Chapter 1 Edited

1 Energy
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by G/Tsadik andin Rural
Teklay (M.Sc. ElectricalElectrification Course
Power Engineering, Adigrat Notes
University), (Chapter
September 2015 1)
CHAPTER 1: A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Throughout recorded history, humans have searched for ways of putting energy to work for
them. Humans have found ways of growing food instead of foraging for it out in the wild.
Instead of walking, they ride in cars they have built for getting from one place to another.
Humans even learned how to send messages electronically instead of using a messenger or
a postal service. This quest for faster, easier, and more efficient ways of meeting the needs
of a growing human population has led to increasingly high energy demands. But the
resources currently used for generating energy are running out. The pollution created by the
use of these resources is also causing significant damage to the planet's natural systems.
For these reasons, people are beginning to turn to alternative energy sources to reduce
pollution while meeting their energy needs.
We all make decisions about energy. We decide how much electricity we will use to heat or
cool our homes. We decide how far we will go every day and the mode of transportation we
will use. Those of us in democracies choose leaders who create budgets that can support
new energy initiatives or maintain a military capable of defending energy supply lines. Each
of these decisions and many others impacts the global consumption of energy and the
demand for available natural resources. The purpose of this topic is to give you the
information you need to help you make informed decisions.
The choices we make today will affect generations to come. What kind of future do we want
to prepare for them? What kind of future is possible? We can make the best decisions by
being aware of our options and the consequences of our choices. In this chapter, we
consider the location, quantity and accessibility of energy sources. We discuss ways to
distribute available energy, and examine how our choices will affect the economy, society,
and the environment. Our understanding of each of these issues will help us on our journey
to energy independence. We begin by defining energy and reviewing our history of energy
consumption.
1.2. WHAT IS ENERGY?

Energy is the ability to do work. It can be classified as stored (potential) energy, and
working (kinetic) energy. Potential energy is the ability to produce motion, and kinetic
energy is the energy of motion. Forms of energy include energy of motion (kinetic energy),
heat (thermal energy), light (radiant energy), photosynthesis (biological energy), stored
energy in a battery (chemical energy), stored energy in a capacitor(electrical energy),
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stored energy in a nucleus (nuclear energy), and stored energy in a gravitational field
(gravitational energy).
Sources of energy with some common examples include biomass (firewood), fossil fuels
(coal, oil, and natural gas), flowing water (hydroelectric dams), nuclear materials (uranium),
sunlight, and geothermal heat (geysers). Energy sources may be classified as renewable or
non-renewable. Non-renewable energy is energy that is obtained from sources at a rate that
exceeds the rate at which the sources are replenished. Examples of non-renewable energy
sources include fossil fuels and nuclear fission material such as uranium. Renewable energy
is energy that is obtained from sources at a rate that is less than or equal to the rate at
which the sources are replenished. Examples of renewable energy include solar energy and
wind energy.
Renewable and non-renewable energy sources are considered primary energy sources
because they provide energy directly from raw fuels. A fuel is a material which contains one
form of energy that can be transformed into another form of energy. Primary energy is
energy that has not been obtained by anthropogenic conversion or transformation. The term
anthropogenic refers to human activity or human influence. Primary energy is often
converted to secondary energy for more convenient use in human systems. Hydrogen and
electricity are considered secondary sources of energy, or carriers of energy. Secondary
energy sources are produced from primary sources of energy. Secondary sources of energy
can store and deliver energy in a useful form.
Modern civilization depends on the observation that energy can change from
one form to another. If you hold this book motionless above a table and then
release it, the book will fall onto the table. The book has potential energy
when it is being held above the table. The potential energy is energy
associated with the position of the book in a gravitational field. When you
drop the book, the energy of position is transformed into energy of motion,
or kinetic energy. When the book hits the table, some of the kinetic energy is
transformed into sound (sonic energy), and the rest of the kinetic energy is
transformed into energy of position (potential energy) when the book rests
on the table top.
Energy transformation is needed to produce commercial energy. As an

illustration, suppose we consider a coal-fired power plant. Coal stores energy
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as chemical energy. Combustion, or burning the coal, transforms chemical

energy into heat energy. In steam power plants, the heat energy changes
water into steam and increases the energy of motion, or kinetic energy, of
the steam. Flowing steam spins a turbine in a generator. The mechanical
energy of the spinning turbine is converted to electrical energy in the
generator. In a real system, energy is lost so that the efficiency of electrical
energy generation from the combustion of coal is less than 100%. A measure
of the energy that is available for doing useful work is called exergy.
Real power systems transform energy into useful work, but some of the
energy is wasted. The energy efficiency of a system is the amount of energy
needed by the system to perform a specific function divided by the amount
of energy that is supplied to the system. Energy efficiency has a value
between 0% and 100%. Some of the energy supplied to a real system is lost
as non-useful energy so that the energy efficiency is less than 100%. For
example, suppose we have two light bulbs A and B. Both light bulbs provide
the same amount of light, but light bulb B uses less energy than light bulb A
because light bulb B produces less heat than light bulb
A. Light bulb B has a higher energy efficiency than light bulb A because light
bulb B uses less energy to achieve its intended purpose, to provide light.
In the light bulb example, we can reduce energy use by adopting a more
energy efficient technology. Another way to reduce energy use is to turn of
the light when it is not needed. In this case, we are conserving energy by
changing our behavior. Energy conservation is achieved by adopting a
behavior that results in the use of less energy. An improvement in energy
efficiency or conservation can be viewed as increasing energy supply
because improving energy efficiency or conservation lets us get more value
from existing energy sources.
Point to Ponder: What does an energy unit mean to me?

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To get an idea of the meaning of an energy unit such as kilocalorie or

megajoule, it is helpful to compare the energy consumed by the operation of
modern devices. For example, a 1200 Watt
hair dryer uses approximately one megajoule of energy in 15 minutes. A
megajoule is 1 million Joules, which can be written as 106 Joules or 106 J. A
100 Watt light bulb uses approximately
one megajoule of energy in about three hours. [Fanchi, 2004, Exercise 1-3]
If we run the 1200 Watt hair dryer for one hour, we will use 1.2 kilowatt-
hours of energy. We abbreviate 1.2 kilowatt-hours as 1.2 kWh. One kWh
equals 1 kW times 1 hr, or about3.6 106 J of energy. A typical American
household will use between 20 and 50 kWh per day. Energy usage depends
on many factors, such as use of appliances, heating or cooling, etc.
A typical power plant provides approximately 1000 megawatts of power,

which is abbreviated as 1000 MW of power. The power plant can provide
power to approximately 900,000 households that use 10,000 kWh per year
for each household.
A unit of energy that is commonly used for discussing energy on a national

scale is the quad. One quad equals one quadrillion British Thermal Units
(BTU) or 1015 BTU. A BTU is approximately 1000 Joules, so one quad is
approximately 1018 Joules. A quad is comparable in magnitude to global
energy values. For example, in 2006 the United States consumed about 100
quads of energy and the world consumed about 472 quads of energy
1.3. HISTORICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION

The history of energy consumption shows how important energy is to the
quality of life for each of us. Societies have depended on diferent types of
energy in the past, and societies have been forced to change from one
energy type to another. Global energy consumption can be put in perspective
by considering the amount of energy consumed by individuals.
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E. Cook [1971] provided estimates of daily human energy consumption at six

diferent periods of societal development. The six periods from oldest to
most recent are the Primitive Period, the Hunting Period, the Primitive
Agricultural Period, the Advanced Agricultural Period, the Industrial Period,
and the Technological Period. Cooks estimates are given in Table 1-1 for
each period. The table shows that personal energy consumption was
relatively constant until the Advanced Agricultural period when it increased
substantially.
Energy is essential for life, and food was the first source of energy. Cook
assumed the only source of energy consumed by a person living during the
period labeled Primitive was food. Cooks energy estimate was for an East
African about one million years ago. Humans require approximately 2000
kilocalories (about eight megajoules) of food per day. One food Calorie is
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equal to one kilocalorie, or 1000calories. One calorie is the amount of energy

required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree
Centigrade. A change in temperature of one degree Centigrade is equal to a
change in temperature of 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit.
The ability to control fire during the Hunting period let people use wood to
heat and cook. Fire provided light at night and could illuminate caves.
Firewood was the first source of energy for consumption in a residential
setting. Cooks estimate of the daily per capita energy consumption for
Europeans about 100,000 years ago was 5,000 kilocalories (about 21
megajoules).
The Primitive Agricultural period was characterized by the domestication of

animals. Humans were able to use animals to help them grow crops and
cultivate their fields. The ability to grow more food than you needed became
the impetus for creating an agricultural industry. Cooks
estimate of the daily per capita energy consumption for people in the Fertile
Crescent circa 5000 B.C. was 12,000 kilocalories (about 50 megajoules).
Humans continue to use animals to perform work (Figure 1-1).
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More energy was consumed during the Advanced Agricultural period when
people learned to use coal, and built machines to harvest the wind and
water. By the early Renaissance, people were using wind to push sailing
ships, water to drive mills, and wood and coal for generating heat.
Transportation became a significant component of energy consumption by
humans. Cooks estimate of the daily per capita energy consumption for
people in northwestern Europe circa 1400 was 26,000 kilocalories (about 109
megajoules).
The steam engine ushered in the Industrial period. It provided a means of

transforming heat energy to mechanical energy. Wood was the first source of
energy for generating steam in steam engines. Coal, a fossil fuel, eventually
replaced wood and hay as the primary energy source
in industrialized nations. Coal was easier to store and transport than wood
and hay, which are bulky and awkward. Coal was useful as a fuel source for
large vehicles, such as trains and ships, but of limited use for personal
transportation. Oil, another fossil fuel, was a liquid and contained about the
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same amount of energy per unit mass as coal. Oil could flow through
pipelines and tanks. People just needed a machine to convert the energy in
oil to a more useful form. Cooks estimate of the daily per capita energy
consumption for people in England circa 1875 was
77,000 kilocalories (about 322 megajoules).
The modern Technological period is associated with the development of

internal combustion engines, and applications of electricity. Internal
combustion engines can vary widely in size and use oil. The internal
combustion engine could be scaled to fit on a wagon and create horseless
carriages. The transportation system in use today evolved as a result of the
development of internal combustion engines. Electricity, by contrast, is
generated from primary energy sources such as fossil fuels. Electricity
generation and distribution systems made the widespread use
of electric motors and electric lights possible. One advantage of electricity as
an energy source is that it can be transported easily, but electricity is difficult
to store. Cooks estimate of the daily per capita energy consumption for
people in the United States circa 1970 was 230,000 kilocalories
(about 962 megajoules).
Figure 1-2 shows the consumption of energy in the United States from 1650
to 2000. The figure clearly shows that wood was the primary energy source
for most of history. The transition from wood (a renewable energy source) to
fossil fuels (a non-renewable energy source) began in the middle of the 19 th
century. Fossil fuels became the dominant energy source from the mid-19th
century through the end of the 20 th century. A similar scenario applies to
other developed nations.
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Table 1-2 shows that approximately 74 quads of energy were produced and
99 quads of energy were consumed by the United States in 2008. The energy
that was not produced in the United States was imported.
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Table 1-3 presents the relative contributions of diferent energy sources to

2008 United States energy production and consumption as percent of total
values shown in Table 1-2. Fossil fuels were the dominant contributor to the
United States energy mix in 2008. This provides a snapshot of the United
States energy mix. The data in Appendix B shows that the relative
contribution of energy sources to the United States energy mix is changing
with the contribution of fossil fuels declining while the contribution of
renewable energy sources is increasing. The increasing role of renewable
energy sources is also occurring on a global scale, as
discussed in Section 1-5.
Table 1-4 shows how the energy consumed in the United States in 2008 was
distributed between energy sectors. Definitions of the composition of each
energy sector are provided by the United States EIA. The transportation
sector includes vehicles that transport people or goods.
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1.4. ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE

Quality of life is a subjective concept that can be quantified in several ways. The United
Nations calculates a quantity called the Human Development Index (HDI) to provide a
quantitative measure of the quality of life. The HDI measures human development in a
country using three basic factors: health, knowledge, and standard of living. Table 1-5
presents measures for each factor. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) accounts for the total
output of goods and services from a nation and is a measure of the economic
growth of the nation. The HDI is a fraction that varies from zero to one. A value of HDI
that approaches zero is considered a relatively low quality of life, while a value of HDI
that approaches one is considered a high quality of life.
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A plot of HDI versus per capita electricity consumption for all

nations with a population of at least one million people is shown in
Figure 1-3. Per capita electricity consumption is the total amount of
electricity consumed by the nation divided by the population of the
nation. The amount of electricity is expressed in kilowatt-hours
(kWh) in the figure. Per capita electricity generation is an
estimate of the average amount of electricity consumed by
each individual in the nation. The calculation of per capita
electricity consumption establishes a common basis for
comparing the consumption of electricity between nations with
large populations and nations with small populations. The HDI data
are 2006 data from the United Nations Human Development Report
[UN HDI, 2009], and annual per capita electricity consumption
data are 2006 data reported by the Energy Information
Administration of the United States Department of Energy [US EIA
website, 2009].
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Figure 1-3 shows that quality of life, as measured by HDI, increases as per capita
electricity consumption increases. It also shows that the in-crease is not linear; the
improvement in quality of life begins to level off when per capita electricity
consumption rises to about 4000 kilowatt-hours.
The countries with the largest HDI values, in excess of 90%, are nations with relatively
mature economies such as western European nations, Canada, Australia, the United
Kingdom, Japan, and the United States. These countries tend to have relatively large
middle classes. Table 1-6 lists per capita consumption for the 15 countries with the
largest UN HDI. The numbers are subject to change when databases are up-dated
or corrected, but the data in the table does illustrate the relative magnitude of per
capita consumption for each country. Some people may be surprised to see that the United
States is not the largest consumer of energy or electricity on a per capita basis.
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1.5. ENERGY IN TRANSITION

Coal was the first fossil fuel to be used on a large scale. J.U. Nef [1977] described 16th
century Britain as the first major economy in the world that relied on coal. Britain was
dependent on wood before it switched to coal. The transition from wood to coal was made
necessary by the excessive consumption of wood that was leading to the deforestation of
Britain.
Coal was the fuel of choice during the Industrial Revolution. It was used to boil steam for
steam turbines and steam engines. Coal was used in transportation to provide a combustible
fuel for steam engines on trains and ships. The introduction of the internal combustion
engine made it possible for oil to replace coal as a fuel for transportation. Coal is used
today to provide fuel for many coal-fired power plants.
Today, fossil fuels are still the primary fuels for generating electrical power, but society is
becoming increasingly concerned about the global dependence on finite resources and the
environmental impact of fossil fuel combustion (air pollution, acidic rain, etc). Burning fossil
fuels generate carbon dioxide that contributes in a big way to Global Warming, sulphur and
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nitrogen oxides. As a result, society is in the process of changing the global energy mix from
an energy portfolio that is heavily dependent on fossil fuels to an energy portfolio that
depends on several energy sources. The transition process began in the latter half of the
20th century and is illustrated in Figure 1-6.
Figure 1-6 shows total energy consumption in quads from1940 to 2000. In 1940, the world
relied on firewood, coal and oil. Natural gas, energy from water, especially hydropower from
dams, and nuclear energy joined firewood, coal and oil as important contributors to the
energy mix by the end of the 20th century. Other energy sources identified as wind, solar,
biomass, geothermal and waste in Figure 1-6 were beginning to make an appearance in
the global energy mix at the beginning of the 21 st century. They do not appear in the figure
because their impact was negligible in the last half of the 20th century. One of the factors
that supported the selection of fossil fuels and nuclear energy as fuels of choice is energy
density.
Energy density is energy contained per unit volume of material. Fossil fuels have relatively
large energy densities and have been preferentially chosen as the raw fuel for power plants.
Raw fuels such as oil, coal, natural gas, and uranium are present in nature and can be used
to provide primary energy.
The dominance of fossil fuels in the energy mix at the end of the 20 th century is being
replaced by a move toward sustainable energy. Sustainable energy is the mix of energy
sources that will allow society to meet its present energy needs while preserving the ability
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of future generations to meet their needs. This definition is a variation of the concept of
sustainable development introduced in 1987 in a report prepared by the United Nations
World Commission on Environment and Development. The Commission, known as the
Brundtland Commission after chairwoman Gro Harlem Brundtland of Norway, said that
society should adopt a policy of sustainable development that allows society to meet its
present needs while preserving the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
[WCED, 1987]. The 2013 Survey by World Energy Council shows the total primary
energy resource mix in three different years (1993, 2011, and 2020).
Another graph shows the energy mix between 1966 and 2011. The energy mix
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The graph shows oil, coal and gas take the major energy contributors.
Energy Forecasting
Energy forecasts rely on projections of historical trends. The future energy mix will look
like as given below based on historical trends until 2010.
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Primary sources of energy consisting of petroleum, coal, and natural gas amount to about
85% of the fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world. Projected energy use in
the world shows that petroleum, coal, and natural gas will still be the dominant energy
sources by 2035 (Fig. 2). The principle of supply and demand suggests that as fossil fuels
diminish, their prices will rise and renewable energy supplies, particularly biomass, solar,
and wind resources, will become sufficiently economical to exploit. Figure 2.3 shows the
primary energy flow in the US.
Note: The energy content may be converted to ton of oil equivalent (TOE): 1 TOE = 11630
kWh = 41870 MJ.
Point to Ponder: Why should I care about the global distribution of energy?
Suppose a country with a population of 20 million people wants to provide enough energy to
sustain a quality of life corresponding to a United Nations HDI of 0.9. The country will
require 200,000 megajoules per person of energy each year. This corresponds to
approximately 127 power plants with 1000 megawatts capacity each. [Fanchi, 2004,
Exercise 1-10] Where will this energy come from?
Today, energy on a national scale comes primarily from fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal.
In a few countries such as France, it is provided by nuclear fission. If the country does not
have significant reserves of fossil fuels or uranium a material needed for most nuclear
fission reactors it will have to import the materials it needs. In this case the country is a
have Steve Chu and Arun Majumdar, Opportunities and challenges for a
Source: not
sustainable energy
country that future, on
is dependent Nature, August
countries that 2012
have the resources and technology it needs.
This creates an opportunity for have countries to manipulate have not countries. On the
other hand, it creates an incentive for have not countries to use its human resources to
take what is needed. For example, the have not country could maintain a large standing
army or sponsor acts of violence to influence have countries. The global distribution of
energy influences relationships between nations and can affect geopolitical stability.
1.6. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case
of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the
ever increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.
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Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
Primary and Secondary energy
Commercial and Non-commercial energy
Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
Conventional and Non-conventional energy
[1] Primary and Secondary Energy
Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have other uses, for
instance, natural gas can be used as a raw material in fertilizer plants.
Primary and secondary types of energy are the two main types as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Primary energy is extracted or captured directly from the environment, while the secondary
energy is converted from the primary energy in the form of electricity, steam, or fuel.
Primary energy can also be used directly.
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common
primary energy sources are:
Nonrenewable energy (fossil fuels): coal, crude oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel.
Renewable energy: hydropower (rivers and lakes), biomass (such as wood), solar
energy, wind, geothermal (earth heat), and ocean energy, earths gravity
Energy Transformation or Conversion energy carriers (or secondary energy)
The main goal of all energy transformations is to provide energy services that
improve quality of life (e.g. health, life expectancy and comfort) and productivity.
Primary energy sources are transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient
forms of energy (that can directly be used by society), such as electrical energy, refined
fuels, or synthetic fuels such as hydrogen fuel. In the field of energetics, these forms are
called energy carriers and correspond to the concept of "secondary energy" in energy
statistics.
Electricity and heat are one of the most common energy carriers, being transformed from
various primary energy sources such as coal, oil, natural gas, etc.
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Other examples of Secondary Sources
Solid Fuels: coke, charcoal
Liquid fuels: petrol, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, LPG, Naphtha, ethanol
Gaseous Fuels : propane, hydrogen,
Biofuels (derived from biomass 1): can be produced from any carbon source that can
be replenished rapidly e.g. plants (corn, bamboo, sugarcane). Examples of bio fuels
are bioethanol and biodiesel.
Note: Primary energy sources should not be confused with the energy systems (or
conversion processes) through which they are converted into energy carriers.
1 Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. In the context of
biomass as a resource for making energy, it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials which
are not used for food or feed. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion
to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuels. Wood remains the largest
biomass energy source to date (examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches, and
tree trumps), wood chips and municipal solid waste. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous
types of plants, including corn, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, etc and variety of tree species
ranging from eucalyptus to palm oil.
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Primary energy sources Energy systems Energy

carriers
(main)
Non- Fossil Oil (or crude oil) Oil refinery Fuel oil
renewable fuels Fossil fuel power Heat or
Coal or natural gas
sources station electricity
Mineral Nuclear power plant
fuels Natural uranium (thermonuclear Electricity
fission)
Renewable Photovoltaic power
sources plant (see also Electricity
by converted
Solar power)
Solar energy Solar power tower,
to
solar furnace (see
Heat
also Solar thermal
energy)
Wind farm (see
Wind energy electricity
also Wind power)
Hydropower plant,
Falling and flowing
wave farm, tidal electricity
water, tidal energy
power station
Biomass power Heat or
Biomass sources
station electricity
Geothermal power Heat or
Geothermal energy
station electricity
According to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources cannot be produced.

They must be available to society to enable the production of energy carriers.
[2] Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity,
coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial,
agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the
industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic
production, but also for many household tasks of general population.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified
as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood,
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cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a
price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-
commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
[3] Renewable and non-renewable energy sources
Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are replacing themselves; they
are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of renewable resources include wind power, solar
power, geothermal energy, tidal power, and hydroelectric power (see figure 1.2).
Some sources are renewable, i.e. they provide energy, which is constantly regenerated by
means of chemical transformations (e.g. biomass) or physical transformations (e.g.
water power, solar, wind power, etc.). In particular the sun, the wind, the water cycle, the
tides, the heat of the Earth are non-exhaustible sources, which are always available and will
never end. Biomass, instead, can re-generate within times that are similar to mans life.
With reference to wood, for example, it is always possible to have some combustible
available, even though sometimes it is necessary to consume a small quantity of it and
reforest in those areas where trees have been cut down.
The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the
release of harmful pollutants; therefore it is also known as the green energy.
Biomass (especially Wood) is a unique fuel source in that it is a renewable resource. It is

also greenhouse gas neutral which means that the log being burned cannot produce any
more carbon than was used by it during its life.
Non-renewable energy includes conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, which are
likely to be depleted over time. Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take
millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new are being
made.
These sources, although there is still plenty of them, are limited and represent a sort of
energy warehouse on the Earth. In 2012, only 13.5% of the energy consumed in the world
derives from renewable sources. All the rest derives from non-renewable sources, mainly
from fossil fuels (86.7%) and 4.8% from nuclear plants.
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Figure: Renewable (left) and Non-renewable (right) Energy sources
[4] Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:
Conventional Energy
Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and
were in common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy resources,
e.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.
Non-conventional energy
Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large scale use after oil crisis
of 1973, are called non-conventional energy sources, e.g, solar, wind, biomass, etc.
1.7. TYPES OF NONRENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

In section we will study fossil fuels and nuclear energy resources as non-renewable sources.
Fossil Fuels: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas,

Nuclear
1.7.1. FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels are formed from the trapped remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to
heat and pressure in the in the absence of oxygen in the earths crust over hundreds of
millions of years.. Fossil Fuels currently meet greater than 80-85% of global energy
demand.
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Fossil fuels are derived from organic matter which has been trapped and compressed
between layers of sediments within the Earth for millions of years.
These deposits, and the materials produced from them, tend to be highly
combustible, making them an ideal energy source.
They are difficult to obtain as they are typically retrieved through drilling or mining,
but fossil fuels are worth the effort for the sheer amount of energy they produce.
Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include mainly coal, petroleum, and
natural gas. These types of fuels are known as nonrenewable energy sources. The following
sections discuss some important nonrenewable energy sources.
Coal
Coals are sedimentary rocks containing combustible and incombustible matters as
well as water.
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In the life cycle of coal, biomass decomposes over thousands of years and becomes peat
and then after thousands more years, becomes lignite, and then coal. Once it is dried, peat
becomes extremely volatile.
Coal is classified in various ways. The most common classification is based on rank,
referring to the degree of coalification that has occurred. The rank of a coal is determined
primarily by the depth of burial and temperature to which the coal was subjected over time.
With increasing temperature, peat is converted to lignite, a very soft, low-rank coal. With
further increases in temperature, lignite is transformed into subbituminous coal and then
into bituminous coal. At even higher temperatures, usually accompanied by intense
deformation generated by the folding and faulting of the Earths crust, anthracites, the
highest rank of coal, are produced. The increase in coal rank is accompanied by increases in
the amount of fixed carbon and by decreases in the amount of moisture and other volatile
material in the coal. In general, the calorific (heat) value of coal increases with rank from
lignite through bituminous coal. In addition, the terms used for various coal ranks vary from
country to country.
Coal comes in various composition and energy content depending on the source and type.
Table 2.2 shows some typical properties of various coals.
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The poorest lignite has less than 50% carbon and an energy density lower than wood.
Anthracites have more than 90% carbon, while bituminous coals mostly between 70 and
75%. Bituminous coal ignites easily and burns with a relatively long flame. If improperly
fired, bituminous coal is characterized with excess smoke and soot. Anthracite coal is very
hard and shiny and the ultimate maturation. Anthracite coal creates a steady and clean
flame and is preferred for domestic heating. Furthermore it burns longer with more heat
than the other types. For countries with rising oil prices coal may become a cheaper source
of energy. It was in the 1880s when coal was first used to generate electricity for homes
and factories. Since then coal played a major role as source of energy in the industrial
revolution. Coal was the most important fuel for power generation in 2011 with a proportion
of around 40 %, and therefore more than any other fuel.
Coal has impurities like sulfur and nitrogen and when it burns the released impurities can
combine with water vapor in the air to form droplets that fall to earth as weak forms of
sulfuric and nitric acid as acid rain. Coal also contains minerals, which do not burn and make
up the ash left behind in a coal combustor.
Carbon dioxide is one of several gases that can help trap the earths heat and, as many
scientists believe, cause the earths temperature to rise and alter the earths climate.
Because of high carbon content, coals generate more CO2 per unit of released energy than
any other fossil fuel such as crude oil. Sulfur content of coal is also a drawback. Sulfur
makes up, typically, about 2% of bitumen coals. However, advanced coal technology can
filter out 99% of the tiny particles, remove more than 95% of the acid rain pollutants, and
reduce the release of carbon dioxide by burning coal more efficiently. Many new plants are
required to have flue gas desulfurization units called scrubbers.
Despite its poor environmental credentials, coal remains a crucial contributor to energy
supply in the world (represents 29-30 % which is second to oil (30-40%)). Coal is the most
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wide-spread fossil fuel around the world, and more than 75 countries have coal deposits.
The current share of coal in global electric power generation is over 40%.
Coal reserves: top 5 countries in order: (1) United States of America, (2) Russian
Federation, (3) China, (4) Australia, (5) India
2.3.2 Petroleum (Crude Oil)
Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons

of various molecular weights, which define its physical and chemical properties, like heating
value, color, and viscosity. The composition of hydrocarbons ranges from as much as 97%
by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils. The proportion of chemical
elements varies over fairly narrow limits as seen in Table 2.3. The hydrocarbons in crude oil
are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic
compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and trace amounts of metals. The relative
percentage of each varies and determines the properties of oil (see Table 2.4).
Alkanes, also known as paraffin, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or

branched chains containing only carbon and hydrogen and have the general
formula CnH2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule.
For example, CH4 represents the methane, which is a major component of
natural gas. The propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are known as petroleum
gases. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately
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25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up. These long chain alkanes
are usually cracked by modern refineries into lighter and more valuable
products.
Cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which
have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according
to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have
higher boiling points.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more
six-carbon rings called benzene rings with double and single bonds and hydrogen
atoms attached according to the formula CnHn.
Oil still remains the premier energy resource. Oil currently supplies more than 40% of our
total energy demands and more than 99% of the fuel are used in transportation. Known oil
reserves are typically estimated at around 1.2 trillion barrels without oil sands, or 3.74
trillion barrels with oil sands [3, 26].
Saudi Arabia is the biggest crude oil producing country in the world.
Crude oil reserves: top 5 countries in order: Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, Iraq
2.3.3 Petroleum Fractions
Oil is refined and separated into a large number of commodity products, from
gasoline and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and
pharmaceuticals. Figure 2.4 shows a part of a typical refinery processing crude oil
to produce various fuels. 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum
is converted into energy-rich fuels, including gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating, and
other fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases. The remaining oil is converted to
pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics [22]. Therefore,
petroleum is vital to many industries, and thus is a critical concern to many
nations.
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Some common fractions from petroleum refining are:
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a flammable mixture of propane (C 3H8) (about

38% by volume and more in winter) and butane (C 4H10) (about 60% by volume
and more in summer) used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. Energy
content of liquefied petroleum gas per kilogram is higher than for gasoline
because of higher hydrogen to carbon ratio. Liquefied petroleum gas emits 81%
of the CO2 per kWh produced by oil and 70% of that of coal. Liquefied
petroleum gas has a typical specific heat of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 43.5 MJ/
kg for gasoline. However, its energy density of 26 MJ/l is lower than either that
of gasoline. Pure n-butane is liquefied at around 220 kPa (2.2 bar), while pure
propane (C3H8) at 2200 kPa (22 bar). At liquid state, the vapor pressure of
liquefied petroleum gas is about 550 kPa (5.5 bar).
Gasoline is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. A typical
gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per
molecule. It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained by the fractional
distillation of petroleum, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic hydrocarbons
toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating. The specific density of
gasoline ranges from 0.71 to 0.77 (6.175 lb/US gal) higher densities having a
greater volume of aromatics. Gasoline contains about 132 MJ/US gal (higher
heating value), while its blends differ by up to 4% more or less than the average.
The emission of CO2 from gasoline is around 73.38 g/MJ.
Petroleum diesel contains 821 carbon atoms per molecule with a boiling point
in the range of 180360 C (360680 F). The density of petroleum diesel is
about 6.943 lb/gal. About 86.1% of the fuel mass is carbon and it offers a net
heating value of around 43.1 MJ/kg. However, due to the higher density, diesel offers
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a higher volumetric energy density at 128,700 Btu/gal versus 115,500

Btu/gal for gasoline, some 11% higher (see Table 2.7). The CO2 emissions from
diesel are 73.25 g/MJ, (similar to gasoline). Because of quality regulations,
additional refining is required to remove sulfur which may contribute to a higher
cost.
Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid formed containing between 6 and 16 carbon
atoms per molecule, with density of 0.780.81 g/cm3. The flash point of kerosene is
between 37 and 65 C (100 and 150 F) and its autoignition temperature is
220 C (428 F). The heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel:
its lower heating value is around 18,500 Btu/lb, (43.1 MJ/kg), and its higher
heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg (19,861 Btu/lb).
Jet fuel is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gasturbine
engines. The commonly used fuels are Jet A and Jet A-1 which are
produced to a standardised international specification. Jet B is used for its
enhanced cold-weather performance. Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of
different hydrocarbons with density of 0.775-0.840 kg/l at 15 C (59 F). The
range is restricted by the requirements for the product, for example, the freezing
point or smoke point. Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1) has a
carbon number between about 8 and 16; wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuel
(including Jet B), between about 5 and 15.
Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes,
and aromatics and heavier than gasoline and naphtha. Fuel oil is classified into
six classes, numbered 1 through 6, according to its boiling point, composition,
and purpose. The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 C, and carbon chain
length, 970 atoms. Viscosity also increases with number, and the heaviest oil
has to be heated to get it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number
increases. Number 1 is similar to kerosene, number 2 is the diesel fuel that
trucks and some cars run on, leading to the name road diesel. Number 4 fuel
oil is usually a blend of heavy distillate and residual fuel oils. Number 5 and 6
fuel oils are called residual fuel oils or heavy fuel oils. Table 2.5 shows the
heating values of various fuel oils per gallon.
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Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities. Combustion of such fuels eventually
leads to producing sulfur monoxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2) in the exhaust
which promotes acid rain. One final element in exhaust pollution is ozone (O 3).
This is not emitted directly but made in the air by the action of sunlight on other
pollutants to form ground level ozone, which is harmful on the respiratory systems
if the levels are too high. However, the ozone layer in the high atmosphere is
useful in blocking the harmful rays from the sun. Ozone is broken down by
nitrogen oxides. For the nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and
ozone, there are accepted levels that are set by legislation to which no harmful
effects are observed.
2.3.4 Natural Gas
Natural gas is yet another fossil fuel resource that will continue making significant
contribution to the world energy economy. The cleanest of all fossil-based fuels, natural gas
is plentiful and flexible.
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture, consisting mainly of methane.

Table 2.6 shows the typical components of natural gas.
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Natural gas provides 23% of all energy consumed in the world. The International Energy
Agency predicts that the demand for natural gas will grow by more than 67% through 2030.
Natural gas is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative transportation fuel. Typical
theoretical flame temperature of natural gas is 1960 C (3562 F), ignition point is
593 oC. Natural gas is a major source of electricity production through the use of gas
turbines and steam turbines. It burns more cleanly and produces about 30% less
carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than burning coal for
an equivalent amount of heat produced. Combined cycle power generation using
natural gas is thus the cleanest source of power available using fossil fuels, and this
technology is widely used wherever gas can be obtained at a reasonable cost. The
gross heat of combustion of one cubic meter of natural gas is around 39 MJ and the
typical caloric value is roughly 1,000 Btu per cubic foot, depending on gas
composition.
Natural gas reserves: top 5 countries: Russian Federation, Iran, Qatar, Turkmenistan,
Saudi Arabia
1.7.2. NUCLEAR ENERGY

The nuclear Industry has a relatively short history: the first nuclear reactor was
commissioned in 1954. Uranium is the main source of fuel for nuclear reactors.
Nuclear energy plants produce electricity through the fission of nuclear fuel, such
as uranium, so they do not pollute the air with harmful gases. Nuclear fission is a
nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts, often
producing free neutrons and photons in the form of gamma rays and releasing large
amounts of energy. Nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by free neutrons and
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generate neutrons leading to a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at

a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor. This heat is used to produce steam to be
used in a turbine to produce electricity. This is similar to most coal, oil, and gasfired power
plants.
Typical fission release about two hundred million eV (200 MeV) of energy,
which is much higher than most chemical oxidation reactions. For example,
complete fission energy of uranium-235 isotope is 6.73 9 10 10
kJ/kg. The
energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products and
fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays in a nuclear
reactor. The energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide
with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water or
occasionally heavy water. The products of nuclear fission, however, are far more
radioactive than the heavy elements which are normally fissioned as fuel, and
remain so for a significant amount of time, giving rise to a nuclear waste problem.
More than 400 nuclear power plants operating in 25 countries supply almost
17% of the worlds electricity.
Nuclear power is essentially carbon-free. However, the electricity from new

nuclear power plants would be relatively expensive, and nuclear energy faces a
number of significant obstacles. The biggest challenges are the disposal of
radioactive waste and the threat of nuclear proliferation. New plants would also
require long licensing times, and it would likely be at least a decade before nuclear
energy could be brought to bear on the climate change problem.
1.8. HEATING VALUE OF FUELS

The heating value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion at constant
pressure and under normal conditions (i.e. to 25 C and under a pressure of 1 atm). The
combustion process generates water. Various heating values are:
The higher heating value (HHV) consists of the combustion product of water
condensed and that the heat of vaporization contained in the water vapor is
recovered. So the all the water produced in the combustion is in liquid state.
The lower heating value (LHV) assumes that the water product of combustion is
at vapor state and the heat of vaporization is not recovered.
Net heating value is the same with lower heating value and is obtained by
subtracting the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor formed by the
combustion from the gross or higher heating value.
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The gross heating value is the total heat obtained by complete combustion at
constant pressure including the heat released by condensing the water vapor in
the combustion products. Gross heating value accounts liquid water in the fuel
prior to combustion, and valuable for fuels containing water, such as wood and coal.
If a fuel has no water prior to combustion then the gross heating value is
equal to higher heating value. A common method of relating HHV to LHV per
unit mass of a fuel is
Tables 2.7 and 2.8 show the properties and heating values of some common fuels. The
heating value of fossil fuels may vary depending on the source and composition.
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1.9. ENERGY DENSITY

Energy density is the amount of energy per unit volume. Specific energy is the
amount of energy per unit amount. Comparing, for example, the effectiveness of
hydrogen fuel to gasoline, hydrogen has a higher specific energy than gasoline but
a much lower energy density even in liquid form. Energy per unit volume has the
same physical units as pressure. Table 2.9 lists energy densities of some fuel and
fuel mixtures.
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1.10. RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable energy comes from natural resources and are naturally replenished. Major
renewable energy sources are:
Hydroelectric
Solar energy
Biomass
Wind
Geothermal heat
Ocean
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In its various forms, renewable energy comes directly from the sun, or from heat generated
deep within the earth. In 2008, about 19% of global nal energy consumption came from
renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating,
and 3.2% from hydroelectricity. Other renewables, such as small hydro, biomass, wind,
solar, geothermal, and biofuels contributed around 2.7% and are growing rapidly. The share
of renewables in electricity generation is around 18%, with 15% of global electricity coming
from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables. Climate change concerns, high oil
prices, and government support are leading to increase in renewable energy usage and
commercialization. Consequently, between 2004 and 2009, worldwide renewable energy
capacity grew at rates of 1060% annually creating businesses and employment. Renewable
energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: power generation, hot water/space
heating, transport fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services:
Renewable power generation provides 18% of total electricity generation worldwide.

Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power
alone already provides a signicant share of electricity in some areas.
Solar hot water contributes a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million
households in many countries.
Renewable biofuels have contributed to a decline in oil consumption in Brazil, the
United States and many other countries. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced
worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of
gasoline, equal to about 5% of world gasoline production.
New and emerging renewable energy technologies are still under development and
include cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. Renewable
energy generally gets cheaper in the long term, while fossil fuels generally get more
expensive. Fossil fuel technologies are more mature, while renewable energy
technologies are being rapidly improved to increase the efciency of renewable energy
and reduce its cost. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy
generated from fossil fuels can be difcult and expensive; therefore producing renewable
energy locally can offer a viable alternative.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) promotes the adoption of

renewable energy worldwide. As of March 2010, IRENA has 143 member states.
Renewable energy policy targets exist in some 73 countries around the world, and public
policies to promote renewable energy use have become more common in recent years.
Mandates for blending biofuels into vehicle fuels have been enacted in 17 countries. The
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shift from food crop feedstock to waste residues and native grasses offers signicant
opportunities for farmers and investors.
1.10.1. HYDROENERGY
Hydroenergy is derived from the force or energy of moving water. Most hydro-electric
energy comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and
generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the
difference in height between the source and the waters outow. This height difference is
called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. To
deliver water to a turbine while maintaining pressure arising from the head, a large pipe
called a penstock may be used. In 1878, the worlds rst house to be powered with
hydroelectricity was in Northumberland, England. The old Schoelkopf Power Station near
Niagara Falls in the US began to produce electricity in 1881.
One of the major advantages of hydroelectricity is the elimination of fuel. Because there is
no fuel combustion, there is little air pollution in comparison with fossil fuel plants and
limited thermal pollution compared with nuclear plants. Hydroelectric plants also tend to
have longer economic lives than fuel-red power generation, with some plants now in
service which were built 50100 years ago. Operating labor cost is also usually low, as
plants are automated and need few personnel on site during normal operation. The sale of
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electricity from the station may cover the construction costs after 58 years of full
operation.
Hydroelectric usually refers to large-scale hydroelectric dams. Micro hydro systems typically
produce up to 100 kW of power. Hydro systems without dam derive kinetic energy from
rivers and oceans. Ocean energy includes marine current power, ocean thermal energy
conversion, and tidal power.
Hydro power contributes approximately 15% of the global electricity production.
The top 5 largest markets for hydro power in terms of capacity are Brazil, Canada, China,
Russia and the United States of America. China significantly exceeds the others,
representing 24% of global installed capacity. In several other countries, hydro power
accounts for over 50% of all electricity generation, including Iceland, Nepal and Mozambique
for example. During 2012, an estimated 2730GW of new hydro power and 23GW of
pumped storage capacity was commissioned.
Hydro Power: top 5 countries
Country Installed Capacity (MW)
China 231 000
Brazil 82 458
United States of America 77 500
Canada 75 104
Russian Federation 49 700
1.10.2. SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is the most abundant energy resource and it is available for use in its direct
(solar radiation) and indirect (wind, biomass, hydro, ocean etc.) forms. About 60% of the
total energy emitted by the sun reaches the Earths surface. Even if only 0.1% of this
energy could be converted at an efficiency of 10%, it would be four times larger than the
total worlds electricity generating capacity of about 5 000GW. The statistics about solar PV
installations are patchy and inconsistent. Solar powered electrical generation relies on
photovoltaics and heat engines (solar thermal).
Solar Electric Generating Systems (Solar Thermal):

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Solar electric generating system use parabolic trough collectors to collect the suns energy
to generate steam to drive a conventional steam turbine. The parabolic mirrors
automatically track the sun throughout the day. The sun light is directed to central tube
carrying synthetic oil, which heats around 400C. The heat is used to convert water to steam
to drive a steam turbine and produce electricity. The largest solar thermal power station is
in the Mojave Desert in the US with a power output of 354 MW.
Photovoltaic:
Solar photovoltaic (PV) convert light into electricity using semiconductor materials.
Photovoltaic cell is a solar cell, which is a solid state electrical device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity. Assemblies of cells are known as solar modules or
solar panels. Solar modules are typically deployed as an array of individual modules on
rooftops, building facades, or in large-scale ground-based arrays. A module consists of
many jointly connected solar cells. Most crystalline modules usually consist of 6072 cells.
Photovoltaic cell and modules use various semiconductors; they have three types (1)
crystalline silicon, (2) thin-lm, and (3) concentrator. Photovoltaic systems produce direct
current, which must be converted to alternating current via an inverter if the output from
the system is to be used in the grid. Annual production of photovoltaic modules in 2005 was
about 1.7 gigawatts (GW) worldwide.
A major goal is to increase solar photovoltaic efciency and decrease costs. Current
efciencies for crystalline silicon cells equal to about 1520%. The total costs of photovoltaic
systems are currently in the $6 to $9 per peak watt range. Component costs include the
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photovoltaic modules at about $3$4/W (direct current), with another $3$5/W for the
inverter, installation, and balance of sys-tem. The cost of residential electricity from solar
photovoltaic should be around 1012 cents/kWh by 2015 and 68 cents/kWh by 2030.
1.10.3. BIOMASS AND BIOENERGY

Biomass is a term for all organic material that stems from plants (including algae, trees and
crops). Biomass is produced by green plants converting sunlight into plant material through
photosynthesis and includes all land- and water- based vegetation, as well as all organic
Wastes (see Fig. 2.11). The plants convert solar energy to chemical energy. The Therefore,
biomass is a renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle. Some examples of
biomass fuels include wood, crops, and algae. When burned, the chemical energy in
biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be converted to other biofuels, such as ethanol
and biodiesel. Biomass grown for biofuel includes corn, soybeans, willow switch grass,
rapeseed, sugar beet, palm oil, and sorghum [30]. Cellulosic biomass, such as corn stover,
straw, timber, rice husks can also be used for biofuel production (see Fig. 2.11). Anaerobic
digestion of biomass produces biogas, while gasication produces syngas, which is the
mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide to be converted to liquid fuels. Cellulosic ethanol
can also be created by a thermo-chemical process, which uses various combinations of
temperature, pressure, water, oxygen or air, and catalysts to convert biomass to cellulosic
ethanol. Table 2.10 shows lower heating values, moisture, and ash content of some
biomass.
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2.5.3.1 Carbon Cycle
In the carbon cycle, carbon in various forms is transported between the various components
of the Earths biosphere, between the atmosphere, hydrosphere (seas and oceans),
lithosphere (rocks, soils and mineral deposits, including fossil fuels) and biological material
including plants and animals. Carbon cycle maintains a state of dynamic equilibrium. Other
forms, most notably fossil fuels, can poten-tially store carbon indenitely, however if they
are burned the carbon is released and makes a net addition to the carbon cycle and raising
the total free carbon. If biomass is used without replacement, for example in the case of
forest clearance, this too can make a net addition to the carbon cycle. As growing plant
absorbs the carbon released by the harvested biomass, sustainable use of biomass makes
no direct net contribution.
2.5.3.2 Gross Heating Values of Biomass Fuels
Biomass fuels are usually characterized by the proximate and ultimate analyses.
The proximate analysis gives moisture content, volatile content (when heated to
950oC), the free carbon remaining at that point, the ash (mineral) in the sample, and
the higher heating value based on the complete combustion of the sample to carbon
dioxide and liquid water.
The ultimate analysis is the elemental analysis and provides the composition of the
biomass in wt% of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen.
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Table 2.11 shows measured and estimated gross heating values as well as the proximate
and ultimate analyses of some selected fuels, including biomass components, natural
biomass (woods, agricultural products), processed biomass, and other solid and liquid
fuels.
A relationship between the high heating value, HHV and the elemental com-position is
given by
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where C is the weight fraction of carbon, H of hydrogen, O of oxygen, A of ash, S of

sulfur, and N of nitrogen appearing in the ultimate analysis. This equation represents the
experimental data with an average error of 1.45% and can be used in estimating heat
values and modeling of biomass processes.
Based on chemical functional groups of the fuels, the heating values may vary. When the
oxygen percentage is higher in a fuel, the percentages of carbon and hydrogen available
for combustion are reduced. This leads to the lower heating values. By using the values
of xed carbon (FC, wt%), the higher heating value of the biomass samples can be
estimated by
The heating values calculated from Eq. (2.3) shows a mean difference of 2.2% between
estimated and measured values [10]. Another correlation between the HHV and dry ash
content from proximate analysis of biomass (in weight percent) is expressed by
Based on the composition of main elements (in wt%) C, H, and O, the heating value is
estimated by
with more than 90% predictions in the range of 5% error [34].

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2.5.3.3 Bioenergy
Biological fuels produced from photosynthesis can be categorized in three groups:
Carbohydrates, representing a mixture of mono-di-and poly-saccharides (4

kcal/g or 17 kJ/g).
Fats, unsaturated and saturated fatty acids (triacylglycerol or triglyceride)
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(9 kcal/g or 39 kJ/g).
Proteins, used partly as fuel source (4 kcal/g or 17 kJ/g).
Carbohydrates are straight-chain aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups that can
exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates such as starch are the most abundant
biological molecules, and play numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy,
and structural components such as cellulose in plants. Triglycerides and fatty free acids both
contain long, linear aliphatic hydrocarbon chains, which are partially unsaturated and have a
carbon number range. The fuel value is equal to the heat of combustion (oxidation) of fuel.
Carbohydrates and fats can be completely oxidized while proteins can only be partially
oxidized and hence has lower fuel values.
Synthetic biofuels are:
BioethanolIn the United States, corn-based ethanol is currently the largest source
of biofuel as a gasoline substitute or additive. The gasoline sold in the United States
today is mixed with 10% ethanol, a mix known as E10 (or gas-ohol). Only specic
types of vehicles named as exible fuel vehicles can use mixtures with greater than
10% ethanol. E85 is an alternative fuel that contains up to 85% ethanol (see Fig.
2.13;).
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BiodieselBiodiesel is most often blended with petroleum diesel in ratios of 2% (B2),

5% (B5), or 20% (B20). It can also be used as pure biodiesel (B100). Biodiesel can
be produced from various feedstock and used in regular diesel vehicles without
making any changes to the engines.
Green dieselGreen diesel is produced by removing the oxygen by catalytic reaction
with hydrogen from renewable feedstock containing triglycerides and fatty acids,
producing a parafn-rich product, water, and carbon oxides. Therefore, green diesel
has a heating value equal to conventional diesel and is fully compatible for blending
with the standard mix of petroleum-derived diesel fuels. Biodiesel has around 11%
oxygen, whereas petroleum-based diesel and green diesel have no oxygen.
Bioethanol and biodiesel provided 1.8% of the worlds transport fuel in 2008 and
provided about 4% of the energy used in the United States [14]. Using biomass as a
feedstock for liquid fuels production may cut back on waste and greenhouse gas
emissions, and can ofset the use of fossil fuels in heat and power generation. The
total worldwide biomass electrical capacity is on the order of 40 GW. The current
global growth rate for biomass-based transportation fuels is more than 10% per
year.
2.5.4 Wind Energy
The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun and the differential heating drives a global
atmospheric convection system reaching from the earths surface to the stratosphere. Most
of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudes where
continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur (see Fig. 2.14).
53 Energy
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To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution

function is often tted to the observed data. Wind power is a totally renewable energy
source with no greenhouse gas emissions, but due to its unpredictability, has problems
integrating with national grids. At the end of 2009, worldwide wind farm capacity was
157,900 MW, representing an increase of 31% during the year, and wind power supplied
some 1.3% of global electricity consumption. Installed US wind power capacity reached
25,170 MW at the end of 2008 and still growing (15% in cumulative wind power capacity in
2010).
2.5.5 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat originating from the original formation of the planet, from
radioactive decay of minerals, from volcanic activity, and from solar energy absorbed at the
surface (see Fig. 2.16). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature
between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal
energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. Geothermal power is cost effective,
reliable, sustainable, and environ-mentally friendly. The worlds largest geothermal power
installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Worldwide, about
10,715 MW of geothermal power is produced. An additional 28 GW of direct geothermal
heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes,
desalination, and agricultural applications.
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Hot water or steam reservoirs deep in the earth are accessed by drilling. Geothermal
reservoirs located near the earths surface maintain a relatively constant temperature of 50 o
60o F. The hot water and steam from reservoirs can be used to drive generators and
produce electricity. In other applications, the heat produced from geothermal is used
directly in heating buildings and industrial plants. As in the case of biomass electricity, a
geothermal plant runs 24 hours per day, 7 days per week and can provide base load power,
thus competing against coal plants.
2.5.6 Ocean Energy
Systems to harvest electrical power from ocean waves have recently been gaining
momentum as a viable technology. The potential for this technology is considered
promising. The worlds rst commercial tidal power station was installed in 2007 in the
narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland. Although the generator is powerful enough to power
a thousand homes, the turbine has minimal environmental impact, as it is almost entirely
submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they turn quite slowly. Ocean
thermal energy conversion uses the temperature difference that exists between deep and
shallow waters to run a heat engine (see Sect 7.16).
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take
thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are
being consumed.
Fossil fuels, also collectively known as hydrocarbons, include oil, gas and coal. Any source of
oil and gas that requires production technologies significantly diferent from those used to
produce from conventional reservoirs is described as unconventional.
55 Energy
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Crude Oil/Petroleum
Crude oil is a non-renewable resource that builds up in liquid form between the layers of the
Earths crust.
It is retrieved by drilling deep into the ground and pumping the liquid out. The
liquid is then refined and used to create many diferent products.
Crude oil is a very versatile fuel and is used to produce things like plastics,
artificial food flavorings, heating oil, petrol, diesel, jet fuel, and propane.
Crude oil boasts the largest share of primary energy consumption, accounting for
33.1 %.
Despite a relatively slight decline compared to the previous year, oil still retains its
status as the
most important source of energy world-wide.
The fie leading countries in terms of reserves in rank order are Saudi Arabia,
Canada, Venezuela, Iran and Iraq, who account for 60 % of the reserves in total. The
OPEC countries alone account for almost 70 % of the reserves, whilst OECD
countries only hold just under 17 %.
The top three oil-producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia, and the United States.
Gas
Natural gasses gather below the Earths crust and, like crude oil, must be drilled for and pumped
out.
Methane and ethane are the most common types of gasses obtained through
this process.
These gasses are most commonly used in home heating as well as gas ovens
and grills.
Russia, Iran, and Qatar are the countries with the largest recorded natural gas reserves.
Coal
Coal is the last of the major fossil fuels. Created by compressed organic matter, it is solid like
rock and is obtained via mining.
Out of all countries, China produces the most coal by far.
According to the Statistical Review of World Energy, published in 2011 by BP,

they produced an astounding 48.3% (3,240 million tons) of the worlds coal in
2010, followed by the United States who produced a mere 14.8%.
Coal is most typically used in home heating and the running of power plants.
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.3 Coal
Coal continues to be the most dominant energy resource because it easily has the
largest global
total resources (reserves plus resources) of all of the fossil fuels. With a share of
29.9 % (hard
coal 28.1 %, lignite 1.8 %) of global PEC, coal was the second most important fuel in
2012 behind
oil (bp 2013). Coal was the most important fuel for power generation in 2011 with a
proportion of
around 40 %, and therefore more than any other fuel ( iea 2013b).
Coal:
Coal is formed by the prolonged action of geological forces on the plant and
vegetal matter accumulated below the earth crust. The process is called
COALIFICATION. Coalification is both time and force dependent.
Coalification brings following changes to the accumulated plant:
Both, physical change like colour, strength, density and structure; and
chemical change occur
Despite its poor environmental credentials, coal remains a crucial contributor to
energy
supply in many countries. Coal is the most wide-spread fossil fuel around the world,
and
more than 75 countries have coal deposits. The current share of coal in global power
generation is over 40%, but it is expected to decrease in the coming years, while the
actual
57 Energy
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coal consumption in absolute terms will grow. Although countries in Europe, and to
some
extent North America, are trying to shift their consumption to alternative sources of
energy,
any reductions are more than ofset by the large developing economies, primarily in
Asia,
which are powered by coal and have signifiant coal reserves. China alone now uses
as
much coal as the rest of the world.
Petroleum: Petroleum is formed in the earths crust from the accumulated

vegetal and animal matter metamorphic processes similar to coalification.
From crude petroleum gasoline, lubricating oil, fuel oils etc. are obtained.
Natural gas: It is used directly

The supply and use of energy have powerful economic, social and environmental impacts.
Not all energy is supplied on a commercial basis. Fuels, such as fuelwood or traditional
biomass are largely non-commercial. Fuelwood is playing a leading role in the developing
countries, where it is widely used for heating and cooking.
Universal access to commercial energy still remains a target for the future. In many
countries, especially in Africa and Asia, the pace of electrifiation lags far behind the
growing demand. It is imperative to address this major challenge without further delays,
in particular taking into account the impact access to electricity has on peoples lives and
well-being, economic growth and social development, including the provision of basic social
services, such as health and education.
Establishment of energy infrastructure in the least developed countries will need a major
efort on behalf of the global energy community. It will also require political, legal and
institutional structures, which today do not exist. Rising energy demand, declining public
investment and the evolving role of the multilateral fiancial institutions need increased
eforts by governments to change their roles in order to create an enabling business
environment to attract private investment, both domestic and international.
Coal
Global electricity demand by application
Non-renewable resources can generally be separated into two main categories; fossil fuels and
nuclear fuels.
Fossil Fuels
Nuclear Fuels
The other form of non-renewable resource used to produce energy, nuclear fuels, is primarily
obtained through the mining and refining of uranium ore.
Uranium is a naturally occurring element found within the Earth's core.

58 Energy
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Most uranium deposits occur in small quantities which miners gather

together, refine, and purify.
Once gathered, the uranium is brought together and compounded into rods.
The rods are then submersed into tanks of water.
When it reaches critical mass, uranium begins to break down and release
energy which heats the water it is immersed in. This is known as "fission."
The heated water then creates pressure and it is this pressure which drives
the turbines that generate the electricity we use everyday.
Nuclear fuels are key to maintaining the Earth's environment since they are the cleanest of all
non-renewable resources.
Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-non-renewable-

resources.html#RKzFrzfSYALrYM2T.99
Three main sectors which account for approximately 70% of the total electricity consumption
in the industrialised countries:
motors (4045%)
lighting (15%)
home appliances and consumer electronics (15%)
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In some developing countries with large industries and outdated electrical

equipment, the
share of electricity consumed by motors is even higher. Globally electric motors
consume
about 9 000TWh/year, but more advanced models could save about 1 000TWh and
reduce
CO2 emissions by 0.8Gt per year. This equals the total annual electricity consumption
of a
country like Japan.
How much energy is consumed in the

world by each sector?
World marketed energy consumption was about 524 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) in 2011.1 The commercial
sector, industrial sector, residential sector, and transportation sector are the four major energy end-use sectors. The
electric power sector also consumes energy. The electricity produced by the electric power sector is consumed by the
other end-use sectors. There are also losses in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. The electricity
consumed by the four major energy end-use sectors and electricity losses can be apportioned to these respective
end-use sectors to calculate their total energy use. Losses are the difference between the amount of energy used to
generate electricity and the energy content of the electricity consumed at the point of end use.
ategories of Non-Renewable Resources
Heating value of the fuel, which is the amount of heat released when a unit
amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the combustion
products are cooled to the room temperature.
Higher Heating value HHV of fuel is the amount of heat released when a
specified amount of fuel (usually a unit of mass) at room temperature is
completely burned and the combustion products are cooled to the room
60 Energy
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temperature when the water formed during the combustion process is

completely condensed and leaves as a liquid.
Lower heating value LHV of fuel is the amount of heat released when a
specified amount of fuel (usually a unit of mass) at room temperature is
completely burned, and the combustion products are cooled to the room
temperature when the water formed during the combustion process leaves as
a vapor.
Fossil fuels are abundant in many regions of the world and they are in sufficient
quantities to meet expected increasing demands. However, most of them are still
classified as resources and not yet as reserves. This distinction is important as it
reflects the likelihood that the fossil fuels will be brought to the market. Resources
are those volumes that have yet to be fully characterised, or that present technical
difficulties or are costly to extract, for example where technologies that permit their
extraction in an environmentally sound and cost-efective manner are still to be
developed. Reserves are those volumes that are expected to be produced
economically using todays technology; they are often associated with a project that
is already well-defined or ongoing. As the more accessible, conventional supplies
are exhausted, so more technically demanding resources will need to be exploited.
A key role for the industry is to convert resources into reserves. This reclassification
relies heavily on the application of advanced technological solutions, which is
strongly linked to fuel prices. High fuel prices stimulate the development and testing
of more sophisticated solutions, and result in a growth of reserves. Exploring and
extracting these reserves economically, and in an environmentally responsible
manner, will require investment in new innovative solutions.
Fossil fuels, also collectively known as hydrocarbons, include oil, gas and coal. Any
source of oil and gas that requires production technologies significantly diferent
from those used to produce from conventional reservoirs is described as
unconventional.

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1 Energy

CHAPTER 1: A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION

1.2. WHAT IS ENERGY?

Energy transformation is needed to produce commercial energy. As an

as chemical energy. Combustion, or burning the coal, transforms chemical

Point to Ponder: What does an energy unit mean to me?

To get an idea of the meaning of an energy unit such as kilocalorie or

A typical power plant provides approximately 1000 megawatts of power,

A unit of energy that is commonly used for discussing energy on a national

1.3. HISTORICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION

E. Cook [1971] provided estimates of daily human energy consumption at six

equal to one kilocalorie, or 1000calories. One calorie is the amount of energy

The Primitive Agricultural period was characterized by the domestication of

The steam engine ushered in the Industrial period. It provided a means of

The modern Technological period is associated with the development of

Table 1-3 presents the relative contributions of diferent energy sources to

1.4. ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE

A plot of HDI versus per capita electricity consumption for all

1.5. ENERGY IN TRANSITION

1.6. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES

[1] Primary and Secondary Energy

Energy Transformation or Conversion energy carriers (or secondary energy)

Other examples of Secondary Sources

Solid Fuels: coke, charcoal

Liquid fuels: petrol, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, LPG, Naphtha, ethanol

Gaseous Fuels : propane, hydrogen,

Primary energy sources Energy systems Energy

According to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources cannot be produced.

[2] Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

[3] Renewable and non-renewable energy sources

Biomass (especially Wood) is a unique fuel source in that it is a renewable resource. It is

Figure: Renewable (left) and Non-renewable (right) Energy sources

[4] Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:

1.7. TYPES OF NONRENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Fossil Fuels: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas,

2.3.2 Petroleum (Crude Oil)

Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons

Alkanes, also known as paraffin, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or

2.3.3 Petroleum Fractions

Some common fractions from petroleum refining are:

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a flammable mixture of propane (C 3H8) (about

a higher volumetric energy density at 128,700 Btu/gal versus 115,500

2.3.4 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture, consisting mainly of methane.

1.7.2. NUCLEAR ENERGY

generate neutrons leading to a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at

Nuclear power is essentially carbon-free. However, the electricity from new

1.8. HEATING VALUE OF FUELS

1.9. ENERGY DENSITY

1.10. RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable power generation provides 18% of total electricity generation worldwide.

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) promotes the adoption of

Hydro power contributes approximately 15% of the global electricity production.

Hydro Power: top 5 countries

Country Installed Capacity (MW)

China 231 000

United States of America 77 500

Russian Federation 49 700

1.10.2. SOLAR ENERGY

Solar Electric Generating Systems (Solar Thermal):

1.10.3. BIOMASS AND BIOENERGY

2.5.3.1 Carbon Cycle

2.5.3.2 Gross Heating Values of Biomass Fuels