BOGUSLAW SCHAFFER

introduction
to composition

1976
(PWM
EDITION
Translated from the Polish original by JERZY ZAWADZKI

Edited by Ludomira Stawowy and Stefan Ehrenkreutz

1976 oy PWM Edition, Krakow, copyright assigned to ZAIKS, Warszawa. Printed in Poland.
Contents

From the Author 5 in the method of employing the factor of change

in music . , 15
1. What is a composition? How does it come into
20. The consequences of the limitation of components
being? What is a composition's basis? . . . 7
to a few symbols 15
2. Yesterday, today and tomorrow. What attitude
21. Simple and complex values 16
should a composer adopt towards these three time
22. Is there a progression of rhythmic values from the
bearings? 7
simplest to the most complex ones and how is it
3. What are "possibilities of music"? Where are they
expressed? 16
to be found and how are they to be treated? . 7
23. The composer's work on rhythmic models . . 17
4. Is there a new method of teaching composition?
24. The limitation of rhythmic values to a few a bar
If so, what is it like? . . . . . . . . 8
threatens us with a rapid exhaustion of movement;
5. What are the methodological foundations of this
how do we prevent it? 17
manual? What does the composer's craft consist
25. Possibilities of a new divergent way of treating
of today? 9
music written in simple metres 18
6. Who can be a truly creative composer? What
26. Possibilities arising from modern compositional
should his attitude to creativity be? . . . . 9
usages of metre. Playing by means of metre, fur-
7. What are the conditions for authentic creative
ther development of metric techniques . . . 19
work? When can we compose in fact but not just
"write music"? . 1 0 27. Metre today 19
28. Ametric music 20
8. What can be the impetus to creativity? Nothing
29. Are there any new time models and, if so, what do
but play in the imagination? . . . . . . 10
they look like? 20
9. Is originality an important factor in creativity?
30. Complexity of rhythmic models 21
May it be p u t forward as a programme, as the
31. Changes and superimposition of metres and
first item of the artist's programme? . . . . 10
rhythms within metres 21
10. To what extent does the problem of choice exist
32. Rhythmic complications 22
in today's music? 11
33. Metric complexity 23
11. What attitude should a composer assume to tradi-
34. Concepts of pitch-rhythm relationships . . . 24
tion? 11
35. Compositional consequences of the repetition of
12. What constitutes the essence of new music, the
the same pitches 25
essence of new composition being created today? 12
36. Relationship between the idea of constant varia-
13. A marginal, but important question in this state of
tion and the formation of rhythm 25
affairs: what is the contemporary composer? . 12
37. Rhythmic-dynamic relationships 26
14. How has the social status of the composer changed
38. Rhythmic "harmonies" appearing as a result of
and what is the nature of his social activity? . 12
new co-situations 27
15. What are the characteristics of contemporary com-
39. The restriction of composition exclusively or pri-
posing craft? 13
marily to the range of r h y t h m . 2 7
40. "Articulation of time" . 2 8

II
16. What factor seems to be the most important in
new music? . . . 13 41. Linear motion. The attitude of the contemporary
17. Analogy and change the opposition of these composer towards linear motion and its role in the
notions to each other and the possibility of connec- structuring of music 29
tions between them in a composition . . . . 14 42. Foreground and secondary status of linear motion 30
18. Elementary study of the factor of change in music. 43. Range of possible change in linear motion . 30
On what does musical change actually depend? . 14 44. Compositional reading of linear motion pitch col-
19. Further compositional expansion of our research lections . 3 1
45. The dependence of the structure of chords upon 84. Technique of deschematization . . . . . . . . 51
the contents of vertical arrangements of linear 85. Technique of the reduction of elements inducing
motion 31 monotony in serialism 51
46. Compositional application of chords . . . . 32
47. Microstructural organization 32
48. Intervals and their role in contemporary music . 33
49. Intervallic notation . . 34 86. Transformation of structures into textural forma-
50. Intervallic analysis of linear motion . . . . 34 tions 51
51. Selection of intervals and its consequences . . 34 .87. Study of textures 52
52. Five-note models enclosed within the major third 35 88. Series and their textural break-up . . . ' . . 52
53. Work on six-note models enclosed within the 89. Series and their rhythmicization (horizontally-con-
fourth 35 ceived texture) 53
54. Contents analysis of the variants of the chromatic 90. Possibilities of textural melodization of series or
six-note universe . 3 6 horizontal pitch combinations 53
55. Harmonic models 36 91. Examples of four-part textures (string quartet) . 54
56. Intervallic studies . . 36 92. P i a n o ^ e x t u r e 54
57. Study in diagram the idea 37 93. Possibilities in the handling of textures in music
58. Study in diagram the realization . . . . 37 for larger ensembles 55
59. Codes 38 94. Texture and density . 55
60. Approximate linear motion 38 95. Possibilities of thickening vertical structures through
an increase in the quantity of material employed 56
96. Dispersal of material . . . . . , . . 56
III 97. Influence of mechanical composing on texture . 57
98. Combined constructions .' .- 57
61. A new way of treating the orchestra . . . . 39 99. Textural results of the application of group tech-
62. Selection and particularization of tone colour . 39 nique 58
63. Preparation of instruments 40 100. Texture of large forms 58
64. Preparation in vocal and instrumental ensembles . 40
65. Changing pitch . 4 1 VI
66. The transformed note . . . . ' . . . . 42
67. The gliding note . . . 42 101. True composition of music 59
68. Composition with one note 43 102. Precomposition 60
69. Timbral intervals 43 103. Composition of time . . . . 60
70. Deformations . . " . . 4 4 104. Abstract and concrete 61
71. Denaturalization of sound . 44 105. Aesthetic problems . . . . 62
106. Canons of composing 63
107. Counterindications and prohibitions 63
IV 108. Choice of techniques, antinomies
109. Discontinuous composition 65
72. Series problem of variability 45
110. Automization of composition 65
73. Forms of the series 45
111. Aleatorism
74. Series that determine the sound language . . . . 46
112. Composing of co-situations 67
75. Multi-intervallic series 46
113. Multimotivic work . . . . 67
76. Further models of series 47
114. Break-up of the model 68
77. Serialization of rhythm and dynamics . . . . 48
115. Multidimensional composition
78. Serial articulation . . . 48
116. Ambiguous music . . . .
79. Serialization and pointillism 49
117. Multitechnical canons as models 70
80. "Oscillatory" and "modulating" serialism . . . 49
118. Polyversional music . . 70
81. Modal serialization . . . . . . . - . 50
119. Composing musical actions 70
82. Total serialization interchangeability of seria-
120. Final remarks 71
lized elements . . 50
83. Problems concerning total serialism . . . . 50 Alphabetical index of examples . . . . . . . 72

4
from the Author
In the didactic work which is herewith placed at the dis-
posal of the curious reader, the author set himself three
essential goals:
1. to show methods of composition from the still difficult
and not readily accessible technical aspect,
2. to acquaint the reader with individual solutions in the
various parameters of music, by means of examples
drawn (primarily) from the author's own compositions and
the works of those composers who most extensively influ-
enced the metamorphoses of contemporary musical lan-
guage,
3. to awaken and encourage the creative imagination and
the capacity for formulating ideas of the apprentice
composer.
Someone with no talent for composition cannot learn to
compose. Not much can be attained by someone who has
inherent or acquired prejudices against new music. Neither
can there anything be gained by someone who will treat
the entrusted didactic material in a superficial, cursory
fashion. Nevertheless, compositional talents in themselves
do not today suffice: contemporary composition is a difficult
craft, but control of it must and ought to be gained if we
deem musical language a language in which we wish to
express something.
The Introduction to Composition is a manual from which
it is possible to study contemporary. composition. It should
be studied slowly, in stages, with exceptional care being
given to the achievement of results which make artistic
sense. In this handbook the author has made an effort not
to repeat elementary information dealing with the notation
of music, or the capacities of instruments and the human
voice, since the reader can find these for himself in rela-
tively numerous publications. The author commences here
without preliminaries at a level which to many readers may
seem rather high but which, after all at least taking into
account musical training in the author's own country is
essentially not excessive. Perhaps a certain amount of infor-
mation pertaining to new music ought to have been reca-
pitulated, although a totally different prescription emerges
on the basis of the author's teaching experience. Composi-
tion should begin from the very first exercises and as-
signments t h i s cannot be left till later.
The Introduction to Composition consists of a concise text
and of a very extensive set of musical examples (in progress,
the work even went under the working title of an "Atlas").
The textual part contains 120 short chapter-problems and
discusses in detail the issues of rhythm, melic motion,
timbre, serialization, texture, as well as composition proper.
Each chapter is subdivided into short segments, as indicated
by the headings:
q question
i information
d discussion
e exercise
c composition.
The texts of these segments are quite brief and concise.
Together with the pertinent examples and diagrams they
ought to give a rather clear picture of the problem under
discussion.
Translation into English of this advanced specialized musical
treatise brought about a special set of difficulties in its
wake. The problems were of a higher order than is usual
in translation because the text requires a meticulously
employed, complex technical language that truly and effec-
tively deals with the issues of new music. In this regard,
many thanks are due Roy Wightman (musicologist from
England), Stefan Ehrenkreutz (composer from the United
States, fluent in Polish) and Adrian Thomas (English com-
poser residing in Northern Ireland) for their work on the
verification of the text from the linguistic and musical
points of view.
The written text is illustrated in the examples by numerous
diagrams (rhythmic models, rhythmic series, graphic models,
juxtapositions of results emerging out of the application of
open forms, a list of all the multi-interval sets, analysis
of the contents of series, permutational listings of chosen
models, listings of possibilities for differentiation of musical
material, analysis-graphs of compositional means employed
in a given work, etc.). The written text is further illustrated
by compositional exercises as well as musical examples
from 170 scores of the 60 most outstanding contemporary
composers, from Bartok, Webern, Stravinsky and Mes-
siaen to Cage, Stockhausen, Kagel and Bussotti. The
length of the listings, the size of the diagrams and the
musical examples depended here on the significance of
the given problem as well as on the potential of the
possibilities contained within the problem. (Thus, for
instance, a complete listing of all the multi-interval sets is
given here because contemporary composers regularly take
advantage of only a limited fragment of the collection, as
if unaware of the immense, attractive sum of possibilities
Of the complete collection; such an extensive juxtaposition
precisely illustrates such foregone opportunities in new
music.)
Each musical example is only identified in brief. Their
full titles together with information regarding scoring and
publication is given in the "Alphabetical Index of Examples".
At this point the author would like to express his warm
appreciation to all the editors and publishers who so
graciously consented to the inclusion of examples taken
from the works of composers published by them as well
as to those composers who made their manuscripts avail-
able for presentation in print.
The author would also like to express his appreciation to
the Polish Musical Editions (PWM) for their sincere encour-
agement and for undertaking the difficult labour of editing
the Introduction to Composition and to all those who
personally were instrumental in helping this work appear
in print, namely: Felicyta Glen, Elzbieta Miinz, Anna Zoga,
Maciej Kowal6wka, Adam Kusiak and Andrzej Watala
(preparation of musical copying materials), to the team of
the Polygraphic Laboratory of PWM for slides of musical
examples, to Aleksandra Mitka (retouching and technical
preparation of musical examples). Miss Ludomira Stawowy
deserves separate words of thanks for the editing of the
whole. Only the author can have some idea of the problems
she had to face. Without her patience, endurance, hard
work, and various efforts this work would not have at-
tained its ultimate shape.
Krak6w, January 15, 1976

What is a composition? How does it come into being?
What is a composition's basis?
A composition is an a u t o n o m o u s artistic creation,,
impossible either to evoke or discuss apart from mu-
sical matter. A composition's basis will always be that
of our purely musical experiences and, above all, our
experiences of the range of possibilities of musical
material in itself. And even if we can occasionally
employ experiences from beyond the sphere of music
in a composition, we must remember that these external
impulses can have compositional significance for music
only after they have been translated into musical
language.
d
A Fundamental Question: to what degree in contem-
porary musical creativity is it possible to conserve the
autonomy of a musical composition? Music is constantly
"endangered" by impulses from the outside; it always
seems to be tied to the time in which it appears. Yet
if we consider what these dependencies in fact have
been, in terms of their historical background, we shall
come to the conclusion that, despite all the common labels
which we bestow upon music as a result of confronting
musical activity with artistic trends and scientific
discoveries contemporaneous to it, music conserves its
own range even when the ties to other domains are
strong. Contemporary music, which interests us here
in a very wide sense, certainly has not as of yet
sufficiently matured to be subjected to a process of
generalization, let alone to a process of the discovery
of links connecting it with other domains. Developing
along many lines, music cannot be reduced to one
stylistic or technical model, and observations concerning
music will always be fragmentary. From such parti-
cles in this manual they will be used as the basis
for concrete tasks we build up general information
about music without resorting to forms of classifica-
tion, without any desire to discover certain definite
preconceived categories in it. In other words, we intend
to build up general information about music from such
particles following the way it originates immediate-
ly before us. No doubt music originates against the
background of different discoveries not related to its
very essence, but the most important experiences in
the experience of music are those contained within
music itself and restricted to it, even if we use
methods acquired through contacts with other domains,
e. g. fine arts, architecture, mathematics, psychology of
aural reception, and the like. Moreover, if we are to
talk about music, then let us talk only about its future.
The future of music is exclusively determined by its
potentialities, not by ideas. Ideas that are not fit for
musical realization are not ideas at all, since they lie
beyond the sphere of the very matter of composition.
Having no support in the past, a contemporary
composer can imagine the music of the future only
with regard to its potentialities. Tomorrow's music
ought to be composed by us today! This is also the
case as regards the pedagogy of composition we
teach composition for the f u t u r e .
Yesterday, today and tomorrow. What attitude should
a composer adopt towards these three time bearings?
Up to this time, the exposition of composition has
been retrospective in nature. The basis of teaching
composition has always been music from the past or,
more strictly, music of the past. Such didactic thinking
could engender a better understanding of music com-
posed earlier, but it could not provide the future
composer with what he hoped to obtain from this
mode of thinking. To be sure, we do say that one
should learn from the greatest masters whom, as is
only natural, we view as exclusively in the past, but at
the same time we are aware of the fact they have
n o t h i n g to tell us as regards the fundamental problems
of new composition. Moreover, one cannot today draw
comparisons with the old masters for whom our times
formed but a very vague future.
What are "possibilities of music"? Where are they to
be found and how are they to be treated?
"Possibilities of music", should not be understood as
being restricted merely to the number of techniques
available. Multiplication of the number of techniques
is a difficult problem; such a multiplication is often
only apparent. Dazzled by quantitative richness, we
might readily forget that it is q u a l i t y , just the
opposite of quantity, that plays a decisive role in art.
The great innovator, Anton Webern, did not write one
new note and yet he achieved a great many important
solutions of the problem of new composition in his
works. The significance of his solutions became evident
only to those who observed the subsequent course of
events in music. In other words, it will not be our aim
here to make a huge catalogue of compositional tech-
niques, but to encourage the composer to slove as
independently as possible real problems of composi-
tion, and these can easily be found in all possible
internal relationships in music.
d position is endowed with powers of criticism and counts
In discussing the possibilities of music,. those of new
music, we must not overlook the fact that although
they are virtually unlimited, they do not lie within
the reach of every composer's imagination. Certainly
a great many of the possibilities of new music, or even
most of them, are quite beyond the imaginative range
of a contemporary composer. The possibilities of new
music do not constitute a definite repertory of new
techniques (although it might seem so to most musi-
cians). The greatest changes in music were not brought
about by the addition of new compositional techniques
to the conventional stock, but were due to changes in
the very conception of composing procedure. In order
that such changes may occur, thecomposer must fre-
quently delve to the very elements of music, verifying
the existing stock of techniques (once again, for his
own use) from the view-point of the inherent possibilities
of making changes in them. Otherwise the material in
itself will constantly dominate the composer, whose
creative activity will be reduced merely to the re-
production of his own personal variants to which,
after all, most contemporary composers confine
themselves. Overcoming this hitherto so important
determining effect of the material may be hailed as the
greatest achievement in contemporary composing. We
can now see how small the role played by technical
progress is for composition. In this situation it is now
all the more obvious, that all things considered, real
composition begins only from the point of a r r a n g e-
m e n t of musical material.
Is there a new method of teaching composition? If so,
what is it like?
Composition cannot be taught, but in the present state
of affairs it can be d e m o n s t r a t e d . It must then
be assumed that the young student of composition is
so mature a musician that the whole of this demonstra-
tion in composition may be addressed to both his
intellectual skills and artistic sensibilities. It is only
under such conditions that real interest in the subject
of composition itself can be aroused. The subject of
composition when treated in the whole wide range of
intellectual and imaginational problems can' become not
only functional but also attractive to the composer. The
author assumes, in addition, that the student of com-
on his skills in making his own choices. Finally, in
order not to return to this question further, the student,
if he is to go .through this course in composition
successfully, must have confidence in the author who,
before publishing this manual, thought -carefully not
only about the subject itself, but also about its expres-
sion in didactic terms.
The problem of how to teach composition needs further
explanation. Composition, like sculpturing and painting
but contrary to the writing of poetry, is taught up to the
present time. It might seem that now, after so many
years of practice, expertise in the teaching of composi-
tion has attained a level that satisfies current demands.
This however is not true. The teaching of composition
cultivated in our times is one of the most horrifying
anachronisms in new music. What is the source of this
disparity between composition, so advanced nowadays,
and its teaching? Above all, this situation arises because
the composer in his own work makes use of his own
experiences, while the same composer when he is
teaching avails himself of somebody else's experience,
experience of a kind which is often very remote from
his own talent, temperament and also his critical
judgement. The composer's own experiences are the
more valuable because they have been gathered very
slowly and only with the most intense activity of both
intellect and inspiration, of the musical imagination and
the systematizing process of the mind. Moreover, and
8
here we perhaps approach the most important point;
the. huge disequilibrium existing between style and
technique in new music brings about a situation which
resembles none of those met with so far in the history
of music. Today, when the stylistic layer of a musical
composition is not so closely related to the technique
adopted and when technique has, so to say, outrun the
style, even the most ambitious teaching of composition
must stop within the bounds of technique itself. Despite
these difficulties the contemporary method for teaching
composition, even if confined to the demonstration of
music, is capable of disclosing many of the regularities
that appear in new music, some of which may bear
the features of more general, stylistic regularities.
What are the methodological foundations of this
manual? What does the composer's craft consist of
today?
This manual of composition is not a genuine manual.
Perhaps it does not deserve to be called a manual at
all. Although written with a definite didactic purpose
in mind, it is intended to demonstrate the fallacy of
the notion that art cannot be taught. Teaching is
possible where we are concerned with craft. In the
last few years craft has ceased to be what it had been
before and consequently it must now be conceived
in a different way, not in the sense of rules for putting
the voices together in a composition ("to compose" is
semantically associated with the Latin: componere
to put together), but in a new sense, that of the com-
positional utilization of the potentialities of music.
Moreover, the contemporary craft may be interpreted
as a specific kind of readiness for authentic composi-
tion, for the original, in its essence, posing of composi-
tional problems and their individual solution. For this
reason also, disinterested work, the only aim of which
is to get to know the potentialities of music, is desired
in the first stage of study. The suggestions received
should be transformed individually in the second stage!
The author attaches no importance to the studied rep-
etitions of what he propounds, but advocates the
actual transformation of his suggestions so that they
will meet the composer's own requirements, in par-
ticular the suggestions which have a good chance of
becoming his intimate property in course of time.
9
The issue of contemporary craft needs more detailed
explanation. Today's craft is based, as it were, on
contacts with the potentialities of music rather than on
learnable canons. In any case such canons would be
impossible in new music, since it lacks even the most
general intimation of some system. The systematization
of technical-compositional phenomena and problems is
hampered chiefly by the large number and diversity
of techniques applied by composers. In this respect the
traditional teaching of composition has already lost its
old sense. It can no longer be the teaching of craft,
as it once was in the past. Once, when the teaching of
composition consisted in passing on a set of rules to
students, such a method was reasonable and even of
some significance. Nowadays, when compositional tech-
nique has moved so significantly ahead of previous
practice, both pedagogy and its fruits must be focused
on one and the same task of posing and solving com-
positional problems, and thus more on the extension
of the range of vision than on the classification of new
phenomena, which in any case escape classification in
some respects.
6
Who can be a truly creative composer? What should his
attitude to creativity be?
The author assumes mastery of craft in the old sense
of the word. Here, in its place,, there appears a specific
theory of compositional potentialities of music. We
know (if not, we can easily see for ourselves) that
everything expressed in musical categories i s music
(this may be exemplified by all the radical movements
in new music, e.g.,, those of Ives, Varese, Haba, We-
bern, etc.).
There is thus no justification* for ignoring all the
possibilities that arise from a new, unconventional
attitude to music. However, broad intellectual horizons
and aesthetic openness are required in order to deal
with this issue. A musician who confines himself to
the narrow categories of present-day utilitarianism
cannot foe a creative composer. He will turn out second-
rate products. These sometimes give a composer the
illusion of interrelating with respect to the evolution
of new music, but they have little in common with
authentic creativity.

What are the conditions for authentic creative work?
When can we compose in fact but not just "write
music"?
More often than not, composers act in the conviction
that creation occurs at a certain point in the matura-
tion of a musical idea. In other words, they feel that
they need only to begin work with some sort of musical
idea to have an artistic work spring into being. Nothing
could be more illusory! An artistic work makes sense
only if it has resulted from a necessity of creation.
Such a necessity of creation does not appear until the
musical work "sets itself" together, from the elements
chosen by the composer. At the same time we know
that the musical work must have its authentic be-
ginning. This is why' care must be taken that a com-
position always begin at the z e r o p o i n t without
any preconceptions. This will well nigh have to be a
principle while the present manual is being used. The
sum of ready knowledge acquired before may perhaps
be necessary in realizing a compositional idea; however,
such knowledge ought n o t to be used above all. The
Composer should know how to attain humility within
himself before music, whose very source material is
already aesthetic.
Guiding the material according to the state of your
ideas, try to obtain suggestions from the material
already produced. Make the material contain informa-
tion and then draw guidance and information from the
material this is one of the main principles of
contemporary composition and perhaps the most
important didactic principle of this manual.
What can be the impetus to creativity? Nothing but
play in the imagination? All too often, out of play in
the imagination, out of fancifulness come conventional
stereotyped creations, which have already been heard
somewhere (by someone else); in' what way are.such
stereotypes to be expanded?
10
In addition to what we should call the authentic
necessity of creation, play in the imagination may also
became an impetus to creation. Thanks to such play,
we can obtain very interesting results, and the rules
made up by the composer may become a specific
system in course of time. In great measure, the very
playing of a game (not establishing the game's rules)
becomes transformed into composition. At moments of
reflection we can enrich play in the imagination by
the contemporary achievements of science and thus
assume a new critical attitude to composition, so neces-
sary in authentic creativity. Creativity may be
treated as a sort of information; then the problem
of expanding the media of artistic expression achieves
primary significance. Both imaginative play and learning
contribute to the formation of situations which other-
wise would never have been attained, and this indeed is
already saying a great deal. Generally speaking, we
may adopt the principle that it is worth our while to
compose if we obtain results that could not otherwise
be achieved were it not for creativity. In this respect
creativity aims at the disclosure of the truth a'bouf
music, its potentialities and new responses effected by
it. If we repeated stereotyped entities and solutions,
such as may justifiably be described as contaminations
or repetitions, in so doing following after other com-
posers (or falling in together with them, which by no
means improves the situation), then, to be sure, we
should enrich, the repertory of the given stereotype
without enriching music itself. "Play the imagination"
usually occurs in the sphere of values that we
have already come to know and do not care much
about. Far more important to new creativity are com-
positional results that contribute to the expansion of
what we know about music and, consequently, of our
imagination. Known stereotypes can be developed only
when the play is begun at the beginning (this is why
most of the sections given to concrete tasks start from
elementary composing principles).
Is originality an important factor in creativity? May it
be put forward as a programme, as the first item of
the artist's programme? What must an artist do, if he
is not ingenious or capable of original creativity?
 techniques, pieces composed "chaotically", are of no
value. It cannot be denied that music, like any other
Although it has never been emphasised, history proves branch of art, demands exactitude, well-ordered rea-
irrefutably that one of the fundamental canons of true soning and differentiation of material. It cannot
compositional creativity is originality. The awareness however be denied either that for many years music
that, at the same time that you are reproducing your was developed within ranges so narrow that composers
impressions, derived from knowledge of previously could not become aware of its great potentialities. It
existing modes of composing, a few hundred other would be indecent to compose chaotically in full con-
composers are occupied in a very similar manner (and sciousness, but I venture the statement that future
to a similar- artistic effect!) should encourage you to generations will find orderliness in many situations
action in another, even in an opposite direction. For which we regard as chaotic now. This orderliness will
this reason originality in creation should be brought be of a different, higher rank. Let us repeat it once
into the foreground. Assuredly, originality alone, when again: selection (whether we like it or not) always
not underpinned by the composer's awareness, is in- accompanies a creative act. We can make sure of
sufficient (in any case, in spite of appearances, it is this, if not otherwise, by observing the "selection of
often simply u n a t t a i n a b l e in this situation), but techniques" in the composers who not so long ago were
in creativity it is a sine qua non. If in a couple of considered to be heedless of any principles and norms.
years you find that you have not managed to attain
authentic originality, stop composing. Leave it to others.
In order to resolve this, one must be not only a good
musician but a keen critic as well. Compose indiscrim- 11
inately, but later have a lodk at your work with
a different eye as if you were a stranger. Let nobody
forestall you in criticism; always be the first. What attitude should a composer assume to tradition?
What is traditional music to him and must he neces-
sarily set himself up in opposition to it?
10
Present-day music has been determined to a great
To what extent does the problem of choice exist in extent by its history. History has really formed present-
today's music? day music and set bounds to the imagination of coin-
posers of new generations. Be an assiduous researcher
of its history, especially as regards the development of
music, of instrumental and vocal techniques (bear in
In the course of composition, we are constantly making mind the fact that all the musicians with whom you
acts of selection. The element of choice is inherent' may have dealings still dwell almost entirely within
already in decisions regarding the kind and range of this climate). Do not imagine, however, that tradition
information to be employed. In short, it may be said will be in a state capable of teaching you anything.
that selection is part and parcel of creation, even when Great composers did not look back to tradition, they
we do not consciously take this into account. On the created it t h e m s e l v e s . Thus, the musical tradition
other hand, deliberate selection, as a restriction already should have the import of a n e g a t i v e m a g n e t -
imposed in the initial assumptions,' is nothing but the i c f i e l d for you. One thing more: do not despair
restriction of music itself, and nobody can approve over losing contact with tradition, this cannot happen.
of this. Remember that even if you manage to attain maximum
originality, you will enter the zone of that only
seemingly lost tradition. Being conscious that whatever
The problem of selection (it will be dealt with in more you do automatically merges into tradition, try to only
detail in Section 108) needs a special comment. A great think of tradition in terms of that negative field.
many musicians claim that selection is the most (Staunch anti-traditionalism has however nothing in
important law of creation; the source of this opinion common with creativity. One always creates for and
may be the axiom that pieces based on unselected not against something.)

11
 12
What constitutes the essence of new music, the essence
of new composition being created today?
Composition based on reproduction, that is, composi-
tion originating at the point of intersection of conven-
tion, tradition, schematism, and vague concepts
concerning the essence of new music, is increasingly
coming into prominence dn new. music. Do not attempt
such reproductive composition anfl do not recommend
it; in part, art has always been used by petty manu-
facturers. Creativity must not rely on reproductive
elements, otherwise it ceases to be creativity. If you
succeed in finding appropriate masters for yourself,
learn to study in their work the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s
of music but not music itself, which cannot bear repe-
titions and, as a matter of fact, c h a n g e s continuously
(for such is the nature of art).
There is a contradiction here, which should be explained.
Certainly, composition hitherto has to a great extent
been based on the principle of reproduction, and yet
that which is the most valuable in music looks how
different. The question arises whether these two
tendencies can be reconciled. No doubt they are rec-
onciled by art itself, in which the revelatory element
borders upon the reproductive one, but the contempo-
rary composer must not assume this in advance. Even
if we are anxious to go beyond eonnmitting certain
reproductive stereotypes, we shall commit them
continually; we are still victims to either yesterday's
or today's tendency to stereotype. This is why, governed
by ethical principles of a higher order, we ought to
avoid everything that might bring us into the disrepute
(pitiful with regard to creativity) of being replicative
composers.
13
A marginal,, but important question in this state of
affairs: what is the contemporary composer?
12
The contemporary composer ought to be a discoverer,
an inspirer and dictator of aesthetic taste. If he lacks
ambition in this respect, he will descend to the level
of the "also-ran" producers of music (easily replaced
by other producers, etc.).
d
Let us consider these aspects individually. The com-
poser as discoverer. In music, as in any other field,
discoveries occur constantly. "Occur" is not the right
expression. The composers are the ones who make ,
them. It is to them that this role has been assigned
(if it is true). To be a discoverer in music does not
mean to disclose the regularities contained in it (for
this task may be undertaken by a contemporary v
^
analyst), but to produce material characterized by such S
relations that it becomes possible to uncover hitherto
unknown possibilities in music. Associated with this
task is the composer's role as an inspirer. The creative
composer should incite others to act in spheres of which
they have scarcely any presentiment. Any kind of new
music is inspirational, both at the time when it is
being created and presented and for this may also
happen when it becomes the centre of concern for
others. The last of the composer's roles, the dictation
of aesthetic taste, is the most difficult. It must be
emphasized here that the composer himself, and not
the reviewers of music or the audience, is to decide
what is good, to decide about aesthetic issues. After
all, our artistic taste today has also been moulded by
composers, not reviewers.
14
Social changes have lately affected everyone. How has
the social status of the composer changed and what is
the nature of his social activity?
Most certainly, the activities of the contemporary com-
poser cannot be assessed by the standards of the pre-
vious century. Nowadays his activities are more intro-
vert than extrovert, concentrated more on the object
than on its effect, and enclosed in a model which he
moulds himself, not in a- model imposed on him.

Here there is a problem calling for explanation: to
what degree is the composer dependent on his envi-
ronment, on the circles in which he displays his activity?
These relationships are treated in many different ways.
In some social systems the composer is one of many
people engaged in co-creation, subordinated one to
another by the very fact of their being put on an
equal footing. It happens and today we feel it more
keenly than at any other time that in a world of
different contradictory interests he has moved right
out to the margins of society, where, after all, he can
act so much more easily and independently, because
he has been debarred from his previous role, verging
on a mission (nineteenth century!). In various systems
of our times the composer assumes different roles;
however, it may be stated in general that his social
activity is not direct but transcendent. To serve one's
society means to compose as well as possible.
15
What are the characteristics of contemporary composing
craft?
The contemporary composer's craft is not restricted
simply to composing. From the practical point of view
composing is an easy action assuming both the
musical talent of the composer and his authentic need
for creativity and it bases itself on a craft which
can be conveyed in a short time to anyone, on condi-
tion that he is a fully mature musician. However,
correct composition does not suffice today and most
certainly it cannot be the motivation for creative
activity. In order to achieve anything in composition
one must know how to introduce values which are
unknown to it. For this purpose, the composer's con-
sciousness must be expanded by a number of experi-
ments which may become the basis for a continually
augmenting ideational superstructure of new creativity.
The aim of this book is to encourage the contemporary
composer to action in directions which have hardly
been indicated in music. The potentialities of music
are enormous, their realization up to now relatively
small. To remedy this state of affairs it is necessary
to think over and creatively transform a great many
problems that arise in connection with the. present
situation of contemporary music. For that which art
uses least to its advantage is freedom.
16
What factor seems to be the most important in new
music?
The most important factor of contemporary music,
music which has been evolved over a few decades
and has enjoyed various successes in individual fields,
is the change of material and its change in relations.
Change has existed since the remotest 4imes; however,
in new music it has simply become a governing prin-
ciple and its absence brings about situations which are
obscure in many respects. Change results in a very
natural manner from the only formal principle that
has survived up to now, namely, that of variation.
The foregoing problem is not quite unequivocal. Change
can be attained with a high proportion of elements left
unchanged. There need only be a partial change, not
a total one. It is not certain whether the very percepti-
bility of variation is important here. Perhaps it suffices
that this rule shall be observed in composing only.
Compare Examples 1, 2, 3 and 4. Find where these
pieces resemble each other and where they differ (each
example is to be compared with each of the remaining
ones,, there being 6 comparative juxtapositions alto-
gether). Establish which examples bear the greatest
resemblance to each other (in the largest number of
facets!), and which differ most. This is, however, only
a preliminary task. In the further course of analysis
of the examples find to what extent we can speak of
change in each of them and whether it is sufficient in
all of them; moreover, see what the composers observe
to avoid monotony when they use elements little
capable of being changed and how they compensate
13
for restrictions in some facet. The solution of these
problems is not simple and, therefore, the secrets of
the factor of change must be divined intuitively. In
coming to know further the functions of the causa-
tional factor of change, these functions will no longer
be as inaccessible as they were at first contact.
17
Analogy and change the opposition of these notions
to each other and the possibility of connections between
them in a composition
Up to the present time music has always been based
on both these factors. However, in new music analogy
has had to make room for the factor of change. In the
first place, the factor of analogy has lost much of its
formative power. So far as composition is concerned,
analogy puts music to death: when, for example, there
occurs a repetition of a passage of music, composing
ceases to be what it ought to be. Therefore, analogy
had to be abandoned in favour of the variational
principle with all its consequences. Music is now ruled
by the principle of constant but not mechanical
change.
Re-examine closely the functioning of the individual
elements of music from the examples (14) you al-
ready know. Find in which elements the principle of
variation prevails and in which that of analogy. Now
establish to what degree analogy is mechanical (neutral,
indifferent, conventional, simply not perceived by the
composer as potentially changeable) or how far it
results from special selection, the deliberate surrender
of change, and, on the other hand, to what degree
change is non-imeehanical (and therefore applied inten-
tionally, not because change is possible but because
its introduction brings about such an animation of
the musical substance as cannot be attained in another
way).
Compose a short piece for piano, at first without
considering either the meaning of analogy or the func-
tions of the factor of change; compose it in the same
way as you composed everything before, reaching for
the techniques of new music as spontaneously, as pos-
sible, "unconsciously". Some time later, subject this
piece of music to a very scrupulous examination for
mechanically applied analogies and tendencies to change
the material (naturally it cannot be, for instance, a typ-
ical dodecaphonic piece in which the change of pitch
is, althought it should not be, the point of departure
for composition. Compare Schbnberg's music with that
of Webern, who did not compose dodecaphonically,
but went above and beyond dodecaphony). Taking
detailed notes, find the point your present composi-
tional consciousness has reached and its distance
from the problems that you have got to know from
Examples 14.
18
Elementary study of the factor of change in music. On
what does musical change actually depend?
The essence of change in music depends on the pres-
ence of internal changeable relationships. In order to
demonstrate this, we ought to make use of the musical
consequences of assuming the binary system. Handling
the numerical symbols 0 and 1, we can perform a
number of operations, which will excellently illustrate
this problem (never hitherto taken seriously).
Real change, such as we are concerned with in music,
cannot be formed mechanically. It suffices to take
a look at the result of the simplest method to make
sure of that. Let us take, by way of example, only two
symbols (they may represent, e.g., two percussion
instruments differing in pitch): 0 and 1. If we decide
that our model will be the formula 01010101 etc.
(Example 5), the most elementary analysis of such
a process of variation will show that although a change
occurs at each moment, the whole process is marked
by superior analogy, which ruins the change, which
we have otherwise so perfectly programmed. What are
we to do to avoid this? To answer this question we
ought to inspect the very process of change somewhat
more closely. In our example there are only two pairs
of symbols, 01 and 10. We experience the absence of
the pairs represented by 00 and 11 as a lack of informa-
tion regarding the possibilities of structural changes.
This is why, for instance, the arrangement 10011, or
the like, will satisfy us much more than the previous
mechanical juxtaposition of contrasting values. In
14
musical terms, the alternation of two symbols stands
for an ordinary tremolo on two percussion instruments,,
which by no means can be regarded as satisfactory
either aesthetically or technically. However, let us try
turning the next sequence into musical language
and it will appear much more attractive than the
structurally reduced tremolo (as will other similar
sequences). Let us draw from this observation as many
compositional consequences as possible. It should be
kept in mind that only the translation of such an
arrangement into musical language may be of didactic
significance. There is no reason to fear that such an
analysis of the possibilities of music leads to something
in the nature of musical abstraction. Each abstraction
can be changed into the concrete, if only we turn it
into musical language and ideas. This remark also
concerns many of the subsequent sections.
Mechanical change should be contrasted with internal
change. How to do this is shown in Examples 58,
which are to be analysed very closely (Example 8a
presents the universe of possibilities and Example 8b
presents a long digital sequence composed sponta-
neously; the attainment of the full universe requires
rational complementing the composer should not aim
to attain this universe but ought to be aware of its
existence).
e/c
Develop as accurately as possible the ideas given in
Examples 58 by using new categories. Now that you
are familiar with the principles of real internal varia-
tion in m'usic, try to compose a number of musical
pieces for percussion instruments of non-defined pitch.
They may be pieces both for one performer, who plays
a number of similar or different instruments, and for
two or more performers, in which case the number
of different instruments may be proportionally smaller.
In these compositions you must not go beyond the
boundary of chamber music, but lay stress on the
virtuoso treatment of the instruments. At this stage
you should not yet attempt to write extensive pieces;
they should rather be concise forms, each time treated
differently in respect of movement and metre. The
handling of a fairly large number of instruments ne-
cessitates the extension of the binary system into
a multi-digital one. However, the digital system should
not be developed to consist of more than a few sym-
bols, otherwise we lose our grip on the whole stock
of variational possibilities of arrangements. This is why
it is better to employ stratification very character-
istic of composition in which there is an overlay of
several programmes.
19
Further compositional expansion of our research in the
method of employing the factor of change in music
We can work with three or more elements: Examples
912. Example 9 illustrates the variation of internal
two-note cells built at four different pitch levels and
Example 10 the configurations of three-note cells at
three different pitch levels (10b note: there is
a possibility of exchanging the pitch elements). Example
11 shows the variation of cells of several notes with
an inner division defined beforehand (and thus with
the number of repetitions of the given pitch deter-
mined in advance); as a result, here too, the factor of
change observed by us comes into prominence, though
in another form. Example 12 combines the experiments
from Example 9 with a new problem of change up to
four places (internal change: the digital sequence in
the order: 14, 25, 36, etc., cf. also, Example 6b
and c) and at the same time illustrates the possibility
of the translation of abstract structures into musical
ones.
Handling pitch material of various numbers of
elements (e.g. from 2 to 5) and applying different meth-
ods of internal variation for it, and therefore, as it
were, putting different demands on it as regards
variation, make 12 different successions varying inter-
nally in different manners. Basing yourself on the
given models (Example 13), examine minutely the
possibilities of internal differentiations (in the first
case it is to be a series of six-note cells, in which three
notes are the same and three are different; construct
also your own models).
20
The consequences of the limitation of components to
a few symbols
15

In this section we are no longer concerned with the
vast multitude of general compositional possibilities,
which in any case music never fully utilizes, but are
concentrating upon the problem of exclusively internal
change. This is work to be done "in depth" and if
well executed it may bring about a marked ex-
tension of the awareness of composing techniques. In
the course of cognisance of the laws governing music,
such "work 'in depth' " may lead to a better under-
standing of the essence of music.
A decision to accept limitations in components after
having worked through the foregoing exercises im-
mediately gives rise to the following question: isn't
there a risk of confining ourselves excessively to a min-
imum on making such a choice? Assuredly, such
exercises, as have gone before should not be treated
mechanically but, on the contrary, should be understood
from the outset as musical models. This is not difficult
since in music abstractions, as we know, turn readily
into concrete phenomena. For this reason, it should be
possible to obtain many different consequences from
even the fewest juxtapositions. So far, the element
modelled here is rhythmically conceived motion, but
the symbols, which are subject to the laws of change,
can also be translated into other musical elements.
In Example 14 find traces of the consequences of a thor-
ough-going analysis of the problem touched upon in
Sections 1719.
21
Simple and complex values
Rhythm is apperceived on a logical not an auditory
basis. We may therefore safely say that rhythm includes
both simple and complex values.
We must be aware that the division of a bar composed
of two quavers into three equal parts is a procedure of
superimposition.
16
Such a division will be musically complex just as
a division of a | bar into halves (Example 15) will
also be complex. Complexity occurs if we contradict
an originally accepted principle. In Example 16 we
find further details concerning superstructural musical
complexities. The values set together in this way are
called customarily though perhaps not quite reason-
ably irrational values.
Scrutinize Example 17 carefully for places where
irrational values have been used and find out what
the. consequences are for the general impression
of motion and movement in the music. Find those
places where the music is animated by the in-
troduction of irrational values, those places where
it need not be enriched by this method and, lastly,
where the introduction of irrational values is imma-
terial to the process of music. Undoubtedly, owing
to the introduction of irrational values the text becomes
visually richer, more difficult to read, and at the same
time makes the performer provide at least approx-
imate equivalents to the complex structures. Examine
the example for the places where we may speak about
expressive benefits involving musical movement result-
ing from the application of irrational values.
Compose a short piece (abounding in rests) in two
versions, one based on simple values and the other one
with irrational values superimposed on them. Compare
both versions and find what sort of methods of trans-
forming simple values into complex ones suit you
best.
22
q
Is there a progression of rhythmic values from the
simplest to the most complex ones and how is it ex-
pressed?
We can arrange a progression of rhythmic values,
having at our disposal an increasing number of values
which differ f r o m e a c h o t h e r in richer and
richer numerical relations. In comparing rhythmic
values with each other, we endeavour to find a com-
mon denominator. The more disproportionate the dif-
ferences occurring between the values, the more
complex is the logical structure of the whole. Example
18 shows how such progressions can be produced
(18a the method of finding proportions and the first
orderings of the material obtained; 18b the full
system of values obtained not only by dividing them
but also by combining different values, owing to which
the range is gradually widened still more and the
arrangement of the rhythmic system undergoes a still
greater enrichment; 18c the close analysis of two
extracts from the table of rhythmic progression; 18d
the possibility of arranging a series of different rhyth-
mic values only slightly distant from each other:
naturally, in practice values which lie so near each
other do not have much of a practical application;
nevertheless we should get to know them).
In practice, the compositional consequences of such
a progression may to some extent contradict the ex-
istence of an equivalence between the complexity of
a musical picture and that of the complexity of the
effect on the listener. This, however, should not
obscure the fact that only notated relations are of
objective value to us. The antinomy between the image
presented by notes and its expressive effect has always
existed in music; we must put up with it and simply
take little notice of it. What is more, such antinomies
ought to exist, for they create in great measure what
we might term the enigma of art.
Closely analysing Table 19 (19a is based on simple
values, 19b on combined, conjoined, values), try to find
for your special favour several dozen "two-voice" suc-
cession whose development might enliven the monotony
of the rhythmic models used so far.
23
The composer's work on rhythmic models
Example 20a presents possibilities of composing rhyth-
mic processes on the basis of selected values. Each
choice of values, having an effect on the composition
of rhythms, determines the homogeneity of the rhythmic
style, which is the more closed and particularly
individual the more suggestive the choice is. Example
20b shows a series of developed rhythmic processes,
whose inner variety is more emphasized by differentia-
tions of melodic motion (in the approximative sense of
the word melodic) and articulation. Finally, Example
21 illustrates the process of the gradual complication of
rhythmic material, being based invariably on one
series of pitches (in order to obtain comparative
material). The use of one and the same series for very
different rhythmic models makes it an element of
minor importance. The example visualizes a change in
the composer's way of thinking. Note that, as regards
movement, consequences of a higher order can be
obtained even from the simplest models (Example 21,
passages 3, 4, 6, 9., 10, 12, etc.). -
Only the piano has been employed in Example 21.
All the passages exhibit similarity in the method of
procedure itself, but differ nevertheless in texture.
(Observe, that increasing the quantitative number of
techniques as well as bringing various irrational
additional values into interaction enriches the rhythmic
material only in certain aspects, as we already know
from the previous chapter.)
Using simple and irrational values, make up 6 different
juxtapositions of rhythmic models in < > u> >
I and l metres. Arrange the models together in
a progressive succession keeping in mind the rhythmic
result (the models must not be arranged on the
mechanical principle of asymmetrical complications!).
Make up, independent of metre, a series of 24 rhythmic
models and space them out within sections lasting
approximately half a minute each. Take care that no
mechanical repetitions of similar situations appear
in them.
24
q
The limitation of rhythmic values to a few a bar
threatens us with a rapid exhaustion of movement; how
do we prevent it?
Exhaustion of a sense of movement is a phenomenon
which inseparably accompanies the repetition of
17
rhythmic models which were narrow in scope. The
restoration of the rhythm cannot be attained by a mere
permutational reshuffling of models, but it can be
achieved by setting together opposite models. Compare
Example 22, which clearly shows the compositional
mechanism of restoration of a stable model. Other
examples of this type: 2328.
Example 23 the placing of an identical figure (and
similar material!) in various points of time in a simple
process; Example 24 the opposition of simple piano
sounds, modelled according to the rule known from
Chapters 22 and 23, to an internally complex structure
of movement; Example 25 a play of antinomies, con-
sisting of placing similar sound groups in different
positions in the metre and of placing changes in the
sound content of the rhythmic figures positioned
identically (the numerals given beside the rhythmic
values indicate successive repetitions); Examples 26 and
27 the juxtaposition of different rhythmic groups;
Example 28 a simple model of movement serves
here to obtain an ingenious formal structure, which
extends beyond the model itself, and which prevents
the exhaustion of movement, inevitable in the case of
' 'mono-rhythm".
Closely analyse the problem of exhaustion of movement
in Example 29. Compare the four sections of the piece
with each other in respect of the development of move-
ment technique. On the basis of Example 30 study
in detail the consequences to be inferred from the canon
in movement and accent. Analyse the way in which
movement is treated in Example 31.
Taking as your example the procedure in Example 29,
compose a four-section piano piece, using the simple
model for pitch as your basis.
25
Possibilities of a new divergent way of treating music
written in simple metres
Simple metres automatically bring about simplifications
in movement. They are, so to say, the confirmation of
the scheme that has been adopted. Writing in a metre,
we contribute only to its consolidation, but this is of
no importance as a help in imparting dynamism to
movement. In order to prevent this situation, changes
of arrangement, displacements of so-called "accents"
(nowadays metre has lost much of its original accentual
nature), and changes in the model of movement are
continually applied e v e n within simple metres or
perhaps a b o v e a l l within them. Example 32 shows
a method for the overcoming of mechanical usage of
metre (Example 32c is a consistent development of
the models from Example 32b).
Metrical or metred time can be added and divided.
The perpetual alternation of these two composing
procedures and, above all, the simultaneous superim-
posed use of addition and division (feasible in music)
make it possible to evolve interesting solutions to the
difficulties posed by even the simplest metres. Natu-
rally, the greater the complexity of the metric matrix,
the greater the results to be obtained in the articula-
tion of movement, although this does not happen auto-
matically of itself. Example 33 illustrates a simple
means of enriching the metre by setting up contrasts
between rhythmic cells. This example is a "living
illustration" of the methods of working on motivic
models. We came to know these imotivic models in the
chapters dealing with rhythm from the point of view
of its internal properties. Example 34 shows the
dialectic between continuous motion and pointillistic
motion, a motion divided by rests; here the metre
fulfils another function, chiefly that of welding together
a motion whose flow had been disintegrated by the
application of serial technique. Example 35 depends on
an elementary duality of metre: I and (kettledrums)
are run simultaneously to contrast in such a way with
each other that neither of these metres prevails over
the other in the process of their parallel formation. The
metre is imposed beforehand in Example 36. Such
a precompositional choice enables the composer to
designe (construct) the movement. No other choice
would have allowed him to achieve this. Lastly, in
Example 37, we are concerned with the successive
joining of very different metres (the differences are
augmented by changes in tempo), which makes the
metric text ambiguous, and this may be just the effect
intended by the composer.
Compare the various consequences resulting from
countering the established metre (Examples 3842 and
18
also Example 43 in the convention of contemporary
jazz). Find to what degree the final text is related to
the fundamental assumptions, in what way it is possible
to obtain, if at all possible, similar result by using other
means, and whether it is possible and, as regards
legibility, remunerative to bring about a reduction to
simple metres (various forms of creating uniformity in
this respect, alteration of the text in favour of a similar
but simpler text, etc.).
Taike Examples 40 and 41 as procedural models. An-
imating metres adopted in advance, compose only in
rhythm, a fairly long passage of music (lasting about
2 minutes). (The "example-models" should not be
copied. This is possible but goes quite against the
principles of the ethic and the inner nature of creativity.
Such prescribed examples, at any rate rare, relieve the
present author of the responsibility of picking all com-
positional facets from their beginning level.)
26
Possibilities arising from modern compositional usages
of metre. Playing by means of metre, further develop-
ment of metric techniques
Contemporary music tends clearly towards ametricality.
Metre, however, even if treated only as a matrix, may
have great inspiring and constructive significance. The
introduction of playing by means of metre throws new
light upon the text (in order to make sure of that, it
is enough to subject a musical text to complex metri-
fication). The tendency to ametricality renews the idea
of time in music, but simultaneously loses the possibility
of its being endowed with'dynamism, at least in the
present sense of this word. Composition in metre alone
does not suffice and, to go further, for this reason
we resort to metric game playing. Such game playing
is the more dynamic, the more fully the dynamic
possibilities inherent in metre are employed. Example
44 illustrates the possibilities of moulding metrically
divided time in a manner complex enough for composi-
tion to remain interesting, but at the same time not
so complex as to negate the metre {the musical text, no
matter how brought about, should support the chosen
method: in our case even the greatest rhythmic complica-
19
tions should "support" the metre in the form in which
it has been adopted and not fully contradict it!). The
methods of metric handling are not uniform. Examples
4547 present only a very few of the general
possibilities in this respect.
Music moulded on the principle of changing metre
presents the composer with problems, some of which
involve sharp antinomies. This is shown in Example 48.
With the almost continually changing metre we observe
a discrepancy between the metre adopted in advance
and its rhythmic formation (bars 34 and 89 are
particularly critical). Such antinomies should be picked
out and a thorough understanding of them achieved,
but they should not be treated as errors since, all
things considered, the composer has the right not to
attach major importance to a given element (in this
case it suffices for us to obtain the information that
the composer composed o v e r changing metres and
n o t : changing metres).
Following the pattern of Models 4951, make up 6
to 8 of your own well-developed conceptions of this
type.
Write a passage of about 3 minutes' duration based on
as variable a metric model as possible in three versions:
a) in a version confirming variable metres, b) in
a version decidedly negating the system of metres, and
c) in a neutral version, as if bypassing this problem
(despite this the metres must vary markedly).
27
q
Metre today
Eight examples (5259) of contemporary music have
been chosen. Let us consider what the compositional
bases are for creating metric lay-outs in these examples;
wherein the composers fully justify the use of change
in metres, and in which metric change creates some-
thing more than change which is only modification of
the point of departure. In other words, in these
examples metric change brings about certain results
and what is important! results not to be attained in
any other way. Metric change has multiple applica-
tions. In the simplest examples it will be the driving
force behind creation of constructions, whereas in more
complex ones it becomes as we already know
a matrix over which new lay-outs, often contrary to
the adopted metre, are superimposed (Examples 57
and 59). Upon attaining a full consciousness of the
significance of metric change, this procedure may come
to be applied intentionally in full consciousness, as
a means of achieving the above-mentioned, otherwise
unattainable, ends. Nevertheless, it may also happen
(and the last three examples prove this) that the
purposefulness of such a lay-out is merely apparent.
Example 60 shows an authentically intentional way of
operating with metric change for the sake of composi-
tional ends of a higher order.
Analyse carefully in Examples 6166 the way metres
are filled and the results obtained from the juxtaposi-
tion of different rhythmic values (a model analysis of
selected measures is added to Example 61).
Compose a longer piece of chamber music for 68
instruments, applying at the same time metrical tech-
niques that you have learned. Observe strictly the
principle for the proper filling-up of the metre in
this piece i.e., respond above all to the metric course
pre-established metric.
28
Ametric music
Ametric music springs from two sources. One of them
is opposition to metre and its persistence as the primary
means of organizing time. The other is the notion of
time freed from imetric orderings. Here, we are con-
cerned with establishing where we stand in relation
to this problem today.
If we analyse closely the increasingly ametric modes
of moulding time (Examples 6782), we find that at
their bases there lies a tendency towards disengagement
of accents from metric interplay. In Examples 67, 68
and 69 the composers inteijftionally used accents in the
division of time to produce arrangements which cannot
be reduced to metre. One of the important composing
factors here is the intentional (67) or apparent (70)
stoppage of time. Examples 7180 indicate that despite
the use of rhythmic values the 'moulding of time
depends upon general proportions (typical examples:
75, 77 and 79). The next examples of this series (81 and
82) illustrate the replacement of the metred rhythm
with approximate values; their arrangements result
from a practical, performer's way of understanding
notation and thus from the functional (intermediary)
nature of the new ametric notation.
Write three different proportional time schemes with
1 second equalling every 4 centimetres,. Transcribe
these schemes into several such ametric notations as,
in your opinion, are the most functional from the point
of view of execution (Model 83).
29
Are there any new time models and, if so, what do
they look like?
Time can be measured in ametric proportions. This
can be achieved by adding up minute particles each '
of which is treated independently of the remaining
ones even in metric arrangements (Example 84). This is
the simplest way of presenting the material; raised to
the rank of a primary rule, it can give rise to a specific
dialectic concerning the forms of movement. Example
85 demonstrates the method of splicing a process to-
gether from small particles. Examples 86 shows rhythm
dependent on the proportion model (the proportions
themselves arise here from the practical possibilities
in the realization of processes; the rhythm is thus the
result of a process and not its basis). These three
examples prove the existence of a constant dependence
of the process of time on the structure imposed by the
composer.
In Examples 8791 tendencies to go beyond the hither-
to existing limit in the moulding of time are apparent
20
The proportions that occur in these examples are
various: strict, mathematical (87), co-situational (88,
89), some are programmed in vertical asymmetries (90),
some are intentionally regular (91), others burst the
imposed scheme (9294). (In Example 94 we are
concerned with a combined two-fold disruption of the
scheme on account of the variable metre and the
disproportionate distribution of rhythms). Finally, there
are even proportions that impose a definite formal type
based on the formation of a process from particles
whose profile is distinctly structural (9598).
Analyse independently the possibilities arising from
the conversion of one method of organizing time into
others. See to what extent the adopted methods of time-
organization restrict the range of composing activity
in other respects.
Compose a short chamber piece about two and
a half minutes in duration marked by its unconven-
tional time projection (rhythms, metre, proportions,
time divisions).
30
Complexity of rhythmic models
Examples 99103. Time runs differently in each of the
five examples. As will be seen from the examples, it
can be built up of unequal particles (99), by taking
account of changes in the tempo, which cause different
structures to become "similar" (100), by sharpening the
dynamic articulation (this is more logical where uni-
formity is preserved in other respects 101); lastly, it
can be put together compositionally from different
particles in a perfectly asynchronous time scheme (102
103). The complex rhythmic models (104112) prove that
there is a varying method for moulding time using the
conventional notation system (this is most strongly
opposed by the arrangements in Examples 109 and 112).
Only further stratifications of the process (113116)
make it possible to obtain a wider scale of differentia-
tion from rhythmic substance.
21
In order to become fully aware of the fact that, as
regards rhythm, we have today at our disposal com-
pletely different material as our point of departure, we
must return once again to the very act of moulding
time. Obviously, the results are the more interesting,
the more the lay-out of the material is susceptible to
change; but also, ,the dispersal of material is all the
more attractive, the less it resembles a statistical
distribution; in other words, decisions concerning the
lay-out of material must have characteristics of a clear
disposition. For instance, two different lay-outs, in
themselves 'exhibiting change to the highest degree,
may give a result which exhibits much less change.
This is to be avoided. All methods of mechanical
planning are injurious to the result. Schematic meth-
ods may be applied only when they ensure particu-
larly individual final results. A method does not exist
for itself but to serve some other purpose (in our case
to serve time disintegration rather than complementary
reduction). It is possible to obtain an effect of very
subtle time shading by very simple changes within the
given proportions. The complexity of the rhythmic
models arises from the simple handling of proportions
(this type of procedure is contained in Examples 112
and 113).
Take Example 117 as your point of departure. Write
about 20 similar combinations, penetrating exactly the
nature of the time proportions between the individual
rhythmic values.
Write a rhythmically complex passage of music of
forty seconds' duration for six different instruments,
applying at least three of the given thirteen patterns
(Examples 104116); avoid the use of different patterns
in one and the same voice.
31
Changes and superimposition of metres and rhythms
within metres
The vertical and horizontal juxtaposition of different
rhythmic values creates co-situations in which a state
of affairs hitherto unknown in music occurs. Example
118 shows to what extent the pointillist isolation of
rhythmic values adds to the new articulation of time.
The more the rhythmic values are bound together into
groups (Examples 119 and 120), the less we may speak
about the emancipation of the rhythmic element
within established metres.
The vertical accumulation of complex rhythmic
structures often results in the following of a dia-
metrically opposite, simple scheme (carefully analyse
Examples 121, 122 and 123). Changes in metre may
differ in character. There is a kind of metrical change
which does not play a major part either as a means
of energizing the movement or as a constructive means.
Example 124 is typical in this respect; here, both the
dynamics of movement and the construction are very
convincing, but they do not belong to the metrical
sphere; they are achieved in spite of a lack of dynam-
ic and constructive functioning in the metre. In
Example 125 the first three models of movement are
abstract and do not suggest a further course for the
rhythm, nevertheless affective potential arising from
real and accidental changes in the metre is large.
Example 126 shows a neutralized metre (nearly all the
bars are connected by syncopation), 127 an ordering
metre, and 128 an almost barless metre (accelerations
and stoppages of movement provide a thorough rec-
ompense for the amorphous movement adopted in
advance).
Analyse closely the examples of change in metres and
the results of their rhythmically complicated composi-
tion (Examples 129134; Example 134 comprises
a model of a preliminary analysis on which the close
analysis of composing techniques should be based).
Compose a short four-minute piece of music for string
trio. The problems of changes and stratified accumula-
tion of metres should be at the forefront composi-
tionally. Scrutinize it after the fact to see what the
possibilities are for avoiding or neutralizing metrical
problems in seeking to approach this kind of music.
Attempt several tests of such an arrangement.
32
Rhythmic complications
Example 135a reveals the possibility of the existence
of two types of complications in so far as rhythm alone
is concerned. In bars 8182 we deal with a group of
different irrational arrangements. It is worth noticing
that working with a common denominator does not
suffice for irrational values. We must also even in
the absence of simple values, as in the example given
take into account the initial elementary values (Example
135b, common denominator 504). Towards the end of
Example 135a, a model of a septimole occurs. The same
model appears in all five parts. The model is however
composed in a different manner each time (cf. 135c).
Between these two extreme models there is a whole
range of intermediate rhythmic complications.
The problem of rhythmic complications is not an easy
one. In the first place, the very complexity of notation
is not always reflected in the aural effect; richly
written music may seem to be simple to the listener.
This is unambiguously shown in Example 135c; here
a new model of movement (3'2 ), which is not complex
in itself, simply appears in the middle of bar 82 (we
shall see what happens, if we "transcribe''' this text in I
greater values Example 135d; it is clear that we are
then concerned with a new metre, which fact shifts the
rhythmic problem beyond its autonomous aspect!).
Thus, the composer's task is to use rhythmic complica-
3
tions in the autonomous sense of this procedure, with-
out simplifications but always keeping in mind the
need for rhythmic complications whenever it would be
impossible to attain a particular desired effect in an-
other, simpler way.
Using the course of affairs in Example 135 as a basis,
compare the ways of juxtaposing rhythms in Examples
136140. Find to what extent the occurrence of a large
number of different rhythmic forms actually enriches
the music and, in addition, what kind of connections
with metrical handling and with changes in tempo
have an effect on the delineation of rhythmic character.
From the numerical equivalents in Example 141 deduce
your own, even general, analytical principles for
Examples 142144 (simple realizations) and 145147
(complex realizations). In analysing the first group of
examples,, concentrate on the problem of the interplay
of rhythmic forms. It is also worth considering here
22
the influence of additional factors on the evolution of
the rhythmic picture, e.g., the influence of articulation,
which, as it were, shortens the rhythmic values, or the
bearing of the very nature of an instrument on rhythm
(for instance, the harp has to be dampened very accu-
rately in order that, in the case of strictly written
rhythmic values, the instrument might fully render
the composer's rhythmic intentions). There are other
similar instances; note them constantly and make the
appropriate personal technical inferences. While analys-
ing the second group of examples, consider the possibil-
ity of transposing the problem of rhythmic complica-
tions into textural terms. (Example 147 accurately illus-
trates the value of the use of the rich forms of rests;
owing to them, the impression of richness in complex
rhythmic forms can be enhanced. An impression of
richness manifests itself more fully against an "open"
time than it does in a continuous, compact version. In
continuous, compact time rhythm loses its autonomy
and, by the way, resembles lumbering part polyphony.)
Design your own analytical solutions for at least two
of the four rhythmically very complex examples (148
151).
Compose a musical passage (about 40 seconds in
a medium tempo) for eight instruments, based on
a gradually condensing summary effect as regards
rhythm (you should: 1. avoid shifting the centre of
gravity from the rhythmic element to other elements,
2. take into account the closed stock of means of
rhythmic complications, and 3. give the whole a read-
able form, without an excessive complexity in the
external picture). In compositional exercises of this
type one should always keep in mind the necessity of
speaking about the whole by means of a fragment;
thus, the assigned musical passage must contain sugges-
tions of the possibility of further development (expan-
sion) of the music on the basis of the assumed method
of procedure or, in other words, one should have
the impression that the continuation of such a game
might be interesting, easy, instructive and encouraging
for the composer (composition is not the solving of
given problems, but rather a game played with
problems in which the problems are treated playfully).
33
Metric complexity
Rich results may be obtained even within simple
metres by incessantly annihilating their supremacy.
So-called polymetre has turned out to be only a partial
solution in the present state of composition. Based on
monometric foundations, it has functioned for many
years as an antidote to the "rhyming" simplicity of
rhythm and movement. Polymetre, characterized by
accentual irregularity, was employed to counter
invariable metre with its constant, symmetric distribu-
tion of accents; however, polymetre acted only as
a "counter" in terms of the monometric system. In
the music of today, in which rhythmic values are
already emancipated in full, the play of accents
their various distribution and treatment has lost its
advantages, if for no other reasons than to apply the
play of accents it would be necessary first to demon-
strate optically, systematically and aurally the
initial elementary model. Only then could contrasting
passages by built. Nowadays polymetre may only be
regarded as one of the factors of change in material,
and the effects it produces (for instance when poly-
metre is combined with other techniques such as the
serialization of other elements) are slight even in
respect of the dynamics of movement alone. This not-
withstanding, it can be useful as a matrix for rhythmic
values for inspirational, if no other, reasons (more
interesting co-situations emerge out of a metrically
complex groundwork of movement than out of a simple
one). It may be said, in general, that metric complexity
has now taken on the task of deconcentration not
concentration of the element of movement and that
it is introduced by composers chiefly to intensify the
ambiguity of the musical process.
In order to become aware of new metric possibilities,
one should set together vertically, single bars filled
with rhythms which compose the metre, as it were,
"from inside". (Example 152 presents the modes of
filling time with metric proportions from 3 to 10
units).
One may employ methods of great complexity in
connection with metre, yet these lead to no major
results. This is because today metric results are ob-
tained in a different way. Nevertheless, as has been
said above, they can be used and are worth using, if
only for the enrichment of the vertical and horizontal
process. Examples 153155 show some compositionally
valuable metric schemes. In all of them the changes of
23
metre and the various ways they are filled up take
on the functions of changes in material. Processes may
be rendered dynamic by the horizontal (Examples
156160), vertical (161163) and combined vertical and
horizontal (164168) confrontations of metres. The
horizontal confrontation of metres is more palpable
than the vertical one, but from the view-point of
construction and texture it "says" less. The vertical
confrontation of metres may give various results; much
depends on what is confronted vertically (an excessive
number of parts can cause information to pass by
chaotically which is dangerous from the metric point
of view; however, such a chaotic effect might some-
times be desired). This is also the case with vertical-
horizontal confrontations Example 168 is typical of
them. Owing in a way to the very fact of two-sided
relations, they lead to different results, often unforeseen
and hardly even sensed by the composer (it is worth
noticing how partial composers are to this type of
set-up, through which otherwise unattainable ideas
are undoubtedly released for them).
Analyse Examples 164168 for metric complexity. Find
at what point vagueness of metric information begins
to appear and in what respect this vagueness may be
regarded as compositionally advantageous. Try to
locate and point out the differences between Examples
167 and 168 as exactly as possible.
Compose a short piece, based on the principle of
vertical and horizontal change, for a chamber ensemble
(directed by a conductor) in such a manner that it
will express a point of view on the dependence of the
musical process on metrical assumptions. (Find out
after the fact to what extent you succeeded in building
formations on the predetermined metres,, which, to say
the least, did not result from the predetermined metres
directly.)
34
Concepts of pitch-rhythm relationships
Pitch and rhythmic values are perceived on a different
basis and as such they arise independently of each
other. Our receptive system, is prepared, as it were,
for immediate perception of pitch, whereas rhythmic
values require a conscious intellectual act of recognition
of each value and of the proportions between rhythmic
values. The reception itself of rhythmic values proceeds,
in general, on a logical, rather than auditory, basis.
Some relationships exist between pitches and rhythmic
(time) values. These we can ascertain, if by no other,
by simply observing what happens to pitch when the
speed of a magnetic tape is doubled.
In new music we can fully avail ourselves of the
interchangeability of parameters. Examples 169 and 170
show to what extent such relationships can be utilized
in composition. Example 169 demonstrates parallelism
of internal changes with the use of 5 rhythmic and
pitch components, this parallelism being based on the
principle of ascribing a time value to each sound value.
These relations are naturally the result of a conven-
tion and the adoption of another model of pitch-rhythm
dependencies might be equally good and composition-
ally workable. Example 170 shows some more highly
developed associations of pitches and rhythmic values.
Here I should include a note: there is no doubt that
the interdependence of these two parameters is not
natural, despite the capacity of all the pitch intervals
to be converted into time intervals. It is not natural,
but can be n a t u r a l i z e d comparatively easily. The
ability to do this can be achieved only by practice;
here we confine ourselves to the statement of the
possibility alone.
Work out your own table of correlations between
pitches and rhythmic values. On this basis construct
a fairly long musical passage (fairly long, because we
are unable to realize all the advantages and short-
comings of the adopted composing procedure until we
have studied the results for some time), which in its
consequences will be far more complex than the
assumed points of departure (Examples 171 and 172
may serve as rhythmic patterns).
Assuming the experiment carried out in the exercise
above as the starting-point, compose a piece which,
without being the mechanical product of adopted
principles, will still bear certain characteristics of
a composition that has arisen in this very manner;
24
compose spontaneously, only slightly stylizing the
previous kind of music (one absolutely should not
attempt to achieve a perfect coincidence of previous and
new results). Chamber ensemble, at least five-part
texture, well-developed form (up to 4 minutes).
35
q to material, which occurs only when a process-mould-
Compositional consequences of the repetition of the
same pitches
The possibility of replacing change in the hitherto
most important parameter of pitch by the repetition
of the same pitches or the same pitch complexes with
the simultaneous activation of change in other para-
meters is a discovery of the new music. Example 173
reduction of the compositional problem to a minimum
(note the role the composer attributes to the last bar,
the arrangement of which thoroughly compensates
for the lack of a compositional factor in the four pre-
ceding bars); Example 1V4 composition of pitch ma-
terial limited to W minimum (it consists of chromatic
projections departing from each other in opposite
directions), despite the repetition of fragments the
whole is dynamic in nature owing to the special
distribution of rhythmic stresses in time; Example
175 reduction of the pitch problem (percussion) and
rhythmic-dynamic construction of time; Example 176
use of note repetitions as well as normal pitch variation
in an interaction; Example 177 utilization of one
note as a point of departure followed by its dynamic
(and textural) composition.
Composition based on the reduction of pitch variation
raises the danger of bringing about an indifference to
this parameter. It is good to use this method as
a technique beside (Example 176) or among (Examples
177180) other methods, but it must not be used for
itself. Examples 181186 present the developments of
the technique of repetition of notes, their groups and
complexes; 181 the repetitions, accented in time,
complete the whole (the note lying motionless with-
out repetitions, even if enriched vertically and intona-
tionally, as in this case, would not suffice); 182 the
repetitions set together in an approximate way are
structurally constructive; 183 the dynamics and tone
colour complete the expressive aspect of reiterated
rhythmic values whose repetition here becomes obses-
sive; 184 the type of note is repeated but not its
pitch (!); 185 the construction arising from uneq-
ually distributed repetitions is combined with the
stoppage of movement on a full chord; finally, 186
the retention of the note (in other words, its con-
tinuous repetition) is compensated by changes in its
tone qualities. The foregoing examples suggest that
repetition need not be associated with the indifference
ing role is ascribed as a rule ineffectually to
repetitions. (Psychology of reception has something
important to contribute here: "only he who has lost
the thread repeats the same words". In other words,
it is precisely repetition that demands to be specially
composed!). One can however reduce repetition to
a secondary role and move together with compositional
ideas to another terrain, but such a move must be
indicated clearly and unambiguously!
Construct eight different models of intentional composi-
tion by means of single notes and making use of change
in some other fields.
Basing yourself on these models, compose a fairly long
passage for string quartet. Ensure that the consequences
of the composing process go beyond the principle of
repetitions, e.g., textural consequences.
36
Relationship between the idea of constant variation and
the formation of rhythm
In new music there are examples of grafting arrange-
ments derived from note series on the rhythm. We
already know that these two elements can be related
to each other, that each can be mutually ordered in
respect to the other by correlation. Example 187 affords
a rough demonstration of such an ordering (we can
define it simply as a patterning of the rhythmic series
after the pitch series). The results of such a procedure
are shown in Example 188, in which four distinct
25
strata make up a whole that cannot be reduced to any
schematic pattern (this is why composing methods of
this type are so valuable).
In comparing Examples 189191 with each other, we
arrive at the conclusion that the results of rhythmic-
serial patterning (or the results of compositional
habits stemming from this type of technological
approach) are structures characterized by constant
change. Consequently these structures become similar
to each other in defiance of the composer's initial
assumptions. In order to prevent this, a peculiar mode
of u n d e r s t a n d i n g patternings should be adopted
(e.g. with the simultaneous use of a specific reduction
of components cf., dynamics and articulation in
Example 187).
e Rhythmic-dynamic relationships constitute very natural
Construct a few. examples of rhythmic derivation in-
dependent of mechanical serialism. Here you should
a) maintain the impression of constant change in most
elements, b) introduce richer relations into the rhythm,
not only the mechanical ones resulting from the addi-
tive setting together of rhythmic units, c) produce
textural effects of a distiictly rhythmic origin and
d) emphasize composing on this material without
confining yourself to the mechanical listing of results.
Compose three short pieces based on the principle of
a relationship between the series and rhythm. In this
relationship the series may be any ordering of notes
and the material cf rhythmic values should be an
arrangement of simple and irrational values set togeth-
er in one plane, with the arrangement being different
each time it is employed (the impression is then to be
created that the simple values stand very close to the
irrational ones; this is easily achieved when a remark-
able predominance of the latter over the former has
been introduced).
37
Rhythmic-dynamic relationships
There may be a direct relationship between the inten-
sity of sound and the rhythmic values. How it presents
itself in composing practice is illustrated in the excerpts
of a work written exclusively for a percussion ensemble
made up solely of instruments of indefinite pitch
(Example 192 a, b and c). Example 192b is the most
instructive in this respect; it proves that the duration
of a sound is directly dependent on the force of the
stroke. Such methods of procedure are sensible only
when they are associated with real performance prac-
tice. The development of these methods is shown in
Examples 193 and 194. Example 193 is based on rhyth-
mic structures directly dependent on dynamics and
Example 194 treats dynamics in a complex fashion
(the two lines are independent of each other). This
results in the superimposition of chorda! structures
whose saturation says something also directly
about dynamics and about how decaying sounds last.
connections between elements. In the previous section
we got to know rhythmic-pitch relationships or rhyth-
mic pitch ordering correlations which, to be sure, can
be naturalized but are not as direct and natural as the
rhythmic-dynamic ones. This is why, in order to
become familiar with elementary composing possibili-
ties, we must take into consideration the possibilities
of playing with antinomies, for instance, with opposites
(in such a case, a small rhythmic value would cor-
respond to forceful dynamic levels, a large rhythmic
value to low dynamic levels, a still larger one to even
softer dynamic levels etc.). The play of antinomies
treated as a system or routine can be wholly natural-
ized (in other words, we can become accustomed to
material behaving in just such a way).
Construct your own scheme of relationships between
rhytm and dynamics, including the play of antinomies.
Examine it for benefits arising from the adoption of
the method of constantly changing reversible depend-
ence. Write a short musical passage in two versions,
one natural, the other antinomic, and compare them
(textural and compositional conclusions are to be
drawn from this comparison).
Compose a piece, lasting at least 3 minutes, for a per-
cussion ensemble (predominance of instruments with
long pitch decay, using the procedural methods discuss-
ed above). Compose a short piece for instruments of
26
definite pitch that have an easily damped a long decay
time. (The play of antinomies, including rhythmic-artic-
ulatory ones, should be applied on a larger scale.)
38
Rhythmic "harmonies" appearing as a result of new
co-situations
In addition to the possibility of bringing rhythmic
values and pitches into a mutual relationship there
also exists the possibility of an influence of rhythmic
(rhythmicizing) processes on chords. Relationships of
this type are illustrated by Examples 195201 (different
ways of obtaining new chordal co-situations, "harmonic"
ones, by the use of rhythmic components). Example
195 a harmonic vertical combination, richly and
ambiguously composed, interrupts the neutral horizon-
tal course and attracts our attention precisely on
account of its structure; 196 variants of the model
from Example 195 developed "in groups"; 197 ver-
tical structures, constantly changing thanks to the alea-
toric openness and exchangeability of material; 198
here the harmonic complex acts in a different sphere
from that suggested by the notation (the separate
and accurate composing of each note splinters the
material and forms a highly anonymous whole; conse-
quently, the result does not reveal much of its
consistence); 199 accidental harmony; here the har-
monic result is an effect of the situation and as such
is "less important"; Example 200 illustrates an even
further possibility of multiformity in the vertical com-
binations, which we met in Example 197; lastly,
Example 201 transfers us to the field of a new har-
mony; here, however, what the actual harmony con-
sists of is important (in contradistinction to cluster-type
complexes, in which the intervallic sum almost auto-
matically reduces the whole to a structurally very
restricted and in fact uninteresting "timbre"). In all
these examples vertical synchronization creates a har-
mony of a higher order, perhaps less easily perceptible,
but all the more ambiguous. Composers particularly
desire such a higher order.
This is most certainly one of the forms of compensa-
tion for the no longer existing harmonic factor. Example
27
195 indicates that it is possible to equilibrate the ver-
tical and the horizontal. The conversion of the horizon-
tal change to a vertical lay-out, observed in the
fourth bar of Example 198, is artificially superimposed
on the modern system (this is best proved by its rare
occurrence, and may be regarded only as a possibility).
To be sure, there is still a long series of co-situational-
harmonic models attainable in a simpler, not so me-
chanical, way. In order to get acquainted with them,
it is necessary paradoxically to create them as if
unconsciously, in a less studied, more spontaneous
manner.
Make up four different patterns of rhythm-chord
correlations. Solutions sought should be of textural,
not only harmonic, importance. An unknown co-situa-
tion, not a "model for harmony", is principally to be
sought (now harmony must not be treated as the
foreground, as in the past, but as an accidental result
or product of the composer's work in another area; it
thus manifests itself in a highly "non-harmonic"
manner).
Compose twelve different vertical combinations laying
them out for a small chamber ensemble. Each of them
should be based on a different initial principle and,
consequently, should manifest itself in a different way.
In this study the composer is expected to be prompted
by the possibility of harmonic action without the crea-
tion of a harmony, in other words, the possibility of
obtaining harmonic results by means very distant from
the traditionally harmonic ones.
39
The restriction of composition exclusively or primarily
to the range of rhythm
In the framing of rhythmical scores and scores in
which rhythm is the foreground value, the mode of
time division is immeasurably important. Each com-
position consists of a series of various rhythmic values,
but it is only their selection and compositional shape
that are decisive in regard to the importance of the
rhythmic element in a work. This may be exem-
plified by an excerpt from a work by Schbnberg (202).
Within 3 bars of 53 notes the author deals with as
many as 10 different rhythmic values (a), which in
addition are situated in various ways in the metre.
This example is supplemented several variants
which deform the situation present in the excerpt
quoted (b). A procedure of this sort permits us to see
how extensive a range of possibilities the composer
had at his disposal; it suffices to change the value of
particular rhythms or to change them in order
to obtain a completely different result (c). This
is however possible only with the wealth of
initial material in Schonberg's music, whereas in music
based on conventional rhythmic conceptions (Honegger),
in spite of changes, the result will always be the same
schematic rhythmic pulsation. There is a possibility of
restricting oneself exclusively (203) or primarily (204)
to working with rhythms, i.e., with material of generally
indefinite pitch. Example 205 illustrates the method
of proceeding in a rhythmic and quasi-linear fashion
at the same time. Example 206 is a kind of transposi-
tion of the idea of rhythmical score into pitch material.
Further examples of intensely "rhythmicized" scores:
207210. Example 207 shows the possibility of forming
a rhythmic process on the basis of seemingly varying
tempi; Example 208 demonstrates a general textural
effect produced by the vertical accumulation of
parts with each part having its own structure, as if it
were independent of the whole; the idea of Example
209 is the shifting of the centre of gravity from one
part to another,, while Example 210 is its extreme
opposite, since it is based on the perfect equivalence
of parts, owing to which we reach a point where,
however richly the rhythmic element is composed, the
whole is anonymous and statistic in nature; in the
present case this character is extended even further by
a constant dynamic value, which, as it were, sums up
all the elements.
The restriction of composition exclusively (or chiefly)
to the field of rhythm calls for special interest in
rhythmic problems in themselves. It is well known that
rhythmic change is neither .easy to realize nor later
on to grasp. In order to work with rhythmic change,
we choose the method of handling rhythmic cells from
the general method for the formation of rhythm by
setting together its particles. This method and the con-
sequences of its application are presented in Example
211. The first portion (a) shows the possibility of discov-
28
ering different formulae of one and the same value
(in this case crotchets); further portions demonstrate
some better-developed rhythmic forms in which greater
irrational values are used (b), and subsequently free,
as if approximate, systems (c). The two vertical arrange-
ments of (d) indicate how much the manner of vertical
composition of rhythm matters: in the first instance we
are concerned with poorly perceptible and thus hardly
significant differences, in the second case with signif-
icant differences which contribute to the fine division
of time. Example 211e shows still wealthier vertical
arrangements of rhythm (numerical proportions vis-
ualize the wealth of inner relations in the material
composed in this way).
Write an intensely "rhythmicized" score and transpose
it into pitch material (the model of the score should be
so constructed that the transposition does not annihilate
its original complexity).
40
'Articulation of time''
Rhythmically-moulded time may arise from special
concepts, for example, from the conversion of spatial
musical ideas into g r a p h i c images which suggest
their concrete realization. The model in Example 212
contains twelve units of articulation of time, which
can be read not only directly, i.e. copying particular
models from the graphic representations,, but may
also be read interpreting the graphic representations
in a more complex manner (e.g., giving a fuller sound
picture instead of one tied note).
New rhythmic procedures require non-mechanical initial
assumptions, compositional even within themselves. The
consequences of such assumptions can be adopted as
a method for rhythmic procedure and, when already
recorded in the memory, applied as a programme for
spontaneous activity in this field. Different attitudes
of composers towards the problem of time articulation,
ranging from strict measurement to aleatoric treatment,
are shown in Examples 213223. Example 213
 measuring of time, on the division of selected time
units; 214 four different time processes occur in
four parts; the rhythm seems similar but, in fact, owing
to the introduction of different tempi, it constitutes
richly differentiated material; 215 possibilities of
obtaining different forms of time articulation, using
the same sound material; in each variant the textural
result undergoes a change and the chordal and linear
results are also different; the extent to which rhythmic
material is a composing factor is here clearly
demonstrated. Examples 216223 demonstrate different
approaches to time articulation, no longer understood
as a result of composing with rhythms, but as the
composer's fully conscious activity in the sphere of
time. The first two examples, 216217, originate from
autonomous time conceptions; Example 218 presents
a peculiar kind of time amorphism: in spite of the
proportioned notation, time articulation will always be
accidental here; Example 219 goes still further in this
direction; Example 220 shows how far one can deviate
from rhythmic proportioning towards an approximate
graphic proportioning; Example 221 illustrates the
translation of time articulation into the idiom of score
shorthand; Example 222 demonstrates a certain system-
atization in the time scheme, although this is not
reflected in the aural effect. Finally, Example 223, in
which different interpretations of time are given, shows
.the openness of time, which is however enclosed (since
one must abide by something) within mutual propor-
tions. Musical time, which in new music has been
deprived of its quality of being measured and, conse-
quently, of its logical mensurability, requires new
methods of disposition from the composer. These may
be discovered spontaneously (Examples 216, 217, etc.),
yet the awareness of the necessity for constant regen-
eration and constant variation of rhythmically-mould-
ed time should lie at their basis. Not all the methods
of notation of time articulation can find a sensible
reflection in performance practice and for this reason
one ought always to start from time schemes verifiable
by performance. At the same time, however, we should
not worry that excessively complex structures may not
be executed with perfect accuracy. In new music the
very impulse to new action in the field of time articula-
tion is more important than the strictness of realiza-
tion.
Make up a universal model of new time articulation,,
using a limited stock of rhythmic symbols, very differ-
ent from each other.
29
Compose a piece with individually conceived time
articulation (this should be a piece in which the way
of approach to the problems of rhythm will come to
the forefront).
II
41
Linear motion. The attitude of the contemporary compos-
er towards linear motion and its role in the structuring
of music
Derhythmicized melody is termed linear motion. It is
a horizontal arrangement of pitch material abstracted
from time relations. In new music linear motion is
a substance detached from the originally important
core. It is a mobile substance which is subject to trans-
position. Hence, it may also be conceived in the first
place as an intervallic model and only in its composi-
tional consequences as material. Today linear motion
is void" of the outstanding importance that it had in
previous developmental periods of music. Treated as
an element subordinated to the new organization of
musical time, it is also deprived of its past function of
material that forms horizontal arrangements. Nonethe-
less, in composers' work it betrays its Own autonomous
specific nature, which in the best case is that of
a stylistic component. As music develops, linear motion
loses its autonomy (Example 224, first'signals of this
process), and in extreme cases may be replaced by
linear motion-like formulations which are regarded as
its full equivalents (Example 226).
A number of problems arise here and require a more
extensive discussion. First, in contemporary music must
we start from pitches material; secondly, is linear mo-
tion gradually losing its original significance as a hor-
izontal ordering which can be transposed and, thirdly,
to what extent can we dispense with linear motion
nowadays? The answers to these questions will be
found in the works of contemporary composers. Today
we most certainly can assume any optional musical
parameter instead of the material of pitches as the
starting-point of composing; as a horizontal ordering,
linear motion is of importance only in that kind of music
which is horizontally arranged (for example, in dode-
caphonic music); whereas in non-horizontally, "non-
thematically" programmed music it is devoid of
a structural role and may very often be replaced by
another (similar or otherwise) horizontal arrangement.
The arrangement in the horizontal plane is therefore
the result of activity in linear motion rather than
a product of linear thinking. Example 225 illustrates
the specific nature and also the anonymity of the
arrangements used by composers (the arrangements
presented have been taken from Examples 2, 4, 17
and 24).
Write a 240-note motional arrangement, observing the
following rules: the first 60 symbols should arise as
a result of traditional "thematic" linear thinking, the
continuation as the product of a dodecaphonic approach
(five different or similar series), the third part as the
spontaneous handling of selected intervals, and the
last section as a row of notes composed without any
definite linear aims and structural ideas. Compare the
four parts of the written arrangement with each other,
subjecting them to material, intervallic (frequency of
certain intervals) and aesthetic analyses. Correct the
arrangement at its most drastic points and examine
after the fact on w h a t criteria these corrections had
been made.
42
q Range of possible change in linear motion
Foreground and secondary status of linear motion
Examples 227236 provide a survey of the process of
the shifting of linear motion from the foreground into
the background. Example 227 predominance of the
linear motive (the first four melodic notes are later
repeated in a changed rhythmic form, which fact
indicates the preponderance of linear motion over other
elements; the whole is based on the harmonic
substratum accompanying the upper line; the treatment
is traditional in this respect); Example 228 pre-
dominance of the melodic lines entrusted to selected
30
instruments over other elements, still accompanying;
Example 229 harmonic polymelody, based on the
principle of main and secondary parts (surrender
of the thematization of motion); Example 230
reduction of motion to a secondary textural role (notice
the transposition of the linear arrangements); Example
231 shifting of the centre of gravity from the horizon-
tal arrangement to the figural vertical one (motion is
losing its significance since it appears simultaneously
with its variants); Example 232 comprehension of
music based on texture not on linear motion; this is
also true of Example 233, in which vertical structure
arises from the deliberate linear asynchronization of
linear motion at the horizontal level; Example 234
dispersal of points of linear motion in time, on account of
which motion ceases to be important as a horizontal
arrangement; Example 235 reduction of the role of
linear motion in favour of changes in instrumental timbres
(here the change in instruments is an indicator of
linear motion); Example 236 replacement of linear
motion with approximate arrangements.
Scrutinize Examples 227236 for the significance of
linear motion; find in what instances linear motion
may constitute a point of support in the formation of
a composition or, in other words, how the music is to
be moulded to attain the change in material required
in a composition.
43
q
Since linear motion is treated as a secondary element,
the use of the factor of change in it is possible only
to a small extent. Example 237 illustrates the slight
shading of the pitch of the linear motion (however,
by using other parameters of change here the composer
exposes linear motion more than he would if he actual-
ly worked by varying it).
The following problem arises: the maximum change
in linear motion (cf. Examples 234 and 235 from
the previous section and Examples 238 and 240 here)
constitutes a kind of anonymity in the components of
this element. In order to draw attention to linear motion,
it suffices to change it within a specific narrow range
(Examples 244 and 245). A close analysis of change in
linear motion in all the examples given is necessary
if we want to ascertain this. Example 238 dispersal
of the components of linear motion throughout various
registers; motion as the derivative of a continuous line
is here neutralized by being broken up between dif-
ferent registers in such a way that we shall not receive
the impression of layers of linear motion,, for in such
a case we should be concerned with a conventional
polyphonic treatment; 239 deliberately non-comple-
mentary dispersal of material in six parts; 240 the
optimum crossing of voices gives rise to a textural
fabric composed of a mass of notes scattered in musical
space and irreducible to the initial point of departure;
241 the previous technique of break-up of motion
raised to a still higher intensity; 242 dispersal of
single notes through various parts, owing to which the
originally continuous line of linear motion must be
"gathered together" in the same way as it had been
dispersed by the composer; 243 scattering of material
throughout the various registers, intentionally obscure
as regards the number and nature of parts; to all
appearances this is one part passed automatically to
different registers, regardless of consequences, but in
fact it is a product of linear motion arising from the
absolute equivalence of all the register ranges; 244
four sections of this example show four different
textural solutions and, consequently, the linear motion
here can be reconstructed only analytically (neverthe-
less,, it is true that originally it could form the basis
for such a process, even preserving the immanent
character of its note successions); finally, 245 shift-
ing of motion to the background accompanied by the
simultaneous exposition of its qualities (quarter-tones).
Write six short passages of music formed similarly to
the music in Example 237; take care that the change
in motion, however narrow its range, be clearly heard.
Compose a fairly long piece based on the foregoing
principle. Different kinds of changes in linear motion
are to be included. The performance of the composition
should take about 8 minutes; chamber instrumentation
(at least 5 parts).
44
Compositional reading of linear motion pitch collec-
tions
Example 246 presents a number of readings of a select-
ed four-note horizontal arrangement (also in its vertical
aspect). In the "case of a larger number of notes the
readings are no longer restricted to a small quantity of
variants (for this reason it is convenient to solve this
problem on models limited in components). The graph
indicates a great potential of changes that can be
made on identical material; in this situation linear
motion is no longer a unequivocal structure but a stock
of sounds rather than a horizontal ordering.
The tendency not to oppose the vertical and horizontal
aspects becomes very conspicuous in new music as does
the tendency to treat orderings only as results of
a definite state of affairs, as the results of composing,
rather than as consciously horizontal pitch handling.
Example 247 points to the consequences of such an
approach to motion.
Basing yourself on Example 246, examine the composi-
tional potentials and consequences of the arbitrary
reading of the vertical and horizontal combinations in
Example 247.
Compose a piece of music based on six selected four-
note motives, applying all, l i t e r a l l y a l l , modes
of their reading. The piece should be written for such
an ensemble that it makes it possible aurally to trace
the composing work in this respect very exactly.
45
The dependence of the structure of chords upon the
contents of vertical arrangements of linear motion
Example 248 shows how we should understand the
analysis of chords today. The point of departure is not
31
the sum of notes making up the chord but the structur-
al sum, that is the aggregate of all the intervallic
components (intervals are designated by the number
of semi-tones, from 1 to 6, the inversions of intervals
may be marked with dots placed by the figures; see
also Chapter 49, "Intervallic Notation".
In new music the simultaneities, too, are only a result
of the vertical combination of sounds, and this is why
even the closest analysis of vertical groupings cannot
explain anything; at any rate, it is not on this that the
observation of composing methods should be based.
Nevertheless, it is worthwhile investigating the type
of chordal specificity we are dealing with and what
sorts of "harmonies" arise from the combination of
sounds. In Examples 249 and 250 we are concerned
with accidental harmony; in Example 249 single parts
are seemingly independent and as such cannot constitute
a complex of parts that add up to form a harmonic
common denominator; this is not the case, however,
for the ultrachromaticizm applied here creates, in fact,
a sort of harmonic climate which always be prom-
inent. In Example 250 we can observe the neutraliza-
tion of harmonies, if not in any other way, then by the
use of different kinds of chords; and the harmonic cli-
mate, which after all can still be grasped, arises from
a textural model rather than from the orderings of
notes, in spite of the fact that in this respect a good
deal of "accordance" might also be found.
Write three series (each of 24 elements) of four-, five-
and six-note chords and compare them with each
other, giving attention to their structural sums. Note
how chords are related to each other when built
symmetrically, read in inversion, e t c
46
Compositional application of chords
Examples 251257 demonstrate the new functions of
chords. Example 251 shows that the interval chosen
"by the composer constitutes the centre of linear co-
situations (the example is supplied with a diagram of
notes employed and the range of the frequency of
32
appearance; it is worthwhile noting the transcendent
presence of traditional harmonic thinking the role
of leading tones); Example 252 illustrates the tendency
towards detachment from vertical relationships by the
exposure of a) parallel intervals and b) atonal, polytonal
and deliberately dissonant groups; Example 253 shows
chords in autonomous action (note the specificity of
the choice of intervals that make up the chords); Ex-
amples 254 and 255 chords as a co-factor that en-
hances movement; Example 256 chords as the "ac-
companiment" for a vocal part; Example 257
handling of co-situational changes in chordal vertical
structures.
In new music the chord no longer fulfils a formative
or structural function. It is however sometimes used
with specificity, and even (Example 257) creates
situations which would not come about without its
contribution. If we assume that chords may be an
accidental concurrence of parts, we shall obtain an
effect which will go far beyond our present experience
in this respect. The models in Example 258 illustrate
the specific "behaviour" of the sound material at the
moment when the technique of free combination and
crossing of parts has been introduced. In the accidental
vertical structures we attain chordal consequences of
totally different qualities. Evidence of this is provided
in the structural sums underneath each model.
Following the pattern of composing methods presented
in the above examples, construct three different models
of a clearly harmonic nature but focused on the prob-
lems of a) the organization of movement and b) new
texture.
Basing yourself on these models, compose three fairly
long passages of music for a chamber orchestra.
47
Microstructural organization
A set of three notes, which in serial music constitutes
a section of the series, in being closed from the point
of view of linear motion, can be worked with in such
a way that we obtain results that merit more ex-
tensive discussion. Limitation to small three-note
groups neutralizes, as it were, the importance of the
factor of linear motion. To ascertain this it is enough
to scrutinize the models of composing in music based
on the principle of microstructural organization.
Example 259a illustrates the dispersal of three-note
material among different instruments. Here the com-
poser was already quite unconcerned as to whether or
not a given microstructure was the equivalent of
a passage, motive, theme, chord, or combination of
chords; Examples 259b and c indicate the possibility of
development of this procedure. Examples 260 and 261
show the application of the microstructural technique
in closed continuous structures; from the view-point
of the organization of pitch material this is a great
impoverishment and because of this different methods
of internal variation of material have been adopted
in the examples presented. Examples 262 and 263
provide some analytical material for the technique of
working with four-note groups (Example 263 in
a freer form).
As the possibilities of handling small note groups
become exhausted (only Web'ern's works gainsay this,
but Webern uses the material of linear motion me-
chanically and, consequently, lays a far greater stress
on the formal aspect of compositions), there arises
the problem -of the non-schematic method in the
organization of musical material. It seems that a law
of dependence might be applied here: the more music
is confined to microstructural groups, the more
attention should be paid to the textural changes made
on the material. The mere transformation of micro-
structural material by transposition, inversion, retro-
grade motion and retrograde inversion does not suf-
fice. To avoid the inevitable monotony in this process,
the methods of organization of sound material must
be complemented with other elements (rhythm, texture,
variation in instrumental timbres, etc.).
Scrutinize the composing methods in Example 264.
Find how many different factors are involved in the
formation of the musical process.
Taking your own microstructural models as a poiiit
of departure, compose four short pieces, using different
methods for the expansion of the factor of change
beyond the sphere of linear motion. Instrumentation:
1. two pianos, 2. string trio, 3. wind quartet and
4. chamber instrumentation: 613 different instru-
ments.
48
Intervals and their role in contemporary music
In new music intervals increasingly exceed the material
of pitches in importance; there even exists a possibility
of restricting compositional work to the disposition
of intervals (see Chapters 57 and 58). Intervals contain
much more information than pitch material. This may
easily be shown if only by transposing music (the
essence remains unchanged and therefore is not de-
termined by the material). Intervals, selected or
preferred, may also determine the harmonic climate
of music (Examples 265267). In Example 265 the
music is based on two conceptions employed simulta-
neously, one conception, linear, and the other, harmonic;
to what extent this duality is essential for the music
is shown by the differences between the dynamic
planes of the composition. Example 266 illustrates
a more highly developed conception of the vertical and
horizontal shaping of material. In this example the
intervals play a much greater role than they do in the
previous example for several reasons: first, the interval
resources are brought to the forefront as an expressive
(we may here use this word) stratum; secondly, all the
chords,, mostly two-note ones genetically, also contain
that intervallic quality of motion (their range is enor-
mous from minor seconds up to the intervals exceeding
five octaves!); thirdly, either of these concepts gives
a very different textural effect owing to the richness
of the intervals used. In Example 267 the intervals of
motion are still further enhanced by both complemen-
tary and antinomic intervals with regard to dynamics
and the very complex time values.
Analyse the effect of intervals on the specific nature
of the sound language in Examples 265267. Find
which elements are related to intervallic change and
which are independent of it.
33

Compose a fairly long piece for piano lasting about
four and a half minutes and carry into effect the
possibility of compositional work limited to the
disposition of intervals. On the basis of this piece
compose another version, in which on the principle
of association but also that of antinomy other
elements complete the over-all picture.
49
q
Intervallic notation
All intervals are comprised in the semi-octave. The
smallest interval is the semitone, the largest one the
tritone; the intervals larger than the tritone are
designated as inversions by adding a dot to the figure
and the octave extensions of intervals (compound
intervals) are marked with a stroke placed by the
figure (Example 268).
This notation contains a number of structural laws
essential for the shaping of music and independent of
past habits in the field of linear motion. The restriction
to the tritone and the treatment of all intervals ex-
ceeding this compass as inversions and octave exten-
sions make it possible for us to have an all-embracing
look at the musical material. In practice, all unfoldings
of intervals, from minor second to tritone, are only
interpretations of a concrete intervallic event.
Adopting the method of notating intervals used in
Example 268, write down the arrangement of material
in Examples 269271 in intervallic notation.
50
Intervallic analysis of linear motion
Sound material may be treated as a solely intervallic
succession, in which only intervals (from 1 minor
second to 6 tritone) and changes in their direction
are left to be notated (the direction of the first interval
is marked with an arrow, changes in the direction
with a stroke between the symbols of intervals;
notation in Example 272).
This point requires close explanation: in the digital
notation under discussion a very significant relationship
occurs between the magnitude of an interval and its
direction. The ascending major seventh ( | 1 ' , e.g., c-b)
corresponds as regards sound to the descending minor
second ( I 1, c-B), and the ascending minor second
( | 1, c-d \>) is something essentially different from the
descending minor second (which is shown, if by
nothing else, by the change in the name of the note:
c-db and c-B). This is why, writing down, for example,
a multi-intervallic series within the narrowest possible
over-all compass (e.g., in an octave), we must mark the
intervallic ambivalence in the notation. Taking down
intervals together with changes in their direction, we
record the essential, freely transposable, motion
contents of ah ordered set of sounds without resorting
to the use of the names of notes and, thus, in a state
of some abstraction, indispensable in those instances in
which we do not want to make a fetish of the pitch
material.
e
Notate the linear motion succession in Example 273
in note notation and check the result by comparing it
with the solution given below the exercise. Notate the
linear motion succession in Examples 274276 in
intervallic notation.
51
Selection of intervals and its consequences
The selection of intervals (the predominance of some
intervals over others or, in extreme cases, the restric-
tion of the process of linear motion to a few intervals)
creates a sort of stable harmonic climate, which the
composer may find desirable. Example 277 illustrates
the method of selection of intervals and its sound and
chordal consequences.
34

[n this connection a number of questions arise and call
for explanation. In the first place, is the selection of
intervals a necessity? It obviously is not. The deliberate
restriction of the process of linear motion to selected
intervals is not at all in conflict with changes in pitch
material. There are intervallic groups which in
a simple way make it possible to arrange innumerable
series of constantly changing pitches (only some inter-
vals, e.g., 2, 4 and 6, limit mechanically the possibility
of handling all notes). Thus, the restriction to several
intervals does not cause any essential restraints; instead
it provides an opportunity for the disciplined formation
of material in one respect at least, namely, that of
intervals, on account of which the composition, subject-
ed to highly diverse manipulations, still remains
integrated in so far as intervallic elements are
concerned.
Examine the vertical and horizontal consequences of
the restriction of linear motion to the following inter-
vals:
a) 1, 5;
b) 1, 4;
c) 1 4, 5;
d) 1, 6;
e) 1, 4, 6;
f) 1, 5, 6.
Compose three short piano pieces based on a particular
selection of intervals (vertical consequences of the
selection may go beyond the selected scheme of
intervals),
52
q The catalogue in Example 279 presents all the possible
Five-note models enclosed within the major third
Five neighbouring chromatic notes can be arranged
in different variants (Example 278). A hundred and
twenty variants of the five-note model are obtained by
assigning a digit to each note and changing the order
of the digits successively (and thus also the order of
35
the notes). The material enclosed within the interval
of a major third (in oiir case all the notes between d f
smd g) constitutes a constant value irrespective of the
order of notes. The structural consequence of change in
the order of intervals in such a closed group is the
various intervallic contents of the five-note models
(e.g., 0220 indicates the absence of minor seconds and
major thirds but the presence of 2 major seconds and-
2 minor thirds, and 4000 indicates the presence of 4
minor seconds only, etc.). Their analysis, in turn, allows
the systematization of different models into groups
with the same intervallic contents (Dt, D2, D20; model
A appears only at the beginning Aj and at the
end A2 of the list). The results of limitation of
structures to five-note groups depend only on the
method of compositional procedure.
The five-note model may serve as an experimental set;
the effects on its material of the internal changes in
the note arrangement are fairly obvious. In composi-
tional practice there is no need to confine material to
such a narrow range, but groups of this sort may be
used and, at any rate, it is worthwhile using them,
superimposing them one upon another in an aggregate
of groups.
Examine the effects of the limitation of note groups
to five notes. Find whether these models can be trans-
posed to other elements.
53
Work on six-note models enclosed within the fourth
variants of the initial chromatic model within the
fourth. The method of listing this type of model is
already known from the previous section. Here to
avoid following the most conventional scheme the
reverse instrumentation has been used. In the cata-
logue of the 720 variants of the full chromatic universe
the following characteristics are also given for each
model: the direction of motion and size of successive
intervals, the number of changes in the direction of
motion, the intervallic contents, and the span between
the first and the sixth note.
Not all the variants of the model in Example 279 can
be fully applied in composition; together, however, they
. make up a wealth of comparative material, easy to
perceive because of its limitation to a half of the
chromatic scale. Example 280 demonstrates limitation
to variants of a series with expanding intervals.
Compose a fairly long piece for piano on the basis of
the idea given in Example 280 so as to exhaust the
variants of the adopted model.
54
Contents analysis of the variants of the chromatic six-
note universe
The list in Example 279 permits the preparation of
another catalogue,-281, which is based on the intervallic
contents of six-note models. It is due to the very
nature of the system that each ordering has a cor-
responding inverted variant, as exemplified by motives
347 and 374, of which the latter is the exact inversion
of the former, and this is, in addition, connected with
the fact that it can be read as the retrograde of the
former. The law of correspondence of motives operates
here to its full extent. Some of the motives are quite
uninteresting, e.g., the motive 50000 (1 and 720),
whereas some others are distinguished by peculiar
features, e.g., the motive 11111 (all-interval series),
very abundantly represented, or the motive 00320 (347
and 374), already mentioned above, based exclusively
on thirds. By grouping the motives in categories
we obtain a more complete picture of the differences
separating the variants of the same initial model.
Choose a few other five- and six-note models and
examine them (limiting yourself to samples only) for
the consequences with which you recently became
acquainted arising from the ordered changing of
places within a given set (Example 282).
36
55
Harmonic models
Example 283 illustrates the quality of harmonic models
in the trope arrangement. We divide the trope circle
into 12 semitone sections in the chromatic succession.
By marking points for each sound of the harmonic
model in the trope circle and connecting them with
each other, we form a picture of the arrangement of
sounds, which we may naturally transpose, reverse,
etc. (a), while the harmonic model remains the same
(b). Only a pattern for the shaping of harmonic models
and a method (the programmed one) for examining all
possibilities with the help of the ordinal system (c),
which we have already got to know very well, are
given in Example 283, which is supplemented with
several detailed solutions (d: programme of the first
three positions).
Develop carefully the items of Example 283. Moreover,
take an eight-note circle and then a nine-note circle
as your points of departure and examine, respectively,
five-note and four-note models on them.
Compose 3 short pieces built on the models of eight-
and nine-note circles. Depart gradually from the models
adopted; the first piece may be approached still in
a very "harmonic" way, the last one should bear mere
traces of the initial pre-formative arrangement of
pitches.
56
Intervallic studies
Examples 284289 present different ways of working
with intervals and different results arising from
operations with intervals. In Example 284 we are
concerned with matter that seems to be simple only
on the surface; in fact the intervals between the notes,
enriched with interchangeable quarter-tones, cannot
be reduced to a simple structural sum. This is certainly
an intervallic structure, though what is important in
it is not intervals but the timbre of the internal sound
relations. In Example 285 the individual parts are, to
be sure, exceptionally transparent in their intervallic
consistency, but the progress of the whole cannot be
reduced to the material from which it has been formed
(this impression is deepened still more by polymetre,
that is, the realization of the whole process in three
different metres). In Example 286 three lines are based
on their own intervallic schemes. Thanks to the com-
mon agogic features that have been given to the
process and also owing to the crossing of the parts, the
intervallic substance loses its identity. Example 287
presents a musical whole composed out of motives
containing all possible intervals. A tendency to fill up
the musical space with a full supply of sounds is shown
in Example 289, in which a complex of 24 different
sounds is slowly formed from intervallic motives of
a similar order. Finally, Example 288 illustrates the
possibility of the variational construction of a musical
text by lowering or raising its particles.
Carry out a close analysis of the foregoing examples
and add some new ones of your own, in which different
aspects are developed. Scrutinize the mode of
intervallic lay-out in Example 288 and write a fairly
long passage based on similar principles (it is neces-
sary to retain the lay-out of some elements other than
intervals).
57
q
Study in ram the idea
The idea of study in diagram is based on the infinity
of possible versions of the composition. Example 290
illustrates 'this idea and at the same time comments
upon it by presenting a) notation of music, b) inter-
pretative comment, c) model of procedure study
of possibilities and d) selection of variable material
(non-repetition of notes being pre-established). Several
important explanations: the notation of the composition
under analysis (290a) consists of two layers, the musical
text being given in the upper layer and the number
of possibilities for the given group in the lower one.
Example 290b provides comments upon the notation:
element k (sound cell) consists of two notes, the arrow
indicates the direction of the interval, and the figures
designate the species of interval, the same figure
standing for minor second and minor ninth, for minor
third and minor twelfth, etc. Example 290c illustrates
all the possibilities that emerge if we assume the sound
a as the point of departure (there are therefore twelve
times as many possibilities altogether!) The sounds
given in frames are d i v e r s e and as such fulfil the
very essential condition of change material; Example
290d presents a list of these variable sound arrange-
ments.
Compose similar studies, taking your own ideas of
infinite composition as the point of departure.
58
q
Study in diagram the realization
The problems in realization of the study in diagram
are demonstrated in Examples 291a, b, c, whereas Ex-
amples 292a, b concern a separate problem, that of the
selection of possibilities from the view-point of broader
change in sound material.
Analyse Examples 291292, paying special attention to
the problems of change in the material. Attempt your
own realizations. Some examples can be solved in
diametrically different ways and then the wealth of
elements brought about by the adoption of the sole
principle of studies in diagram will become evident.
Studies in diagram carry us from compositional relativ-
ity to the sphere of concrete tasks. In our case these
are interesting inasmuch as they have been formed
over non-existent material. It becomes especially clear
in realization that compositional ideas can be abstracted
from the material of pitch level, some regularities
being preserved for the sake of music. For instance in
our example the existence of a definite harmonic
climate is secured by the mere choice of the compo-
sitional idea, though in realization we can use our
discretion as regards choice of intervals. We can read-
ily move from intervallic ideas to related ideas con-
cerning other aspects of music.
Compose a fairly long piece in the form of a diagram,
choosing different sound ideas for it. Keep in mind
a concrete instrument, although the composition may
be presented in a form dissociated from conventional
textural thinking.
59
q Approximate linear motion
Codes
Codes an expanded version of study in diagram
embrace an infinitude in which details are delineated.
However, many elements of this infinitude are limited
to such an extent a priori that, having no information
about the sounds, we can gain information about the
kind ("style") of music. Various versions of this music
will differ considerably only in certain respects, re-
maining similar in others. Examples 293294 illustrate
the problems connected with particular dispositions.
Such dispositions of music whereby we write codes
instead of concrete solutions are particularly instructive
in so far as the observation of the "behaviour" of
sound material in different situations is concerned.
Determining the limits within which the music is con-
tained . for the codes clearly limit music in some
respects the composer shifts the centre of gravity
from conventional "concrete" activity to open activity,
the essential feature of which is approximateness.
These particular compositional experiences incline us
towards a different understanding of music from that
prevailing till now. If we take for granted that one
element may be secondary and another one primary,
we may assume that the form, hitherto an accidental
result, may be the primary element and the matter
that "fills it up" a secondary element, in our case
written down by means of open codes. ' that pitches and intervals are not determined is
Using your own method, analyse Examples 293294,
each one from a different (selected) point of view.
Scrutinize a small compositional unit rather than the
realization of a large whole. One of the examples may
also be examined for reversibility (interchangeability)
of parameters.
Write a short piece based on the idea of codes, applying
methods of approximate treatment of sound material
other than those known hitherto (this is to be a piece
for a small chamber ensemble consisting of different
instruments).
60
q
In the preceding chapters we have been concerned with
precise definition,, if not of pitches, at least of inter-
vallic material. There is however the possibility of
a still greater freedom in the area of pitch material.
It may consist in approximateness. Examples 295308
illustrate these problems well enough: Examples 295
and 296 show to what extent ever changing material,
through this very fact, loses its identity and becomes
neutral; Examples 297298 display a still greater
anonymity of material in spite of the role which the
composers attribute to its variability; Examples 299
and 300 demonstrate translation of this state of affairs
into the language of percussion and quasi-percussive
material; Example 301 proves the possibility of the
treatment of variable (neutral) material as an initial
base in the handling of colour (Examples 302304
also belong here); examples of approximation (and the
sense of applying it) in vocal music: 305 and 306, in
instrumental music: 307 and 308.
Approximate linear motion employs approximate ma-
terial. Such approximate material makes an impression
identical with or similar to that made by material
written down precisely. Approximate material does not
mean complete freedom in performance at all: the fact
counterbalanced by the determination in other aspects,
e.g., that of form.
Analyse Examples 295308 concentrating especially on
problems which contain information about the pos-
sibility of avoiding making the pitch material ex-
plicit.
38
Compose a fairly long piece of chamber music, using
only approximate linear motion (the composition should
be supplied with extensive comments, explaining the
particular methods of approximate notation).
Ill
61
A new way of treating the orchestra
Two tendencies can be distinguished in new music,
one towards the chamber form of orchestra and the
other towards monumentalization. The classic instru-
mentation in the orchestra is practically unacceptable
today and its place is taken by instrumentations inde-
pendent of symphonic conventions, e.g., an ensemble
of percussion instruments (see Example 309 instru-
mentation, notation, and seating arrangement). The
development of the sound language, consisting in the
gradual atomization of material, contributed to basic
changes in the treatment of the orchestral ensemble.
Particular lines of the ensemble are treated in a soloistic
manner and even if they all form a homogeneous
whole, the full independence -of parts is maintained
(Examples 310313). Webern's compositions are typical
models of the new soloistic treatment of the orchestra
(Example 314)" The examples of pointillistic music
(315 and 316) show other possibilities in the treatment
of an orchestra with a solo-type instrumentation.
The atomization of sound material in the new orchestra
aims at splitting the uniformity of music. The atomiza-
tion of the individual particles of orchestral vertical
structure dees not, however, negate the possibility of
re-arranging them into a uniform whole. There is
evidence for this in most contemporary avant-garde
compositions. Example 317 illustrates the chamber
treatment (since it is generally in four parts) of a large
40-instrument orchestral ensemble, resulting in con-
tinual changes in instrumental timbre; Example 318
shows a similar situation (in both cases we are con-
cerned with the continual though unmethodical changes
in the play of timbral intervals).
39
Basing yourself on the instrumentation of Example 318,
confront in a vertical arrangement those instrumental
timbres that differ most from each other.
Draw up 10 different orchestral and chamber instru-
mental ensembles, and for each of them write
plete musical passage, taking more than ten
a com-
seconds
in performance. The should be in the nature of ex-
positions of materials and timbres.
62
Selection and particularization of tone colour
The general possibilities of combination of tone colours
and the confrontation of instrumental and vocal parts
enable us to produce a particularization of timbre. This
is accomplished by a peculiar kind of selection, con-
sisting in the narrowing of the technical problems to
a chosen phenomenon so that the distinct nature of
material can be more fully, brought into relief. The
distinct nature is not incidental but absolutely specific
causing us to experience the work as a clear solution
of a particular technical problem. The sense of the
solution of the problem is created thanks to the ex-
posure of the problem at the surface, foreground level
of the score. It should be mentioned that such a spec-
ified timbre may take up a very short passage in the
whole composition. Here are examples: 319 the first
bars of a well-developed composition, full of different
solutions to the problems of texture and timbre, despite
a total sameness of instrumentation; the tone colours
are handled in vertical relation, the parts being simul-
taneously reduced from five to three (the sounding of
the flute and clarinet together indicates the neutral
quality of the beginning of music); 320 the reduction
of material to the smallest number of parts possible
(string trio including two violins, with material of
minor importance: tied notes, repeated motives, etc.);
321 the reduction of musical substance to tied notes,
the "neutral" behaviour of material in a four-second
passage, etc. Here the reduction itself contributes to
the specificity of both material and process,, but there
are cases of a still more careful selection (composition);
Example 322 consists of two vertical structures which
are very carefully composed internally, owing to which
they form a fusion of parts unrepeated in this com-
position: motives of different instruments in the first
vertical combination and dynamic projection of chordal
particles in the second one. Example 323 illustrates
the selection of timbre and its limitation to metal
percussion instruments; the distinct nature of the music
thus reduced is enhanced by far-reaching dynamic
differentiations. In Example 324 the sound reduction
is also audible in the restriction of the ambitus of the
parts, thanks to which a specific emotional climate may
arise from music "impoverished" in this manner. In
order to create such specific sound climates composers
use especially sophisticated combinations: the harpsi-
chord against the background of a rich percussion
instrumentation (325), the deliberate reduction of ma-
terial to a minimum (326). It is obvious that the speci-
fity of music can be more easily attained by the non-
stereotyped treatment of instruments: instead of using
a conventional tone colour, the composer applies
a number of means of execution which shift the centre
of gravity from the colour of sounds to their particu-
larity. In Example 327 this will involve the utilization
of a rich repertory of performing techniques on the alto
saxophone. The sound specificity can however be
attained more easily, if variation has been applied
within homogeneity (Example 328).
d
The question that arises here is that of the composi-
tional utilization of textural ideas, which, so to say,
automatically widen the qualities, of the new instru-
mental timbre. It suffices to combine even simple sets
of sounds with each other in a specific medley to
obtain an aural effect remote from the usual results
arising from the very elements from which the whole
has been composed (Examples 329330).
Carefully analyse the effects obtained by the selection
and particularization of instrumental colours, using the
material of Example 330 for this purpose.
Compose a fairly long piece for 24 different instru-
ments, concentrating on the selection and particular-
ization of timbre in the ensemble.
40
63
Preparation of instruments
The timbre of some but not very many instruments,
i.e. that of piano, strings and some percussion instru-
ments, can be modified by preparation. Thanks to prep-
aration we not only gain new timbres for these in-
struments, which finally do not suffice for long, but
also move to the field of considerably expanded ma-
terial. Consequently, the preparation of instruments
is undertaken as an addition to their normal treatment:
not to renew timbres but to acquire a wider range of
material and intervals (a prepared sound beside an
unprepared one forms a specific sort of interval; cf.
Examples 331 and 332). Elementary and more ingenious
preparations of instruments are presented in Examples
333 (piano) and 334 (string instruments).
Here we are concerned with a fundamental problem:
preparation does not aim at the replacement of the
original timbre of an instrument with a new timbre
(in itself much worse, which is only natural, and less
effective, though different), but to attain a new aural
effect. Such an effect is always related somehow to the
unprepared original.
Make up a short list of piano preparations, giving
special attention to the timbre of prepared sounds.
Basing yourself on the above list of means of prepara-
tion, compose a fairly long piece for piano, composi-
tionally justifying the application of instrumental prep-
aration.
64
Preparation in vocal and instrumental ensembles
In addition to the possibility of preparation of a single
sound source there is also a possibility of preparation
in various degrees in larger ensembles. It may
consist of a) homogeneous preparation, aiming at the
obtaining of a new but uniform altered sound or b)
polygenous preparation, in which each part is pre-
pared in a different way in order that as wide a range
different sound varieties as possible of obtained.
The first steps towards preparation may consist in
a new treatment of the texture itself (Example 335
shows vocal music prepared in such an elementary
manner). Preparation proper requires a change in the
existing performing techniques of particular parts
(examples: vocal music 336, instrumental music
337).
Not all forms of special treatment of an instrument can
be termed preparation. There are many examples of
apparent preparation. In these cases the composers
attempt to widen the range of timbre (it is known from
the preceding section that such an opposition of the
prepared colour to the original is effective for this
very reason that we have both the original sound and
its transformation; this however does not mean that
this method is superior to the method of total prepara-
tion, which locates the composer in a completely new
situation and such location in a completely new
situation matters a great deal in today's music).
Analyse closely the examples given in this section from
the view-point of the compositional extent of prepa-
ration.
Write two short pieces employing the techniques of
preparation, one for a vocal ensemble and another for
an instrumental ensemble (up to 12 persons).
65
Changing pitch
Pitch material may be treated as material resulting
from the transposition of a s i n g l e note and therefore
it can be determined in relation to a constant point, in
relation to which it is a transposed note. The treatment
of one note, one and the same pitch, is possible only
when change (that is, such transposition) is shifted to
other elements. One can, however, compose using
only change in pitch. In this case, change of this sort
must be applied intensively. We infer that in composing
we cannot base ourselves merely on a succession of
changing pitches since the result, though composition-
ally rich, would then be too one-sided. We know that
if a series, as horizontal material, made sense, it did
so only as an arrangement that releases the composer
from the necessity of ordering material in this respect,
thus making him use compositional procedures involv-
ing other elements (Examples 338 and 339 illustrate
such multiparametric methods for the acquisition of
change: 338 by contrasting individual particles of
the pitch succession and 339 by freedom in interpre-
tation within the limits of the given notation). Thus
changing pitch is a result not only of transposing pro-
cedures but also of compositional co-situations. These
phenomena are shown in Examples 340341.
Consequently, changing pitch is not an element that
can be isolated. Appearing as a function of multipara-
metric variation of a particular sort, it contains not
only its own parameters, i.e., the characteristics that
appertain to it, but also indirect parameters, i.e., those
resulting from its being placed in a concrete composi-
tional situation. In this case, therefore, to compose
means to "renew" the pitch by its permanently chang-
ing position in relation to other pitches and by continual
changes in its function in relation to other pitches.
Construct two quite long examples of changing pitches,
which owing to their multiple change will have the
significance of changing textural components.
On the basis of these models compose two fairly long
pieces: a) for a chamber ensemble (polygenous, with
instrumentation according to the type: flute, trumpet,
piano, vibraphone, voice and viola) and b) for a large
chamber ensemble (soloistic chamber orchestra, different
instruments). Neither of these pieces should be
congruent with the examples cited in this section, but
they should spring, as it were, automatically from the
assumed multiparametric variation of the models
themselves.
41
 66
The transformed note
The transformation of a pitch may foe effected in
different ways. It is far easier to create the impression
of a transformation of a sound mass than of a single
note (Example 342: here is transformed conventional
material by an uncomplicated operation of changing
the material by means of a factor as simple as articula-
tion). Special sorts of transformations and it is such
sorts that we are concerned with are based on
acoustic changes (343344). Example 345 presents
a true transformation of a note based on the intention-
ally asynchronic additional colouring of each string
instrument entry by piano (the aural result suggests
a new and unknown instrument) articulation.
If changing pitch is conditioned by the co-situation,
that is, if it could be treated as variable just on account
of the situation in which it occurred, the transformed
note must,, as it were, attract attention to itself in
itself (Examples 346 and 347). The transformed note
should, consequently, speak for itself, but it can also
be introduced as a co-situational component (in this
case the text must be suitably arranged; Examples
348 and 349). Such instances belong to the category of
apparent changes (a typical case, Example 349: here
we receive the impression of the transformation of
a whole mass of sounds, while the single note itself
appears in a relatively natural form).
Closely analyse the methods of transformation of a note
in simple systems (Example 350) and in cumulative
ones (Example 351).
Write two short compositions for a) a small chamber
ensemble without doubling of instruments and b) the
most homogeneous possible orchestra of soloists (e.g.,
string instruments). In the first of them you should
handle genuine note transformations, which must also
be perceived as genuine transformations. In the second
case the transformations may be apparent (or partially
apparent) and in the optimum case the method of
apparent transformation and that of genuine transfor-
mation should concur, although we are no longer con-
cerned with the separate audibility of each of these
transformations.
67
The gliding note
It has been said in one of the preceding sections that
a single note may be treated not only as a particle of
a system (formerly scale, in new music series),
but also as a note rising through transposition from
another single note, to which it always remains related
in some ways. These relations are intervals. Conse-
quently, if a note can be passed over different intervals,
we may just as well pass a number of notes over one
interval. This procedure expressed in compositional
language would however be intolerable, unaccept-
able. Therefore, we say that a note can move from
one pitch level to another, passing through the in-
termediate notes without stopping at them (glissando).
Such a note will be called a gliding note. Example 352
gives the simplest possible models of gliding notes,
Examples 353358 their compositional application.
The question arises here of duality in the practical
application of the above phenomenon in composition,
for the gliding note may be treated as a complement
of or as an antidote to a note treated conventionally
(Example 354), but we may also regard it as an auton-
omous element, giving it some structural, formal
characteristics (358) or, as if on the contrary, textural,
motivic ones (253, 355357). Some examples (e.g., 352)
illustrate yet another problem: each musical element,
determined by its angle of inclination, may be regarded
as a separate musical component and, what is more
(Example 357), we can deal with the full interrelation
between intervallic and time distances. This last case
however provides an instance of too mechanical
a treatment of the gliding note. Hence, the methods of
its treatment that go beyond the narrow circle of inter-
val-time determinants are, of greater importance in the
analysis of the phenomenon under discussion.
42

Make a set of models based on the idea of gliding
notes, limited in their fundamental principles but as
complete as possible. Scrutinize the examples that are
relevant to the set obtained in this way.
Compose three short pieces for various instrumental
ensembles employing gliding notes, using a different
method of organization of sound material in each case.
The first composition should be limited to simple in-
strumental arrangements (ensemble of the type: 4
trombones and 4 cellos) and contain elementary in-
stances of gliding notes, the second composition should
express the structural and textural ideas about the
handling of gliding notes (they may be entrusted to
a large group of instruments treated in a soloistic
manner able to produce glidirfg notes either directly,
as in the case of the above-mentioned instruments, or
indirectly, e.g., using chromaticism in the case of
instruments that do not produce glissandi) and, finally,
the third piece may reach for spatial polychoral
dispositions (a fairly large instrumental ensemble
treated in groups).
68
Composition with one note
It is possible to limit the pitch material to a single
note. Then, the composer's attention is, naturally, con-
centrated on other parameters and the restriction to
one simple note is no greater a restriction for him than
that with which he is well acquainted, i.e. a selected
musical idiom or type of instrumentation. Composition
with one note demands not only a shift of attention
to other parameters but also skill in emphasizing the
s e n s e of such a limitation (Examples 359 and 360).
This compositional problem should most certainly be
regarded rather as a means of obtaining information
concerning the behaviour of sound material than as
a substitute for other methods of composing (it is hard
to imagine a composer writing a piece of music prede-
termined exclusively in such a way; he might intend
43
to prove something by confining himself to such com-
position, like one who composes only string trios, but
we do not know exactly what). Nevertheless we
ascribe great weight to this problem for various
reasons. Firstly, composition with one note demands
an intensification of the creative process as regards
non-pitch elements, and this already means a great
deal. Secondly, this method permits the detection of
equivalent limitations which applied under other
circumstances might be of great importance in com-
position. Thirdly, such a limitation allows us to under-
stand individually how the disposition of pitch material
should be comprehended t o d a y .
Write six studies in such a way that their sound ma-
terial is restricted to one note, each time intensifying
change in other parameters or pairs of parameters.
Choosing a unison string double-stop as the point of
departure, compose a fairly long musical passage on it,
reaching for the non-pitch parameters that do not de-
form the essence of u n i s o n a n c e .
69
Timbral intervals
Both prepared phenomena, as well as usages of changing
pitch note, the transformed note, the gliding note or,
even, the simple note confined to one indication, are,
above all, phenomena of colour. However, they are
methods of acquisition of colours in an indirect way.
The handling of timbre directly is not possible until
timbral intervals have been introduced in pairs (Ex-
ample 361). Timbral intervals can be based on unisons
or various pitch intervals.
There are a great many developments possible in the
handling of a timbral interval.- Composers seem to
carelessly neglect the consequences of the use of
timbral intervals. The consequences are various and
range from the renewal of the attitude held so far
towards even such conventional techniques as instru-
mentation, right up to the possibility of composing
exclusively with instrumental colour matters that in
other respects are very much the concern of composers.
e excellently expanded by the modes of treatment of
Make up two different models for disposition of timbral
intervals, using the largest possible number of different
timbres (different voices in a vocal ensemble and
different instruments in an instrumental one).
Compose a fairly long piece based on the technique of
timbral intervals, assuming that in a big ensemble of
instruments treated in a soloistic manner there is
a definite number of different vertical combinations;
both the given timbral interval and its inversion come
into account here (the flute-bassoon combination is, for
instance, something different from that of bassoon-flute,
etc.).
70
Deformations
Deformations are applied in order to achieve greater
individuality in sound material. Roughly speaking, they
derive from the new role of instruments and voices.
This is connected with the fact that the performing
apparatus has not undergone any changes or further
development for many years and that composers are
not satisfied with persisting modes of treatment of this
apparatus in that they do not meet the requirements
of all new music. The tendency towards deformation
of music is' very old and dates from the time when
composers became aware that invariable musical
elements cannot exist. Examples 362363 illustrate
the simplest instances of deformation, based only on
a change in the function of instrumental parts. Now the
instruments do not compose a unity according to an
established initial form,, a unity which can be reduced
to a piano score. These instruments, have as their goal
the annihilation of what could have been recognized as
being in common between them, and thus the sound
of the whole has been deformed into a new structure.
Under optimum conditions this cannot be reduced to
the elements that made up the original composition.
Examples 364369 illustrate a further stage of the
44
deformation of music as understood in this sense
(it should be added here that the deformation is the
more easily achieved the more instrumental parts and
colours are applied). The technique of deformation is
parts which deform the scale material: by "putting the
sound picture out of tune" through false intonations as
in Example 365 and by bringing the quarter-tone
technique into play.
Sound deformations aim not only at the widening of
the range of mean of sound and timbre but also at the
expansion of the compositional ideas themselves. The
more they suggest the necessity for the composer and
performers to go beyond the standards established so
far, the more they seem to be able to contribute to the
development of new types of compositional thinking.
Write three small compositions for different ensembles
and use a different method of deformation in each.
71
Denaturalization of sound
Using deformation the composer creates new sound
qualities. In new music, however, there exist ways of
deploying timbres that result from the application of
special transformation procedures. In the example of
electronic music (370) and in the example of instru-
mental music which has been influenced by electronic
systems (371), we are able to observe a range of
denaturalizing techniques, applied in a composition not
for themselves in themselves, but for a broadening of
the sound-language. As may be seen, they can be
perceived both "literally" and in terms of precisely
measured parameters.
It is possible to discuss the term "denaturalization"
itself. In essence it is not so much a question of
describing new sound qualities as the emphasizing of
a divergence from conventions existing to the present
time (cf., the polemicizing surrounding the term "atona-
lity").
Analyse precisely the consequences arising from the Music based on series incessantly excites controversies.
application of the notion of denaturalization of sounds The main objection raised to the series as a musical
(Examples 370371). model is that it lays claim to the inclusion of the whole
set of linear motional issues, whereas, in fact, it intro-
duces but a mode of ordering the material. The ques-
tion arises whether ordering is necessary for music.
IV Observations of pre-serial music show that the arrange-
ment of material serves only as an initial model, on
72 which new expanded models were repeatedly built as
music evolved. The series is a very artificial organiza-
q tion, and for this reason in composing it one should
Series problem of variability have regard to its possessing the greatest possible
susceptibility to change, change which is so necessary
in music. The more "definite" a series is the smaller
the transformations it may undergo in composition. And
In order to secure constant change in music the the more self-contained it is (this often impresses
serial arrangement of material is applied. However, the composers), the more limited are the possibilities of its
very repetition of this arrangement raises doubt as to compositional utilization (which quite evidently hinders
whether this is the right solution of the problem of free composition in practice). The fact is that the
change. The example of an analysis of the rhythmic application of series that knit together too "perfectly"
element reduced to a minimum showed that the makes the composer shift the centre of gravity from
problem of variation does not at all boil down to the pitch material to other elements (typical example:
very arrangement of this element, to the very mode Webern's Opus 30). Example 381 illustrates the use of
of ordering, but is based on the incessant need for developments and repetitions,
change, the composer's tendency to acquire inner open series,, which provide possibilities of optional
variability. The variability of material is also confined
to the problem of this very inner variability, which
can be attained by the parallel use of a certain number
of methods concerning d i f f e r e n t aspects of change. .Using your own models, write 120 different series, of
However let us approach the series itself first. Example which 30 are to be "closed", 30 "definite" in various
372 illustrates the possibilities of composing twelve- ways, and 60 optional open ones. Examine the horizon-
tone series using the full chromatic range of material tal, vertical and diagonal results of the application of
(in examining the series, one should play it not only these series.
horizontally, as a linear succession, but also disperse it
texturally in the vertical and horizontal planes in order
to hear the practical functioning of all the elements Write a free composition for 3 wood-wind instruments,
of material). Example 373 illustrates the possibility of using three different series in such a way that, in spite
obtaining a peculiar type of resultant series. Example of repetitions of the series, the music satisfies the condi-
374 shows the functioning of a series in the vertical, tions of inner variability in the best possible manner.
horizontal and diagonal combinations and Example 375
provides information about the possibility of giving
preference to some intervals of the system, the struc-
tural sum of which does not undergo any changes 73
(within the effective limits of the series); Example 376
demonstrates the use of variable intervals (in succes-
sion), resulting in the repetition of notes, whereas Forms of the series
Examples 377379 contain models of closed and open
microseries and Example 380 presents the relationship
between the model of a series and its possible develop- As we know, in addition to the original form of the
ments. series we have at our command its retrograde form,
45
its inversion, and its retrograde inversion. These four
forms differ from each other but are confined to the
same intervallic relations, on account of which they
are assigned functions of regular derivatives of the
series (the theoreticians of twelve-tone music distinguish
still other derivatives of the series, which fact is
however of hardly any practical significance to com-
position). Example 382 shows the relationships between
particular forms of the series. These relationships
depend to a great extent upon the mode of ordering
within the series itself. Examples 383386 illustrate
the methods of utilizing different forms of the series
in a composition.
Here we come to the question concerning the equal
status of the derivatives of the series. If we assume
that the inversion or retrograde form of a series can
hold a status equal to that of its original form, because
they contain identical intervallic relations, we may just
as well say that each series confined to similar inter-
vallic relations will be fit to fulfil the functions
(naturally, further ones) of the derivatives of the given
series.
Write 12 different series with their derivatives and add
6 series related to them on the principle of intervallic
similarity.
Write a fairly long composition for four wood-wind
instruments, using 48 different forms of a selected
series (12 transpositions of each).
74
Series that determine the sound language
The following method can be used in the present state
of development of composition: instead of establishing
a series, which is always encumbered with a feature
that limits the sound language, we assume that it is
not the language that results from the application of
the series but, on the contrary, the series itself that
derives from a sound language established a priori.
Since intervals are more decisive than pitch material
46
as regards the sound language, we first of all establish
the intervals which will form the sound language,
leaving the arrangement of the series behind for the
present. Examples 387389 illustrate the use of this
method. In compositional practice its results are much
better than those obtained by keeping strictly to an
ordering, once it has been chosen.
This problem is obvious only to someone who has
experienced the pains of strict, artistically unremuner-
ative composition, since as a matter of fact it is not
known exactly what is achieved by such composition.
Strictness for the sake of strictness is a motto that
signifies little for a composer; strictness for the sake
of discipline this means somewhat more, but even
so it is not discipline that is important in composing.
In observing the development of music based on series,
we notice one important aspect. Owing to the definitive
ordering of material, the composer's attention is shifted
from the region of pitches to other fields and thus
textural results are obtained, the existence of which
we would not have been aware of unless this sound-
discipline had been applied. On the other hand,
however, action permitting freedom in a field (let us
say, the field of handling of series spontaneously deriv-
ed from the choice of intervals) is much more attractive
for the composer.
Write six 120-note series based on pre-selected inter-
vals.
Compose a fairly long passage of piano music ex-
clusively using three selected intervals in their hori-
zontal ordering (e.g., 1, 2, 6 or 1, 5, 6; Example 390).
75
Multi-intervallic series
In working on the problem of inner variability, the
composer should get to know a peculiar aspect of varia-
tion, i.e. parallel variation in two fields,, in the field
of pitches and that of intervals. There is a possibility
of building series composed, in addition to 12 different
notes, of 11 different intervals. Example 391 shows
such a possibility in its simplest aspects: the intervals
increase or decrease in numerical order. However, there
is also a possibility of constructing series comprising all
the intervals, but not arranged in numerical order.
Such series bear characteristics of two schemes at the
same time and so they may arouse the composer's in-
terest thanks to their specific universality. Multi-
intervallic series (also termed all-intervallic series)
constitute the antipodes of microserial schemes, schemes
which can be reduced to a serial minimum. Example
392 presents a method of contriving such series. Ex-
ample 393 supplies a Survey that facilitates orientation
of the full material of multi-intervallic series (the
complete table is based on the tables published by
Herbert Eimert and Eduard Herzog). Example 394
illustrates the application of such a series in composi-
tion. Example 395 shows the results obtained from the
rearrangement of a multi-intervallic series by the
numerical method (1, 12, 2, 11, 3, ...). Attention should
be given to the fact that in this way we repeatedly
acquire new chordal vertical combinations with con-
tinuously changing "harmonic contents".
Apart from the multi-intervallic series (the material
gathered together in the table in Example 393 is useful
rather for orientational purposes than for their practical
use), the sound model may be approached in another
way, by forming a) 24-tone series (quarter-tone material)
and b) angularly modified series. The 24-tone series
can be based on 23 different intervals. The angularly
modified multi-intervallic series constitute a separate
problem.
e "pointillistically", as in Webern) hinders a composer
Write six 24-tone series (quarter-tone material) and
two 36-tone series (one-sixth-tone material). Analyse
the results of the angular approach to multi-intervallic
Compose two pieces, one for piano and the other for
string quartet based on a 12- and a 24-tone series
respectively.
76
q that similar sonic-intervallic situations do not recur too
Further models of series
47
Example 396 illustrates the possibility of treating an
optional numerical set as a series. Naturally, such
a method can be applied practically in composition.
It is a very simple, not to say primitive method, but
may render remarkable services when the material is
to be varied and at the same time it need not be
formed in a conscious and intentional manner. An inter-
mediate method is also possible; in this instance we
choose an intervallic series and without paying much
attention to the strictness of change we build on
it optional sound schemes. These can become the basis
for the ordering of the material. It is also possible to
arrange pitch material making use of intervallic
dispositions. The intervallic dispositions' determine the
order of the remaining pitches of the series. Table 398
illustrates the problem of the dependence of pitch
orderings on the initial triadic material; in each case
the final triadic result is the retrograde inversion of the
initial material. The remaining tones are arranged
according to the same principle. Triadic material
determines the intervallic make-up of the series. Such
triadic material is not only decisive for the internal
ordering, but also is decisive in terms of the relations
between groups of pitches.
Such broadenings of our conceptions about the series
certainly enable us to avoid the heretofore improper
treatment of the components of sound language. These
new comprehensions of the series create essential
deviations from the very idea of ordering (this, for
instance, is the case with the series modified angularly).
Since the restriction to twelve tones (irrespective of
their treatment "thematically", as in Schonberg, or
from thinking freely as regards sound material (for, as
we already know, it leads to the "exhaustion" of
material too readily); he should reach for such sound
arrangements as would relieve him from the continual
transposition or alteration of the form of the series,
for arrangements "which as shown in Example 397
consist of many optional "sub-series", making it possible
to work on more widely ranging material than ever
before. Such arrangements are termed macro-
series.
Write a macroseries composed of 240 notes, taking care
close to each other.
With the preceding material compose a fairly long
piece for flute solo, assuming a selected textural model
for its basis.
77
Serialization of rhythm and dynamics
The series as a numerical ordering can also be applied
to rhythm and dynamics. As regards rhythm we can
introduce, above all, simple series which arise by
multiplying the smallest value (Example 399). Such
series, however, are not particular enough. In addition,
there is the possibility of introducing rhythmic values
that scarcely differ from each other (Example 400) or
that differ greatly (Example 401). It is possible ,to
handle groups of very similar rhythmic indications,
sach group then being based on a different model of
values.
So far as dynamics are concerned, the differentiations
cannot be as great as those in the field of rhythm, and
so they may be restricted to 6 or 8 indications.
Increasing differentiation, we can obtain as many as
12 grades (Example 402) and, besides, we can also
combine these with internal changes in dynamics where
possible, e.g., in vocal parts, in continuously sounding
instruments, or by tremolo in instruments in which
continuous sounds cannot be obtained, etc. (Example
403). Examples 404414 illustrate results obtained with
different types of serialization of rhythm and
dynamics.
The introduction into composition of serialization based
on abundant rhythmic and dynamic differentiations
enriches the repertory of means in this field to
an extent unheard of in the past. In this respect the
serialization of these two elements is sensible and of
great consequence. The effect of serialization is
however often questionable. This is chiefly due to the
fact that most serialization is imperceptible to the
listener. Nevertheless, this should not blind the
composer to the sense of using serialization in rhythm
and dynamics it suffices that he creates effects which
he would not obtain in another way. If such effects
result, serialization in this field can be used as one
of the technological elements of change.
Write 30 different rhythmic and dynamic series,
assuming various methods in their composition as the
point of departure.
Using rhythmic and dynamic serialization, compose
three short pieces: a) a piece based on rhythmic
serialization with uniform dynamics, b) a piece based
on dynamic serialization with slightly differentiated
rhythm and c) a piece based on the full, maximum
or optimum, serialization of both rhythm and dy-
namics (two different series).
78
Serial articulation
As with rhythmic and dynamic materials we can se-
rialize articulation, that is, the means of initiating
sounds (in instrumental music, often the physical mode
of "attack"). Example 415 shows the method of in-
venting an articulation series, the use of which in
a composition not only contributes to the differentiation
of the musical material but, owing to the fact that
articulations are at the same time accentuations, virtu-
ally punctuates the time; hence the term "serial
articulation" is more appropriate than the term
suggested by the analogy to other parameters, i.e.
"serialization of articulation". Further Examples
illustrate the practical application of articulation
material in composition.
Articulations cannot be treated apart from dynam-
ics, if for no other reason because some of them are
based on sforzato. Composers ocfesionally use articula-
tion independently of dynamics, there being a striking
variance in extreme cases with our experience regarding
the integration of these two elements (Example 416).
The relations between articulation and rhythm present
themselves similarly: a number of articulation symbols
refer simply to duration, and therefore to a rhythmic
factor. Example 417 demonstrates the connections and
antinomies between articulation and rhythm. Example .
48
418 expands serial articulations to the limits of the
system; here we are more concerned with the results
than with the demonstration of the method. Example
419 shows the possibility of making a catalogue of
articulations of a higher order according to the pro-
perties of the instruments selected. This is intended to
produce par excellence articulation effects on them.
Write six different articulation series taking into
consideration different instruments or performing
groups.
Compose a fairly long piece for chamber orchestra,
emphasizing articulation. This element should be serial-
ized much more intensely than the others, e.g by
increasing the modes of articulation to 16, reducing the
rhythmic material to 10 values and the dynamics to 6,
etc.
79
Serialization and pointillism
The simultaneous serialization of several elements
splits and atomizes the sound material to such an extent,
that its material results, and the impression it makes
on the listener, make up a music which can best be
described as consisting of points rather than of lines.
Rests, "which appear either as rhythmic values taken
away from the rhythm or as autonomous compositional
components, play a very important role in bringing
about music made up of points. Examples 420422
prove that it would be possible to compose with rests.
In extreme cases the point of departure would have to
be negative material: rests would then, as it were,
replace rhythmic values. Examples 423426 present
different results of pointillistic serialization (not all the
examples are products of full multiparametric serializa-,
tion, yet all of them reveal fundamental characteristics'
of serial pointillism).
Analyse the serialization of elements in Examples 427-
428, writing out catalogues of serial components.
49
Compose two serial pieces based on the same catalogue
of components in such a way that they differ as much
as possible from each other in that one of them will
be non-pointillistic and the other pointillistic par
excellence as regards both material and impression.
80
"Oscillatory" and "modulating" serialism
Full serialism brings with it alarming restrictions:
predetermination in many elements at the same time
does not allow the composer to enjoy liberties that are
necessary in music. The composition seems to be limited
to such an extent that no room is left for imagination.
This notwithstanding, the result of full serialization is
perceived by many listeners in terms of chaos,
a disorderly and unorganized matter. In order that it
shall not be so, serialism must be developed in certain
ways. We choose two out of many possible types of
serialism. The first type is an imposed restriction,
oscillatory in nature, so-called "oscilatory serialism"
(Examples 429 and 430). The second, the "modulating"
type of serialism is characterized by the directedness of
changes. This permits the statement that not only the
matter, but also its organization are animate. This has
not yet been taken into consideration (Examples 431
and 432).
Both these types of serialism require some comment.
In both of them the method of temporary restriction
of material has been adopted, serving as an equilibra-
tion of the severity of the pitch discipline. On the one
hand, we are still dealing with a fully serialized ma-
terial; on the other hand, the music is devoid of that
not always desirable statistical character.
Make up your own models of these types of serialism
in different elements simultaneously or separately (in
an integrating and a disintegrating manner).

Compose two pieces for small chamber ensembles on
the basis of the two types of serialism described
above.
81
Modal serialization
A. separate type of serialization is based on modality.
Examples 433436 show the source material (Example
433b: an analysis of the sonic, rhythmic and dynamic
series of a composition and the diagrams of the lowest,
middle and highest voices) and the final results of
modal serialization. Modal serialization need not be
associated with linearism; it can also be treated in
a pointillistic manner.
Modal serialization constitutes a very narrow section
of the general serial possibilities, owing to which
some regard it as individualization and others as
restriction or perhaps even impoverishment. Never-
theless, its application in composition is very instructive
and should be practised using elements as various as
possible.
Analyse the modality of Examples 433436 very closely
and study the differences between modal and full
serialization.
On the basis of your own pattern of modality compose
a fairly long piece for a keyboard instrument, using
three staves.
82
Total serialization interchangeability of serialized
elements
In a musical composition total serialization may be
carried out in such a way that each element has the
50
same number of serialized components, which appear
in constantly varying combinations (such a polyseriaJ
programme and its realization are demonstrated in
Example 437 and,, in a graphic form, in Example 438;
the series of pitches and instrumental timbres as well
as rhythmic, dynamic and articulation series are
programmed in Example 437; all the possible variants
have been exhausted by the rearrangement of the
pre-established numerical combinations). This inter-
changeability, no matter how realized, cannot be
grasped. Nonetheless, it may by used to restrict the
compositional methods in a particular manner or may
be used with the aim of determining the musical ma-
terial completely (Example 439).
Analyse Example 439 very particularly, examining it
for the quality of relationships introduced.
Compose two totally organized pieces, one for piano
and the other for string quartet (in the string quartet
performing methods will have to be taken into account
in total serialization).
83
Problems concerning total serialism
The problem of mechanical predetermination of music
is integrally connected with total serialism. There is
only one thing apparent from Examples 440441: total
serialism does not provide any additional possibilities
of differentiation, since they are already comprised in
the material fixed beforehand. In connection with
this, additional corrections, which are in opposition to
the schemes resulting from total serialization, are
indispensable, e.g., those in the form of "deserializa-
tion" of dynamics.
Compose a short piece for string quartet in two ver-
sions, one totally organized and the other corrected
(note: the correction should not- impoverish the initial
text unduly).
 84
Technique of deschematization
In serial material it is enough to apply the method of
repetition of selected components, a method which is
opposed to total change, to turn statistical music into
dynamic music, a music alive by reason of the ap-
pearance of opposition to modal change (Examples
442445).
Compose a short piece for a solo instrument of your
own choice in four versions so that each .successive
version shall form part of an increasingly dynamic
process, becoming in consequence gradually more op-
posed to the initial serialism. Find your own methods
of deschematization independently of the examples
given in this section.
85
Technique of the reduction of elements inducing
monotony in serialism
Having at our disposal well-developed techniques for
deschematization, we can proceed to the reduction of
monotonous pre-determined serialism. (The guiding
principle of this book is the constant passage through
a sort of sophistication to simplicity. This is why reduc-
tion appears only now, towards the end of the discus-
sion on the problems of series and serialization.)
Reductions of this type are shown in Examples 446
449.
The essential problem in this respect is the very method
of reducing elements. In order to become well aware
of this problem, it is necessary to distinguish reduction
from selection: the former consists in decreasing the
number of components, whereas the latter is the
predetermination of material. In reducing, we make
a choice also, but not from the total range of pos-
sibilities, only from the present stock of means.
Analyse Examples 446449 thoroughly and carry out
reductions of a different nature in them. These reduc-
tions should enliven the music (in other words, they
cannot be made only for themselves, in a mechanical
and indifferent manner).
Using the technique for the reduction of those elements
which lead to monotony in serialism, write two versions
of a fairly long musical passage for a soloistic chamber
orchestra, starting from total serialization (the first
version will thus be serial and the second version
reduced).
V
86
Transformation of structures into textural formations
The renewal of texture is one of the most important
phenomena in new music. Even the most microstructur-
al sound combinations may' become the basis for the
renewal of textural forms used so far (Example 450:
transformation of structures into formal units). The
mere splitting of material into small particles provides
textural results which differ in nature from those
obtained up till now. Examples 451 and 452 show
various textural results obtained from simple elements.
Examples 453458 show their developments. Examples
451 and 452 are based on the principle of homogeneous
juxtapositions of material; here texture is formed
"mechanically" as a result of the compositional process.
It should, however, be realized that texture itself is
the main subject of composition (cf. the manner of
juxtaposing vertical sound combinations in Example
451 and the complementary nature of the juxtaposition
of two parts in Example 452), Examples 453 and 454
demonstrate further developed forms of organizing of
a textural result and Examples 455 and 456 show that
texture may arise from the juxtaposition of several
planes (in Example 456 what is played by both
hands). The last two examples (457458) present still
fuller methods of transformation of structures into
51
textural formations. These examples exhibit a distinct
tendency towards the developing of polyphonic texture
even when the number of parts is relatively small.
The question arises to what extent the vertical and
horizontal distribution of material produces an internal-
ly differentiated texture, and when, and to what ex-
tent, it produces a homogeneous texture and therefore
not the fullest result as regards texture. It seems that
we may speak about the problem of transformation of
structural forms into texture only when texture is
composed deliberately and its renewal has been intend-
ed by the composer.
Analyse Examples 453458 very closely and try the
following experiment: on the basis of the five selected
examples first make a short simplified version and
then go to the opposite extreme, and develop a complex
textural form. In other words, texturally try to reduce
the material presented by the composer to a minimum
(task a) and to expand it to a maximum (task b).
Basing yourself on a selected combination of 24 notes
compose samples of 12 various textures (in piano
arrangement). . . instruments.
87
Study of textures
Examples 459473 illustrate the mechanics behind the
formation of different textures. Textural differences
arise here not only from the manner of disposition and
distribution of material in time, but also from an
individual * understanding of the problem of texture.
In Examples 459461 the textural effect is moulded
consciously; it no longer results simply from funda-
mental assumptions regarding material, but also from
the adoption of a kind of textural convention. Ex-
ample 462 shows how such conventions can be ex-
panded; its third passage, a little dull in itself, has
a texture that appears to be interesting precisely in the
light of juxtaposition with the preceding passages. Ex-
ample 463 proves that texture can be formed outside
recognized conventions: neither the fluent glissando
nor the complex built in a circular form arises from
existing conventions or habits. Both these textural
forms had to be created. Examples 464465 show
compositional action in the sphere of texture based
on "semi-conventions" or conventions created ad hoc
for the given situation in the concrete composition. The
development of this idea is presented in Examples
466469: those models in which there existed a possibil-
ity of an autonomous development of the texture are
completed here in various manners. It is possible to
compose starting from textural assumptions. This is
proved by Example 470, built from a double time
system (one of the systems is a programme for tempi,
the other, pitch material moulded texturally on deli-
berately different principles). Examples 471473 show
the different textural concepts formed for the given
compositions; the texture of these examples cannot
be transposed.
Thoroughly analyse Examples 459473. Find out which
sorts of texture are suitable for transposition and
which are not. Make up your own programme for the
moulding of textures for the following instruments and
instrumental ensembles: a) piano, b) harp, c) celesta,
d) harpsichord, e) vibraphone, f) 5 wood-wind instru-
ments, g) 6 brass instruments, and h) 8 stringed
88
Series and their textural break-up
Examples 474478 illustrate the quasi-textural results
of the break-up material over registers. Pitch material,
especially that of a series, broken into several registers
in itself produces results which may bear the traits of
a well-developed texture. This impression is strength-
ened in Example 474 by the use of the highest and
lowest sounds of both instruments and in Example 475
by a crossing of parts, not however permanent, because
the effect would then be mechanical, lacking in any
importance for our considerations. Example 476
demonstrates the possibility of working with the quasi-
textural results by maintaining a pitch minimum and
Example 477 shows the vertical textural variation
attained by the inclusion of more instruments (instru-
mental timbres). Example 478 presents the result of
52
a textural break-up of a series. The continual repetition
of the same intervals (the direct result of using a series
and its elementary transformations) would be impossible
here and this is why the composer had to resort to
the transfer of the principles of composition from
material to texture.
The problem arises of the dependence of texture upon
serial technique. It is generally claimed, groundlessly,
that the series determines music. This however happens
only in those cases where the composer concentrates
upon the properties of the series. In most successful
pieces the composer goes "above" the properties of the
series and composes in the field of other elements,
taking care that the texture of the composition goes
beyond the initial "historical" conventions.
Write four 36-note sets and compose them into four
different semitextural combinations.
89
Series and their rhythmicization (horizontally-conceived
texture)
Examples 479481 illustrate possibilities of working
with models which bind together series together with
ways of rhythmicizing them. In Example 479 we are
struck by the assignation to each sound of a rhythmic
and a dynamic value. This is the simplest method for
combining sounds and rhythm. Example 480: rhythms
are bound to sounds in a far more ingenious manner
this is no longer the handling of additive variants (as
in Ex. 479), but that of very different proportioned
values; Example 481: a different rhythmic value
corresponds to almost each pitch, on account of which
the horizontal texture undergoes a change, as it were,
internally. An exact opposite of this last method can
be observed in Examples 482 and 483,, where the
repetitions of sounds reduce the horizontal texture to
a minimum.
The question of horizontal texture needs a fairly ex-
tensive explanation. It often happens that the result
53
of several very simple horizontal textures is a general
texture,, about which it may be said that it has been
composed in the full sense of the word. Notwithstand-
ing, attention should be given to the moulding of even
a monophonic texture. We are here concerned with
obtaining as many internal relations as possible within
the narrow zone in which the elements co-operate. Most
certainly the rhythmic arrangement in Example 479
reduced to uniform values would not represent any-
thing that might be labelled even in approxima-
tion as a composition. In order to produce a very
explicit textural-rhythmic result, one can use an initial
disposition involving a precise measuring out of the
numbers of concrete rhythmic values and types of
rests (Example 484).
Make up 6 models of rhythmicized series. Study the
possibilities for the textural approach in regards to
different pitch combinations (specially selected for this
purpose).
Compose a fairly long instrumental piece (flute, vibra-
phone, piano or string trio), in which horizontal texture
will be the chief structural feature of the composition.
90
Possibilities of textural melodization of series or
horizontal pitch combinations
Examples 485488 show different ways of presenting
the textures of series or horizontal pitch combinations.
Example 485 classical in its form demonstrates
the most elementary manner of presenting a horizontal
pitch succession texturally. The retention of the same
rhythms coupled with the restrictions of the structural
properties of the series shifts the centre of gravity to
the texture itself, and it is the texture that we hear
primarily. In Examples 486487 we are concerned
with the different consequences of the horizontal
arrangement of textures; in an elementary case (486)
the horizontal texture is constantly or mostly mono-
phonic. In Example 487 the appearance of single notes
or two-note chords does not result from the scheme but
is due to the free treatment of horizontal texture. In
other words, the point is that the horizontal texture
not be confined to the presentation of a single part.
Example 488 shows a number of horizontal combina-
tions. Owing to the textural way linear motion is
understood, a way different from that prevailing till
now, these horizontal combinations become something
more than a common pitch succession (this after all is
not yet music).
Arrange four different horizontal combinations, taking
into account as many forms of textural melodization
as possible. Different methods of textural "thickening"
are to be used, for in practice a single part should not
be a result of the succession of single notes but it
should be freely thickened vertically. This is more
important than the mechanical superimposition of
several simple lines.
Utilizing the information obtained from the analysis of
possibilities of the textural melodization of horizontal
pitch combinations, compose a fairly long piano piece,
which in its fundamental principles however will admit
of free (even very intense) vertical thickening (write
on one stave, adding, if necessary, an upper or a lower
leger-line or both of them at the same time).
91
Examples of four-part textures (string quartet)
Examples 489498 illustrate the possibility of various
approaches to the homogeneous four-part texture of
the string quartet. As can be seen from the examples,
much depends here on the kind of sound technique
applied in the string quartet. It cannot be denied
however that operations which are very revealing in
nature can be performed in this seemingly narrow
field. It is worth mentioning that the linearism of
music is not binding in the quartet, although we are
generally concerned with a constant number of parts.
Here we come to the problem of the source of the
differences cited above. They often arise from the
historical comprehension of quartet music, often from
the sound or colour technique adopted and, last but not
least, from the authentically individual character of the
composer's attitude to the possibilities of the textural
handling of material in a quartet. In the examples
quoted the composers took care, above all, that the
four-part texture of the quartet could not be treated
as an ordinary transposition of any set of four parts
into a string quartet. The following are selected pro-
blems connected with the non-mechanical treatment
of quartet texture: the application of any number' of
parts (489, 490, 497b), the introduction of various sorts
of densifications (496, 497a, 497e), the unsettling of
proportions between parts (495, 497a, 497h), the change
of textures (490, 492, 493, 497g), the relaxation of sound
proportions (491, 495, 497b) and lastly the use of
different forms of textural presentation of music (typ-
ical examples: 494, 497d, 497f, 498). A fairly long
variable process of formation of music by changing its
texture is extensively shown in Example 496, which
displays despite its.being confined to simple nota-
tional forms a wide range of co-situations assigned
to the all-delimitative idea of four constant voices.
Compose a string quartet of about 200 bars on the
basis of your own textural models.
92
Piano texture
Examples 499514 illustrate possibilities of the varied
treatment of texture on one instrument, in our case
the piano. In new music the piano affords striking
proof of the extent to which the world of scund ideas
acquired "directly from the keyboard" is conventional.
Most certainly, new piano. music is to be written
without regard to the problems of fingering. The
examples given show, for the most part, methods for
conquering the habit of starting from keyboard notions
even if as in Example 500 the sound material is
associated with the properties of sound-arrangement
on the keyboard. The first examples (499501) are
confined to the developed forms of what is still the
traditional texture (Example 499 demonstrates ex-
tensively how new textural solutions can be built on
the basis of the known textural forms; here the
54
rhythms and texture surmount the barrier of the
conventional understanding of the instrument). Different
textural developments of this type of music are shown
in Examples 502 and 503. Examples 504507 present
other ways in which composers tend to overcome
conventions,, the existing ones and those handed down
by tradition. In these cases the sounds on the key-
board are regarded as sounds chosen independently of
any system that might be understood as a system re-
lated to the properties of the arrangement of sounds
on the keyboard (even the most atonal piano music is
restricted to the arrangements subordinated to the
"system" of parts on the keyboard, as evinced by
Example 508). It happens that a composer arranges
sounds in a system approximating the properties of the
keyboard ordering: they are then, however, transposed
(Example 506: the displacement of the centre from
a1 to a-flat 1 would result in the perfect conformity of
the musical text with the properties of the keyboard).
Example 509 indicates that it is possible to produce
both lines and points on the piano and, consequently,
they can be introduced as factors that can be composed
.texturally. Example 510 shows how to overcome
thinking according to the parts, in Example 511 textural
problems are focused on dynamics (dynamic scale from
0,0 to 10.0), in Example 512 on the ambiguity, of articula-
tion. The last two examples (513514) demonstrate two
different ways of understanding contemporary piano
texture.
From the survey above pick out pairs of a) the most
similar textures and b) those that are the most diverse.
In case b try to exchange textures between the
examples.
Write a piece for piano solo, taking about 6 mjnutes
to perform, and apply at least a dozen different modes
of handling textures on this instrument.
93
Possibilities in the handling of textures in music for
larger ensembles
Examples 515522 show, naturally in brief, some
possibilities for the handling of textures in music for
larger ensembles. Here attention should be drawn to
the fact that the mere scattering of material over some
dozen parts does not yet make a well-developed texture
(Example 515, more than half the material is reduced
to a minimum as material redundant in nature). In
order to obtain a fuller picture of the polyphonic
texture, we should guarantee to each voice actual
autonomy (517a) or distinctness in timbre (517b, in
which each part is analytically heard separately
despite a large number of rests). Both examples consist
of the same notes. Polyphony is often reduced to
a common denominator, which is sensible only where
this is the composer's actual intention (516). A collage
composed from a short piano piece by Schbnberg (518)
shows how homogeneous complexes can be read poly-
phonically. Examples 519521 illustrate different tex-
tural developments in music for small instrumental or
vocal ensembles, in which, notwithstanding a small
number of parts, the textural polyphony is perceptible
and audible (in the last example, 521, the textural
polyphony is perceptible and audible because the. parts
are not put together in a complementary manner).
Analyse Examples 522526 with respect to texture,
taking the studies on true polyphony as a point of
departure.
Compose two short pieces for 10 different solo instru-
ments on the basis of your own textural models.
94
Texture and density
Examples 527540 illustrate the problems connected
with relations between texture and density in the ver-
tical and horizontal aspects. It is clear that the density
parameter is readable, above all, when the textural
material informs us about the real scale of density
from monophony to great complexes of several dozen
parts, in which - and this is important there cannot
be room for repetitions.
The possibility of handling the density parameter after
the fashion of other parameters arises in new music.
55
If the density of material is too great, the audibility
of this parameter becomes markedly diminished, but,
in spite of this, density indirectly influences the nature
of music being composed, and then it has an active
force and can be used as a music-moulding composi-
tional factor. Examples 527 and 528 show the conven-
tional density arising from the habit of treating the
sum of parts as an inseparable complex (in string
quartet and jazz), Example 529 shows a tendency
towards the equipoise of parts (a perfect example of
the neutrality of parts). Examples 530 and 531 prove
that density can manifest itself not only in vertical
structures but also -additionally or autonomously
in horizontal ones. Examples 532534 provide material
for the observation of the density factor from different
view-points, ranging from purely textural problems, as
in Example 532, up to the composition of density para-
meters (533 and 534). Examples 535536 illustrate the
possibilities of handling the density factor as if without
regard for problems to texture.
Analyse closely the influence of the density factor
upon the moulding of music in Examples 537540. Find
in which examples the density factor was composed
consciously as a factor determining the final sound
form of the music.
Basing yourself on your own model,, compose a fairly
long musical piece so that the density parameter is
fully utilized in it.
95
Possibilities of thickening vertical structures through
an increase in the quantity of material employed
Examples 541548 provide us with information about
possibilities of thickening the vertical structures by
increasing the quantity of material employed. This
increase in material may be mechanical and may follow
the general guiding principles of composition (Examples
541 and 542). In new music there is a tendency to
increase material in order to intensify expression
(Examples 543 and 544). Example 545 illustrates other
reasons for employing methods of thickening vertical
56
structures. Here we are concerned rather with the
intensification of texture itself. Maintained in static
form, texture would communicate little, if anything.
Example 546 demonstrates the possibility of the ele-
mentary addition of parts to obtain a fuller (and also
more anonymous) material and so does Example 547.
The last example (548) illustrates the possibility of the
introduction of collage into composition. Thanks to the
collage technique the musical matter passes into a com-
pletely different state.
A number of questions arise here, which at least are
worth touching on perfunctorily. First, on account of
the vertical thickening, the musical matter loses much
of its initial substance and becomes something different
from what it was originally. Secondly, in,mechanically
thickening lines already composed, we perform an act
of decomposition on them, i.e., we deprive the music of
many of its original relationships, adding some new
ones, but not in such a number as might be expected,
judging from the very number of procedures. Third-
ly (this is related to the previous item), the composer
must be aware of the fact that thickening the vertical
structure thorough an increase in the quantity of mate-
rial, he performs an act which is sensible only when
such indeed are his intentions. In other words, the
thickening of vertical structures by increasing the
quantity of material must be applied in full con-
sciousness, and not mechanically.
Construct a number of models demonstrating the
thickening of music in its vertical dimension.
On the basis of your most successful model,, compose
a fairly long musical passage for a deliberately reduced
group of instruments.
96
q
Dispersal of material
Examples 549559 demonstrate the so-called dispersal
of material. It consists at least in conception of
the uniform distribution of material in all parts without
giving preference to any place in musical space or to
any part. Thus, the dispersal of material (Example
549 is typical in this respect) consists of a scheme
to preserve a perfect equivalence in all the particles
of dispersed material. Such perfect equivalence is
however unattainable. Evidence for this exists in com-
posing practice. In composing practice material is auto-
matically doomed to supremacy or to secondary roles.
For this reason it is easier to observe the dispersal of
material in longer examples, for then the equivalence
of material is revealed more fully than in the case of
a short section (Example 550, in which there appear"
certain hints of musical hierarchy despite the equiv-
alence of material). Examples 551553 illustrate the
results of the dispersal of material arising from various
sources: the break-up of the matter into parts and
registers (551), the treatment of the eight-part structure
as a matrix for dispersal (552), or the treatment of
single parts as if the sum-total of parts were important,
but not the parts in themselves (553). Dispersal can be
used to shape the timbre in a musical process (554 and
555). Example 556 demonstrates putting together musical
matter according to the principle of dispersal. Nev-
ertheless this musical matter is treated homogeneously.
Examples 557559 expand what has been said on the
subject of dispersal covering a range from chamber
ensemble to fairly large ensembles. It will clearly be
seen from the examples that the dispersal of material
demands by the mere nature of this phenomenon
that all the instruments be treated in a soloistic
manner.
Two questions, emerge here: a) concerning the choice of
measures for transforming the optic linearity of musical
processes into pulsating matter and b) concerning the
anonymity of sound material. The technique under
discussion can be used only when the composer is really
eager to treat the sound material statistically (however,
it should be kept in mind that in execution some of
the particles of even the most scattered material come
into prominence as more important, more distinct, more
audible, etc.).
Compose six different short vertical structures based
on the technique of dispersal. They should be designed
for instrumental ensembles and orchestras that are as
different as possible.
97
Influence of mechanical composing on texture
In Examples 560562 music arises from the statistical
dispersal of sound material over all registers and from
the continual crossing of parts. Generally speaking,
these examples form a complement to what has been
said about the dispersal of material in space, but here
we are concerned more with the textural effects of
such treatment of material. The uniformity of sound
material particles is clearly manifest in Example 560.
The composition's value would not lose anything of
its substance if the parts had been interchanged, the
best proof of the equivalence of material particles.
Example 561 shows two simultaneous forms of dispersal
of material: those of tied notes and of short
accented notes. Despite this division of musical material
into two categories the very idea of dispersal has been
maintained. It is important to us that the material
disposed mechanically, as it were, influences the shape
of the texture, which in itself cannot be reduced to
the conventional forms of polyphony. The automatic
process of composing has a still greater effect on tex-
ture. This is shown in Example 562a and b. Here the
texture appears to be a completely automatic result of
the procedure of composing in the vertical and horizon-
tal dimensions without taking into consideration the
traditional canons of polyphony.
Compose a short passage for string quartet based on
the principle of the total crossing of parts and the statis-
tical scattering of material.
98
Combined constructions
Examples 563564 show a further expansion of texture
resulting from the vertical and horizontal combination
of musical structures. These examples need no extensive
commentary, but must be explained with regard to
one point only. In observing the mechanics of arranging
57
many layers or musical texts one above another, we
readily come to the conviction that the material thus
obtained is enriched in a one-sided way. However, this
may be the intention of the composer, who, dealing
with material that can be superimposed in strata, is
justified in laying out the music in this manner even
at the cost of the audibility of the original text. In
contemporary music this method allows one to achieve
a multiformity of musical material which can be
"interpreted" freely for a fairly long time. Owing to
this, music passes from the category of unequivocal
structures into the sphere of ambiguity a sphere
that is highly desirable in many instances.
It is characteristic that the method itself seems one-
sided, but its results are diverse and consequently
more versatile than1 the results of a more extensively
ordered activity. This is so because in musical substance
increased repeatedly by additions of material there
appear some processes which have not been known till
now. Thanks to their attractiveness these prove useful,
being furthermore capable of practical assimilation.
The method of combined constructions should not be
regarded as a technical innovation, but as a direct
consequence of the evolution of music from homophony
to polyphony or, more stricly, in this situation from
"monotextuality" to "polytextuality".
Using the principle of combined constructions compose
a passage of music, taking some dozen seconds in
performance, with three different kinds of textural
disposition.
Textural results of the application of group technique
Examples 565570 show that a specific expansion of
texture in the vertical dimension can also be attained
by superimposition in strata, not only now of single
sounds or lines, but also of whole groups. This tech-
nique may be called the group technique. It consists in
the setting together by the composer of several parts
(more than ten if required) to form a texturally une-
quivocal whole in spite of differences between individual
58
parts. Such a complex of parts gives rise to a matter
which owing to the application of distinct techniques
for each particular complex may contain despite
the variety of its particles something homogeneous
(typical example 565). In the group technique what
is initially multivocal becomes univocal (Example 566).
Examples 567 and 568 display specific forms of the
reduction of instrumental groups to several or even
single instruments. Examples 569 and 570 show the full
textural effects arising from an application of group
technique.
The question arises as to the distinctness of a process
formed in this way. However, it will be seen from
most of the examples above that even where there is
considerable vertical concentration, music may be char-
acterized by a distinctness of a higher order and
perceptibility not in details but in its general organic
whole.
Compose a short musical passage on the basis of
group technique.
100
Texture of large forms
1
In the composition of large forms textural reductions
are required (Examples 571575). Such simplifications
may be connected with distinctness and need not arise
at all from the arrangement of the material in the
elementary units. In each of the examples given, we <
are concerned with material composed in a different
manner but always arranged so as to suggest that it is
a part of a larger whole. Here the texture is not
restricted to stereotypes but goes beyond them, finding
its own new solution for each selected sound situation.
Large forms, if they are to be cultivated any longer,
demand a non-uniform treatment of texture. Thus the
composition stops being monolithic (which is of minor
importance). Instead it becomes polymorphous in its
textural complexity and, at the same time, uninter-
pretable in a single definite manner. This fact in itself
is interesting from the view-point of composing prac-
tice. It is clear that where stylistic stereotypes come
into play (572), the large form treated in the way
presented is an illusion. The example showing stylistic
stereotyping is contrasted with Example 571 in which
each part of the large form, established by the com-
poser beforehand, is based on periodically varying
material. Examples 573575, which illustrate the re-
sults of preset large formal constructions, differ from
the other two simple textures in large forms. Here the
texture is not confined to periodical changes but flows
from the interpenetration of different methods of ex-
pansion of sound material in musical space.
e relations. It has already been seen from the first
Analyse the examples above, giving special attention
to the impressional effect of the material so composed.
Using your own model, compose a fairly long piece
based on the specially selected material of sounds (at
least 12 different textural variants are to be included
in the piece).
VI
101
True composition of music
Not all music nor all new music is truly c o m -
p o s e d . By composition we mean structuring com-
positional information in such a way that its outcome
is richer than that which is written down. Therefore
music must comprise a number of internal relations
which not only enrich the work but also lead to its
interpretation, the realization of which departs from
the actual notation. All the relations occurring in
music have a semantic value. They mean something,
whereas mere notation, the mere notational image,
does not mean much. A very essential feature of com-
position is its complexity. This complexity need not
express itself at all in the number of means accu-
mulated this would be too simple. Compositional
complexity is attained when we create a field in music
capable of sustaining the most various possible inter-
relations. Such relations form a sort of open system of
musical dynamics, and the more numerous they are in
a composition the more confidently we may speak
about vitality in the music.
The question to be asked here is: when is music com-
posed and when is it not, i.e. when is it only written?
This problem is not very easy to solve, but most
certainly much here depends upon that semantic in-
tensity, upon how much we want to say. It has been
found that the value of information does not depend
upon its amount but upon the richness of its internal
rhythmical exercises in this manual that the intensity
of change in music is conditioned by the way we
comprehend it. The composition in the full sense of
the word should comprise as many relations as possible
with the fewest means required for this purpose (this
is why in this book we keep chiefly to forms for
a few instruments or small chamber orchestra, leaving
the possibility of "multiplication" of means for large
forms. This, we surmise, does not increase the stock of
information but only leads to its further compositional
stratification). In music there must exist the possibility
of several or even many interpretations (by interpreta-
tion we mean the mode of reception and understanding
of music, characteristic of individual listeners). If a
music may be interpreted quite unequivocally, it de-
viates considerably from our ideal of composition. Thus
in order to write good music, one should not compose in
one dimension but in many dimensions simultaneously.
For this purpose another composition and perhaps still
more may be built within the same compositional
framework. This is done because the unequivocal nota-
tion of music presents the compositional idea in a pure-
ly external manner. Such composition on composed
material may (but need not) guarantee this desirable
richness of relations. What it looks like in practice, we
shall see in the course of analysis of Example 576.
Taking as your basis the models in which the method
of Example 576 is developed, assemble the musical
material in a number of versions in which larger and
larger numbers of relations present themselves (rela-
tions as well as material should be complemented,
since only then can music be made many times richer).
Utilizing the idea of composition on composed material
as your starting-point, write a musical passage of about
59
80 bars for string quartet in three versions: a) an
ordinary initial version, b) a version of great virtuosity
in the executive sense and c) a version enriched to
a maximum in respect of composition.
102
Precomposition
The whole process of composing may be preceded by
preparatory work. Such work proceeds in us when we
intend to write a new composition and, in the best
instances, even when we have no such intention, our
thoughts merely going round and round the problems
of musical possibilities. Considered from the view-point
of psychology of creation, this preparatory work con-
stitutes a kind of constant inclination to composition.
This inclination can sometimes be acquired in a prac-
tical way, when we work at music without any special
concretion of its compositional appearance. We can
simply conjecture extensively on the possibilities of
music in our imagination without casting them in the
form of a designed composition. We may have musical
material at our disposal before we know what service
it will be to us (most of the models in this book
consist of material of this sort). Apart from this, there
also exists the possibility of tangible preparatory work
preceding composition, and this sort of work is here
referred to as precomposition. In practice its aim is
progress from the zero point to a certain concretion.
Precomposition was unnecessary in old music,, for there
were (albeit very generally outlined) some b a s e s for
composition (principles of polyphony, harmony, etc.).
In contemporary music, where the mere possibility
of various musical relations constitutes the composi-
tional basis, it is worth attempting the working-out of
methods for the control of material before embarking
on composition proper. The composer can produce
control models (either his own or some in more general
use) on which he can compose music. Series, numerical
combinations, geometrical proportions, order of timbres,
etc. are such models; for instance, the instruments
(timbre), pitch material for each instrument (chosen
models of the chromatic universe cf., Example 279),
and rhythmic material in 15 versions (in the first
version without rests) identical for the whole set have
been decided in Example 577 in advance.
60
The range of possibilities that may be employed within
the framework of a chosen model is an extremely
important factor here. If we establish that any se-
quence of twelve different notes is our model, such
a sequence can most certainly be treated arbitrarily in
composition in the vertical dimension, in the horizon-
tal, etc. If however, we confine ourselves to a closed
divisible series, then the methods of treatment avail-
able will be limited to variants of models already
well known to us hence to a very narrow range
of similar processes. Nevertheless, this relationship
should not be treated one-sidedly, for we know (e.g.,
from Webern's Opus 30) that a considerable restriction
in a single field (in this case in the field of pitches)
c o m p e l s the composer to extend compositional con-
trols in other fields. This serves music very well. Thus
the nature of precomposition is not only restrictive
here but also positively predetermining, and it makes
the composer direct his activity to other fields of music
(in order to compose in t h e m ! ) , or, in some measure,
automatically induces him to proper composition (for
writing a series out in time is not yet composing).
Analyse closely Examples 578584 and examine that
material which was precomposed in them. Here our
chief aim is to reconstruct the sound material in the
general direction of its initial form (most of the ex-
amples demonstrate that such an initial form need not
be a series).
Make four precompositional models: a) model of pitches,
b) model of intervals, c) model of colour order and d)
model of rhythms. Construct a composition for a small
orchestra of solo instruments on them. Ensure that true
composition takes place in musical aspects other than
those of thej given models.
103
Composition of time
Precomposition forms scarcely one link in the musical
chain. Instead of precomposition we may employ
spontaneous activity (though precomposition may occa-
sionally be spontaneous activity) which included as an
important component in creativity may cause a shift in
the centre of gravity towards play in the imagination.
Spontaneous activity directed horizontally, i.e., activity
related above all to the time flow (composing along
time), is called the c o m p o s i t i o n of t i m e . In
conceiving a composition, we can try to hear it not in
its sounding but in time. Example 585 shows disposition
of time (handled in a version deliberately set vertically
so that even the treatment of time shall not be conven-
tional). In place of the conventional adding-up of time-
particles into a larger whole or the division of a larger
passage into small particles there appears here the
idea of seemingly "dividing" silence by points of
various accentual value. As can easily be 'seen, regu-
larity of the proportions between sections is casual here
and all schemes that lend themselves to an accord with
a comprehensive principle are schemes which we
impose (ex post facto) upon the text and which in
themselves are dependent only on the spontaneous
control of time. Example 586 illustrates a more tradi-
tional, but perhaps a clearer manner of controlling
time. A number of motives, each composed differently,
appear in a slow tempo. By the very fact of the motives
having various accentual values, t i m e is here de-
prived of both measure and that form of ordering that
arises from our conventional approach to it. In other
words, it is actually created, c o m p o s e d . Examples
587589 offer different developments of .the above
statements.
In new music we are still concerned with the composi-
tion of time. Generally speaking, we know that we can
impose controls upon time and that, on the other hand,
we can draw impulses from it for compositional activ-
ity. It is certain that composers who really compose
t i m e always keep in mind possibility of action
a g a i n s t the time controls imposed by the metre.
Let us look attentively at Example 590: in all certainty,
the play between the expectation of musical events
and the ensuing events themselves is as obvious as
possible from the view-point of its time function.
The longer we expect an event, the greater seems to
be the intensity of its appearance. Example 590 shows
the elementary handling of action resulting from
the expectation of an event, whereas Example 591
illustrates the disciplining of such a treatment into
a new canon (densely composed quarter-tone music is
contrasted by the composer with single notes which
61
are the more variously moulded horizontally the longer
the time they are given). Examples 592595 display
other ways of getting rid of time orderings which
suggest themselves incessantly: the first way is based
on movable time proportions and the other one
expressed in different tempi breaks up the time of
the composition without annihilating its own autono-
mous time structures.
Example 596 is the beginning of a composition and
Example 597 the ending. Analyse both examples and
find how far they suggest the initial and final control
of time and to what extent they determine music or
are determined by it.
Compose 12 initial and 12 final passages so that they
shall allow us to surmise, in the first case, the con-
tinuation of the time disposition and, in the second
case, what may have appeared before the closing
passage. In both cases the conjectural disposition of
material is to be introduced in an exceptional way:
it should be imagined that uniform starting-up of
variable parameters and relations is the ideal for this
music. Compose . all these passage for 58 parts
(vocal or instrumental). After a few minutes' pause
add to all the 24 passages short passages "from the
middle", seeing that they contain as many contrasts as
possible with regard to time dispositions (these passages
should not be dissociated from the type of texture,
modes of disposition of density, etc. characteristic of
the previously written passages).
104
Abstract and concrete
Obviously, musical abstraction does not exist. In
music each thing thought of as an abstraction under-
goes a concretion the very moment it has been written
down. Within traditional conventions of composition,
notation is frequently substituted for composition; one
composes not only with the help of notation but often
simply thanks to it. In new music the composer must
tear himself away from this convention and conse-
quently from the notation. To this end he must give
less attention to the writing-down of music, its notation,
and more to the formation of the idea of what is to be
said, believing that in the case of successful concretion
this idea will materialize readily and firmly. Let us
have a look at Example 598. Its idea goes beyond con-
ventional sonic thinking and enters the sphere of
a peculiar sort of musical vision for which the composer
finds appropriate signs in notation. If we compared the
written record of the composition with its graphic rep-
resentation,, we would understand readily that the
composer had a twofold notion of the composition, an
abstract idea of music and a concrete conception in the
form of notation. The next examples (599602) demon-
strate the direct link between the idea and its counter-
parts in the written record, between the abstract and
the concrete. Most certainly, the musical shorthand
sometimes applied here allowed the composer to par-
ticipate himself in the direct realization of the idea,
which in such cases seemingly identified itself with
the concrete form of the music.
The problem of the transformation from the abstract to
the concrete is not a primary problem in composition,
but in many cases it constitutes a point of departure
for an evaluation of the techniques of composing, for
we still cannot resist the impression that there must
be an idea that underlies music, that music cannot
emerge from the spontaneous action of mere w r i t i n g ,
from the c o n v e n t i o n of n o t a t i o n , which is
apt to happen nowadays (there exists the p o s s i -
b i l i t y of writing music e x c l u s i v e l y based on
the belief, plausible in a sense, that everything written
down is music). Especially in serial music and immedi-
ately post-serial music, writing with such spontaneous
automatism creates, as if by its very nature, full-fledg-
ed creations (within their own realm) which possess all
the characteristics of musical completeness: Example
603 polarization of serial methods, 604607 free
activity in which only the idea of serialism is
emphasized, 608611 "playing" at vertical and
horizontal composition without the motivation of a
compositional idea. The method of "automatic" writing
cannot be treated on a par with that of transformation
of an abstract idea into the concrete. The difference
consists in the fact that the action arising from nota-
tion is much easier, less creative and, practically, open
to everyone acquainted with the general rules of the
notation of new music.
62
Analyse closely Examples 603611 for the independ-
ence of the music from the idea lying beyond the
notation. Treat the material of Examples 612614 as
conventional and add a few further bars at your own
("notational") discretion.
Write several motives containing the characteristics of
an abstract idea. Check them for possibilities of con-
cretion.
105
Aesthetic problems
Aesthetic problems have never been considered in
combination with compositional technique. Neverthe-
less, they are problems that penetrate deep into the
very essence of composition. In deciding on anything
in composition, we make decisions concerning aesthetics.
This is an immanent property of composition. The
mere musical material, the sound, is an aesthetic fabric.
It contains a message concerning the sphere of beauty.
We have no precise data about aesthetic criteria, but
we have a certain opinion formed in the maturing of
our aesthetic sense on what truly has aesthetic value.
The question arises whether the composer is to assume
aesthetics as his p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e . Is he to
be prompted by it in composing? The development of
music, the development of musical idiom tells us that
the answer is negative. Beauty is subject to wear and
tear just as novelty is; moreover, perceived by most
and subject to imitation, it becomes common property
and ceases to arouse admiration. This is probably why
composers willingly reach for new aesthetic media
which mean little, if anything, to the general public.
Composing then is an action "beyond good and evil"
in the aesthetic sphere. Thus, aesthetics cannot be
a point of departure for the composer,, he must not
estimate his action from the view-point of aesthetic
criteria, those existing till now are no criteria at all
and the new ones are terra incognita, one of the
secrets so numerous in art. Anyone engaged in creative
activity in the field of art knows that many artistic
elements undergo a specific ennoblement: what is
regarded hardly possible today may come into demand
in the artistic sphere tomorrow. To compose therefore
means to act independently of aesthetic considerations,
yet also to act precisely in their interest, on behalf
of their truths, which will become verifiable later.
However, problems connected with the aesthetics of
material alone will always arrest composers' attention.
Concrete material, electronic material, new instruments,
a new treatment of the voice, the introduction of new
media they are all matters for dispute. Even the
seemingly most serious creators hesitate to adopt new
techniques, always, they claim, for aesthetic reasons.
Now, let us look at a few examples of new music:
608611. Sure enough, music expressed in t h i s
manner may seem to be too individual for other com-
posers to be willing to adopt and unhesitatingly make
use of its techniques. Even the mere possibility of
adapting somebody else's achievements for one's own
needs presents an aesthetic problem. The contemporary
composer will not hesitate to write music similar to
the first two examples which are still marked by some
conventionality, but he will show definite inhibitions
as regards the last examples. However, the progress
of aesthetic thought consists precisely in overcoming
these primitive inhibitions. And if modern music has
not as yet developed to such an extent that we are
satisfied, this in a considerable measure is because of
these aesthetic inhibitions, quite unjustified where the
development of art is at stake. Most certainly, the con-
temporary composer who rejects, e.g., electronic media,
simply because they do not suit him for aesthetic
reasons, ruins his chances of acting in the field of
aesthetics (in our times this issue is deepened by
reciprocal impulses that occur in connection with
composition in different domains!).
e
Analyse the foregoing examples thoughtfully. Try to
find a) which examples come close to your aesthetics
and b) for what reasons the other examples are
aesthetically remote from you. Investigate to see if
these reasons are associated with the technique of
music, its notation, individuality, etc., etc. Find the
conditions under which you could turn to the achieve-
ments presented in these examples.
106
Canons of composing
There are no rules for composing in new music. In
general those rules for composing about which we
know come not so much from compositional practice
as from the fact that at critical moments models of
old music were often used as examples to demonstrate
compositional possibilities. Whereas in the past pos-
sibilities were demonstrated with the help of earlier
examples, now, in the epoch of flourishing sciences we
find it much easier in many fields of music to become
acquainted immediately with the possibilities them-
selves rather than with practical indications that might
be treated as rules. Hence the comparative lack of rules
for composing and their individual treatment (what
might toe a rule in the eyes of one composer need not
be recognized as such by another). The possibilities of
new music then are based not on a system but on
direct action. At the present stage of development of
musical material and its relationships, the principle of
change, already well known in its various aspects, may
be acknowledged to be a fundamental canon. It may,
naturally, concern very various elements, ranging from
the basic material itself to the methods of composition
of time.
Examine Examples 615621 for application of the
canons of change. Find in which examples the canon
of change is of compositional importance and in
which their composers apply variation in the composi-
tion of time (here we are concerned mainly with varia-
tion in those fields to which composers have not as yet
devoted their special attention).
107
Counterindications and prohibitions
The theory of composition, which usually trails behind
composition by several decades, moulded not only the
formal-technical fundamentals of music but also its
rules for many years. Sets of rules and prohibitions,
expressing authoritatively what was allowed and what
forbidden, were handed down in theory of composition
and transferred to the field of practice. The develop-
ment of music, especially in recent years, has shown
clearly how much music owes to those who were able
63
to evade prescriptions and prohibitions, to those who vidually for each particular configuration this is
managed to place music (a music formed according to why we have recourse to so many different aesthetics
its autonomous laws emerging only in the course of in this book).
composition) above the ever-changing canons. Tradi-
tional rules (canons and prohibitions) arise rather from
historical data than from direct aesthetic estimation Here we are concerned with the problem of the weight
(i.e. observation of the process alone, independent of of counterindications and prohibitions, whether and to
what is seemingly known about music). Musical what extent they can be introduced as binding in new
practice in our case compositional work only music. So far it is known that they are valid only
always overcame all sorts of rules and bans, even temporarily and that quite certainly not all of them
those which seemed to be the most steadfast. If a man may claim to be steadfast. It is worth emphasizing that
cnanges his views and principles in the course of time they result chiefly from diagnosis of the present state
as art develops (and this he must do, otherwise he of composition and knowledge of the subject of com-
accomplishes nothing), then it is true to an even position.
greater extent that art as a whole must undergo
changes. Bans are always anachronistic and faultlessness,
which seemingly results from their observance, does Analyse Examples 622629 from the view-points
not prove to be as perfect in art as might be supposed. discussed above, giving attention, above all, to faults
Faultlessness of this sort is merely common prig- resulting from the disregard of the following funda-
gishness and will not prevent the composer from mental facts: 1. Contemporary music ought to remain
committing far more grievous errors resulting from a product of the composer's aesthetic attitude. 2. Even
his inability to imagine art as free, unconstrained the most modern means become conventionalized at
play of the imagination rather than the fruits of con- a rate we do not suspect in contemporary art. 3.
vention. Rules and prohibitions are conventional: the Although creative consciousness is not of much
fallacies of one epoch may and often do become the advantage to the composers of today (the myth that
rules of another epoch. Canons and prohibitions estab- there are composers fully conscious of creative action
lished in one epoch (or derived from it), then retaining is groundless), much, even very much, can be said
validity in the next what a misunderstanding! The about the composition from the technical point of view
destructive effect of such prohibitions is obvious. They after it has been written. Write several compositions,
may be of some instructive, not fully aesthetic, purposely demonstrating all the contemporary faults
importance, but only in the periods in which they mentioned above. Try to find h o w we can counteract
are formed. In new music too, we can distinguish them and how extensive the changes must be to make
several such bans (although without any claim to that material acceptable compositionally.
permanence). They enlighten us splendidly on the
nature of musical composition today. They are by
way of example: 1. Avoidance of repetitions (because
a repetition is sensible only when it aims to preserve Compose a piece for string quartet (taking about 3
continuity; one need not emphasize that the composer's minutes to perform), entirely eliminating the faults
aesthetic taste may be a sufficient criterion in this discussed above. Find critically why the mere
respect). 2. Avoidance of progression, especially the elimination of faults does not suffice to produce a fully
clearly audible regular progression of material. 3. artistic work. Using the same material, freely re-
Avoidance of full complementarity (the composer should compose the music without thinking constantly about
make efforts to attain ever new textural co-situations, correctness within the terms under discussion. Now,
textural arrangements in which notes would mean establish exactly what constitutes the value of composi-
something more than merely their own ordering). 4. tion which in this respect is spontaneous.
Avoidance of the conjecturability of the process (music
that we can guess in advance, that might be even
in part foreseen, is inadmissible). These bans 108
allowable at present do not indicate a mode of
proper composing (in short, nothing like that exists at
all; the propriety of composition is revealed indi- Choice of techniques, antinomies

64

The choice of techniques is a problem in' itself. Till
recently composers gave much time to it. Today we
know that the choice of techniques is, so to say,
automatically connected with the individuality of the
composer, that what is more the composer can afford
the luxury of taking no notice of this problem, know-
ing . that each decision is a choice. It is enough to
analyse Examples 630633 from this point of view. In
each case we are concerned not only with an indi-
vidual treatment of music but also with a decision as
to the choice of techniques.'
Antinomies,, a deliberate play with decisions, constitute
a separate problem related to the choice of techniques.
Their result is music that cannot be boiled down to
decisions and choice despite the fact that the composers,
in their own way, make themselves clear. Both ex-
amples (634 and 635) show antinomies between the
decision concerning the notation of music and its
effect. Playing with antinomies is one of the most
interesting phenomena in new music.
Both the choice of techniques and antinomies arising
from the deliberate opposition to conventions (among
these we must number the composers' own habits, in
which whatever may be said about them they
should never take a pride) are problems that demand
everybody's genuine consideration. In this matter it
is difficult to impose any principles on the com-
poser.
Examine to -what extent it is possible to speak about
the choice of techniques in your past musical production
and, in addition, in what measure playing with
antinomies appeared in it. Analyse particularly closely
the passages of music which, when developed, might
form a further link in the evolution of musical ideas.
109
Discontinuous composition
Strict discipline has been a sort of foundation for
creative activity for a long time. A composer cannot
deal-freely with his material and rise above all restric-
tions before he is able to discipline himself fully.
Discipline, exactness, restrictions they are all
important, especially when they are being rejected,
when they c a n be rejected. From this section onwards,
our thoughts will be directed chiefly to those regions
of activity that are based on freedom and independence.
If till now we have always had to admit some restric-
tions as the basis of composing, now, being familiar
with the possibilities of music, we can begin thinking
of free composition' composition which is not encum-
bered with the thought, always present hitherto, that
one thing should flow from another or that one thing
should pass into another. In short we can begin think-
ing of discontinuous composition. It consists in imposing
no restrictions on ourselves. Thus, we do not fix time,
instrumentation, texture or any sort of continuity. We
base ourselves on the statement, which must by now
be capable of bearing fruit at this stage of composition,
that music may owe its unity to the very fact that it
is composed by one person (it is clear that a piece of
music written by many composers would be an ideal
of discontinuous music par excellence]). Discontinuous
composition is fully illustrated in Example 636, in
which beside the initial idea some information is given
about the discontinuity within the idea itself.
In Examples 637 and 638 note which elements bear
characteristics of discontinuity irrespective of whether
the composition examined has an open or "defined"
form.
Construct a table fully illustrating your own idea of
a composition from the view-point of discontinuous
composing. In the form of notes to the table, add sev-
eral results obtained from the adoption of such an
idea.
110
Automization of composition
In contemporary composing the automization of
composition forms a separate section. Some of the
questions which make up this problem are already
known to us; we got to know them in connection with
the experiments involving strict (tabular) serialism.
65
Consequently only a few complementary remarks will
be given here. The adoption of a method imposed on
material by a system unrelated to it is possible in
music. Example 639 teaches us about the effects of a
nearly automatic modelling of music using a table of
random figures on a table of chords constructed for
this particular purpose (version for vibraphone). Adop-
tion of such a method results in the inversion of the
precompositional order: the series appears as a r e s u l t
of the arrangement of two-note chords instead of these
last being a result (or choice) of the control contained
in the series. Examples 640642 illustrate the transposi-
tion of non-material ideas into concrete musical material
(computer music).
Automization of composition needs a more detailed ex-
planation. A composition produced by automatic acting
and, in practice, by the open programming of music
seems to be very remote from what we Customarily
think of as the essence of music, remote, above all,
from the commitment of the composer to his musical
work. This is not the case, however. In order to become
aware of the true significance of music composed
automatically, it should be recalled that a large number
of artistic works arise from open action, action in which
each compositional component is "exposed" to fortuity,
to an appearance without any close motivation. And
yet there is no regularity in art although, in some
cases, regularity is imposed on it. Whatever we might
think of music, it will never be something planned and
ordered beforehand, since then we should be concerned
with soulless acting, stripped of any of the charms of
surprise. The automatic composing process allows as
many types of. action as are outlined in this book. It
involves "learning from material", becoming more
familiar with the potentialities of music than ever be-
fore. Experiments in this field are of great cognitive
importance and this very fact demonstrates the benefits
arising from their application.
Compose a fairly long piece of music basing yourself
upon mechanical modelling (uncorrected) on separately
constructed tables.
Ill
q concerned, is admittedly a, very strenuous activity, and
Aleatorism
66
In the previous section exactness was shown to be the
most essential property of compositional procedure. Its
extreme opposite is fortuity. It is however very hard
to achieve perfect fortuity (in disciplines that deal with
mathematical material one must use special tables of
random numbers Example 643; a true random se-
quence is unheard of). Music involving the inter-
ference of chance in the r e a l i z a t i o n of a composi-
tion is defined as aleatory. Aleatorism (Lat. aleadice;
fig. chance, hazard) is not a technique in the strict sense
of the word, it is only a method of handling musical
material. Examples 644654 present a survey of
problems connected with aleatorism in its very various
aspects. Aleatorism allows observation of the function
of the variation factor in music. It may concern
different elements and techniques: linear motion
structures (644), asynchronous temporal process (645),
interchangeability of particles within a general form
(646), formal freedom of a process (647), temporal
approximation (648), approximation in numerous ele-
ments (649), underdetermination of succession, attained
by means of individual and independent musical actions
(650), indefiniteness of the musical text (651), openness
in the occurrence of parts in the context (652), propor-
tionment of time (653) and openness of the form treated
as a sum of particles (654).
Here I must explain one of the basic misunderstandings
that have slipped into new composition: aleatorism i s
not improvisation since the latter implies the
constancy of a model (melodic or harmonic or more
rarely rhythmic), whereas in aleatorism we are
concerned with countering structuralism, with the
"destructuring" of music. Neither does aleatorism
consist in the free interchanging of parts and passages,
for this does not at all change the essence of music,
which as regards material always remains the same
music. The most important feature of aleatorism is the
fact that the whole is designed in outline and the
details are governed by chance. It should be added
that aleatorism must not be regarded as the renuncia-
tion of the composer's own ingenuity. Nor should it
be censured on the grounds that the composer is
reduced to the embarrassing position of being a co-
author of music who has resigned some of his func-
tions in favour of chance. Composing, as far as art is
the outline of the composition in which we are interest-
ed very often becomes transformed during its mould-
ing into a work which can be related only with dif-
ficulty to the composer's original conception. The more
the composer occupies himself with the details of the
musical material, the less attention he can give to the
composition as a whole. Aleatorism the coding of
chosen elements in a shortened manner affords the
opportunity of a better comprehension of the form than
ever before and allows the composer to concentrate on
the most important factors, which are most often very
precisely established or as has already been said
designed in general outlines but not in details. To leave
everything to chance as Cage sometimes does is
somewhat risky and too individualistic a method to be
repeated and recommended.
Compose 6 short musical pieces in which aleatorism is
marked by diverse action within different elements.
The instrumentation of these compositions: from
instrumental trio to large vocal-instrumental ensemble.
112
Composing of co-situations
Examples 655668 demonstrate various realizations of
the elementary principle of equipoise between the
vertical and the horizontal structure (classic example'
656).
Examples 655668 naturally do not cover all co-situa-
tional possibilities. These are as numerous in practice
as are the possibilities for distinct compositional ideas
(of course, neither conventional conceptions nor those
based on someone else's models are included). It will
be seen from these examples that the composing of
co-situations is not confined to the problems of texture.
It involves composing in all possible parameters, these
having now however lost individual significance. In
other words, one does not compose any longer with
pitch or rhythm now, but in terms of larger material
conceptions against which the elementary parameters
appear as material of inferior rank. Let us see Example
655: here neither pitches nor time proportions nor, in
the end, the order of the entries of notes is important.
What is important is the general effect achieved through
the co-situation of instruments presented. There is
here" a shift of emphasis from material to the archi-
tecture of the whole. One can also compose with whole
blocks (typical example: 657). These are separated from
the whole process by their specific internal structure
(Example 660 shows that they can be composed quasi-
separately). There is also the possibility of introducing
one. general co-situational denominator (Examples 663
664). Naturally pitch co-situations can be created
artificially by an increase in the quantity of material
(a method already known to us; Examples 665 and
668), by a graphic representation of relations between
parts (666), by an arrangement of vertical configurations
according to individual rules (667), an by a reduction
of a co-situation to a dynamic factor formed on the
basis of proportional relationships between the parts
(655).
Examine Examples 658661 and find which of them
might be turned into graphic representations (Examples
658 and 659 show the direct conversion of a' musical
"specimen" into graphic images). Examples 662663
illustrate the interdependence of notation and co-
situational representation. These examples should be
analysed from the view-point of the potential they
contain for further complications. It is obvious that
a further enrichment would at the same time constitute
an impoverishment as regards co-situation. Examine
the mechanism of the co-situations in Examples 664
668, determining exactly t h a t w h i c h is decisive
in so far as the. textural effect of the co-situations
created.
Taking Examples 657659 as your point of departure,
compose a serial (quasi-serial) piece of music using
a personal graphic model and a graphic composition
(quasi-graphic) using a serial model naturally
a different one. Both compositions are to be for piano.
113
Multihiotivic work
The principle of 'thematic (or motivic) unity is not
observed by composers in new music and, what is
67
 more, this unity seems to be downright undesirable. 114
It is increasingly replaced by multimotivic composition.
This resembles fortuity since for its appearance it
is necessary that the composer should be familiar with Break-up of the model
the possibilities arising from' multimotivic presentations
of music. Examples 669-612 demonstrate the simplest
forms of multimotivic technique and Examples 673682
show it in various compositional aspects. Permutations, transpositions, serial transformations
all these methods employed in the animation of homo-
\ geneous models fail as regards the modern methods of
breaking-up material (which follows the pattern
This technique needs detailed explanation. All new established by the splitting of the atom). The most
music is, as a rule, multimotivic. This is not the case as reliable method of splitting an established model is its
regards practice: in most cases musical material, how- angular reading, owing to which interrelated pitch and
ever varied, becomes similar and homogeneous during duration changes take place. Example 683a two-note
the progress of a work in defiance of the composer's cell; 683b three-note group showing an initial tem-
intentions. In order to prevent this the composer must poral symmetry; 683c similar but temporally asym-
mould each particle of music each "motive" metrical group; 683d symmetrical four-note group;
according to its own individual principles. Example 669 683e similar but asymmetrical group; 683f six-note
illustrates this activity in an elementary fashion and group showing large intervals and temporal uniformity;
Example 670 presents music with motives that have 683g temporally non-uniform eight-note group.
become similar,, even though different structural Examples 684687 illustrate different ways of break-
principles lie at the basis of each of them (the fact ing-up the model: by levelling the pitches with regard
that parts of the musical process seem to be similar to their significance and the angular treatment of the
is due to our perception rather than to the composer's parameter of "speed" in the first three examples and
activities). Example 671 demonstrates motivic isolation by introducing a graphic point of departure for the
very clearly, but only that which proceeds horizontally. arrangement of homogeneous material in the last one.
Finally in Example 672 the multimotivic technique
consists in the formation of each particle, even a single
note, in a different manner. In subsequent examples we The examples presented in this section present pos-
are concerned with some better-developed forms of sibilities which go beyond current ideas on composing.
I multimotivic composing. It is on these that the com- The first examples (683a-g) deal with variation practice,
poser focuses his attention in most cases (typical ex- which is in no way related to the various hitherto
amples: 673 and 674; in Example 675 the multimotivic existing manners of transforming pitch-rhythm mo-
j nature exists only in parts., but it can be relatively tives. Comparing more and more well-developed
] easily isolated). Example 676 shows the multimotivic models based on the same structural relationship (struc-
] technique in four individual processes and Examples ture in its abstract sense), we pass to a completely dif-
677682 present it in several more aspects: 677 ferent world of sound ideas. Musical matter remains
multimotivic technique in notation; 678 dispersal of the same structurally. What changes is the point of
separate pitches among four associated groups; 679 view from which we look at it and it is this very
680 separate motives for different instruments, change of point of view that may contribute to the
allowing for the specific nature of their timbres and greatest changes in the field with which we are con-
technical limitations within the confines of certain cerned, while the break-up of existing schemes, the
special situations; 681 several dozen small motives decomposition of conventions,, presents itself as the
which "fnake up" a musical whole. central item in general problems of composing.

Applying the multimotivic technique, compose a piece Compose a fairly long piece for flute using several
of music for a large symphonic orchestra treated in models in their uniform and non-uniform variants and
a soloistic manner (take as a textural model Example the angular technique for reading the models (Ex-
682). amples 683a-g).

68
 115
Multidimensional composition
i
If we keep to one musical dimension,, we create music
that is, so well-ordered as on account of this very
fact, impoverished. New music provides *us with the
possibility of applying the spatial parameter. Different
methods of treating music spatially may be employed.
They are: the introduction of "topophony" (Example
688 instruments "reshuffled" according to the plan
given in the score), the location .of sound sources in
a specific way (Example 689 instrumentalists sitting
in a semicircle) and the stereophonic presentation of
material (in electronic music cf., Example 676). It
should be added that the phenomenon of self-inter-
pretation of music often occurs in multidimensional
compositions. It consists in the music, broken up in
space, revealing its material to us in a new form
(interpretation), proper to i t s e l f , very much like
music transformed by means of a ring modulator during
its execution (Example 690).
The examples presented suggest that multidimensional
composition serves to widen thinking within traditional
categories. So far the opinion has been held that music
can be either made up of fine elements or assuming
a larger number of parameters as the point of de-
parture treated in such a way that the whole ac-
cumulation of material shall "divide" into fine
particles. In postpointillistic techniques this gave rise
to many methods which furthermore readily underwent
conventionalization. Composing in many dimensions,
i.e., handling material in terms of its topophonic and
locational relationships, we gain a wider view over
m u s i c a l m a t e r i a l i t s e l f . This it should be
mentioned - ought not to be reduced to a minimum,
a process evident in some practices in this field. The
potentialities of multidimensional music are enormous
and require further compositional work in new fields
(modern technology will presumably make further
developments of this trend in music possible in the
near future).
c margin of freedom. No doubt activity in the field of
Write two short compositions showing topophonic and
stereophonic characteristics in their multidimensional
qualities (e.g. orchestral music and a design for elec-
tronic music).
116
Ambiguous music
Form, in the sense of an architectural design, a con-
struction, does not exist in new music. Naturally, each
work has a form, but, thus conceived?' it is only the
result of the co-ordination of compositional factors.
In this new situation t h | form is not an aim, the
composer cannot and does not want to foresee the pro-
cess prescriptively (as before). On the contrary, he
willingly surrenders himself to the charm of free
development in music, without determining the com-
position temporally or architecturally. In order to
obtain ambiguity of form (and consequently ambiguity
of music), different, accurately established fragments
must be put together in> such a manner that, having
their place in . the notation, they should not have
a fixed place in the development of music. The simplest
method of treating music in this way is the disposition
of several fragments (perhaps ten or more), the per-
forming of which is left to the discretion of the per-
former (a simple example: 691). Examples of various
forms of ambiguous music: 692700.
There are no separate techniques for ambiguous music.
Here we are more concerned with showing musical
ideas that allow for the open treatment of material. The
openness of material may involve the free disposition
of its particles (as in the elementary examples of this
series) and it may also involve a large number of para-
meters simultaneously (typical examples: 695 and 700).
This makes the musical matter still more anonymous
and the final musical effect still more enigmatic. From
all appearances, the result will not seem serious or
concrete enough, for (everybody will say) music
ought to be composed of concrete rather than fluid
material. It must however be stated that there is
already quite a lot of music composed in a concrete
manner; on the other hand, we have little information
about what happens to musical material when it is
given a larger (or improbably large Example 699)
ambiguous music contributes to the development of the
composer's consciousness, perhaps just because in this
case the composer' receives information from controls
formed by himself.

Compose two pieces on the principle of ambiguity for
one and several instruments, respectively.
117
Multitechnical canons as models
Between the extremes of strictness and freedom we can
find models containing both these properties. A typical
model of this sort is the multitechnical canon (Example
701).
Multitechnical canons do not cover all the problems
of polyphonic composition, but they make a very good
example of free and at the same time well-disciplined
action. In our example the musical figure which makes
up the frequently repeated canonic model is free,
whereas the vertical-horizontal handling of the canon
is entirely and perfectly disciplined (note that a nearly
identical statistical vertical structure appears every
fourth section; this is naturally seen more clearly in the
passage where a full 36-part vertical complex occurs).
From the example given choose two vertical structures
from a place where the material is most dense.
Compare them with one another, paying attention to
the differences in value in those cases where the same
horizontal form occurs at different pitch levels, etc.
Starting from a catalogue of selected means (made pre-
compositionally), compose several different many-part
(at least 8-part) multitechnical canons.
118
Polyversional music
The idea of polyversional music stems from the fact
that music itself demands openness, that it cannot be
70
closed in a single scheme if other similar schemes are
possible and, what is more, if some of them can be, or
are, even better than those emerging from our always
in some way conditioned decision. -Examples of poly-
versional music: 702705. .
Polyversional music in the first place serves to widen
the range of information. The closing of a composition
within a definite scheme does not fulfil the conditions
that we impose on modern music, for then music
becomes organized one-sidedly. This occurs to the
disadvantage of the composer, especially so .when he
could afford to realize many different ideas (further-
more, this is unattainable in practice, since it is dif-
ficult to imagine that a composer would like to ex-
clude potentialities inherent in presentation, perform-
ance, etc., completely from his work). Composing
music in various versions, we are able to penetrate the
domains which in the composer's earliest consciousness
pass for the most fluid ones. Polyversional music is of
greater importance to the composer than it is to its
listeners. This however does not lower it in value.
Compose a fragment of a string quartet in 6 different
versions, constantly keeping a certain layer of music
as an invariable scheme.
119
Composing musical actions
Music, its course, can be imagined as action in time
(Examples 706 and 707; more developed forms: ^OS).
Here we compose "along" the time without embarking
on decisions that involve its filling-up. The best way
of presenting such musical actions is to compose using
the musical graphic method (using among other means
specially selected musical shorthand writing: Examples
709711). Examples 712714 illustrate the method for
a graphic representation of music realizable with dif-
ferent material. Thus we gain the constant possibility
of renewing substance.
The composition of musical action carries us over to
a realm of action independent of the elementary
methods of setting music together from particles. This
is not the case now: the composer forms something like
a catalogue of means which he puts together either
as a succession (Examples 706, 707, 708), or more
independently of time (a typical example: 711). This
means a departure from concretion and an approach to
a realm of action unrelated to any order (Examples
713714 constitute perhaps the most developed model
of such composition).
Compose a fairly long piece of music in the form of
a programme of musical action, leaving (thanks to
open graphic representation) a wide margin for
filling it with various material.
120
Final remarks
The task of the creative composer is to study the
potentialities of music, to detect relations that may
occur in its material and, lastly, to produce aesthetic
and sound results that have never existed before. This
book does not claim to have exhausted the problems
inherent in the potentialities of music. This is beyond
one person's power. The extent of the possibilities
of music is immense and cannot be embraced in one
glance. For this reason, having completed this book, the
author (apart from the hope that he will be well under-
stood and that what he has to communicate on composi-
tion will be helpful to the reader) also entertains the
hope that the laborious study of compositional
potentialities in music initiated by him will be under-
taken by other writers, encouraged by new prospects
in this respect. Contemporary conventions are narrow
and dull, the new possibilities enormous. One should
reach for them, keeping in mind that true art arises
from anxiety, from searching.
alphabetical index of examples
tne numerals .in parentheses indicate example numbers, e.g., (1) refers to Example 1

A b s i l J e a n Toccata p o u r p i a n o 414 (622d) Le rnarteau sans maitre p o u r v o i x d ' a l t o et six i n s t r u -

A m y G i l b e r t Diaphonies p o u r double ensemble de douze m e n t s , d ' a p r e s d e s t e x t e s d e R e n e . C h a r (Universal
i n s t r u m e n t s (Editions H e u g e l & Cie, P a r i s 1965) 99 (140) E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1954) 53 (37), 94 (131), 111 (166), 212 (311),
Inventions p o u r flute, piano, celesta, h a r p e , v i b r a p h o n e , 303 <413), 356 (519), 412 (618), 442 (669, 670)
m a r i m b a (Editions H e u g e l & Cie, P a r i s 1965) 364 (533) L e soleil des eaux p o u r s o p r a n o , t e n o r et b a s s e solos,
A r r i g o G i r o l a m o Quarta occasione p e r c o r o d i 7 voci e 5 c h o e u r m i x t e et o r c h e s t r e . D e u x p o e m e s d e R e n e C h a r
s t r u m e n t i ( E d i t o r e A l d o B r u z z i c h e l l i , F i r e n z e 1965) 229 ( E d i t i o n s H e u g e l & Cie. P a r i s 1959) 132 (205), 332 (467),
(346) 361 (529), 363 (531), 365 (536), 371 (547), 437 (660), 439
(663)
B a r b e r S a m u e l Pieces for p i a n o , N o 3 414 (622a) Le visage nuptial p o u r s o p r a n o , c o n t r a l t o solos, c h o e u r
B a r r a q u e J e a n Sequence p o u r v o i x , b a t t e r i e et d i v e r s d e f e m m e s et o r c h e s t r e . C i n q p o e m e s d e R e n e C h a r
i n s t r u m e n t s . T e x t e s e x t r a i t s de Ecce h o m o " s u i v i des ( E d i t i o n s H e u g e l & Cie, P a r i s 1959) 85 (110)
Poesies de F r e d e r i c Nietzsche (Editore Aldo Bruzzichelli, Sonate II p o u r p i a n o (Editions H e u g e l & Cie, P a r i s 1950)
F i r e n z e 1956) 66 ,(61), 84 (107), 98 (137), 110 (164), 128 (199), 82 (100), 84 (106), 86 (111), 161 (240), 173 (263), 174 (266),
167 (256), 357 (520), 373 (551), 415 (624) 177 (276), 251 (385), 336 (475), 337 (478)
Sonate p o u r piano (Editore Aldo Bruzzichelli, Firenze Structures I p o u r 2 p i a n o s a 4 m a i n s ( U n i v e r s a l Edition,
1953) 83 (105), 102 (146), 330 (462), 443 (671) ' L o n d o n 1955) 54 (41), 68 (66), 93 (129), 108 (158), 122 (187),
B a r t 6 k B61a Pod gotym niebem (Szabadban), 5 u t w o r 6 w na 123 (188), 250251 (384), 298 (405), 300 (409), 304 (416,
f o r t e p i a n 349 (501) 417), 321 (441), 351 (509), 373 (550), 407 (603)
B e c k e r G u n t h e r stabil-instabil fiir g r o s s e s O r c h e s t e r ( M u s i k - B r a u n P e t e r M i c h a e l 2 Klavierstucke (Thesis/Medium) (Mu-
v e r l a g H a n s G e r i g , K o l n 1966) 377 (559), 436 (657) s i k v e r l a g H a n s G e r i g , K o l n 1968) 72 (78)
B e r g A l b a n Lyrische Suite fiir S t r e i c h q u a r t e t t ( U n i v e r s a l B r i t t e n B e n j a m i n Holiday Diary f o r p i a n o 414 (622e)
E d i t i o n , W i e n 1927) 43 (23), 63 (55), 158 (229, 232), 166 B u c z k o w n a B a r b a r a Anekumena. K o n c e r t n a 89 i n s t r u m e n -
(255), 171 (260), 172 (262), 227 (342), 232 (354), 247 (380), 329 t o w ( K o m p . , K r a k o w 1974) 447 (670)
(457), 342 (489), 344 (493) B u s s o t t i S y l v a n o Five Piano Pieces for David Tudor ( U n i -
Streichquartett o p . 3 ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , Wien) 360 (527) v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1959) 459 (695)
B e r i o L u c i a n o Circles fiir e i n e F r a u e n s t i m m e , H a r f e u n d La passion selon Sade. M y s t e r e d e c h a m b r e a v e c T a -
2 S c h l a g z e u g s p i e l e r . T e x t v o n E. E? C u m m i n g s a u s b l e a u x v i v a n t s , precede de Solo, avec u n couple Rara
P o e m s 19231954" ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1961) 73 (dolce) et s u i v i d ' u n e a u t r e P h r a s e a t r o i s p e r voci,
(79), 154 (219), 211 (309), 304 (418), 341 (486), 359 (525), 409 s t r u m e n t i e n a r r a t o r e . T e s t o d i L o u i s e L a b e (G. R i -
(609), 418 (630), 444 (674), 466 (706) cordi & C. S. p . 'A., M i l a n o 1966) 226 (339), 367 (539), 374
Passaggio. M e s s a i n s c e n a di L u c i a n o B e r i o e di E d o a r d o t (554), 409 (610), 459 (694)
S a n g u i n e t i p e r s o p r a n o , d u e cori e s t r u m e n t i ( U n i v e r s a l Memoria con voci e o r c h e s t r e , r a p p r e s e n t a t o in c i n q u e
E d i t i o n , M i l a n o 1963) 448 (682) s c e n e : l a Memoria Marcello Elisei, l b Per un
Sequenza V f o r t r o m b o n e solo ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n - manifesto antifascista: Geographie Francaise", He
d o n 1968) 238 (365) Siciliano, H d Alia bandiera rossa, H e La parti-
Sincronie for s t r i n g q u a r t e t ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n tion ne pent se faire que dans la violence" (Editore
1964) 72 (76), 232 (353), 345 (496) A l d o B r u z z i c h e l l i , F i r e n z e 1965) 387 (575), 465 (704), 466
Tempi concertati fiir F l o t e , Violine, z w e i K l a v i e r e u n d (707), 467 (709)
a n d e r e I n s t r u m e n t e ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , W i e n 1960) 64 mit einem gewissen sprechenderi Ausdruck" fiir K a m -
(58), 71, (74), 111 (165), 116 (172), 127 (195), 133 (207), 159 m e r o r c h e s t e r ( H e r m a n n M o e c k V e r l a g , Celle 1966) 209
(234), 164 (247), 167 (257), 206 (298), 307 (424), 328 (453), (304), 237 (363), 433 (651), 441 (667), 442 (668), 445 (677)
331 (464), 337 (480), 350 (507), 376 (557), 382 (567), 402 Sette fogli. Nr 1: Couple p o u r flute et p i a n o ( U n i v e r s a l
(590), 408 (607), 446 (678) ' E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1963) 461 (698)
Biel M i c h a e l v o n Quartett fiir S t r e i c h e r ( U n i v e r s a l Edition?
L o n d o n 1965) 422 (637) C a g e J o h n Fontana Mix, Aria for a n y v o i c e (C. F . P e t e r s
B o o n e C h a r l e s Parallels for v i o l i n a n d p i a n o ( K o m p . , S a n . C o r p o r a t i o n , N e w Y o r k ) 459 (696)
F r a n c i s c o 1964) 69 (69) M u s i c of Changes f o r p i a n o , I I (C. F . P e t e r s C o r p o r a t i o n ,
B o u l e z P i e r r e Don (Pli selon pli. I) p o u r o r c h e s t r e ( U n i v e r - N e w Y o r k 1961) 89 (118)
s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1967) 237 (362), 326 (445), 384 (570), C a r d e w C o r n e l i u s February Pieces for p i a n o ( H i n r i c h s e n
433 (652) E d i t i o n L t d . , L o n d o n 1962) 464 (703)
Bclar p o u r 15 i n s t r u m e n t s ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n Two Books of Study for Pianist ( H i n r i c h s e n E d i t i o n Ltd.,
1965) 62 (53) L o n d o n 1966) 87 (114), 153 (216)
Improvisation sur Mallarme (Pli selon pli. II), I Le C a s t i g l i o n i Niccolo Alef. K o m p o s i t i o n fiir O b o e (Ars Viva
v i e r g e , le v i v a c e et le b e l a u j o u r d ' h u i " p o u r s o p r a n o , V e r l a g , G m b H , M a i n z 1967) 83 (102)
h a r p e , v i b r a p h o n e , cloches e t 4 p e r c u s s i o n s ( U n i v e r s a l Gymel p e r f l a u t o e p i a n o f o r t e (Edizioni S u v i n i Zerboni,
E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1958) 214 (316) M i l a n o 1960) 23 (17), 45 (27), 55 (42)

72
 Iriizio di movimenti per pianoforte (Edizioni Suvini Zer-
boni, Milano 1958) 11 (2), 307 (425)
Movimento continuato per pianoforte e 11 strumenti
(Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1959) 78 <93), 103 (149),
105 (151), 219 (326), 245 (374), 321 (440), 354 (516), 363
(532)
Chou Wen-chung Cursive for flute and piano (C. F. Peters
Corporation, New York 1965) 45 (26), 328 (452), 330 (460),
336 (474)
Three Folk Songs for harp and flute (C. F. Peters Corpora-'
tion, New York 1950) 12 (3)
Clementi Aldo Composizione n. 1 per pianoforte (Edizioni
Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1958) 87 (113), 308 (427), 398 (581)
Ideogrammi n. 2: Composizione per flauto e 17 strumenti
(Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1960) 397 (579), 401
(587), 403 (593), 406 (600), 410 (613)
Reticolo: 11 per undici esecutori (Edizioni Suvini Zerboni,
Milano 1968) 422 (638)
Sette scene per orchestra da camera da Collage", azione
musicale in un tempo su materiale visivo di Achille
Perilli (Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1961) 66 (62), 69
(67), 103 (147), 123 (189), 133 (206), 302 (411), 306 (421), 333
(468), 337 (481), 378 (561), 412 (620)
Triplum. Composizione per flauto, oboe e clarinetto
(Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1961) 83 (103)
Copland Aajon The Cat and the Mouse for piano 414 (622g)
Cowell Henry Dixon Tiger for piano (Associated Music
Publishers Inc., New York) 338 (482) . .
Devoid Natko Structures transparentes fiir Harfe (Musik-
verlag Hans Gerig, Koln 1967) 407 (606)
Donatoni Franco Movimento per clavicembalo, pianoforte
e 9 strumenti (Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1959) 83
(104), 108 (159), 1.10 (163), 329 (456), 338 (483), 341 (487),
415 (625)
Durko Zsolt Psicogramma per pianoforte solo (Editio, Mu-
sica, Budapest 1966) 221 (329)
Eloy Jean-Claude Equivalences pour 18 instrumentistes
(Editions Heugel & Cie, Paris 1965) 417 (629)
Evangelisti Franco Aleatorio per quartetto d'archi (Edition
Tones, Darmstadt 1964) 429 (646)
Feldman Morton Intervals for bass-baritone voice, v'cello,
trombone, vibraphone, percussion (C. F. Peters Corpora-
tion, New York 1962) 428 (645), 464 (702)
Foss Lukas Echoi for four soloists (clarinet, cello, per-
cussion and piano) (Verlage Carl Fischer, Inc., New York/
B. Schott's Sonne, Mainz 1964) 225 (337), 430 (648), 433
(653)
Guyonnet Jacques Polyphonie I pour flute en sol et pianO
(Studio A.R.T., Genewa / Universal Edition, Zurich 1963)
52 (36), 54 (40), 70 (73)
Polyphonie II pour deux pianos (Universal Edition, Zu-
rich 1968) 65 (59)
Haubenstock-Ramati Roman Interpolation. Mobile pour
flute (1, 2 et 3) (Universal Edition, Wien 1959) 430 (647)
Jeux 6. Mobile fiir sechs Schlagzeuger (Universal Edition,
Wien 1965) 431 (649)
Petite musique de. nuit. Mobile fiir Orchester (Universal
Edition, London 1959) 382 (568)
73
Sequences fur Violine und Orchester in vier Gruppen
(Universal Edition, London 1959) 104 (150)
Les symphonies de timbres (Universal Edition, London
1958) 95 (132), 358 (522), 375 (555)
Hiller Lejaren & Baker R. A. Computer Cantata (Edition
Presser, Bryn Mawr 1963) 378 (562)
Hiller L. & Baker R. A. Electronic-Study No. 4 (Edition
Presser, Bryn Mawr 1963) 426 (641)
Hiller L. & Isaacson Leonard Iliac Suite for string quartet.
Experimental Music, Experiment No. 3 (Edition Presser,
Bryn Mawr 1957) 426 (640)
Honegger Arthur Prelude pour piano 414 (622c)
Huber Klaus Moteti cantiones fiir Streichquartett (Komp.,
1963) 88 (116), 163 (245), 343 (492), 344 (495), 444 (675)
Ives Charles The Unanswered Question for orchestra (South-
ern Music Publishers Co., New York 1953) 109 (161)
Jolas Betsy Mots. 7 pieces pour 5 voix solistes et 8 in-
struments (Editions Heugel & Cie, Paris 1969) 57 (46),
175 (270)
Quatuor II pour soprano colorature, violon, alto et vio-
loncelle (Editions Heugel & Cie, Paris 1969) 407 (605), 411
(615)
Tranche pour harpe seule (Editions Heugel & Cie, Paris
1968) 333 (469)
Jongen Joseph Sarabande pour piano op. 58 414 (622b)
Kagel Mauricio Anagrama fiir vier Gesangsoli, Sprechchor
und Kammerensemble (Univarsal Edition, London 1965)
92 (127), 224 (336), 439 (662)
Heterophonie fiir Orchester (Henry Litolff's V e r l a g / C . F.
Peters, Frankfurt a. Main 1961) 225 (338)
Sexteto de cuerdas fiir 2 Violinen, 2 Violen, 2 Violoncelli
(Universal Edition, London 1957) 102 (145), 103 (148), 116
(171), 120 (184), 124 (191), 161 (237), 196 (284), 230 (348),
307 (426), 321 (439), 328 (454), 364 (534), 404 (596), 412 (619),
418 (631), 437 (659)
Sonant (1960/...) fiir Gitarre, Harfe, Kontrabass und
Fellinstrumente (Henry Litolff's Verlag / C. F. Peters,
Frankfurt a. Main 1964) 155 (221), 210 (308), 358 (523)
Transicion II fiir Klavier, Schlagzeug und zwei Ton-
bander (Universal Edition, London 1963) 399 (584)
Kayn Roland Signals per orchestra (Edizioni Suvini Zer-
boni, Milano 1967) 441 (666)
Koering Rene Combat T3N fiir Klavier und Orchester
(Verlag Ahn & Simrock, Berlin/Wiesbaden 1962) 78 (94),
91 (124), 162 (244), 208 (302), 334 (470), 400 (586)
Kopelent Marek Snehah. Komposition fiir Soprano solo,
Jazz Altistin (uber Tonband) und Kammerensemble
(Edizio Supraphon, Praha / Hans Gerig, Koln 1968) 154
(218)
Streichquartett No. 4 {Musikverlag Hans Gerig, Koln
1970) 416 (626)
Lampart Zb'igniew Kwartet smyczkowy (Komp., Krak6w
1974) 347 (498)
Ligeti Gyorgy Apparitions fiir Orchester (Universal Edition.
Wien 1964) 460 (697)
Atmospheres fiir grosses Orchester ohne Schlagzeug
(Universal Edition, Wien 1963) 213 (313), 366 (538), 370
(545)
 Aventures fur drei Sanger und sieben Instrumentalisten
(Henry Litolff's Verlag / C. F. Peters, Frankfurt a. Main
1964) 81 (98), 97 (136), 205 (295), 209 (305), 210 (306), 224
(335), 238 (366), 334 (471), 409 (611), 411 (616)
Konzert fur Violoncello und Orchester (Henry Litolff's
Verlag / C. F. Peters, Frankfurt a. Main 1969) 80 (96),
362 (530)
Lux aeterna for 16-part chorus (C. F. Peters, Frankfurt
a. Main 1966) 218 (324)
Ramifications for string orchestra or 12 solo strings
(B. Schott's Sonne, Mainz 1970) 90 (121)
Logothetis Anestis Agglomeration fur Solovioline mit Oder
ohne Streicherbegleitung (Universal Edition, Wien 1964)
461 (699)
Mdandros fur Orchester in variabler Besetzung, bis zu
50 Spielern (Universal Edition, Wien 1963) 462 (700)
Louvier Alain Etudes pour Agresseurs pour piano, Etude
XIII pour 8 agresseurs (Alphonse Leduc, Editions Mu-
sicales, Paris 1869) 420 (633)
Maderna Bruno Quartetto per archi in due tempi (Edizioni
Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1956) 344 (494)
Mayuzumi Toshiro Metamusic for piano, violin, saxophone
and conductor (C. F. Peters Corporation, New York 1964)
238 (364)
Prelude for string quartet (C. F. Peters Corporation,
New York 1964) 217 (320), 343 (491)
Mefano Paul Interferences pour 12 musiciens (pour piano,
cor et ensemble de chambre) (Editions Heugel & Cie,
Paris 1969) 73 (80), 128 (197), 221 (330), 407 (6U4)
Lignes pour voix de basse noble et ensemble de chambre
(Editions Heugel & Cie, Paris 1969) 359 (526)
Messiaen Olivier CanteyodjayA pour piano (Universal Edi-
tion, London 1953) 85 (108), 310 (433)
II de feu II pour piano (Editions Durand & Cie, Editeurs
Proprietaires, Paris 1950) 312 (435)
Oiseaux exotiques pour piano solo et petit orchestre
(Universal Edition, London 1959) 75 (85), 116 (173), 119
(179), 158 (231), 330 (459), 348 (499), 369 (543), 411 (617),
415 (623)
Vingt regards sur I'Enfant Jesus pour piano (Editions
Durand & Cie, Editeurs Proprietaires, Paris 1947) 312
(434, 436), 349 (502, 503)
Miroglio Francis Reseaux pour harpe et orchestre (Uni-
versal Edition, London 1966) 212 (312)
Moran Robert Four Visions for flute, harp and string quar-
tet (Universal Edition, London 1964) 457 (692)
Nilsson Bo Ein irrender Sohn fur Altsjimme, Altflote und
Orchester. Textfragment von Gosta Oswald (Universal
Edition, London 1959) 216 (318), 368 (542), 408 (608), 417
(628)
Quantitaten fur Klavier (Universal Edition, London 1958)
352 (511)
Nono Luigi Cantiones a Guiomar fur Sopran solo, 6 stimmi-
gen Frauenchor, 2 Gitarren, Viola, Violoncello, Kontra-
bass, Schlagzeug und Celesta (Ars Viva Verlag, GmbH,
Mainz 1963) 327 (449)
. Con di Didone aus Le terra promessa" von Giuseppe
Ungaretti fur gemischten Chor und Schlagzeug (Ars
Viva Verlag, GmbH, Mainz 1959) 162 (242), 218 (323),
331 (465), 358 (521), 376 (558), 397 (580), 419 (632)
II canto sospeso nach Abschiedsbriefen zum Tode ver-
urteilter Widerstandskampfer fur Sopran-, Alt- und Tenor-
-Solo, gemischten Chor und Orchester (Ars Viva Verlag,
GmbH, Mainz 1956) 118 (178), 124 (190), 134 (208), 230
(349), 299 (408), 303 (414), 306 (420), 330 (461), 359 (524),
436 (656)
La terra e lo compagna. Canti di Cesare Pavese fur
Sopran- und Tenor-Solo, Chor und Instrumente (Ars
Viva Verlag, GmbH, Mainz 1959) 308 (428)
Polifonica-Monodia-Ritmica per 6 strumenti e batteria
(Ars Viva Verlag, GmbH, Mainz 1951) 53 (39), 91 (126),
131 (204), 157 (228)
Sard dolce tacere. Canto per 8 soli da La terra a la
morte" di Cesare Pavese (Ars Viva Verlag, GmbH,
Mainz 1960) 374 (552)
Varianti. Musica per violino solo, archi e legni (Ars
Viva Verlag, GmbH, Mainz 1957) 226 (340), .301 (410),
401 (588)
Oliveros Pauline Sound Patterns fiir gemischten Chor (Edi-
tion Tonos, Darmstadt) 398 (582)
Petrassi Goffredo Trio per violino, viola e violoncello (Edi-
zioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano 1960) 92 (128), 117 (176)
Pousseur Henri Exercices pour piano {Impromptu et varia-
tions II) (Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano) 69 (68), 166
(253), 353 (514)
Madrigal 3 pour clarinette, violon, violoncelle, piano et
percussion (Universal Edition, London 1966) 403 (594)
Mobile pour deux pianos (Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Mi-
lano 1961) 368 (541)
Symphonies a quinze solistes (Universal Edition, London
1961) 59 (48), 89 (119), 90 (122), 95 (133), 162 (241), 302
(412), 306 (422), 364 (535), 375 (556), 437 (658), 448 (681)
Rands Bernard Action for Six (percussion, percussion, viola,
flute, harp and v'cello) (Universal Edition, London 1965)
458 (693)
Reynolds Roger The Emperor of Ice Cream for 8 voices,
piano, percussion and double bass (C. F. Peters Corpora-
tion, New York 1963) 468 (710)
Rieti Vittorio Due studi per pianoforte 414 (622f)
Schaffer Boguslaw Artykulacje na fortepian (Polskie Wy-
dawnictwo Muzyczne, Krak6w 1960) 153 (217)
Collage and Form for eight jazzmen and orchestra (PWM,
Krak6w 1965) 55 (43), 109 (162), 122 (186), 360 (528), 369
(544), 372 (548), 385 (572), 404 (595)
Concerto per sei e tre na zmienny instrument solowy
i 3 orkiestry (PWM, Krak6w 1863) 156 (226), 228 (345),
- 231 (351), 236 (361), 336 (476)
Course ,J" na zespol jazzowy i filharmoniczny (PWM,
Krak6w 1964) 119 (181), 205 (296), 219 (325)
Equivalenze sonore per 20 esecutori (PWM, Krakow
1962) 51 (33), 52 (35), 5657 (45), 70 (71), 74 (82), 76 (87,
88), 79 (95), 91 (123), 99 (139), 117 (175), 125 (192), 130
(203), 207 (299)
..extreme" fiir 10 Instrumente (Verlag Ahn & Simrock.
Berlin/Wiesbaden 1962) 203 (292), 401 (589)
Free Form I for five instruments (Komp., Krak6w 1972)
470 (713)
4HI1P fiir Klavier fur vier Hande (Verlag Ahn & Sim-
rock, Berlin/Wiesbaden 1966) 70 (72), 108 (157), 126 (194),
327 (446), 413 (621)
74
 Imago viusicae f u r Violine solo m i t i n t e r p o l i e r e n d e r I n - 2 utwory n a s k r z y p c e i f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k o w 1965)
s t r u m e n t e n b e g l e i t u n g (Verlag A h n & S i m r o c k , B e r l i n / 240 (369), 434 (654)
/ W i e s b a d e n 1963)' 62 (54), 71 (75), 126 (193), 233 (356), 236 4 utwory n a t r i o s m y c z k o w e ( P W M , K r a k o w 1963) 77
(360), 453 (686) (89), 120 (182), 217 (321), 227 (344), 232 (352), 309 (430), 327
Kody n a orkiestre. k a m e r a l n a . ( K o m p . , K r a k 6 w 1961) 204 (448), 453 (684)
(293) S c h n e b e l D i e t e r Glossolalie fur S p r e c h s t i m m e n u n d I n s t r u -
Kompozycja n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k o w 1960) 283 (394) m e n t ? ( K o m p . , B a d H o m b u r g ) 398 (583)
Kompozycja swobodna n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k o w 1960) S c h o n b e r g A r n o l d 3 Klavierstiicke o p . 11 ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n ,
342 (488) W i e n 1910) 156 (224), 157 (227) 158 (230), 165 (250, 252),
Koncert skrzypcowy ( P W M , K r a k o w 1965) 76 (86), 230 227 (343), 349 (500), 351 (508)
(350), 335 (472), 387 (574), 405 (599) 6 kleine Klavierstiicke o p . 19 ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , W i e n
Konfiguracje n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1960) 351 1913) 130 (202), 165 (251), 174 (265), 247 (381), 356 (518)
(510) Phantasy for v i o l i n w i t h p i a n o a c c o m p a n i m e n t o p . 47
Kontury n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1960) 400 (585) (C. F . P e t e r s C o r p o r a t i o n ; N e w Y o r k 1952) 64 (57)
Model I n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k o w 1960) 4748 (29) S t o c k h a u s e n K a r l h c i n z Nr. y Kreuzspiel f u r Oboe, Bass-
Model II n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1960) 177 (275) klarinette, K l a v i e r und Schlagzeug (Universal Edition,
Modell III f u r K l a v i e r ( V e r l a g A h n & S i m r o c k , B e r l i n / L o n d o n 1960) 43 (24), 49 (31), 51 (34), 61 (52), 69 (70), 101
/ W i e s b a d e n 1963) 223 (332), 309 (429), 352 (512) (144)
Monosonata p e r 24 a r c h i ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1960) 63 (56), Nr. 1 Kontra-Punkte ftir O r c h e s t e r ( U n i v e r s a l Edition,
198 (289), 235 (359), 331 (463) L o n d o n 1953) 53 (38), 89 (120), 98 (138), 107 (154), 159 (233),
Montaggio p e r sei e s e c u t o r i ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1962) 177 214 (315), 297 (404), 298 (406), 365 (537)
(274), 371 (546), 440 (665) Nr. 2 Klavierstiick II ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1954)
Music for Ml n a w i b r a f o n , glos, 6 r e c y t a t o r 6 w , zespol 74 (84), 85 (109), 128 (198), 174 (267), 403 (592)
jazzowy i orkiestre. ( P W M , K r a k o w 1968) 422 (636) Nr. 2 Klavierstiick II ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n . L o n d o n 1954)
Musica ipsa n a orkiestre. n i s k i c h i n s t r u m e n t 6 w ( P W M , 148 (213), 161 (238)
K r a k o w 1965) 416 (627), 435 (655), 443 (672), 455 (689) ; Nr. 2 Klavierstiick III ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1954)
Non-stop n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k o w 1960) 468 (711) 298 (407)
Open M u s i c for a n y i n s t r u m e n t or v o i c e ( K o m p . , K r a k 6 w Nr. 2 Klavierstiick IV ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1954)
1975) 471 (714) 107 (156)
Permutationen f u r 10 I n s t r u m e n t * ( V e r l a g A h n & S i m - Nr. 3 Elektronische Studien. Studie II ( U n i v e r s a l Edition,
rock, B e r l i n / W i e s b a d e n 1964) 101 (143), 134135 (209), L o n d o n 1956) 241242 (370), 453 (687)
211 (310) Nr. 4 Klavierstiick IX ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1967)
Quattro movimenti p e r pianoforte e orchestra (PWM, 166 (254)
K r a k 6 w 1960) 43 (22), 46 (28), 49 (30), 58 (47), 83 (101), -r- Nr. 4 Klavierstiick X ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , L o n d o n 1967)
93 (130), 117 (174), 118 (177), 120 (183), 172 (261), 196 (285), 352 (513)
309 (432) Nr. 5 Zeitmasse f u r fiinf H o l z b l a s e r ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n ,
S'alto n a s a k s o f o n a l t o w y i solistyczna. orkiestre. k a m e - L o n d o n 1957) 65 (60), 68 (65), 86 (112), 88 (115), 97 (135),
ralna. ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1965) 155 (222), 207 (300, 301), 219 107 (155), 112 (168), 148 (214), 196 (286), 217 (319), 218 (322),
(327), 223 (333), 229 (347), 428 (644), 446 (679) 246 (378), 337 (479), 373 (549), 374 (553), 381 (566), 404 (597),
Scultura. Mala syrnfonia ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1967) 67 (64), 405 (598), 421 (635)
121 (185), 129 (201), 206 (297), 227 (341), 233 (357), 239 (367), Nr. 6 Gruppen fur drei Orchester (Universal Edition,
305 (419), 386 (573), 432 (650), 463 (701) L o n d o n 1963) 127 (196), 325 (443), 327 (447), 332 (466), 381
Sinfonie in 9 T e i l e n ( V e r l a g A h n "& S i m r o c k , B e r l i n / (565), 383 (569), 438 (661)
. / W i e s b a d e n 1973) 469 (712) Nr. 9 Zyklus fur einen Schlagzeuger (Universal Edition,
Streichquartett (Verlag A h n & Simrock, Berlin/Wiesba- L o n d o n 1961) 406 (602), 420 (634)
den 1966) 12 (4), 72 (77), 74 (81), 77 (90), 128 (200), 154 Nrt. 16 | Mixtur ftir O r c h e s t e r , S i n u s g e n e r a t o r e n u n d
(220), 155 (223), 160 (236), 210 (307), 224 (334), 346 ( 4 9 7 V R i n g m o d u l a t o r e n ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , W i e n 1968) 208 (303),
402 (591), 406 (601), 453 (685) 239 (368), 243 (371), 385 (571), 456 (690)
Studium poUekspresyjne na fortepian (PWM, KrakoW S t r a w i n s k i I g o r L e s a c r e du printemps. T a b l e a u x de la
1960) 444 (673) r u s s i e p a i e n n e e n d e u x p a r t i e s (Edition R u s s e d e M u s i -
Studium poliformalne n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k o w 1960) q u e , 1921 / Boosey & H a w k e s M u s i c P u b l i s h e r s Ltd.,
456 (691) L o n d o n ) 67 (63)
S t u d i u m poliwersjonalne na fortepian (PWM, K r a k o w
1960) 197 (287) W e b e r n A n t o n 6 Bagatellen f u r S t r e i c h q u a r t e t t o p . 9 (Uni-
Studium w diagramie n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k 6 w 1960) v e r s a l E d i t i o n , W i e n 1924) 164 (249), 342 (490)
. 199 (290), 200 (291) Konzert fur Fldte, Oboe, Klarinette, Horn, Trompete,
Syrnfonia elektroniczna ( P W M , K r a k o w 1968) 80 (97), 379 P o s a u n e , Geige, B r a t s c h e u n d K l a v i e r op. 24 ( U n i v e r s a l
(563), 445 (676) E d i t i o n , W i e n 1948) 11 (1), 77 (91), 171 (259), 253 (387,
Tertium datur. T r a k t a t k o m p o z y t o r s k i n a k l a w e s y n i in- 388), 254 (389), 336 (477), 341 (485)
s t r u m e n t y ( P W M , K r a k o w 1962) 465 (705), 467 (708) Quartett fur G e i g e , K l a r i n e t t e , T e n o r s a x o p h o n u n d K l a -
Topofonieo n a 40 i n s t r u m e n t 6 w ( P W M , K r a k o w 1962) - v i e r op. 22 ( U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , W i e n 1932) 78 (92), 307
160 (235), 215 (317), 335 (473), 380 (564), 454 (688) (423), 377 (560)
8 utworow n a f o r t e p i a n ( P W M , K r a k o w 1960) 44 (25), 50 5 Sdtze fur S t r e i c h q u a r t e t t op. 5 (Universal Edition
(32), 91 (125), 193 (280), 410 (612) W i e n 1922) 396 (578), 410 (614)
75
 Streichtrio op. 20 (Universal Edition, Wien 1925) 100
(142), 106 (153), 173 (264), 246 (377), 329 (455)
5 Stiicke fiir Orchester op. 10 (Universal Edition, Wien
1923) 214 (314), 329 (458), 354 (515)
Variationen fiir Klavier op. 27 (Universal Edition, Wien
1937) 350 (504, 505, 506) ' (355), 325 (444)
Variationen fiir Orchester op. 30 (Universal Edition, Wien
1956) 252 (386)
Welin Karl-Erik No 3 1961 per 9 strumenti (Verlag Ahn
& Simrock, Paris/Wiesbaden 1961) 220 (328), 328 (451)
Wolff Christian Suite I for prepared piano (C. F. Peters
Corporation, New York 1963) 96 (134), 108 (160), 162 (243)
175 (271), 222 (331), 247 (379)
Xenakls Yannis Achorripsis fiir 21 Instrumente (Bote & Bock
Verlag, Berlin 1958) 100 (141), 112 (167), 135 (210), 232
Pithoprakta fur Orchester von 50 Instrumenten (Boo-
sey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd., London 1957) 234
(358), 427 (642), 440 (664)
ST/10-1, 080262 for 10 instruments (Boosey & Hawkes
Music Publishers Ltd., London 1967) 367 (540)