Factors Affecting Waterflood Pattern
Performance and Selection
PAUL B. CRAWFORD
MEMBER AIME
Abstract
A review is given of the results of early work showing
sweep efficiency and steady-state injection rates for various
types of patterns which may be used for waterflooding
programs. This early work indicated that the sweep ef-
ficiency may be near 72 per cent for the five-spot pattern,
56 per cent for the direct, line-drive square pattern and
//lay range from 45 to 90 per cent for the nine-spot pat-
tern. The results were calculated on the basis that the 1110-
bility ratio was one, the reservoir was uniform and homo-
geneous, steady-state conditions existed, and gravity and
capillary effects could be neglected. In actual flooding
operations it is found that all reservoirs are heterogeneous,
steady-state conditions do not exist, the mobility ratio is
not one, and gravity and capillary phenomena undoubtedly
playa role.
Theoretical calculations show that rock heterogeneities
can cause the sweep efficiency of both the five-spot and
direct, line-drive square patterns to vary from near zero
to 100 per cent. Actual laboratory data have been obtained
to show that the oil recovery by water flooding in depleted
reservoirs results in the production of substantially the
same quantity of oil for the five-spot, direct, line-drive
square pattern and nine-spot pattern for a wide range of
initial fluid saturations. The experimentally observed sweep
efficiency of the five-spot pattern is shown to depend on
the initial connate-water saturation and oil saturation.
Introduction
It is believed quite likely that many of the decisions
affecting the selection of the pattern to be used in water
flooding are based largely on information and conclusions
which were made many years ago. The purpose of this
paper is to review this early work and include recent work
showing various factors which affect the performance of
pattern-type floods. In the mid 1930's Muskat4 and his
associates presented the first analytical solutions showing
the sweep efficiency and injectivity for the five-spot, direct,
line-drive, staggered, seven-spot and nine-spot patterns.
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers
office May 10, 1960. Revised manuscript received Oct. 28, 1960. Paper
presented at Fourth Biennial Secondary Recovery Symposium May 2'-3
1960, in Wichita Falls, Tex. ' ,
4References given at end of paper.
SPE 1503-G
DECEMBER, 1960
TEXAS PETROLEUM RESEARCH COMMITTEE
A&M COLLEGE Of TEXAS
COLLEGE STATION, TEX.
In making these mathematical calculations, it was assumed
that the reservoir was uniform and homogeneous and the
mobility ratio was one, steady-state conditions existed and
gravitational and capillary effects could be neglected.
In reviewing these assumptions, it would appear that
these theoretical results may have limited application to
water flooding in depleted reservoirs because it is well
known that the mobility rate is not unity, that water
flooding results in the creation of a flooded zone and an oil
bank, oil is displaced in a transient potential field and
gravitation and heterogeneities are important. In a discus-
sion of flooding, Muskat points out that "while the steady-
state theory gives an instructive picture of the tendencies
for differential fluid movement over the different parts of a
fluid-injection system and does have applicability to cycling
operations in condensate-producing reservoirs, it will hard-
ly represent even a semiquantitative treatment of the
motion of fluid injected for secondary recovery".'
Calculated Pattern Performance
Injectivity
Fig. 1 shows the relative injection rates (i.e., the pattern
conductivity or pattern injectivity) for various well spacings
for three types of flooding patterns.'" The patterns include
the direct line-drive square pattern, the five-spot pattern
and the seven-spot network. Note that, for well spacings
near 330 ft, the injectivities are of the order of 5.0, 5.4
and 7.0 for the case of the line-drive, five-spot and seven-
spot networks, respectively. Increasing the well spacing to
660 ft decreases the injectivity by about 15 to 20 per cent,
as may be seen on the figure. It is desired to point out
that the "y" axis represents a constant reflecting a com-
bination of rock and fluid properties times the ratio
QI6..P, which represents the barrels input per unit pres-
sure drop. From this study, it is apparent that the five-spot
pattern is superior to the line-drive pattern, but the in-
jectivity of the seven-spot is far superior to both.
Fig. 2 shows the injectivity vs well spacing ratios.' The
three curves shown are for the case of the direct line-drive
with a fixed at 660 ft, the direct line-drive with d fixed
at 660 ft and the staggered line-drive with a fixed at 660
ft. Note that, for the case in which d/ a is equal to 1.0,
the conductivity of the patterns are substantially the same;
11
however, for values of dl a near two, it will be seen that
the direct line-drive with d fixed at 66D ft has greater in-
jectivity than either the direct drive with a fixed at 66D ft
or the staggered drive with a fixed at 660 ft. The con-
ductivity of the five-spot pattern is not shown but cor-
responds to the injectivity of the staggered line-drive for
the special case when dja = 0.5.
If a comparison of the injectivity had been made for the
case in which the well density were the same, it would
be found that the five-spot flood is superior to either the
line-drive or the seven-spot flood. This is true for any well
spacing; however, the differences are not large for very
small well spacings. They do become fairly significant at
the larger well spacings in that the five-spot may be about
10 per cent more conductive than the line-drive or seven-
spot.
Sweep Efficiencies
Line-Drive and Staggered Patterns
Fig. 3 shows the sweep efficiency of the direct and
staggered line-drive patterns for various well spacings" The
abscissa shows the ratio of the distance d to a. The dis-
stance d represents the distance between the line of injec-
tion weIls and the line of producing wells. For the direct
line-drive pattern, it is equal to the distance between the
injection and producing wells. However, for the staggered
line-drive pattern, d becomes equal to the distance between
the line or rows of injection wells and the rows of pro-
ducing wells. The value a represents the distance between
l0r----------------------------------------------,
adjacent input wells or the distance between adjacent out-
put wells. The ordinate shows the sweep efficiency, or the
area swept at water breakthrough divided by the total
area of a unit pattern. Notice that, for the case in which
dl a = 0.6, the sweep efficiency or area swept at water
breakthrough may be either 37 or 73 per cent depending
on whether a direct line-drive or staggered line-drive pat-
tern is operated. For the direct line-drive or square pat-
tern, dja is equal to one and has a sweep efficiency near
56 per cent, compared to a sweep efficiency of near 77
per cent for the staggered line-drive pattern. For very
large values of dja, the sweep efficiencies may be as high
as 90 per cent.
Five-Spot Pattern
The five-spot pattern has a sweep efficiency of about
72 per cent. The sweep efficiency is substantially indepen-
dent of the well spacing or well diameter for most of the
present waterflooding applications.
Nine-Spot Pattern
In 1948, Muskat reported on the sweep efficiency of
nine-spot flooding networks.' Muskat pointed out that the
sweep efficiency depended largely on the ratio of flow at
two wells (shown as q3 and q2 in Fig. 4). The minimum
sweep efficiency was 50 per cent. If the rate of production
Well No.3. When the flow ratio q,! q2 was about 3.0, the
sweep efficiency was 50 per cent. If the rate of production
at Well No.3 was about 10.6 times that at Well No.2,
100,-----------------------------------------------,

90
_--_--=======1
Seven-Spot Network
.-; Staggered lme Dnve __ ....
Ii
,-
80

70
Uniform and hom~us media
/ Direct lme Dnve
0' dlslonc~ between odJoct'nl
Input wells

------ ---------J
60
d' distance between the lme
of mjectlon wells and the
Ime of producing wells

Five - Spol Network '0

40
line Dnve - Square Pollern

Well SpOCin9 Ratio - d /0

Fig. I-Effect of well spacing on injectivity.' Fi,g. 3-Effect of well spacing ratio on sweep efficiency.'

5.6 120.--- -----------------------------------------,

5.2
" "' __ Staggered Dnve with 100
"" Q Filed at 660Ft

"
" ~ 80
r
"
15
Direct Onve with <3
.0 2 .0 3
d Fi)(ed at 660 Ft
~ 60

~-Q---1 f
r . "-
w
w
;0
40 q! .0 2
d "'
36 L DIRECT
~
,;
20 .0'
Direct Dnvewlth/
Q Fixed at 660 Ft. NINE SPOT
3.2

Fig. 4-Effect of producing ratios on sweep efficienc~

Fig. 2-Effect of well spacing ratio on injectivity.s of nine-spot pattern!

12 .JOURN,\L OF PETROLEIJM TECHN()LO(;Y

the sweep efficiency of the nine-spot reached a maximum 100~-------------------------------,
of 78 per cent. When this producing ratio exceeded 30,
it was equivalent to shutting-in Well No.2, and the sweep
efficiency approached that of the five-spot, or 72 per cent.
90
Field Calculations
Tables 1 and 2 show comparisons of field results for
various modes of operation. The tables were originally
presented by Muskat and are based on the theoretical ~ 80
operating conditions. I
~
o
Z
Balancing Injection Rates ILl
(3
In water flooding five-spot patterns, it seems important iL: 70
~
to balance the injection rate so that premature break- ILl
through does not occur from an injection well long before a..
ILl
water reaches the well from an adjacent input well. Fig. 5 ILl
shows the effect of unequal injection rates on the sweep ~ 60
efficiency of the five-spot pattern. Note that, as the injec-
tion ratio q,/ q, varies from zero to 1.0, the sweep efficiency
varies from 45 to 72 per cent.' The low value of 45 per
cent results as the stream lines cross the normal boundaries
when q, is reduced.
Effect oj Mobility Ratio 40L-____ ____
~ _____L_ _ _ _- L____
~ ~

Dyes, Caudle and Erickson presented the results of o 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
an extensive study showing the effect of mobility ratio on INJECTION RATIO -ql/q2
the swept area and fractional water cut for the five-spot,
Fig. 5-Effect of unequal injection rates on sweep
direct, line-drive square pattern and the staggered line- efficiency of five-spot pattern.
drive patterns: In performing the work there was no gas
saturation and there was 100 per cent liquid fill-up when
the water was first injected. me ability in the east-west direction differs from that in
the north-south direction, the sweep efficiency may vary
Fig. 6 shows a comparison of the swept area for the from near zero to 72 per cent for the five-spot pattern.
five-spot and direct, line-drive square patterns: The abscis- This is shown in Fig. 7. The sweep efficiencies are restric-
sa shows the mobility of the fluids in the unswept region ted to the orientations shown, as a 45 rotation could
divided by the mobility in the waterflooded region. At result in a near-zero sweep for the line-drive and 100
breakthrough, the five-spot is definitely superior to the line- per cent sweep for the five-spot pattern.
drive. After injecting 2.0 pore volumes of water, the swept
areas were substantially the same for mobility ratios of
0.4 and greater.* Actual WaterOood Results

Heterogeneous Reservoirs Five-Spot and Direct Line-Drive Patterns

Reservoir heterogeneities can have an appreciable effect A laboratory study has been made to compare the oil
on the sweep efficiency of flooding patterns. If the per- recoveries of the five-spot, direct, line-drive square pattern
and the nine-spot pattern. The model was 10 X 10 X Y2-
in. thick. An unconsolidated sand was used. The initial
*Since this work was presented, AIME symbols and nomenclature connate water, oil saturation and oil viscosity were varied.
have inverted th" definition of mobility ratio as first used by Dyes.
Caudle and Erickson. Fig. 8 shows a comparison of the oil recovered by water
flooding the five-spot and line-drive square pattern. The
TABLE l-THE RELATIVE EFFICIENCIES OF VARIOUS FLOODING NETWORKS initial water saturation was 25 per cent. The oil-water vis-
Relative
Production
cosity ratio was 1.6. For the figure presented, the initial
Rate (Con. oil-in-place was 35, 50 and 65 per cent of the pore space.
ductivity
For Equal Flood Note that after injection of 2.0 pore volumes of water the
Well/Acre Efficiency
Type of Network Densities) (per ce".!!.
oil recoveries were about the same, independent of pat-
Staggered Line-drive tern, when the initial oil saturation was 50 per cent or less.
d/o = 1.50, a = 539 It, d = 808 ft 0.383 80.0 For the higher oil saturation, fill-up was obtained more
Five-spot Array, ds = 660 ft 0.433 72.3
Regular line-drive, dlo = 1.50; quickly and the five-spot was definitely superior for the
a = 539 ft; d= 808 ft 0.383 70.6
conditions studied.
Seven-spot Array, d7 = 709 ft 0.378 74.0

TABLE 2-COMPARISON OF VARIOUS FLOODING NETWORKS FOR A SPECIFIC FLOODING PROGRAMS

Total area of tracts, 1000 acreSi total number of wells, 400; total pressure differential, 1,000 fb; sand thickness, 40 fti sand permeability, 0.01 darey; sand porosity,
, 10 per cent; effective oil-water viscosity, 10 cpo

Rate
of Time
Fluid to Total
Input- Input- Input Reach Water-free
No. No. Input Output or Output Flood Oil
Input Output Spacing Spacing Output Wells Efficiency Prod.
Wells Wells (ltl _(_It_I__ (B/DI (yrsl (per centl (10 bbll
Staggered line-drive, d/o
Direct Line-drive, d =0
1.50 200
200
200
200
270
330
426
330
3776
4094
~.

11.8
ao:o-
57.0
~
1.77
five-spot 200 200 467 330 4305 14.3 72.3 2.25
Seven-spot 267 133 355 355 3765 16.7 74.0 2.30

DECEMBER, 1960 13
N'ine-Spot-Five-Spot Patterns
A two-stage modified nine-spot injection program was
studied by Smith and Nobles using an electrical network:
In their two-stage technique, the streamlines and isopoten-
tials were constant for a single stage; but, ~n the second
stage of the injection program, a separate field of stream-
lines and isopotentials existed. By use of a two-stage nine-
spot displacement method, Smith and Nobles found that
a sweep efficiency of 90 per cent could be obtained. This
high sweep efficiency resulted when in the initial stage the
center well was an injection well and in the final stage
a side well was the sole injection well.
From a review of the literature, it is apparent that the
sweep efficiency of the nine-spot pattern may range from
near 45 per cent to 90 per cent depending on the produc-
ing-injection scheduling techniques. In view of the possible
limited application of steady-state results to depleted water
floods, it appeared desirable that actual laboratory flood-
ing programs be conducted in porous media to evaluate
several nine-spot injection-producing schedules to supple-
ment the theoretical work and provide additional infor-
mation on the relative efficiency of the five-spot compared
with the nine-spot pattern in a transient displacement pro-
gram.
A study was made to simulate and compare the flooding
efficiencies in the five-spot and the nine-spot pattern.! In
one particular method of operation, the center well was the
injection well and Well No.2 was produced until water
breakthrough; then, the well was shut in and the No. 2
well used was a sole injection well. Results of this par-
ticular case are shown in Fig. 9. This particular flood
was conducted for the case in which the oil-water viscosity
ratio was 1.6, the initial connate-water saturation ranged
from 8 to 10 per cent and the initial oil saturation ranged
from 35 to 63 per cent, as shown on the figure. The cumu-
lative oil produced in terms of per cent pore volume is
shown as the ordinate.
The abscissa shows the water injection in terms of per
cent pore volume of the pattern. The solid lines on the
curve show the performance for the nine-spot curve pat-
tern. The dashed lines on the curve show the performance
or oil recovery for the five-spot pattern. In reviewing this
figure, it will be noted that, for initial oil saturations rang-
ing from 35 to near 50 per cent, there was very little
difference in the cumulative oil produced whether the nine-
spot or the five-spot pattern was used; however, for the
case in which there was greater fill-up initially (i.e., where
1oor-------------~----------------~----------_,
2.0 Pore Volumes
Water ~ /.
90 J/\/
.. 80 _ _ Direct Une Drive
."' ___ Five Spot
II:
."'
.. 70
I-
~ I
II: 60
"'
~
50
40~~------~----~~--------~----~~------_;40
0.1 0.4
MOBILITY IN UNSWEPT
Fig. 6-Comparison of swept areas in direct-line-drive
and five-spot patterns:
14
the oil saturation was slightly higher initally), the nine-
spot performance was slightly superior to the performance
of the five-spot. However, the differences at water-oil
ratios greater than 50:1 were found to be very small.
Similar-type studies were made with other operating
schedules for the nine-spot pattern and for various oil-
water viscosity ratios; but, in general, it was found that
there was very little effect of scheduling technique on the
oil recovery (i.e., the five-spot performance was very
similar to that of the nine-spot, practically independent of
the method in which the nine-spot was operated). This was
not true in the early oil recoveries where the nine-spot
pattern was superior to the five-spot, but for high water-
oil ratios there appeared to be very little difference in the
recovery.
Sweep Efficiencies
In performing the laboratory waterflooding tests, it was
found that the sweep efficiency or swept area when water
broke through depended on the initial oil, water and gas
saturation: If the initial oil saturation remained constant
and only the quantity of connate water and free-gas satu-
ration varied, it was found that the sweep efficiency in-
creased as the connate water decreased.
If the connate water was maintained constant and the
initial oil and free-gas saturations varied, it was found
that the sweep efficiency increased as the initial oil satu-
ration decreased. These results appear proper inasmuch
as radial flow is maintained for a greater period of time for
lower initial liquid saturations; and, during radial displace-
ment, the sweep efficiency is independent of the flooding
well pattern.
Discussion
At the present time very little information has been
presented in the literature on the quantitative effects of
reservoir heterogeneities, gravitational phenomena, capillary
80
70
>-
u
z 60
w
~
lJ..
lJ..
W 50
Il.
W
W
~ 40
LlNEnRIVE
r-=-(J'-'---,
I I
II <kNEII
I
k I
L--o-_w
o 3.5
Fig. 7-Effect of directional perllleability on
sweep efficiency.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 OOI.---------------------------------------~ w GOr----------------------~
~ J.1 1il- "I.6 - - - - Performonce of Five -Spot Schedule -53
0 w
1;) <5 __________ 5 " 63.".
~ > 50 - 0
::> w ; _~==4==:=:===-c'----sw" 9.65%
...Jso ~
~ I-
UJ ~ 40
a:
oQ.
!!40
I /
/'
",,-- -- _ - - - - - - - - - ---65

65 ~
8 30
o
UJ / "o;5
<> I
1530 / '"-'a. 20
______~" 35.0~

o
a: / o Sw:"IO.O't
Q. w
/ >
...J
6
I
I
~
S 10
... 20
2: I Oil Saturatioy "
::>

~ I (% P.V.l "
:5 ! ? - - Direct Line Drive
3S0

~IO
<> - - - Five Spot
Fig. 9-Comparison of nine-spot and five-spot
performances.

280
Fig. 8--Comparison between five-spot and
direct-line-drive square performances.
effects, wettability, interfacial properties, etc., on oil re-
covered by water flooding. In actual laboratory water
flooding in stratified sands, it has been found that the esti-
mation of the water rate in layered systems using recom-
mended techniques may range from 10 to 3,000 per cent
of the actually observed flooding rates. It is readily ap-
parent that considerable work is yet to be done before
the detailed results to be expected in flooding actual reser-
voirs can be predicted with a reasonable degree of confi-
dence in many cases.
References
1. Cotman, N. T., Still, G. R. and Crawford, Paul B.: "Labora
tory Comparison of Oil Recovery in FiveSpot and NineSpot
Waterflood Patterns", Report No. AM 5921, TPRC (Jan. 4,
1960) unpublished.
2. Muskat M.: "The Theory of Nine-Spot Flooding Networks",
Prod. Monthly (March, 1948) 12, 14.
3. Smith, H. W. and Nobles, M. A.: "Two Stage Modified Nine-
Spot Flooding Procedure", Prod. Monthly (Dec., 1958) 33.
4. Muskat, M.: Physical Priniciples of Oil Production, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., N. Y. (1949).
5. Dyes, A. B., Caudle, B. H. and Brickson, R. A.: "Oil Produc-
tion After Breakthrough-as Influenced by Mobility Ratio",
Trans., AIME (1954) 201, 8l.
6. Talash, A. W., Pruitt, G. T. and Crawford, Paul B.: "Labora-
tory Performance of Five-Spot Floods", Report No. AM 59-17,
TPRC (Oct. 24, 1959) unpublished.
7. Muskat, M.: Flow of Homogeneous Fluids, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., N. Y. (1937).
8. Muskat, M. and Wyckoff, R. D.: "A Theretical Anaylsis of
Water-Flooding Networks", Trans., AIME (1933) 107, 62.
***
EDITOR'S NOTE: A PICTURE AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF PAUL B. CRAWFORD WERE PUBLISHED IN THE OCT, 1960
ISSUE OF JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY.

DECEMBER, 196<1 IS