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1. Scope 1.6 Although no definitive upper limit can be given for the
1.1 This test method establishes the criteria for the labora- magnitude of specimen conductance that is measurable on a
tory measurement of the steady-state heat flux through flat, guarded-hot-plate, for practical reasons the specimen conduc-
homogeneous specimen(s) when their surfaces are in contact tance should be less than 16 W/(m2K).
with solid, parallel boundaries held at constant temperatures 1.7 This test method is applicable to the measurement of a
using the guarded-hot-plate apparatus. wide variety of specimens, ranging from opaque solids to
1.2 The test apparatus designed for this purpose is known as porous or transparent materials, and a wide range of environ-
a guarded-hot-plate apparatus and is a primary (or absolute) mental conditions including measurements conducted at ex-
method. This test method is comparable, but not identical, to tremes of temperature and with various gases and pressures.
ISO 8302. 1.8 Inhomogeneities normal to the heat flux direction, such
1.3 This test method sets forth the general design require- as layered structures, can be successfully evaluated using this
ments necessary to construct and operate a satisfactory test method. However, testing specimens with inhomogeneities
guarded-hot-plate apparatus. It covers a wide variety of appa- in the heat flux direction, such as an insulation system with
ratus constructions, test conditions, and operating conditions. thermal bridges, can yield results that are location specific and
Detailed designs conforming to this test method are not given shall not be attempted with this type of apparatus. See Test
but must be developed within the constraints of the general Method C1363 for guidance in testing these systems.
requirements. Examples of analysis tools, concepts and proce- 1.9 Calculations of thermal transmission properties based
dures used in the design, construction, calibration and opera- upon measurements using this method shall be performed in
tion of a guarded-hot-plate apparatus are given in Refs (1-41).2 conformance with Practice C1045.
1.4 This test method encompasses both the single-sided and 1.10 In order to ensure the level of precision and accuracy
the double-sided modes of measurement. Both distributed and expected, persons applying this standard must possess a
line source guarded heating plate designs are permitted. The knowledge of the requirements of thermal measurements and
user should consult the standard practices on the single-sided testing practice and of the practical application of heat transfer
mode of operation, Practice C1044, and on the line source theory relating to thermal insulation materials and systems.
apparatus, Practice C1043, for further details on these heater Detailed operating procedures, including design schematics
designs. and electrical drawings, should be available for each apparatus
1.5 The guarded-hot-plate apparatus can be operated with to ensure that tests are in accordance with this test method. In
either vertical or horizontal heat flow. The user is cautioned addition, automated data collecting and handling systems
however, since the test results from the two orientations may be connected to the apparatus must be verified as to their
different if convective heat flow occurs within the specimens. accuracy. This can be done by calibration and inputting data
sets, which have known results associated with them, into
computer programs.
1
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee C16 on Thermal
Insulation and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee C16.30 on Thermal 1.11 It is not practical for a test method of this type to
Measurement. establish details of design and construction and the procedures
Current edition approved Sept. 15, 2013. Published October 2013. Originally to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a
approved in 1942. Last previous edition approved in 2010 as C177 10 . DOI:
person without technical knowledge concerning theory of heat
10.1520/C0177-13.
2
The boldface numbers given in parentheses refer to the list of references at the flow, temperature measurements and general testing practices.
end of this standard. The user may also find it necessary, when repairing or
Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
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modifying the apparatus, to become a designer or builder, or 2. Referenced Documents
both, on whom the demands for fundamental understanding 2.1 ASTM Standards:3
and careful experimental technique are even greater. Standard- C168 Terminology Relating to Thermal Insulation
ization of this test method is not intended to restrict in any way C518 Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Transmission
the future development of new or improved apparatus or Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus
procedures. C687 Practice for Determination of Thermal Resistance of
1.12 This test method does not specify all details necessary Loose-Fill Building Insulation
for the operation of the apparatus. Decisions on sampling, C1043 Practice for Guarded-Hot-Plate Design Using Circu-
specimen selection, preconditioning, specimen mounting and lar Line-Heat Sources
positioning, the choice of test conditions, and the evaluation of C1044 Practice for Using a Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus or
test data shall follow applicable ASTM Test Methods, Guides, Thin-Heater Apparatus in the Single-Sided Mode
Practices or Product Specifications or governmental regula- C1045 Practice for Calculating Thermal Transmission Prop-
tions. If no applicable standard exists, sound engineering erties Under Steady-State Conditions
judgment that reflects accepted heat transfer principles must be C1058 Practice for Selecting Temperatures for Evaluating
used and documented. and Reporting Thermal Properties of Thermal Insulation
1.13 This test method allows a wide range of apparatus C1363 Test Method for Thermal Performance of Building
design and design accuracy to be used in order to satisfy the Materials and Envelope Assemblies by Means of a Hot
requirements of specific measurement problems. Compliance Box Apparatus
with this test method requires a statement of the uncertainty of E230 Specification and Temperature-Electromotive Force
each reported variable in the report. A discussion of the (EMF) Tables for Standardized Thermocouples
significant error factors involved is included. E691 Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to
Determine the Precision of a Test Method
1.14 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as 2.2 ISO Standard:
standard. No other units of measurement are included in this ISO 8302 Thermal InsulationDetermination of Steady-
standard. State Areal Thermal Resistance and Related Properties
1.15 This standard does not purport to address all of the Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus4
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the 2.3 ASTM Adjuncts:ASTM
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- Table of Theoretical Maximum Thickness of Specimens
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- and Associated Errors5
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific precau- Descriptions of Three Guarded-Hot-Plate Designs5
tionary statements are given in Note 21. Line-Heat-Source Guarded Hot-Plate Apparatus6
1.16 Major sections within this test method are arranged as
follows: 3. Terminology
Section Section 3.1 Definitions:
Scope 1 3.1.1 For definitions of terms and symbols used in this test
Referenced Documents 2
method, refer to Terminology C168 and the following subsec-
Terminology 3
Summary of Test Method 4 tions.
Significance and Use 5 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
Apparatus 6
Specimen Preparation and Conditioning 7
3.2.1 auxiliary cold surface assembly, n the plate that
Procedure 8 provides an isothermal boundary at the outside surface of the
Calculation of Results 9 auxiliary insulation.
Report 10
Precision and Bias 11 3.2.2 auxiliary insulation, ninsulation placed on the back
Keywords 12 side of the hot-surface assembly, in place of a second test
Figures
General Arrangement of the Mechanical Components of the Guarded- Fig. 1
specimen, when the single sided mode of operation is used.
Hot-Plate Apparatus (Synonymbackflow specimen.)
Illustration of Heat Flow in the Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus Fig.2
Example Report Form Fig. 3
3.2.3 cold surface assembly, nthe plates that provide an
Annexes isothermal boundary at the cold surfaces of the test specimen.
Importance of Thickness A1.1
Measuring Thickness A1.2
3
Limitations Due to Apparatus A1.3 For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Limitations Due to Temperature A1.4 contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Limitations Due to Specimen A1.5 Standards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page on
Random and Systematic Error Components A1.6 the ASTM website.
Error Components for Variables A1.7 4
Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St.,
Thermal Conductance or Thermal Resistance Error Analysis A1.8 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, http://www.ansi.org.
Thermal Conductivity or Thermal Resistivity Error Analysis A1.9 5
Available from ASTM Headquarters, Order Adjunct: ADJC0177.
Uncertainty Verification A1.10 6
Available from ASTM Headquarters, Order Adjunct: ADJC1043.
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3.2.4 controlled environment, nthe environment in which
an apparatus operates.
3.2.5 guard, npromotes one-dimensional heat flow. Pri-
mary guards are planar, additional coplanar guards can be used
and secondary or edge guards are axial.
3.2.6 guarded-hot-plate apparatus, nan assembly, con-
sisting of a hot surface assembly and two isothermal cold
surface assemblies.
3.2.7 guarded-hot-plate, nthe inner (rectangular or circu-
lar) plate of the hot surface assembly, that provides the heat
input to the metered section of the specimen(s).
3.2.8 hot surface/assembly, nthe complete center assem-
bly providing heat to the specimen(s) and guarding for the
meter section.
3.2.9 metered section, nthe portion of the test specimen
(or auxiliary insulation) through which the heat input to the
guarded-hot-plate flows under ideal guarding conditions.
3.2.10 mode, double-sided, noperation of the guarded-
hot-plate apparatus for testing two specimens, each specimen
placed on either side of the hot surface assembly.
3.2.11 mode, single-sided, noperation of the guarded-hot- FIG. 1 General Arrangement of the Mechanical Components of
plate apparatus for testing one specimen, placed on one side of the Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus
the hot-surface assembly.
3.2.12 thermal transmission properties, n those properties 3.3.18 qheat flux (heat flow rate per unit area), Q, through
of a material or system that define the ability of a material or area, A, W/m2.
system to transfer heat such as thermal resistance, thermal 3.3.19 Qgelateral edge heat flow rate between primary
conductance, thermal conductivity and thermal resistivity, as Guard and Controlled Environment, W.
defined by Terminology C168.
3.3.20 Qgplateral heat flow rate across the gap, W.
3.3 SymbolsThe symbols used in this test method have
3.3.21 Qgrdguard heat flow through Specimen, W.
the following significance:
3.3.1 m specimen metered section density, kg/m3. 3.3.22 Qseedge heat flow between Specimen and Con-
trolled Environment, W.
3.3.2 sspecimen density, kg/m3.
3.3.23 Rthermal resistance, m2 K/W.
3.3.3 thermal conductivity, W/(m K).
3.3.24 Ttemperature difference across the specimen,
3.3.4 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, W/m2 K4.
Th Tc.
3.3.5 Ametered section area normal to heat flow, m2. 3.3.25 Tccold surface temperature, K.
3.3.6 Agarea of the gap between the metered section and 3.3.26 Thhot surface temperature, K.
the primary guard, m2.
3.3.27 Tmmean temperature, K, (Th + Tc)/2.
3.3.7 Amarea of the actual metered section, m2. 3.3.27.1 Discussion The Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus
3.3.8 Asarea of the total specimen, m2. provides a means for measurement of steady state heat flux
3.3.9 Cthermal conductance, W/(m2 K). through insulation materials, that consists of a guarded heater
unit, comprised of a center metering area and concentric
3.3.10 Cithe specific heat of the ith component of the separately heated guards, and an opposite, similarly sized
metered section, J/(kg K). cooling plate. Specimens are placed in the space between the
3.3.11 dT/dtpotential or actual drift rate of the metered heater plate and the cooling plate for testing. The guarded-hot-
section, K/s. plate is operated as a single or double sided apparatus.
3.3.12 gthermal conductivity of the material in the pri- Insulation thermal properties are calculated from measure-
mary guard region, W/(m K). ments of metering area, energy input, temperatures, and
thickness. The guarded-hot-plate, which provides an absolute
3.3.13 Lin-situ specimen thickness, m. measurement of heat flux, has been shown to be applicable for
3.3.14 mmass of the specimen in the metered section, kg. most insulating materials over a wide range of temperature
3.3.15 mithe mass of the ith component, kg. conditions.
3.3.16 msmass of the specimen, kg. 4. Summary of Test Method
3.3.17 Qheat flow rate in the metered section, W. 4.1 Fig. 1 illustrates the main components of the idealized
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double-sided mode of operation. In practice, because the plates
and specimens are of finite dimensions, and because the
external controlled environment is often at a temperature
different from the edge of the metered section, some lateral
heat flow occurs. The primary guard for the guarded hot plate
limits the magnitude of the lateral heat flow in the metered
section. The effectiveness of the primary guard is determined,
in part, by the ratio of its lateral dimension to that of the
metered section and to the specimen thickness (6,7,8,20,31).
4.3 Compliance with this test method requires: the estab-
lishment of steady-state conditions, and the measurement of
the unidirectional heat flow Q in the metered section, the
metered section area A, the temperature gradient across the
specimen, in terms of the temperature Th of the hot surface and
the temperature Tc of the cold surface, (or equivalently, the
temperature T between the two surfaces), the thickness L1 and
FIG. 2 Illustration of Idealized Heat Flow in a Guarded-Hot-Plate L2 of each specimen, and guard balance between the metered
Apparatus
section and primary guard.
system: two isothermal cold surface assemblies and a guarded- 5. Significance and Use
hot-plate. It is possible that some apparatuses will have more 5.1 This test method covers the measurement of heat flux
than one guard. The guarded-hot-plate is composed of a and associated test conditions for flat specimens. The guarded-
metered section thermally isolated from a concentric primary hot-plate apparatus is generally used to measure steady-state
guard by a definite separation or gap. Some apparatus may heat flux through materials having a low thermal conductiv-
have more than one guard. The test specimen is sandwiched ity and commonly denoted as thermal insulators. Acceptable
between these three units as shown in Fig. 1. In the double- measurement accuracy requires a specimen geometry with a
sided mode of measurement, the specimen is actually com- large ratio of area to thickness.
posed of two pieces. The measurement in this case produces a
result that is the average of the two pieces and therefore it is 5.2 Two specimens are selected with their thickness, areas,
important that the two pieces be closely identical. For guidance and densities as identical as possible, and one specimen is
in the use of the one-sided mode of measurement, the user is placed on each side of the guarded-hot-plate. The faces of the
directed to Practice C1044. For guidance in the use of a specimens opposite the guarded-hot-plate and primary guard
guarded-hot-plate incorporating the use of a line source heater, are placed in contact with the surfaces of the cold surface
refer to Practice C1043. assemblies.
4.1.1 The guarded-hot-plate provides the power (heat flow 5.3 Steady-state heat transmission through thermal insula-
per unit time) for the measurement and defines the actual test tors is not easily measured, even at room temperature. This is
volume, that is, that portion of the specimen that is actually due to the fact heat transmission through a specimen occurs by
being measured. The function of the primary guard, and any or all of three separate modes of heat transfer (radiation,
additional coplanar guard where applicable, of the guarded- conduction, and convection). It is possible that any inhomoge-
hot-plate apparatus is to provide the proper thermal conditions neity or anisotropy in the specimen will require special
within the test volume to reduce lateral heat flow within the experimental precautions to measure that flow of heat. In some
apparatus. The proper (idealized) conditions are illustrated in cases it is possible that hours or even days will be required to
Fig. 1 by the configuration of the isothermal surfaces and lines achieve the thermal steady-state. No guarding system can be
of constant heat flux within the specimen. constructed to force the metered heat to pass only through the
4.1.2 Deviations from the idealized configuration are caused test area of insulation specimen being measured. It is possible
by: specimen inhomogeneities, temperature differences be- that moisture content within the material will cause transient
tween the metered section and the guard (gap imbalance), and behavior. It is also possible that and physical or chemical
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temperature differences between the outer edge of the assembly change in the material with time or environmental condition
and the surrounding controlled environment (edge imbalance). will permanently alter the specimen.
These experimental realities lead to heat flow measurements 5.4 Application of this test method on different test insula-
that are too small or too large because the power supplied to the tions requires that the designer make choices in the design
metered section is not exactly equal to that which flows selection of materials of construction and measurement and
through the specimen in the metered section. The resulting control systems. Thus it is possible that there will be different
qualitative heat flows are depicted in Fig. 2. designs for the guarded-hot-plate apparatus when used at
4.2 The three heating/cooling assemblies are designed to ambient versus cryogenic or high temperatures. Test thickness,
create isothermal surfaces on the faces of the specimens within temperature range, temperature difference range, ambient con-
the metered section. The two surfaces designated as the cold ditions and other system parameters must also be selected
surface assemblies are adjusted to the same temperature for the during the design phase. Annex A1 is referenced to the user,
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which addresses such issues as limitations of the apparatus, consists of a hot surface assembly comprised of a metered
thickness measurement considerations and measurement section and a primary guard, two cold surface assemblies, and
uncertainties, all of which must be considered in the design and secondary guarding in the form of edge insulation, a
operation of the apparatus. temperature-controlled secondary guard(s), and often an envi-
5.5 Apparatus constructed and operated in accordance with ronmental chamber. Some of the components illustrated in Fig.
this test method should be capable of accurate measurements 1 are omitted in systems designed for ambient conditions,
for its design range of application. Since this test method is although a controlled laboratory environment is still required;
applicable to a wide range of specimen characteristics, test edge insulation and the secondary guard are typically used only
conditions, and apparatus design, it is impractical to give an at temperatures that are more than 6 10C from ambient. At
all-inclusive statement of precision and bias for the test ambient conditions, the environmental chamber is recom-
method. Analysis of the specific apparatus used is required to mended to help eliminate the effects of air movement within
specify a precision and bias for the reported results. For this the laboratory and to help ensure that a dry environment is
reason, conformance with the test method requires that the user maintained.
must estimate and report the uncertainty of the results under the 6.1.1 The purpose of the hot surface assembly is to produce
reported test conditions. a steady-state, one-dimensional heat flux through the speci-
5.6 Qualification of a new apparatus. When a new or mens. The purpose of the edge insulation, secondary guard,
modified design is developed, tests shall be conducted on at and environmental chamber is to restrict heat losses from the
least two materials of known thermal stability and having outer edge of the primary guard. The cold surface assemblies
verified or calibrated properties traceable to a national stan- are isothermal heat sinks for removing the energy generated by
dards laboratory. Tests shall be conducted for at least two sets the heating units; the cold surface assemblies are adjusted so
of temperature conditions that cover the operating range for the they are at the same temperature.
apparatus. If the differences between the test results and the 6.2 Design CriteriaEstablish specifications for the follow-
national standards laboratory characterization are determined ing specifications prior to the design. Various parameters
to be significant, then the source of the error shall, if possible, influence the design of the apparatus and shall be considered
be identified. Only after successful comparison with the throughout the design process, maximum specimen thickness;
certified samples, can the apparatus claim conformance with range of specimen thermal conductances; range of hot surface
this test method. It is recommended that checks be continued and cold surface temperatures; characteristics of the specimens
on a periodic basis to confirm continued conformance of the (that is, rigidity, density, hardness); orientation of the apparatus
apparatus. (vertical or horizontal heat flow); and required accuracy.
5.7 The thermal transmission properties of a specimen of 6.3 Hot Surface AssemblyThe hot surface assembly con-
material have the potential to be affected due to the following sists of a central metered section and a primary guard. The
factors: (a) composition of the material (b) moisture or other
metered section consists of a metered section heater sand-
environmental conditions (c) time or temperature exposure (d)
wiched between metered section surface plates. The primary
thickness (e) temperature difference across the specimen (f)
guard is comprised of one or more guard heaters sandwiched
mean temperature. It must be recognized, therefore, that the
between primary guard surface plates. The metered section and
selection of a representative value of thermal transmission
primary guard shall be thermally isolated from each other by
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difference across any surface plate in the lateral direction shall that the temperature difference requirements specified in
be less than 2 % of the temperature difference imposed across 6.3.1.2 are satisfied. Bolting the composite constructions to-
the specimen. gether has been found satisfactory.
NOTE 3When qualifying the apparatus, additional temperature sen- 6.3.2.5 The insertion of insulating sheets between the heat-
sors shall be applied to the surface plates of the metered section and ing elements and surface plates (that is, to mount a gap
primary guards that verify that the requirements of 6.3.1.2 are satisfied. temperature imbalance detector) is allowed. To satisfy the
6.3.1.3 The surfaces of the metered and primary guard requirements of 6.3.1.2, similar sheets shall be mounted
surface plates that are in contact with the test specimen shall be between the heating element and the opposing surface plate.
treated to maintain a total hemispherical emittance greater than 6.3.2.6 Hot Surface Assembly SizeDesign criteria estab-
0.8 over the entire range of operating conditions. lished in 6.2 will determine the size of the apparatus. The size
of the metered section shall be large enough so that the amount
NOTE 4At high temperatures the importance of high emittance of the of specimen material in contact with the metered section (and
surfaces adjacent to the specimens cannot be stressed too strongly since
radiative heat transfer predominates in many materials as the temperature therefore being measured) can be considered representative of
increases. the material being tested.
6.3.1.4 The metered section and primary guard surface 6.3.2.7 After determining the maximum specimen thickness
plates shall remain planar during the operation of the appara- that will be tested by this design, refer to Adjunct, Table of
tus. See 6.3.1.1. Theoretical Maximum Thickness of Specimens and Associated
6.3.2 MaterialsThe materials used in the construction of Errors, regarding associated errors attributable to combinations
the hot surface assembly shall be carefully chosen after of metered section size, primary guard width, and specimen
considering the following material property criteria. thickness.
6.3.2.1 Temperature StabilityMaterials are selected for the NOTE 5 Typically the width of the primary guard equal to approxi-
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heaters and surface plates that are dimensionally and chemi- mately one-half of the linear dimension of the metered section has been
cally stable and suitably strong to withstand warpage and found to reduce edge heat loss to acceptable levels.
distortion when a clamping force is applied. For modest 6.3.2.8 Heat CapacitanceThe heat capacity of the hot
temperatures, electric resistance heaters embedded in silicone surface assembly will impact the time required to achieve
have been successfully employed; at higher temperatures, thermal equilibrium. Selecting materials with a low specific
heating elements sandwiched between mica sheets or inserted heat will increase the responsiveness of the apparatus. The
into a ceramic core have been used. Surface plates for hot thickness of the surface plates needs to be carefully considered;
surface assemblies used at modest temperatures have been thick plates assist in reducing lateral temperature distributions
fabricated from copper and aluminum. High purity nickel but reduce responsiveness. A balance between these require-
alloys have been used for higher temperature applications. ments is needed.
6.3.2.2 Thermal ConductivityTo reduce the lateral tem-
perature differences across the metered and primary guard 6.4 The GapThe metered section and the primary guard
surface plates, fabricate these plates from materials that pos- shall be physically separated by a gap. The gap provides a
sess a high thermal conductivity for the temperature and lateral thermal resistance between these sections of the hot
environmental conditions of operation. Copper and aluminum surface assembly. The area of the gap in the plane of the
are excellent choices for modest temperature applications; at surface plates shall not be more than 5 % of the metered
higher temperatures consider using nickel, high purity alumina section area.
or aluminum nitride. These are examples of materials used and 6.4.1 The heater windings from the metered section and
the operator must fully understand the thermal conductivity primary guard heating elements shall be designed to create a
versus temperature dependency of the materials selected. uniform temperature along the gap perimeter.
6.3.2.3 EmittanceTo obtain a uniform and durable high 6.4.2 The metered section area shall be determined by
surface emittance in the desired range, select a surface plate measurements to the center of the gap that surrounds this area,
material or suitable surface treatment, or both. For modest unless detailed calculations or tests are used to define this area
temperature applications, high emittance paints may be em- more precisely.
ployed. Aluminum can be anodized to provide the necessary 6.4.3 Any connections between the metered section and the
high emittance. For high temperature applications, most ce- primary guard shall be designed to minimize heat flow across
ramics will inherently satisfy this requirement while nickel the gap. If a mechanical means is used to satisfy the require-
surface plates can be treated with an oxide coating. ments of 6.3.1.4, these connections shall be fabricated with
6.3.2.4 Temperature UniformitySelect a heating element materials having a high thermal resistance. Instrumentation or
design that will supply the necessary heat flux density for the heater leads that cross the gap should be fabricated with
range of specimen thermal conductances to be investigated. fine-gage wire and traverse the gap at an oblique angle.
The design of the heating element shall also consider the heat 6.4.4 The gap may be filled with a fibrous insulation.
flux distribution of the surface of the heating element. Most Packing the gap with this insulation has been found to maintain
apparatus incorporate the use of a distributed electric resistance the metered section and primary guard surface plates planar.
heating element dispersed uniformly across the metered section An additional benefit of this practice for high temperature
and the primary guard. The surface plates and heating elements applications is that the densely packed insulation reduces the
shall be clamped or bolted together in a uniform manner such amount of heat conducted across the gap spacing.
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6.5 Cold Surface AssemblyThe cold surface assembly 6.6.1.2 MaterialsThe materials used in the construction of
consists of a single temperature controlled section and is the secondary guard are not as critical as those selected for the
comprised of a cold surface heater sandwiched between cold hot and cold surface assemblies. However, the materials used
surface plates and a heat sink. It is recommended that the size in the design of the secondary guard shall be selected so that
of the cold surface assembly be identical to the hot surface they are thermally stable over the intended temperature range,
assembly, including the primary guard. It is acceptable to the heating element shall be capable of producing the necessary
construct cold surface assemblies with a gap where operation heat flux density to adjust the ambient temperature, and a
of the apparatus is susceptible to edge loss effects. This design means of cooling the secondary guard is required if the
is the ideal design, however, this assembly has traditionally apparatus is intended for use at temperatures below the
been constructed without a gap with great success. laboratory ambient. The use of high thermal conductivity
metals is recommended for the construction since the second-
NOTE 6The temperature of the cold surface assembly may be
maintained through the use of a temperature-controlled bath; in this ary guard should be isothermal.
instance, there is no need to install a cold surface heater. Care must be NOTE 8Successful secondary guard designs consist of a sheathed
taken in this instance; the flow rate of the bath must be sufficient to satisfy heater wire or cable wrapped around an adequately-sized metal tube and
the temperature uniformity requirements specified in 6.3.1.2 and 6.5.1. pressed against the metal tube with another sheet of metal. For low-
6.5.1 RequirementsThe cold surface assemblies shall be temperature operation, a cooling coil has been wrapped around the
designed and constructed to satisfy all of the requirements of exterior surface of the secondary guard.
6.3.1 except that, since only one surface plate of each cold 6.6.1.3 LocationThe secondary guard shall be positioned
surface assembly is in contact with the test specimens, the around the hot surface assembly such that a uniform spacing is
requirement that specifies the temperature difference between created between the components. The height of the secondary
the surface plates shall not apply. guard shall be adjusted such that the mid-height of the
6.5.2 MaterialsThe criteria to select materials that will be secondary guard is aligned with the center of the hot surface
used in the construction of the cold surface assemblies are assembly thickness.
identical to the hot surface assembly and are listed in 6.3.2. 6.6.2 Edge InsulationThe interspace between the hot and
6.5.3 High Temperature OperationWhen the cold surface cold surface assemblies, specimens and the secondary guard
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assemblies will be operated at high temperatures, it is accept- shall be filled with an insulating material. Due to the complex
able to insert several thin sheets of insulation between the heat shapes of this interspace, a powder or fibrous insulation is
sink and cold surface heater. The addition of these insulation recommended.
sheets will reduce the energy requirements to the cold surface 6.6.2.1 The selection of an edge insulation material will
heater and extend service life. depend on the test conditions. Vermiculite is easy to use but
should not be employed at temperatures above 540C because
6.6 Additional Edge Loss ProtectionDeviation from one-
its thermal conductivity increases dramatically with tempera-
dimensional heat flow in the test specimen is due to non-
ture.
adiabatic conditions at the edges of the hot surface assembly
and the specimens. This deviation is greatly increased when the NOTE 9Avoid the use of vermiculite when the guarded-hot-plate is
apparatus is used at temperatures other than ambient. When the used to evaluate specimens in different gaseous environments; vermiculite
guarded-hot-plate apparatus is operated at temperatures that is extremely hygroscopic and the system is difficult to evacuate when it is
used.
deviate from ambient by more than 10C, the apparatus shall NOTE 10Care shall be taken to ensure that there are no voids, pockets,
be outfitted with additional components to reduce edge losses. or other extraneous sources of radiative heat transfer occurring at or near
These components are described in the following sections and the guarded-hot-plate.
shall be used if edge losses cannot be minimized. 6.6.3 EnclosureThe guarded-hot-plate shall be placed in-
NOTE 7Another means of assessing whether edge insulation is side an enclosure when the apparatus is used in to maintain a
required is to attach a temperature sensor to the mid-height of the exterior gaseous environment that is different than the laboratory
edge of the specimen. Sufficient edge insulation is present if the edge ambient.
temperature, Te, satisfies the following requirement.
6.6.3.1 For low-temperature operation, a dry gas environ-
~ T e 2 T m ! /T,0.05 (1) ment shall be used to prevent condensation from occurring on
the cold surface assemblies and specimens.
6.6.1 Secondary GuardTo reduce heat exchange between
the edges of the guarded-hot-plate and the environment, the 6.6.3.2 For high temperature operation, it will often be
guarded-hot-plate shall be outfitted with a co-axial desirable to protect the apparatus from severe degradation by
temperature-controlled container referred to as the secondary using a non-oxidizing gas.
guard. The secondary guard will be employed to adjust the 6.6.3.3 The enclosure can also be used for substituting
ambient temperature to approximate the mean temperature of different gaseous environments and control of the ambient
the test specimen. pressure.
6.6.1.1 SizeThe secondary guard should have an inner 6.7 Clamping ForceA means shall be provided for impos-
dimension that is at least twice the dimension of the hot surface ing a reproducible constant clamping force on the guarded-hot-
heater and the height should be equal to the thickness of the hot plate to promote good thermal contact between the hot and cold
surface heater plus twice the thickness of the thickest specimen surface assemblies and the specimens and to maintain accurate
that will be tested. spacing between the hot and cold surface assemblies. It is
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C177 13
unlikely that a force greater than 2.5 kPa will be required for 6.8.1.4 Electrically isolated gap imbalance sensors should
the majority of insulating materials. In the case of compressible be placed on both surface plates of the guarded heating unit to
materials, a constant pressure arrangement is not needed and it average the imbalance on both faces of the heating unit.
is possible that spacers between the plates will be necessary to 6.8.1.5 Thermal junctions or other sensitive elements should
maintain constant thickness. each be located in similar areas of the hot surface assembly. It
6.7.1 A steady force, that will thrust the cold surface is suggested that all junctions should be located at points
assemblies toward each other can be imposed by using directly adjacent to the centers of the areas between heater
constant-force springs or an equivalent method. windings. Any leads crossing the gap should be thermally
6.7.2 For compressible specimens, spacers are required if anchored to the primary guard to provide a heat sink from
the test thickness can not be measured by other means. The external thermal variations. In some instances it may be
spacers shall be small in cross-section and located near the desirable to provide a heat sink for these leads outside the
exterior perimeter of the primary guard. Avoid placing spacers primary guard to minimize any radial heat flow.
on surfaces where underlying sensors are being used to 6.8.2 Temperature SensorsMethods possessing adequate
measure plate conditions. accuracy, such as thermistors, thermocouples, diodes and
precision resistance thermometers may be used for the mea-
NOTE 11Because of the changes of specimen thickness possible as a
result of temperature exposure, or compression by the plates, it is
surement of temperatures in the apparatus. Thermocouples are
recommended that, when possible, specimen thickness be measured in the the most widely used detector due to their wide range of
apparatus at the existing test temperature and compression conditions. applicability and accuracy. The goal is to measure the tempera-
Gaging points, or measuring studs along the outer perimeter of the cold ture gradient within the specimen, and the method chosen
surface assemblies, will serve for these measurements. The effective (sensors mounted on the specimen surface, in grooves, or
combined specimen thickness is determined by the average difference in
the distance between the gaging points when the specimen is in place in between interior layers) should be that which yields the highest
the apparatus and when it is not in place. accuracy in the measurement of the temperature gradient. A
discussion of these alternatives is provided in 6.8.2.3 and
6.8 Temperature Measurements:
6.8.2.4.
6.8.1 Imbalance DetectorsA suitable means shall be pro-
6.8.2.1 Use of ThermocouplesPrecautions should be used
vided to detect the average temperature imbalance between
to minimize spurious voltages in temperature control and
surface plates of the metering section and the primary guard.
measuring circuits. Spurious voltages, due to wire
6.8.1.1 SensorsThe gap region shall be instrumented with inhomogeneities, generally increase as the temperature gradi-
temperature sensors to monitor and control the average tem- ents within the measuring leads increase. For the same reason,
perature imbalance across the gap. Fine-gage thermocouples junctions between dissimilar metal leads should not be made in
connected as thermopiles are often used for this purpose, the regions of appreciable temperature gradients. Low thermal
although other temperature control sensors, such as
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emf switches should be used in the temperature measurement
thermistors, have been used. Highly alloyed thermocouples, circuits. An insulated, isothermal box of heavy sheet metal can
rather than pure metals, should be used to maximize the be used when joining leads of dissimilar metals in the
thermal resistance across the gap. Because of nonuniform heat thermocouple circuit. It is recommended that all connections of
flux within the surface plates, temperature imbalance is not thermocouple wire to copper wire be accomplished within the
always constant along the gap perimeter. It has been found that isothermal box in order that the junctions are at the same
with proper design the thermal conductance of the wires temperature; then the copper, not the thermocouple, leads are
crossing the gap can be made relatively small and, therefore, a connected to the needed switching devices and/or voltmeters.
large number of thermocouples can be used to increase the gap
6.8.2.2 AccuracyThermocouples whose outputs are used
imbalance sensitivity. It is not uncommon to use ten or more
to calculate thermal transmission properties shall be fabricated
sensing elements.
from either calibrated thermocouple wire or wire that has been
6.8.1.2 SensitivityThe detection system shall be suffi- certified by the supplier, and shall have a standard limit of error
ciently sensitive to ensure that variation in measured properties equal to or less than the specifications of Tables E230. The
due to gap temperature imbalance shall be restricted to not resulting error in temperature differences due to distortion of
more than 0.5 % of the metered section power, as determined the heat flow around the sensor, to sensor drift, and other
experimentally or analytically. sensor characteristics shall be less than 1 %.
NOTE 12The sensitivity of many temperature sensors is reduced 6.8.2.3 Methods of AttachmentThe surface temperatures
drastically at temperatures below the laboratory ambient. Particular care of the specimens are most often measured by means of
must be used in designing thermopile measurement systems to operate permanently mounted thermocouples placed in grooves cut
under these conditions.
into the surface plates. Precautions shall be taken to ensure that
6.8.1.3 LocationWhen using only a minimum number of the thermocouple is thermally anchored to the surface being
sensing elements along the gap, the most representative posi- measured. This method of instrumentation is employed when
tions to detect the average balance for a square plate are those the contact resistance between the specimen and the surface
at a distance from the corners equal to one-fourth of the side of plates is a small fraction of the specimen thermal resistance.
the metering area. The corners and the axes should be avoided. The hot- and cold-surface assembly plate sensors on each side
For a round plate, the sensors should be spaced equally around are sometimes connected differentially. Thermocouples
the gap. mounted in this manner shall be made of wire not larger than
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C177 13
0.6 mm in diameter for large apparatus and preferably not 6.12.2 Temperature MeasurementsWith specimens in-
larger than 0.2 mm for small apparatus. stalled in the apparatus, the coolant supply to the cold surface
assembly shut off, and no electrical power being supplied to
NOTE 13This method of deploying thermocouples is traditionally
used for compressible specimens and for rigid specimens possessing flat
any of the heaters, mount the apparatus inside the enclosure.
surfaces that have a thermal resistance of greater than 0.2 m2 K/W at Allow the system sufficient time to come to thermal equilib-
ambient conditions. rium. With no energy being supplied to the apparatus, note the
NOTE 14For rigid specimens not satisfying the requirements of output of all of the temperature sensors. The temperature
6.8.2.2, two techniques for attaching temperature sensors are recom- sensors shall have an output that agrees to within the uncer-
mended. Small grooves may be cut into the surfaces of the specimens and tainty prescribed in 6.8.2.2. The output of the imbalance
thermocouples can be affixed into these grooves. As an alternative,
thermocouples may be installed onto the surfaces of the specimen and thin detection circuit shall be within the noise level of the electrical
sheets of a compressible homogeneous material interposed between the measurement system.
specimen and surface plates. In this latter case, an applied force should be 6.12.3 Imbalance DetectionDetermine the maximum im-
used as indicated in 6.7 to ensure sufficient surface contact. For either of balance that can be allowed that satisfies the requirements in
these applications, thermocouples shall be made of wire not larger than 0.2
mm in diameter. 6.8.2.2. With the apparatus energized and operating normally,
note the thermal resistance of a specimen and the imbalance
6.8.2.4 Electrical IsolationTemperature sensors can be detector output at equilibrium. Repeat the test at various levels
either completely insulated electrically from the surface plates of imbalance. Linearly fit the thermal resistance data as a
or grounded to the surface plate at one location. Consequently, function of bias. The slope of this relationship will define the
thermocouples connected differentially can only have a single maximum imbalance detector output that can be allowed
junction ground. Computations or experimental verifications, during routine operation.
or both, shall be performed to confirm that other circuits do not
affect the accuracy of the temperature measurements. NOTE 16The number of bias levels that need to be analyzed will
depend on the quality of the curve fit; the scatter within the data set, as
6.8.2.5 Number of SensorsThe number of temperature defined by twice the standard deviation, shall be less than the noise level
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sensors on each side of the specimen in the metering area shall of the electrical measurement system as defined in 6.11.
not be less than 10 =A , or 2, whichever is greater. 6.12.4 Edge Heat LossesEdge heat losses give rise to the
NOTE 15It is recommended that one temperature sensor be placed in greatest measurement errors when the specimens approach the
the center of the metered section and that additional sensor be uniformly
distributed radially. maximum specified thickness and thermal resistance. This
series of experiments will determine which edge loss strategies
6.9 Thickness MeasurementsA means shall be provided must be employed to maintain edge losses to levels prescribed
for measuring the thickness of the specimen, preferably in the by this method.
apparatus, to within 0.5 %. 6.12.4.1 Install specimens in the apparatus that approach the
6.10 Metered Section Power MeasurementDc power is apparatus limits described above and instrument these speci-
highly recommended for the metered section. Ac power may be mens with the edge temperature sensors described in 6.6. Do
used but the user should note that ac power determinations are not install any components described in 6.6 to reduce edge heat
more prone to error than dc measurements. The power to the loss. While performing a test, verify that the difference
metered section is determined with a wattmeter or from voltage between the specimen mean temperature and edge temperature
and current measurements across the heater in the metered satisfy the requirements of 6.6. Add additional edge loss
section. The voltage taps for this measurement should be apparatus components (edge insulation, secondary guard, en-
placed to measure the voltage from the mid-point of the gap. closure) until the requirements of 6.6 are satisfied. These
The current can be determined from the voltage drop across a experiments will define the required levels of edge loss that
precision resistor placed in series with the metered section shall be incorporated into the routine testing. In extreme cases,
heater. it is possible that the secondary guard will have to be biased to
satisfy these requirements; include these biases as part of the
6.11 Electrical Measurement SystemA measuring system routine test procedure.
having a sensitivity and accuracy of at least 6 0.1 K shall be
6.12.5 Emittance of Surface PlatesThe emittance of the
used for measurement of the output of all temperature and
surfaces can be experimentally verified by testing an air gap,
temperature difference detectors. The system shall have suffi-
where the thickness of the air gap is limited to prevent the onset
cient sensitivity to measure the gap imbalance to a level equal
of convection. The heat flow rate per unit temperature differ-
to 1 % of the imbalance detector output that satisfies the
ence is the sum of the thermal conductance of air and 4 Tm3
requirement of 6.8.1.2. Measurement of the power to the
(2/-1). A best fit of the plot of the heat flow rate per unit
metered section shall be made to within 0.2 % over the entire
temperature difference and the inverse of the air space thick-
operating range.
ness supplies both the thermal conductivity of the air and 4nTm3
6.12 Performance ChecksWhen a new apparatus is com- (2/-1). From this plot, the plate emittance can be verified (42).
missioned or an apparatus has undergone significant 6.12.6 Overall Design VerificationWhen all of the other
refurbishment, a series of careful checks shall be performed checks have been successfully completed, tests shall be per-
before initiating routine testing. formed on specimens that are traceable to a national standards
6.12.1 PlanenessThe planeness of each surface plate shall organization. These tests shall cover the range of temperatures
be measured. See 6.3.1.1. for which the apparatus has been designed. It is possible that
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C177 13
verification of the apparatus will be limited by the temperature uneven so long as surface undulations are removed under test
range of available standards. See 5.7. compression. It will potentially be necessary to smooth the
specimen surfaces to achieve better plate-to-specimen contact.
7. Specimen Preparation and Conditioning If the apparent thermal conductivity of the contact void is
7.1 Specimen SelectionOnly those specimen selection fac- greater than that of the specimen, compressible or otherwise,
tors important to the performance of the apparatus are consid- the measured heat flux will be greater than the heat flux that
ered here. Factors related to the specimens thermal properties would be obtained if the voids were absent. This is most likely
are typically described in material specifications. When two the case at higher temperatures where radiant heat transfer
specimens are required, the specimens should be selected to be predominates in the void. For the measurement of compress-
as similar in thickness and thermal characteristics as possible. ible specimens, the temperature sensors are often mounted
The use of Test Method C518 can be used to check the directly in the plate surfaces. Also, it is possible that plate
similarity of the specimens thermal characteristics. spacers will be required for the measurement of compressible
7.1.1 ThicknessThe maximum specimen thickness that specimens.
can be measured to a given accuracy depends on several 7.2.2 Rigid and High Conductance SpecimensThe mea-
parameters, including the size of the apparatus, thermal resis- surement of rigid specimens or high conductance specimens
tance of the specimen, and the accuracy desired. To maintain requires careful surface preparation. First, the surfaces should
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edge heat losses below approximately 0.5 %, for a guard width be made flat and parallel to the same degree as the guarded-
that is about one-half the linear dimension of the metered hot-plate. If the specimen has a thermal resistance that is
section, the recommended maximum thickness of the specimen sufficiently high compared to the specimen-to-plate interface
is one-third the maximum linear dimension of the metered resistance, temperature sensors mounted in the plates may be
section. For more specific quantitative information on this adequate. However, for materials such as plastics or ceramics,
limitation see Refs (1,5,7,8) and adjunct material given in this when the thermal conductivity of the material exceeds 0.1
test method. W/mK, the following techniques shall be used to ensure
7.1.2 SizeThe specimen shall be sized to cover the entire accurate surface temperature measurement.
metered section and guard area when possible. It is desirable to 7.2.2.1 In some cases it is necessary to mount the tempera-
cover the gap between the guarded-hot-plate and the primary ture sensors directly on the specimen surfaces or in grooves in
guard when sample size is limited. The guard portion of the the specimens. Under vacuum conditions, the slightest space
volume between the heating and cooling plates should be filled between plate and specimen is essentially an infinite thermal
with material having similar thermal conductance characteris- resistance (except for radiative heat transfer). Under these
tics as the specimen. When the specimen has a high lateral conditions extreme heat flux nonuniformities will occur. In any
conductance such as a dense solid, a gap between the metered event the user should always try to minimize the ratio of
section and the primary guard shall be provided within the contact resistance to specimen resistance and to strive for a
specimen. Refer to 7.2.3 for special precautions. constant ratio over the entire surface.
7.1.3 HomogeneitySpecimens exhibiting appreciable in- 7.2.2.2 Another potential solution (that must be used with
homogeneities in the heat flux direction shall not be tested with caution) is to mount a compressible thin sheet (for example, a
this method. There are two potential problems in attempting to soft rubber or thin fibrous pad) between the plates and
determine the heat flux through highly inhomogeneous speci- specimen to improve the uniformity of the thermal contact.
mens. One is related to the interpretation and application of the When this procedure is used, temperature sensors shall be
resulting data, see Practice C1045. The other is the degradation instrumented in or on the surface of the specimens to ensure
in the performance of the apparatus. If the specimen is highly accurate temperature measurement of the specimen surface. An
inhomogeneous, that is, the heat flux varies appreciably over applied force should be used as in 6.7 to ensure sufficient
the metered section, several errors can be significantly in- surface contact.
creased. The plate temperature distribution can deviate appre- 7.2.3 Anisotropic SpecimensSpecimens that have a high
ciably from isothermal conditions which, in turn, can cause lateral to axial conductance ratio require that a low conduc-
large uncertainties in the average temperature difference across tance gap be created in the specimen directly in line with the
the specimen. The increased plate temperature variations can gap between the metered section and the primary guard.
also lead to increased gap and edge heat losses. The importance 7.2.4 Loose-Fill SpecimensThe measurement of loose-fill
of measuring the plate or specimen surface temperatures at specimens requires special handling, conditioning, and mea-
numerous points is greatly increased under such conditions. surement techniques. The user is directed to Practice C687 for
details.
7.2 Specimen PreparationPrepare and condition the
specimens in accordance with the appropriate material speci- 7.3 Specimen ConditioningCondition the specimens ei-
fication. Use the following guidelines when the material ther as stated in the material specification or where no
specification is unavailable. In general, the surfaces of the guideline is given, at 22 6 5C and 50 6 10 % relative
specimen should be prepared to ensure that they are parallel humidity for a period of time until less than a 1 % mass change
with and have uniform thermal contact with the heating and in 24 h is observed.
cooling plates. NOTE 17Specimens can be conditioned at different conditions in
7.2.1 Compressible SpecimensIt is possible that the sur- order to determine the effect on the thermal properties of the specimens.
faces of the uncompressed specimens will be comparatively Conditioning environments shall be reported with the test results.
8.8.1.2 The power to the metering area is stable within the generated by the metered section heater. For the double-sided
capability of the equipment. Ideally an error analysis will mode of operation, only one-half the power generated by the
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C177 13
heater flows through each specimen. Determine the power, Q, 10.1.2.1 Identification of the test organization, responsible
from emf, E, and current, I, and calculate as follows: person in charge, test operator (optional) and the test sponsor,
Q 5 E 3I (2) 10.1.2.2 The generic name, or other identification required
to provide a complete and detailed description of the tested
9.3 Metered Section AreaDetermine the metered section material. For hygroscopic materials, such as concrete and
area, A, from the area, Am, of the guarded-hot-plate and the gap wood, the moisture content should also be given,
area, Ag. If there is no discontinuity in specimen characteristics
in the gap region, the metered area is calculated as follows: NOTE 20A generic description in addition to the brand name should
be reported where possible.
Ag
A 5 A m1 (3) 10.1.2.3 Information regarding the specimen
2
preconditioning,
For high precision measurements, it is possible that this 10.1.2.4 Variables that effect thermal transmission
assumption that the gap contributes half of its area to the properties, such as fill-gas and pressure, shall be specified
effective metered section area, A, will need to be verified for when applicable,
the particular apparatus used. If there is a discontinuity 10.1.2.5 The dimensions of the metered section and
between the specimen in the metered section and the guard guard(s) and their relationship to the overall specimen dimen-
region, this equation is modified slightly, as in ISO 8302, to sions (m). The plate emittance,
include the effect of heat flux distortion in the gap region: 10.1.2.6 Specimen orientation and the direction of heat
A g g transfer during the test,
A 5 A m1 (4)
2 10.1.2.7 The total area of the specimen (m2),
Where significant expansion, or contraction, of the guarded- 10.1.2.8 The specimen density of the metered section area
hot-plate is known during a test, appropriate corrections to the or sample density where metered section area density cannot be
area shall be made. obtained (kg/m3),
10.1.2.9 The thickness of the specimen(s) within the me-
9.4 Heat FluxThe heat flux is obtained from the ratio of tered section (m),
the heat flow, Q, and the total metered section area, A, and is
10.1.2.10 The area averaged temperatures of both hot and
calculated as follows:
cold specimen surfaces (K),
Q 10.1.2.11 Net steady-state average heat flux through the
q5 (5)
A specimen (W/m2),
9.5 TemperatureElectrical readings from the temperature 10.1.2.12 Any thermal transmission properties calculated
sensors are normally converted to temperature using a math- and reported and their estimated error, and
ematical equation based on either the sensors calibration curve 10.1.2.13 The test date and time, the time required for
or an appropriate reference such as a thermocouple voltage steady temperature conditions, the time to reach steady-state,
table. the data acquisition time period, frequency of data collection
9.6 DensityThe metered section area specimen density, and the end date and time.
m, or the sample density, s where metered section area 10.2 The following is optional information for inclusion in
density cannot be obtained, are to be reported as the average of the report:
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the two pieces. The equation for density, is the following: 10.2.1 Values for guard loss, back side energy loss and other
m losses included in the net energy calculation (W/m2), and
m 5 (6) 10.2.2 A full description (or references) of test procedures
A 3L
and data analysis techniques used.
or:
10.3 When certification of the test results is required,
ms
s 5 include the date of the latest apparatus verification and a
As 3 L
description of the procedures used. References for the verifi-
9.7 Thermal Transmission PropertiesThese properties cation report(s) shall also be included. Where applicable,
shall be reported only in accordance with the requirements and include a statement of laboratory accreditation of the test
restrictions of Practice C1045. facility used, including date of latest inspection.
10.3.1 Where agreed upon between the customer and the
10. Report test laboratory, it is acceptable that less be reported but the
10.1 To be in conformance with this test method, report the remainder of the results shall be made available.
following: NOTE 21Caution: Where this test method might be specifically
10.1.1 The report shall be identified with a unique number- referenced in published test reports and published data claims, and where
ing system to allow traceability to the individual measurements deviations from the specifics of the test method existed in the tests used to
taken during each test performed, obtain said data, the following statement shall be required to accompany
such published information: This test did not fully comply with
10.1.2 The average values as obtained from the test. Stan- following the provisions of Test Method C177. This statement shall be
dard deviation about that average. The results may be reported followed by a listing of specific deviations from this test method and any
in a form similar to that shown in Fig. 3, special test conditions that were applied.
11. Precision and Bias 11.3 Statistical ControlThe user of the guarded-hot-plate
apparatus shall demonstrate that the apparatus is capable of
--``,`,,`,,`,,````,`,`,``,`,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
11.1 This section on precision and bias for the guarded hot
plate apparatus includes a discussion of; general statistical performing in a consistent manner over time (35). The use of
terms; statistical control; factors affecting test results; rugged- control charts (see Manual 7 (34)) to monitor the operation of
ness tests; interlaboratory comparisons conducted by ASTM the guarded hot plate is one recommended way to monitor the
Committee C-16; proficiency testing conducted under the control stability of the apparatus. When possible, it is recom-
auspices of the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation mended that a reference material traceable to a national stand
Program (NVLAP); and error propagation formulae. ard s laboratory be used as the control specimen. Ideally, the
11.2 General Statistical TermsThe accuracy of a test long-term variation should be no greater than the short-term
result refers to the closeness of agreement between the ob- variability.
served value and an accepted reference value. When applied to 11.4 Factors Affecting Test ResultsExperiments and theo-
a set of observed values, the accuracy includes a random retical analyses have identified two principal (systematic)
component (imprecision) and a systematic component (bias). errors that affect the operation of an idealized guarded hot plate
The variability associated with the set of observed values is an apparatus. These errors are edge heat flows at the periphery of
indication of the uncertainty of the test result. Additional the specimens; and, heat flow across the gap due to a thermal
information on statistical terminology is available in Terminol-
imbalance. Other errors studied include the effect of gap width
ogy E456.
--``,`,,`,,`,,````,`,`,``,`,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ANNEX
(Mandatory Information)
A1.1 Importance of the Thickness of the Insulation Speci- A1.2 Suggested Ways to Measure Thickness of Incompress-
mens in Guarded-Hot-Plate MeasurementsThe thickness of ible SpecimensIn determining the thickness of a specimen,
the specimen as installed in the apparatus determines both the one assumes that it is properly shaped, so that the measured
density of the material and the temperature gradient applied to thickness is valid. However, two different situations may
it during the measurement of the thermal property. If the sometimes occur to affect the thickness measurement. It is
thickness of a specimen is changed from its room-temperature possible that the shape of the specimen will be distorted by
value by thermal effects (thermally reversible expansion or warping or bowing at the time it is first installed in the
contraction, or thermally induced irreversible shrinkage or apparatus. In this case, either the (flexible) specimen should be
expansion of the specimen), or by compression, then use of the compressed enough to remove the distortion when installed,
room-temperature thickness outside the apparatus will lead to (or, preferably, a specimen of better quality should be selected).
error in the determination of the apparent conductivity (or Independent of this, it is possible that the specimen will
resistivity) of the specimen. A given relative (percentage) error undergo a change of shape as it is subjected either to high mean
in the thickness leads to an equal relative error in the temperatures or to large temperature gradients, due to chemical
determination of the conductivity. For measurements of ther- changes occurring in the specimen at high temperatures. In this
mal properties at mean specimen temperatures near room case it is difficult to define what the thickness of the specimen
temperature it is possible that the error in neglecting any actually is during the measurement. The thickness of the
changes in thickness will be negligible, but this can be specimen needs to be measured both before and after the
ascertained only by observation in the specific case at hand. thermal transmission property is measured, to show whether
--``,`,,`,,`,,````,`,`,``,`,,,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
straight line relationship by less than 6 1 %, the slope of the
straight line shall be computed. If the three values differ by included in this discussion. In the following discussion both
more than 1 %, then similar measurements shall be made on s2 random and systematic errors are considered. The subscript sis
and s4 to check if there is a thickness above which the thermal used to denote systematic, and the subscriptr is used for the
resistance does not differ from a straight line by more than 1 %. random components.
A1.5.7.10 If this thickness exists, the slope of the straight A1.6.1.1 Systematic Error, sSystematic error, s, is any
line shall be determined to compute a thermal conductivity component of error that remains fixed during the runs that
m = L/R defined as the ratio between the increments of constitute a successful test. To simplify the discussion, this
thickness, L, and increments of the thermal resistance, R. does not include any components of error that are known both
A1.5.7.11 The thickness at which this occurs will vary in magnitude and sign. Under such circumstances, the user
according to the densities, types and forms of different should make appropriate corrections to the conductivity mea-
materials, products and systems for different mean tempera- surements and supply the justification for them. The user may
tures. check for the presence of unexpected errors by using a
A1.5.7.12 Thermal conductivity and thermal resistivity then reference specimen or transfer standard available from appro-
characterizes the material, product or system for thicknesses priate sources. If errors are discovered, their source should be
above which the transfer factor differs by less than 2 % from identified and removed. A guarded hot plate cannot be cali-
m.
brated. The task of estimating the remaining systematic errors
A1.5.7.13 Allowance for experimental errors must be made is based on judgment and experience, including an awareness
in the interpretation of results. Least-square curve fitting of R of the results of interlaboratory comparisons. The implications
versus L may also help. A larger number of specimens may be
of such estimates is often that they are the maximum possible
used where greater definition is required.
systematic errors. In this event the total maximum systematic
A1.5.7.14 Thickness dependence may be a function of
error is the sum of the errors. It is, however, more likely that
temperature difference across the specimens. For the purposes
these estimates are probabilistic in nature and do not, in fact,
of this test method, the above checks, if performed at typical
represent the worst possible case. The total probable systematic
operating temperature differences, shall be adequate to indicate
the degree of thickness dependence. errors are summed in the same manner as random errors, that
is, the square root of the sum of squares. In the following
A1.5.8 Method of Determining Dependence on Temperature discussion the latter approach is taken. However, the user must
DifferenceIf the temperature-difference dependence of the decide if the bias estimates are worst cases or probabilistic in
thermal properties is not known for a material, a minimum of nature, and sum them accordingly.
three measurements shall be made. These are made with widely
A1.6.1.2 Random Error, rRandom error, r, is that com-
differing temperature differences. A second-order dependence
ponent of error that may vary both in sign or magnitude during
can be revealed by these measurements. When a simple linear
relationship is known to occur, only two measurements, that is, the runs that constitute a successful test. For simplicity, it is
one extra, need be made. This establishes the linear depen- assumed that the variations are normally distributed and
dence for that particular sample. conventional statistical techniques are applicable. An estimate
of random error components can be obtained by repeat
A1.5.9 WarpingSpecial care should be exercised with measurements of each variable.
specimens with large coefficients of thermal expansion that
A1.6.1.3 It is important to distinguish between random and
warp excessively when subjected to a temperature gradient.
systematic errors for the following reason. The results reported
The warping may damage the apparatus or may cause addi-
in the test method are mean values derived from more than a
tional contact resistance that may lead to serious errors in the
measurement. Specially designed apparatus may be necessary single run. The uncertainties reported generally apply to these
to measure such materials. mean values. The uncertainty of a mean value due to the
random error component decreases approximately as 1/ n
A1.6 Measurement UncertaintyThe uncertainty of the where n is the number of repeat runs. In contrast to this, the
apparatus is based upon consideration of the random and uncertainty of the mean value due to the systematic error
systematic components of the following measurement uncer- component does not decrease with repeat runs. Thus, it is
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of this error to test conditions, the user should determine the determined by measuring the dependence of drift rate on
heat flux as a function of secondary guard temperature. This measured heater power. Comparison of the calculated and
dependence may change appreciably with specimen and appa- measured results is advised to increase confidence in the
ratus characteristics and, therefore, should be done under reported result.
typical test conditions. A1.7.5 Power determination error, composed of both
A1.7.3 Gap Heat LossGap heat loss is considered to be systematic, sQp and random, rQp, components. With high
composed of both systematic, sQg, and random, rQg, com- quality instrumentation these errors can be reduced to an
ponents. The systematic component can be, in part, due to the insignificant level. The manufacturers specifications on bias
fact that there may be a finite number of locations along the gap and precision will normally suffice to define these errors.
at which the imbalance is measured; reducing the temperature A1.7.6 Temperature and Temperature Difference
difference between a finite number of points on opposite sides Temperature error is composed of systematic, sT, and random,
of the gap to zero may not necessarily ensure that there is zero rT, components. In addition, these errors are further subdi-
net flow of heat across the gap. Improper position of the vided according to the source of the error:
sensors will lead to systematic error. Spurious emfs within the A1.7.6.1 Calibration error, sTc, is entirely systematic as
circuitry will result in a systematic imbalance. The random long as the same calibration is used. It is, however, not
component is due to short-term control fluctuations. After necessarily the same for each temperature sensor. In the case of
estimating the probable imbalance across the gap in terms of thermocouples, calibration is frequently performed for each
temperature (or sensor voltage) one needs to determine the spool of wire, not for each piece of wire from that spool.
effect of this imbalance on the measured heat flow through the Therefore, systematic differences can occur as one progresses
metered area. This can be done by measuring the dependence through the spool. The calibration is frequently represented by
of metered area power on intentionally introduced gap imbal- an equation which approximates the experimental calibration
ance. A typical way of addressing this is to run three tests, one data taken at selected temperatures. If a digital read-out device
with the guard balanced and one each biased positive and is used that yields temperature directly, the calibration formu-
negative. The results are plotted, lambda versus gap balance, lation is built into the device and the same basis for error exists.
and the zero intercept is determined. The imbalance introduced A1.7.6.2 Instrumentation measurement error, Tm, occurs
should be large enough to yield an easily measured change in when the sensor output is measured. This error contains both
Q, but small enough to remain in the region where the systematic and random components. Each component should
dependence of Q upon imbalance is approximately linear. be estimated from equipment manufacturers specifications and
A1.7.3.1 It has been found that (3, 15, 16) the gap heat loss, from estimated spurious circuit effects. In addition, tempera-
Qg is linearly dependent on temperature unbalance across the ture errors are introduced by long and short-term control
gap, Tg, that is, Qg = BTg. The proportionality constant, B, fluctuations. A helpful procedure to assess the magnitude of
is dependent on the wires crossing the gap (number, size, and these errors is as follows. Place the guarded metered area and
type), gap geometry (width and cross-sectional shape), the gap primary guard(s) in thermal contact with the adjacent cold
fill material (gas, insulation), the emittance of the gap surfaces plates (insert high conductance plates in place of the specimens
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