MBDCI

Rock and Rock Mass Deformability

(Compressibility, Stiffness)
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Maurice Dusseault
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Common Symbols in RM

E, : Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio

: Porosity (e.g. 0.25, or 25%)

c, ,T : Cohesion, friction , tensile strength
o

T, p, p : Temperature, pressure, initial pres.
o

, : Vertical and horizontal stress
v h
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

hmin, HMAX: Smallest, largest horizontal

, , :Major, intermediate, minor stress
1 2 3

, : Density, unit weight ( = g)

K, C: Bulk modulus, compressibility
These are the most common symbols we use
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Obtaining Rock Deformability

Commercial,
Properties data bank in-house Log data
Depth Fric. Coh. XXX YYY ZZZ
data banks REG. TIPO

Reflected
and direct
paths
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Rock
Properties Borehole
Lab tests (E, , , c, seismics
C, k,) 3-D Seismics
Core data

SVS-337
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Stress and Pressure

Petroleum geomechanics
deals with stress & pressure a axial
stress

Effective stress: solid stress
pore

Pressure is in the fluid phase A pressure

To assess the effects of ', po
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

p, T, C
r radial

Rock properties are needed stress
 Deformation properties
r
 Fluid transport properties Fa
a =
 Thermal properties A
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Rock Stiffness, Deformation

To solve a - problem, we must know how the

rock deforms (strain - ) in response to

This is often referred to as the stiffness (or
compliance, or elasticity, or compressibility)

For linear elastic rock, only two parameters
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

are needed: Youngs modulus, E, and Poissons

ratio, (see example, next slide)

For more complicated cases - plasticity, dilation,
anisotropic rock, salt, etc. - more and different
parameters are needed
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The Linear Elastic Model

The stiffness is assumed E1 is stiffer than E2
1 = a
to be constant (E)
When loads are removed,

Stress a - (= 1 3)

deformation are reversed 3

Suitable for metals, low
rocks such as
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

E1
 Anhydrite, carbonates,
granite, cemented sands

For many petroleum E2
geomechanics problems,
linear elastic assump-
tions are sufficient Strain - a
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Definitions of E and ?
Youngs modulus (E): E is how deformation Triaxial
much a material compresses
under a uniaxial change in Test
effective stress - L

E=
radial
dilation
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Poissons ratio (): is how r

much rock expands laterally
L
when compressed. If = 0, no strain () =
L
L
expansion (e.g.: a sponge).
-For sandstones, ~ 0.2-0.3
-For shales, ~ 0.3-0.4
r
= L
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1D and 3D Compressibility?

Change in volume with v
a change in stress

In 1-D compressibility,

h = 0

h = 0
lateral strain, h, = 0 cylindrical
specimen
 Often used for flat-strata
compaction analysis
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

3-D compressibility
1 L
involves all-around C 1D =
L

C3D = 1/K, where K is

the bulk modulus of
elasticity 1 V
C 3D =
V
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Some Guidelines for Testing

Use high quality core, as undisturbed as
possible, under the circumstances
 Avoid freezing, other severe treatments
 Preserve RM specimens on the rig floor if you can

Use as large a specimen as possible

1-D Measuring Rock Properties

A large specimen is more representative

 Avoid plugging if possible (more disturbance)

If undisturbed core is unavailable

 Analogues may be used
 Data banks can be queried

 Disturbed samples may be tested with judgment

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More Guidelines for Testing

Replicating in situ conditions of T, p, [] is
best practice (but not always necessary)

Following the stress path that the rock exper-
iences during exploitation is best practice

Test representative specimens of the GMU
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Testing jointed rock masses in the laboratory is

not feasible; only the matrix of the blocks

It is best to combine laboratory test data with
log data, seismic data, geological models, and
update the data base as new data arrive
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Laboratory Stiffness of Rocks

From cores, other samples: however, these may

be microfissured (Efield may be underestimated)

In microfissured or porous rock, crack closure,
slip, contact deformation may dominate stiffness

ES and S (static) under 3 gives best values
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

If joints are common in situ, they may dominate

rock response, but are hard to test in the lab

in situ T, in
10 m the ~0.10 m
p, C lab
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Typical Test Configuration

An undamaged, a D

homogeneous rock
interval is selected

L ~ 2D
r r

A cylinder is prepared
with flat parallel ends

The cylinder is jacketed
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Confining stress & pore

pressure are applied

The axial stress is
increased gradually

a, r (r) measured
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Jacketed Cylindrical Rock Specimen

a p control, Vp
thin porous
r applied through oil pressure

Strain gauges measure
strains (or other special
devices can be used)

stainless steel
cap for drainage

Pore pressure can be
strain
controlled, and
gauges a, r

Vpore can be measured
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

at constant backpressure

Similar set-up for high-
T tests and creep tests
seals
load platen
Acoustic wave end caps
impermeable
Etc
a membrane
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A Simpler Standard Triaxial Cell

Developed by Evert
Hoek & John Franklin

Is a good basic cell for
rock testing

Standard test methods
are published by the
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

International Society
for Rock Mechanics
(ISRM)
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In the Laboratory

Axial deformation is measured directly by the
movement of the test platens

Bonded strain gauges on the specimen sides
are also used
 Gives axial strain (calculate E)
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

 Also gives the lateral strain (calculate )

Special methods for porous rocks or shales

because strain gauges dont work well

High T tests, acoustic velocity measurements
during tests, etc., etc.
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1-D Measuring Rock Properties Reminder: Heterogeneity!

These materials respond radically different to stress: one flows,

the other fractures. How might we incorporate such behavior in
our testing and modeling for a natural gas storage cavern?

Original specimen - Post-test appearance

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1-D Measuring Rock Properties Reminder: Scale and Heterogenity

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Reminder: Anisotropy

Different directional stiffness is common!
 Bedding planes
 Oriented minerals (clays usually)

 Oriented microcracks, joints, fissures

 Close alternation of thin beds of different inherent

1-D Measuring Rock Properties

stiffness (laminated or schistose)

 Imbricated grains

 Different stresses = anisotropic response

 Anisotropic grain contact fabric, etc.

stiffer
less stiff
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Reminder: Anisotropy

M = L a
Apparent axial

L
stiffness - M

L Vertical
core

1-D Measuring Rock Properties

0 30 60 90

Bedding
inclination
0 30 60 90

e.g.: shales, laminated strata

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Orthotropic Stiffness Model

In some cases, it is best
Layered or laminated
to use an orthotropic sedimentary strata
stiffness model - shale v

Vertical stiffness and h
Strata subjected to
Poissons ratio are different stresses
different than the h
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

horizontal ones

Properties in the hori- Shales (clay minerals)

zontal plane the same

This is as complex as E1

we want: E1, E2, Orthotropic E2

elastic model
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Lab Data, Then What?

Clearly, laboratory tests are valuable, but
insufficient for design and optimization

We also use correlations from geophysical logs
 Obtain relevant, high-quality log data
 Calibrate using lab test data
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

 Use logs and 3-D seismic to extrapolate and

interpolate (generating a 3-D whole earth model)
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Reminder: Scale Issues

70-200 mm Laboratory specimen (intact)

A tunnel in a rock mass

Rock vs Rock mass
--Intact rock
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

--Single discontinuities

--Two discontinuities
--Several disc.
--Rockmass
20-30 m
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Rock Mass Stiffness Determination

Use correlations based on geology, density,
porosity, lithology

Use seismic velocities (vP, vS) for an upper-
bound limit (invariably an overestimate)

Measurements on specimens in the lab?
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

(problems of scale and joints)

In situ measurements

Back-analysis using monitoring data such as
compaction measurements

Reservoir response to earth tides
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In Situ Stiffness Measurements

Pressurization of a packer-isolated zone, with
measurement of radial deformation (r/), in
an impermeable material so that = pw

Direct borehole jack methods (mining only)

Geotechnical pressure-meter modified for high
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

pressures (membrane inflated at high pressure,

radial deformation measured)

Hydrofracture flexing (THE tool, rarely used
and quite expensive)

Correlations (penetration, indentation, others?)
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Seismic Wave Stiffness (ED, D)

vP, vS: dynamic responses are affected by stress,

density and elastic properties (, , E, )

Seismic strains are tiny (<10-8-10-7), they do not
compress microcracks, pores, or contacts

Thus, ED is always higher than the static test
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

moduli, ES

The more microfissures, pores, point contacts,
the more ED > ES, x 1.3 to x 10 (for UCSS)

If porosity ~ 0, very high, ES approaches ED

Seismic moduli should be calibrated by testing
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Seismic (Dynamic) Parameters

tS P-wave (compressional wave)

tP t is transit time, plotted in micro-
Amplitude

seconds per foot or per metre

Vp and Vs are calculated from the

transit time and the distance L
S-wave (shear wave)
time between the receiver and the
to tp ts transmitter in the acoustic sonde
Vp = L/tp
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Vs = L/ts

Dynamic Elastic Parameters:

D = [Vp2 - 2Vs2]/[2(Vp2 - Vs2)]
ED = [b.Vs2(3Vp2 - 4Vs2)]/(Vp2 - Vs2)
D = b.Vs2 (shear modulus)
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Deformation Properties from Logs

Simple P-wave transit time correlations

Dipole sonic data - Vp and Vs
 Oftendipole sonic data are not available
i th !ratios, lithology
 Estimate Vs from Vp w known
w NT


e
Basic data neededUsfor VMsEestimation:
G
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

U D
 Sonic log, preferably dipole
J
 Density log (gamma-gamma)

 Water saturation log (for corrections)

 Mineralogy/lithology logs (for corrections)

Service companies provide these methods

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Multiple Receiver Sonic Log

Acoustic disturbed zone

sonde, Damage will alter the sonic
multiple location velocities.

rock
receivers

t
Wave trains

ntac
borehole wall

i
city,
receivers

Velocity curve is offset because

velo
ray
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

paths
of lower v near the borehole wall
tant

(damage)
cons

Attentuation per metre can also

be used to relate to damage
source

time
Arrival time delay from damage
lower velocity region
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Back-Analysis for Stiffness

Apply a known effective stress change,

measure deformations (eg: uplift, compaction)

Use a mathematical model to back-calculate
the rock properties (best-fit approach)

Includes all large-scale effects
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Can be confounded by heterogeneity,

anisotropy, poor choice of GMU, ...

Often used as a check of assumptions

One must commit to some monitoring (e.g.
{z}) in order to achieve such results
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Discontinuities & E

Grain contact deformability is
responsible for sandstone stiffness

These may be cemented or not,
and in low- media, they become
interlocked, rocks are stiffer
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

fn =
normal
force
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Cracks and Grain Contacts

Microflaws can
close or open
E1 E2 as changes

E1

E3
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Flaws govern
rock stiffness

The contact fabric and dominate

the stiffness of porous SS
Fissures are more important in
limestones, as well as
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Grain Contact Stiffness

A grain contact solution
F F was developed 120
years ago by Hertz
d - d
 d 1/E, (F)
Hertz

It shows that grain-to-
Reality grain contacts become
v
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

stiffer with higher load

High rocks dominated
by such contacts

They are stiffer with
stress: C = ()
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Non-Linear Elastic Behavior

The stiffness is assumed 1
to be variable E(3)

Deformation is still
3
reversible E1
Suitable for highly

Stress (1 3)

microfissured materials,
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

high granular rocks

For some geomechanics

e
S

ur
S
problems, a non-linear C

s
clo
U

ck
elastic solution is useful
cra
E2 = ()
 Sand compaction, sand
production Strain - a
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Real Rock Behavior

Unconsolidated sandstones have a stiffness
that is a function of effective stress - :
Empirical
relationships
{
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

E
Linear elastic (E = constant)

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Geological Factors and Stiffness

Geological history can help us infer the
stiffness and the response to loading

Intense diagenesis
 Reducesporosity
 Cementation
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Deeper burial then erosion (precompaction)

Age (in general correlated to stiffness)

Porosity (lower , higher E)

Mineralogy (SiO2 vs. litharenite mineralogy)

Tectonic loading (reduces )
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Sandstone Stiffness & Diagenesis

ij
l =
T, t, , p
p
chemistry
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

high , low ,
small A large A

DIAGENESIS!
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Precompaction Effect by Erosion

porosity apparent threshold

virgin
compression curve
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

erosion
present state
stiff reload
response
log(v)

The sand is far stiffer than expected because

of precompaction! - e.g. Athabasca Oil Sand
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High-Porosity Chalk

Hollow, weak grains (coccoliths)

Weak cementation
(dog-tooth calcite)
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Weak, cleavable grain

mineral (CaCO3)
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Cementation and Compaction

porosity apparent threshold

normal collapse when grain

densification cement ruptured
cementation effect
virgin
compression curve
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

initial stiff
response
log(v)

North Sea Chalk, high Coal, Diatomite, are

quasi-stable, collapsing rocks at some v
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Sandstone Diagenesis

Dense grain packing

Many long contacts

Concavo-convex grain
contacts

SiO2 precipitated in
interstitial regions
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

Only 1% solution at
contacts = 8% loss in
volume

-A stable interpenetrative Fine-grained
fabric, high stiffness unconsolidated
sandstone
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Effect of Diagenetic Densification

porosity apparent threshold

diagenetic
porosity loss
@ constant virgin
compression curve
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

present state
stiff load
response

log(v)
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Precompaction Effect

A threshold value is necessary before any non-
elastic compression is triggered

This may arise from three processes
 True precompaction by burial then erosion
 Cementation of grains = stiffer + stronger
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

 Prolonged diagenesis increases stifeness

Little deformation is seen in early drawdown,

but occurs later

This can confuse field planning
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Issues to Remember

Stiffness (elastic modulus) is a fundamentally
important rock property for analysis

We can measure it with cored rock specimens

Also, in boreholes (much more rarely)

Sometimes, through correlations to other
1-D Measuring Rock Properties

measures such as geophysical data

Sometimes, through back-calculation, using
deformation measurements

Nevertheless, there is always uncertainty

And, natural lithological heterogeneity