastructure to support growth process on a sustained basis
Ninth Plan
Priority to agriculture and rural development for generating adequate productive
employment and eradication of poverty
Acceleration in growth rate with stable prices
Food and nutritional security for all, especially vulnerable sections
provision of safe drinking water, PHC facilities, UPE, shelter and connectivity to
all in a time bound manner
Containment of population growth
Environmental sustainability of development process through social mobilisation
and peoples participation from all sections
Empowerment of women and socially disadvantaged groups (SC, ST, OBC,
minorities) as agents of change and development
Promotion and development of peoples participatory institutions like PRIs,
cooperatives, and SHGs
Strengthening efforts to build self-reliance
Tenth Plan
Indicative target growth rate of 8.0 per annum
Enhancement of well being
Availability of food and other consumption items
Access to basic social services of education, health, drinking water and sanitation
Expansion of social and economic opportunities for all individuals and groups
reduction in disparities
Participation in decision-making
Substantial allocation of resources to social sector and major improvement in
governance for effective use of resources
Acceleration in growth rates of slowly growing states
Poverty to be reduced to 15 per cent by 2007 and to 5 per cent by 2012
High quality employment to additional labour force during the plan
All children to be in school by 2003 and all children to complete Class V by 2007
Gender gap in literacy and wage rate to be reduced to 50 per cent by 2007
Population growth to be decelerated to 16.2 per cent during 2001-2011
Literacy rate to be raised to 75 per cent by 2007
Infant mortality rate to be reduced 45 by 2007 and to 28 by 2012
Maternal mortality rate to be reduced to 2 by 2007 and to 1 by 2012
Forest cover to be raised to 25 per cent by 2007 and 33 per cent by 2012
All villages to be given sustained access to drinking water by 2007
Cleaning of major polluted rivers by 2007 and other notified stretches by 2012.
190 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 7
Industrial Policy
We may recall, that in the tumultuous days of partition, there was a lot of confusion.
But there was a clear need for a statement particularly about the direction in which
industrial sphere is likely to move. The Government responded with a resolution on
Industrial Policy in April 1948. Reserving arms/ammunitions, atomic energy, railway
transport were to be exclusively in control of the Government of India and new
ventures in coal, iron and steel, aircraft, ship-building, apparatuses for telephone,
telegraphs and wireless, were to be in exclusively in State sector. It means existing
units in these areas were left in the hands of private sector; no nationalisation of
these units was proposed. All other industries, basic and heavy (mining, metallurgy,
cement), capital goods (machinery, transport, electrical), chemical (fertilisers, other
heavy chemicals), and consumer goods industries (textiles, food-processing) were
left for private sector, including cooperative units.
The Industrial Policy Resolution adopted in April 1956 spread the phalanx of
the State by reserving 17 industries for exclusive monopoly, listing 12 industries
for progressive State ownership, by putting restrictions on private sector in all
other industries with regard to scale, volume, technology, and foreign capital. It
was adopted in the back-drop of resolution adopted by the Parliament for establishing
a socialistic pattern of society in India. The Constitution itself, while guaranteeing
fundamental rights, had enunciated directive principles of state policy. Expanding
public sector, strengthening cooperative sector and protecting cottage and small-
scale industry were three major planks. Partly the reason for expansion of public
sector was inability of private sector to come to the fore and partly private sector
could not be trusted to run public utility services in the interest of the consumer.
However, linkages between the two sectors were mooted. Differential taxation,
provision of subsidies and restriction on volume were to be invoked, small sector
had to compete with large sector. It was emphasised that the decentralised sector
would promote employment, mobilisation of resources, equitable distribution and
would check haphazard growth of urbanisation. The policy emphasised on regulated
inflow of foreign capital (announced in April 1949).
According to the Industrial Policy Statements made in 1991, licensing was to
be abolished for all projects except for a short list of industries related to: (i) security
and strategic concerns, (ii) social reasons, (iii) hazardous chemicals and overriding
environmental reasons, and (iv) items for elitists consumption. Even substantial
expansion would not need any permission. But industries reserved for small sector
would continue to be reserved for them and if such units intended to enter the
restricted list of industries, there would be no need for license. Imports of capital
goods would get automatic clearance in case foreign exchange availability is ensured
through foreign equity participation. Broad-banding (diversification) would be
permitted to existing units without encumbrances.
Public sector has to work in essential infrastructure goods and services and in
manufacturing of products where strategic considerations dominate such as defence
equipments, in exploration and exploitation of oil and mineral resources, and in
technology development and building of manufacturing capabilities in areas which
are crucial in the long-term development of the economy and where private sector
investment is inadequate.
APPENDICES 191
CHAPTER 8
Power of Continuous Exponential Growth
Human population has not been ever rising with the slightest of rate of growth.
This is clear from the following.
A population of one crore in the beginning of the era, rising at the rate of 1
percent per annum would have become about 44,00,00,000 crore. Even half a per
cent growth per annum would have multiplied the population by a factor of 21,000
in a span of 2,000 years.
Human history is much older. It simply means that population(s) rose and
declined; civilisations arose and vanished. The same has been the case in India.
CHAPTER 9
Contribution of Amartya Sen
Suppose the poverty line is 50 units. Suppose there are two societies, with ten persons
each. Suppose in one society, there are five persons, each with 20 units and five
persons with more than 50 units; in the other, there are five persons, each with 45
units and five persons more than 50 units. You will say, if you were asked, that each
society has 50 per cent population below poverty line. Some people will call it incidence.
But, you will perhaps not reconcile as you will find that poor people in one society face
much more penury as they are far away from the poverty line than in the other. The
average distance from the poverty line, in the first case, is 30 units and in the other,
it is just 5 units. So, you may suggest that this distance, call it average poverty gap,
192 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
should be taken into consideration in any good measure of poverty. This absolute gap
may be divided by the poverty line to yield the intensity of poverty.
Suppose further, that there are two societies, each with 5 persons out of 10 below
poverty line and each with the same poverty gap of 30 units. In one case, all five poor
have the same 20 units and in the other the distribution is 10, 10, 20, 30, 30. Shall
we still say that poverty situation is the same in both the societies? No, perhaps you
will say that we should take into account the level of inequality among the poor.
Thus, we come to the conclusion that we should consider (i) incidence which
means what proportion of population is below the poverty line, (ii) intensity which
means how much below the poor are from the poverty line, and (iii) inequality among
the peer group of the poor. If you can meaningfully combine the three dimensions,
you will be an Amartya Sen and could win a Nobel Prize! Not a bad idea!
CHAPTER 11
Electric Power: Generation, Transmission and Distribution
Electricity is generated in one of the plants whether they are thermal, hydro or
nuclear or one based on non-conventional energy sources.
If amount generated is large, it is not locally consumed. It is transmitted on
high voltage through transmission lines from generating plants to power stations
or substation. You might have seen big iron-fabricated high towers connected
through heavy wires. This is transmission network.
From power station or sub-station, it is distributed to the end-user or consumer-
industry, agriculture, commercial establishments, households, and railways. City
poles and city wiring constitutes the distribution network in the city. Similar would
be the case in rural areas, with difference of scale, etc.
In order to match aggregate supply with aggregate demand, mechanisms of
grids are being developed.
This description is not accurate picture of the total network. Its purpose is to
provide a background of the issue and to appreciate the problem.
Rural Urban Disparities in Literacy
Rural-Urban Break-up of Male And Female Literacy Rates (in percentage)
Year Male Female Person Year Male Female Person
1951 1981
Rural 19.02 04.87 12.10 Rural 49.60 21.70 36.00
Urban 45.60 22.33 34.59 Urban 76.70 56.30 67.20
Total 27.10 08.86 18.33 Total 56.38 29.76 43.57
1961 1991
Rural 34.30 10.10 22.50 Rural 57.90 30.60 44.70
Urban 66.00 40.50 54.40 Urban 81.10 64.00 73.10
Total 40.40 15.35 28.30 Total 64.13 39.29 52.21
1971 2001
Rural 48.60 15.50 27.90 Rural 71.40 46.70 59.40
Urban 69.80 48.80 60.20 Urban 86.70 73.20 80.30
Total 45.96 21.97 34.45 Total 75.85 54.16 65.38
Note : For 1951, 1961 and 1971, population group refers to age group 5+ while for
1981, 1991 and 2001, it refers to 7+.
Source : Census of India Series 1 India, Provisional Population Totals, Paper 1 of 2001.
GLOSSARY
Accounting Period It is usually a year. But besides the calendar year, we have
a fiscal year or a financial year, academic year, agriculture year, etc. Calendar year
obviously runs from 1 January to 31 December. In our country, the fiscal year runs
from 1 April of a calendar year to 31 March of the next calendar year while academic
year runs from 1 July of a calendar year to 30 June of the next calendar year.
Agriculture year is the same as the academic year. While calendar year is presented
as 2001, fiscal and academic years are written as 2000-01. Our macro-economic
aggregates refer to fiscal year while enrolments in schools refer to academic year.
However, many businessmen use diwali to diwali as their business year.
Age-specific Fertility Number of births given by women in a particular age
group in any given year divided by the number of women in that age group, when
multiplied by 1000, is called age specific fertility of that age group in that particular
year.
Basic Literacy Rate Percentage of literates among persons above 15 to the total
size of population above 15 in a society is known as basic literacy rate. It is called
basic because the minimum requirement of being literate is that the person should
be able to read and write in any language. It is the same as adult literacy rate in our
country.
Birth Rate and Death Rate Birth is live parturition of a human baby from
mothers womb. Stillbirths, miscarriages and abortions are not counted as (live)
births. Birth rate is defined as number of live births per thousand of population in
a given year. By convention birth of twins is counted as one birth. Death is final
departure of a human being. Death rate is defined as number of deaths per thousand
of population in a given year. Though twins are born together, they die apart. While
their births are counted as one, their deaths are counted as two.
Civic and Political Rights Political rights relate to a citizens rights of playing a
part in determining as to who governs their public affairs and how they are governed.
Civic rights concern the rights of the individual vis-a-vis the State.
Cohort A group of people, who have a synchronous/simultaneous start by a
significant event, is known as cohort. It is similar to a generation except that, in the
case of a generation, the interval of happening of a particular event is not precise.
In this case, an interval is fixed. Normally, it is a year. People born in a particular
year, say 2001, constitute birth cohort of that year. There can be a marriage cohort
or a recruitment cohort too. How the attrition in the group takes place is the basic
interest in the analysis, using the concept of cohort.
Combined Enrolment Ratio Enrolment ratio, for any given level of education, is
obtained by dividing size of enrolment by size of population of corresponding
(assumed) age group. For example, enrolment ratio for primary level of education in
India, is obtained by dividing size of enrolment in primary classes by size of
population of age group 6 -11. Enrolment ratios for primary, secondary and tertiary
172 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
added, the measure of volume of all goods and services has, perforce, to be in value
terms. We add up contribution of all activity of production, whether of goods or of
services. While measuring contribution of a particular activity, we should subtract
the value of inputs from the value of inputs, so that there is no duplication for parts
of many goods and services enter as inputs into production of other activities.
Prices in different periods for many goods and services are different. In order to
measure the real change in total volume of all activities between two different periods,
care should be exercised to use GDP at constant prices. [Suppose, all that an
economy produces could be measured in kilograms (apples, wheat, eggs and pearls)
should we add them up? If not, think why not?].
Gross Enrolment Ratio The ratio of number of students enrolled in a particular
level of education, say primary level, to the size of population of children of relevant
age group, say age group 6-11, is called gross enrolment ratio. The ratio is often
expressed in terms of percentage. However, we know that many students enrolled
in the primary section (Classes I-V) do not strictly come from the age group of 6-11.
There are children below age 6 and also above age 11. Gross enrolment ratio may,
therefore, turn out to be more than 100 per cent. Indeed in the case some states, it
turned out to be as high as 150! If we exclude overage and underage children from
the numerator, then the enrolment ratio should be called net enrolment ratio.
Human Capital Formation As against physical capital, which is a machine, a
building, a road, when human beings are made more productive through education
and training and through better health and nutrition facilities, capital is formed in
human form. It is believed that its contribution to productivity is enormous.
Infant Mortality Rate Death before age one is called infant mortality. Infant
mortality rate is the number of infant deaths in a particular year per 1000 live
births during that year. Live births exclude stillbirths, miscarriages and induced
abortion. In cases where infant deaths widely fluctuate from year to year,
demographers take notice of the fact that infant death that occur in a particular
year also include death of infants born in the preceding year and babies born this
year may die next year as infants.
In-migration and Out-migration A movement to a place with no immediate
intention to return is called in-migration and a movement from a place with no
immediate intention to return is called out-migration. When such a movement takes
place between two countries, for the country receiving it is immigration and for
country deporting it is emigration.
Intellectual Property Rights Laws governing patents, copyrights, trade secrets,
electronic media and other commodities, comprised primarily of information. These
laws generally provide the original creator the right to control and be compensated
for reproduction of the work.
Laissez-faire A French phrase expressing leave us alone. It denotes the view
that Government should interfere as little as possible in economic activity and
leave decisions to the market. The role of Government, according to this view, should
be limited to maintenance of law and order, national defence, provision of certain
public goods like public health and sanitation, which private business would not
undertake.
GLOSSARY 175
resource cost, it is cheaper for the society too. If two plants try to meet the demand,
with the same technology, for the same market, the resource cost will increase as
they will not be exploiting the economies of scale. However, such firms need
regulation, or else they would reap huge profits.
Non-renewable Resources Resources that cannot be easily renewed. They
have finite, even if large, stock. The stocks of fossil fuels (such as oil and coal)
and mineral resources (such as iron, lead, aluminium, uranium) are the same
today as they were millions of years ago. To convert CO2 and H2O back into fossil
fuel will take as much energy as we got from it.
Normalisation It is a modern term used for division by such factor as makes
the numerator comparable. Sometimes, the numerator is also modified by
subtracting something from it or subtracting it from something. See resemblance
with normalisation and standardisation of a variable, which is considered normally
distributed.
NRI Non-resident Indian. An Indian who does not normally live and work in
India but lives and works in some other country. He holds Indian citizenship and
Indian passport.
Occupational Classification of Employment As against where you are employed,
which defines your industrial status, how you are employed defines your occupational
status. Occupational classification is in terms of professional workers,
administrative/managerial workers, clerks/stenographers, sales workers, service
workers, farmers, fishermen, drivers, labourers, etc.
Organised Sector All the public sector enterprises and those private enterprises
registered legislation like Factories Act, companies Act and cooperatives Act are
included in organised sector. Maintenance of accounts is the main criterion for the
inclusion of enterprises in this sector.
Passenger-kilometre/Tonne-kilometre A person (a tonne of goods) carried for
one kilometre is one passenger-kilometre (tonne-kilometre).
Percent Points The absolute difference between two percentages is known as
per cent points. For example, the absolute difference between 50 per cent and 60
per cent is (60 per cent 50 per cent =) 10 per cent points whereas relative difference
is [{(60 per cent-50 per cent)/50 per cent} 100=]20 per cent.
Per Thousand Points Difference between two levels of rates expressed in terms
of per thousand is to be expressed as per thousand points. It is similar to per cent
points. Since many rates in demography are expressed in terms of per thousand, it
becomes important to remember it.
Perpetual Resources Resources, which will always exist in relatively constant
supply, no matter how and how much they are used. Solar energy is one such
example. Perhaps, geothermal energy or wind energy could be other examples.
Person-day A person working for a day works for a person-day. Two persons
working half-day each will amount to working for a person-day. Multiplying the
number of persons with the number of days they have been working and aggregating
all such multiplication products will yield the total number of person-days worked.
GLOSSARY 177
Perspective Plan Perspective plan is a long-term plan, which forms the backdrop
of the medium-term plan. While the medium-term plan is usually formulated for
four/five/six years (in our country for five years), the long-term perspective plan is
usually for ten/fifteen/twenty years. Long-term perspective plan thinks in terms
of long-term goals of sustained increase in capacity matching likely demands ten
years later or basic problems of poverty, unemployment or illiteracy, which one
cannot solve in a day, or alternative technological possibilities. Medium-term plans
bother about harnessing present technology, making a dent on poverty, improving
balance of payments, controlling inflation. There are short-term or annual plans,
which take care of immediate needs. Plans help one in moving in the correct direction.
If there is a reason for deviating from the path, one knows that one has to come
back to the long-term path.
Postal Services Postal services can be divided as basic postal services and other
postal services. Basic postal services concern with sale of stamps and stationery,
acceptance of registered and insured articles and parcels, value payable articles
and parcels, money orders and postal orders. Other postal services include speed
post, business post, media post (public and private corporate sectors advertisement
on postal stationery), satellite post, express post, retail post (acceptance of telephone
bills and electricity bills).
Potential Resources Many of the resources we know today were not considered
resources once upon a time. Either we did not have taste for marine food or the
technology was not ripe for using petroleum or natural gas. Economic, cultural and
technological conditions of a society may find use for existing matters or discover
new matters for use. Waste water and earthworms are now considered resources.
Public Utilities Public utilities are business enterprises, often allowed to run as
monopolies supplying essential public services, such as electricity, railways,
communication, gas pipelines, water supply, sewerage, sanitation and irrigation.
They are granted power of eminent domain (licence) to lay down spatial network in
public interest. Whether in public sector or in private sector, they are regulated for
price, quantity and timely supply.
Purchasing Power Parity Exchange Rate In order to get one US $, you need to
give around Rs 50 at the market exchange rate. Let us take an example of simple
packet of bread, which is an essential item. Suppose it is available for Rs 15 in
India and for US $ 3 in the US, then in terms of bread one US $ is equivalent to Rs
5. So would be the case if we hire a residential flat of the same size and standard in
two comparable cities. Most of the essential items are home-made where market
exchange is found to underestimate the value in the so-called underdeveloped
countries. When purchasing power equivalence is applied, GDP of India becomes
four-times and that of China becomes five-times but that of Japans becomes 0.6
times only. At market exchange rates, Japans and Chinas per capita GDPs in
1994 are found to be US $4600 and US $ 520, respectively, but in terms of
purchasing power parity equivalence, they are found to be PPP $ 2800 and PPP $
2475, respectively!
Quota Restriction on quantity of a commodity, which could be imported during
a given period. Though it is adopted by many countries for conserving their scarce
178 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT