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CURRICULUM
LEARNING OUTCOMES
OVERVIEW
6.0 Introduction 6.6.3 Principals
6.1 What is Implementation? 6.6.4 Parents
6.2 Curriculum Implementation 6.7 Case Study: England
as a Change Process 6.8 Implementing Curriculum in
6.3 Types of Curriculum the Classroom
Change
6.4 Resistance to Change Readings
6.5 Case Study: Indonesia Discussion Questions
6.6 Individual Involved in
Curriculum Implementation
6.6.1. Teachers
6.6.2 Students
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Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful
6.0 Introduction [source: adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005]
In Module 4 we discussed what was
involved in curriculum planning and in Module 5
we looked at different techniques of designing
the curriculum focusing on some curriculum
design models. The next stage in the curriculum
development process according to Tyler and
Taba is the implementation of the curriculum
plan. The final destination of any curriculum
(whether it be a school, college, university or
training organisation) is the classroom involving
students, teachers, administrators and the
community. Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and sometimes the most
difficult phase of the curriculum development process. Those responsible for
implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as:
o Teachers are already overloaded how are they going to implement the new
ideas.
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o Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in
examinations how are schools to incorporate suggested changes.
These are real concerns and made worse when persons implementing the curriculum are
not clear what is expected of them. How often have we heard people say, the plan was
good but implementation was poor. On the other hand, if a curriculum plan is not
implemented and remains on the shelf then all efforts in planning will be a sheer waste. A
curriculum must be delivered and that means it must be implemented in the classroom if
it is to make an impact on student learning. Good plans reaching the classroom are not
properly implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum
development projects, implementation is not been given due consideration; not realising
that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of teachers not being
properly trained and are required to implement changes in the classroom within a short
period of time.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Read the newspaper report at the beginning of the chapter and answer the
following questions
What are some suggestions proposed for making homework fun and
meaningful?
Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not spoon-feed but rather
be guides to learning? Why?
Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and fun.
Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum, several of
these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason for the failure is
the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both experts outside the school
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system and educators in the system. Successful implementation of curriculum requires
understanding the power relationships, the traditions, the roles and responsibilities of
individuals in the school system. Implementors (whether they be teachers, principals,
district education officers) should be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum.
They must be clear of the purpose, the nature, and the real and potential benefits of the
innovation.
As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); effective implementation of innovations
requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other forms of
people-based support (p.391). Curriculum implementation requires winning people over
and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and their efforts recognised. Some
may argue that they should be given financial rewards but there is evidence to suggest
that external motivation contributes minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their
best talents when they are internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being
involved.
Restraining Forces: These are forces restraining or preventing you from doing
something and changing. In the workplace, apathy, hostility, obsolete equipment may be
examples of restraining forces.
Equilibrium: When these two forces (driving and restraining) are equal, the status quo is
maintained. In other words, there is no effort towards change and so you do the same
thing you did before.
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For example, in the school setting, the principal who is autocratic and constantly
pressures his or her staff which may bring about change in the short run. In other words,
the driving forces have overpowered the restraining forces and when this happens,
change is initiated. As long as the driving forces are more powerful than the restraining
forces, change will continue. The methods used by the principal may lead to increased
hostility and antagonism and manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate and
reluctant to do more than is required. In other words, the restraining forces have got
stronger and change slows down.
Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of
the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces. This has been termed as
unfreezing whereby the power of the restraining forces are decreased to stimulate the
driving forces. For example, the principal could instead encourage more discussion and
group problem solving in an attempt to eliminate hostility and apathy. If there is fear
among teachers that they would not have the know-how to implement change it is best
that they be trained before implementing the new ideas.
EQUILIBRIUM
SELF-TEST
SELF-TEST 6.1 6.1
What
What does curriculum implementation
does curriculum implementation involve?
involve?
How
How does
does Kurt
Kurt Lewins
Lewins model
model explain
explain curriculum
curriculum change?
change?
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If you are responsible for implementing curriculum, it is important that you
understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a challenging
and exciting process. If you do not comprehend the complexities of change you are likely
to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion and tension within the school
or district. Curriculum change is a complex and difficult process and requires careful
planning, adequate time, funding, support and opportunities for teacher involvement.
McNeil (1990) categorised curriculum change as follows:
Substitution: One element may be substituted for another already present. For
example, the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.
Alteration: This occurs when a change is introduced into existing material in the
hope that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example,
introducing new content such as road safety in the primary school curriculum; use
of new materials such as the graphing calculator in mathematics teaching.
Perturbations: These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them
within a fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the
timetable or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.
Restructuring: These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school
system. For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching, or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.
Value Orientation: These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of
school personnel. For example, if the new teachers who join the school place
more emphasis on personal growth of students than academic performance, then
the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit
according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general enough to help you
plan change and arrange resources to bring about the change. However, you should be
aware that change is not synonymous with improvement and you might decide that
change should not be undertaken.
SELF-TEST
SELF-TEST 6.2 6.2
What
What are
are the
the five
five types
types of of curriculum
curriculum change
change listed
listed by
by McNeil.
McNeil.
Give
Give examples of each category other than those given in
examples of each category other than those given in the
the text.
text.
Identify
Identify other
other types
types ofof curriculum
curriculum change
change which
which you
you have
have come
come
across
across but
but do
do not
not fit
fit into
into those
those given.
given.
As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many
barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. If you are given the job of
implementing a curriculum, whether it be in the school system, college, university or
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training centre, you will encounter people resisting change. Keep things as they are!
Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are. We often hear people say,
If it is not broken, why fix it. People are happy with the current situation in their
institution and feel that the change suggested will not meet the objectives of the school,
college or training centre. The status quo tends to be maintained when the persons
introducing change are themselves not clear as to the intent and what is required of the
new programme. To make matters worse, the implementation of the programme is poorly
planned.
Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as
meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is no extra
financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view new curriculum
programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills and competencies which will
mean attending courses and seminars. It has also been found that teachers or practitioners
tend to reject pedagogical strategies or teaching methods that are different from what they
are currently using. They are reluctant to change or modify their current instructional
strategies and understandings of classroom practice.
Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why people
resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome resistance
and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the task of curriculum
implementation must understand how people react to change and how to encourage them
to be receptive to change. The following are the main reasons why people resist change
(Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966).
I. People resist because they do not understand they simply do not follow what is
being introduced. They do not understand where they are going. They are not clear
as to what is required of them.
Overcome:
The key is communication. You have to explain to them Why. You have to
answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions. Remember, the
effectiveness of communication is not the message sent but of the message
received
II. People resist because of lack of ownership Individuals will not accept change if
they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them. Unfortunately, most
curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the outside which may be at the
national, state or district level.
Overcome:
You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside, their
view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design stages of
curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the relevance of the new
curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the new skills needed for
utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will get them to feel that they are
an important part of the curriculum implementation process.
III. People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes It
is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and skills to cope
with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are incompetent. There is the
likelihood that the implementation of the new curriculum has been rushed or due to
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budgetary constraints, the training period has been greatly reduced and teachers are
not adequately equipped.
Overcome: Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training
of teachers involved in implementing the new curriculum.
V. People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change Teachers
find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change handling their
current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change activities, may run the risk
of neglecting their current responsibilities.
Overcome: Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-
prioritise their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this
means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.
SELF-TEST
SELF-TEST 6.2 6.2
1.
1. Why do people resist
Why do people resist change?
change?
Suggest
Suggest other
other reasons
reasons why
why people
people resist
resist change.
change.
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National Curriculum (80%) Local Content Curriculum (20%)
Pancasila and civic education Agriculture
Religion (Islam, Christianity, Environmental education
Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism) Computer and information
Indonesian language Local culture (dance, local language,
Reading and writing traditional games, etc
Mathematics English
Science & technology
Geography
National and World history
The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC
implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels, the lack
of training, teachers attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and lack of funding
allocation.
o First, in the process of curriculum decentralization some decisions made at the
provincial level tend to not meet each districts needs and conditions.
o Second, was a lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in the
provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi, and East Java.
Most of the local content subjects were taught by teachers who do not have any
specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional culture and
local languages.
o Third teachers attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not
respond to the innovation because they do not have enough background
knowledge or skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have necessary
support from the government and provincial levels to develop their knowledge
and skills.
While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school level are
completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the national
curriculum. Finally, there was lack of funds to develop the LCC which required regular
meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject development. This caused a lack of
participation in LCC implementation.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Refer to Case Study 7.5 and answer the following questions
What are some of the reasons given for poor implementation of the local
curriculum content (LCC) in Indonesia?
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Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people.
Each is a key player in the change process. Without the coordinated involvement of
these individuals the implementation of the curriculum programme will encounter many
problems. Among the key players identified are: teachers, students,
principals/headmasters, assistant principals, district education officers, state education
officers, curriculum developers, academics, parents, interested political officials and lay
citizens. In a centralized system, the national curriculum is developed at the national level
and passed on to the individual districts and schools to be implemented.
6.6.1 Teachers
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies, teachers are
central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which philosophical belief
the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence students
learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most knowledgeable about
the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the
classroom.
The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their
knowledge of the programme. This means teachers need be trained and workshops have
to be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in any curriculum
implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of such exposure. There are
just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go around. The most common approach
is to have one-day workshops given by experts with the lecture method being the
dominant pedagogical strategy. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may
impede curriculum change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional
support. The intrinsic factors are; professional knowledge, professional adequacy and
professional interest and motivation. (see Table 6.1).
Hence, professional development of teachers is as an important factor
contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have teacher
education programmes required prospective teachers to study curriculum development?
Some view teachers as technicians and as such do not include curriculum development in
their teacher education programmes. [Did you study curriculum development in your
training as a teacher?]. Certainly an adequate teacher education programme should
include curriculum development (both the theory and the work of curriculum
development) if teaching is to be a profession and if educational opportunities for
learners are really to be improved.
Below are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development
opportunities for teachers who are implementing a new programme.
Programme philosophy: It is important for teachers to understand both the
philosophy behind the programme as well as how the new programme may
impact students, parents, administrators and other stakeholders.
Content: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which they
are unfamiliar, which they have not taught in a while, or is familiar but presented
in an unfamiliar way. For example, using a problem-solving approach rather than
a topical approach.
Factors Description
Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general
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Adequacy of resources resources required for implementing a new
curriculum
Professional attitude and Attitudes and interest of teachers toward the new
interest curriculum e.g. keen to teach the subject
[source: Edgar Friendenberg, 1965. Coming of Age in America. New York: Random House]
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will also help principals or headmasters decide where to focus and needs
attention.
They should be able to convince parents on the merits of the new curriculum and
how the new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful for their
children. For example, they may need to speak to parents and the community on
the new curriculum. It is important that they give the message that they have
thought carefully about the need for change, that the have anticipated the issues
that will arise and have a plan for addressing the issues.
They should keep in mind, that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected
challenges. For example, insufficient teachers in a particular subject area due to
resignation, unexpected introduction of programmes by the government, sudden
change of government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation plan may
be necessary which is adapted and revisited along the way.
They must be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of
leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers such as; building on the
strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks; being positive about the
planned change and to use this optimism to motivate others.
6.6.4 Parents
Besides teachers, students and school administrators, parents also play an
important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a subject
being taught in way that is unfamiliar to them, they naturally have questions about what
is going on. When children bring homework from school that parents feel unable to help
with, they feel confused and lost. To be successful, any new programme needs to be
embraced by parents. One way of reaching out to parents is to organise workshops for
them focusing on the new curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents
better understand the content and philosophy of the new programme. Parents need an
opportunity to share their concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These
workshops should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is really going
on in the classroom.
Another approach in reaching out to parents is to make available information on
curriculum change on the internet. For example, the government of the province of
Alberta in, Canada has on its website a curriculum handbook for parents containing
information on subjects offered, programmes and courses available in all schools. The
information is updated each year as changes are made to the curriculum (refer to
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/parents/handbooks). Similarly, print-based newsletters
can be made available to parents informing them of the changes that are taking place with
the introduction of the new curriculum.
SELF-TEST
SELF-TEST 6.3 6.3
1.
1. What should principals or
What should principals or headmasters
headmasters do do to
to ensure
ensure the
the successful
successful
implementation
implementation of
of any
any curriculum?
curriculum?
2.
2. How
How should
should parents
parents be
be involved
involved in
in the
the curriculum
curriculum implementation
implementation
process?
process?
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6.7 Case Study: England National Curriculum for Secondary Schools
The law requires that all schools in England provide for all pupils a balanced and
broadly based curriculum which provides for all pupils to learn and achieve; promotes
students spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development; prepares students
for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. The following subjects
must be taught:
English
Mathematics
Science
Design and Technology
Information and Communication
Technology
History
[Source: Key Stage 3 National Strategy: Designing the Key Stage 3 Curriculum,
Department for Education and Skills. England.]
ACTIVITY 6.4
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6.8 Implementing Curriculum in the Classroom
The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the
classroom, decision making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to this point
curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level and decision making
was of a programmatic nature (though we did discuss briefly the role of the teacher).
Now classroom teachers will take over and make decisions of a methodological nature.
They will be answering question like:
LEARNING
LEARNING CONTENT
CONTENT
GOALS
GOALS
LEARNING
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT
EXPERIENCES
EXPERIENCES TASKS
TASKS
Teaching Learning
Methods Activities
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questions during class (which may come from the textbook) and give group
assignments to clarify points in the chapter or chapters.
Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over a number of lessons
using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources may include the
textbook, reference books, websites, magazines, etc. A problem-solving
approach is adopted where students look through various sources of
information to solve a problem.
Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what he or she will cover. A theme or
issue is written on the blackboard and students are expected to contribute their
understanding and interpretation about the theme or issue. While some may
argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind, might term it non-planning.
These three approaches may be extreme, but there are many teachers who fall
into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow the
plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional objectives
or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most cases, teachers
adopted an eclectic approach, i.e. they combine one or more methods.
Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating what you
want students to know, to do and to value after having completed a lesson. Why
instructional objectives? [The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed in
Module 1 and Module 45]. Instructional objectives:
make it clear to teachers what changes they want students to achieve
help in choosing the appropriate learning experiences to achieve the changes
or learning desired
inform students of what is expected of them
indicate what will be important in assessing the lesson
In planning for instruction lesson plans are used. A lesson plan is simply an
outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used
efficiently (Peter, 1975. p.194). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson plans
and different students require different lesson plans. The following is generic outline for
a lesson plan which consists of: (see Figure 6.3):
a) objectives
b) pre-requisite knowledge
c) learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities)
d) instructional aids and resources
e) assignment
f) evaluation tasks or techniques
The teacher with less experience will have more details included in the lesson
plan. However, it is desirable for both experienced and inexperienced teachers to
prepare complete lesson plans to fully communicate their ideas. It is common practice
for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten lesson plans. As teachers gain
experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan has been made, the
teacher can begin to demonstrate his or her style and skills of teaching.
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Date: when is the lesson to be conducted
Time: time when the lesson is to be conducted
Duration: how long will the lesson take?
Grade Level: state what level
b) Affective
1. the affective outcomes desired (eg. express an opinion, take a
position, empathise with the issue discussed)
Pre-Requisite Knowledge:
1. List all skills and content knowledge needed prior to teaching this
lesson
Instructional Aids and Resources:
1. the instructional aids that will be used (eg. maps, pictures, video-
clip)
2. show how they will be used
Learning Experiences:
1. Set induction: how the lesson will begin (eg. review previous lesson)
2. the teaching strategy used (eg. inductive approach)
3. questions posed (to increase understanding and thinking)
4. what students will be required to do (eg. listen, manipulate data)
5. how students interact with the instructional aids
6. Closure: ask students questions and summarise lesson
Assignment:
1. learning activity students are required to do after the lesson (eg. refer
to newspaper article)
Evaluation Techniques:
1. how will student learning be assessed? (eg. oral questioning)
2. What criteria or rubric will be used to evaluate the lesson?
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DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
QUESTIONS:
Identify
Identify some
some problems
problems in
in the
the implementation
implementation of
of the
the Primary
Primary School
School Integrated
Integrated
Curriculum
Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School Integrated Curriculum (KBSM)?
(KBSR) and the Secondary School Integrated Curriculum (KBSM)?
Describe
Describe how
how the
the teaching
teaching of
of science
science and
and mathematics
mathematics in
in English
English was
was
implemented
implemented in
in your
your school?
school?
New
New curriculum
curriculum often
often fail
fail to
to become
become established
established in
in schools
schools because
because the
the
importance
importance and
and complexity
complexity of of the
the implementation
implementation phase
phase is
is not
not understood
understood
Discuss.
Discuss.
READINGS
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